Almost all electric machines rotate

about an axis, called "shaft"

a counterclockwise angle of
rotation is assumed to be positive
clockwise one is assumed to be The angular position θ of an object is the
nega-tive angle at which it is oriented, measured
from some arbitrary reference point.
Angular position is usually measured in
radians or degrees. It corresponds to the
linear concept of distance along a line.
 ω

• Angular velocity (or speed) is the rate of • One-dimensional linear velocity along a
change in angular position with respect line is defined as the rate of change of
to time. the dis-placement along the line (r) with
• It is assumed positive if the rotation is in respect to time.
a counterclockwise direction.
• It is the rotational analog of the concept
of velocity on a line
 ω

• Similarly, angular velocity ω is defined as • The following symbols are used in this
the rate of change of the angular dis- to describe angular velocity:
placement θ with respect to time.

• These measures of shaft speed are

related to each other by the following
• If the units of angular position are
equations:
radians, then angular velocity is
measured in radians per second.
 α

• Angular acceleration is the rate of • Just as one-dimensional linear

change in angular velocity with respect acceleration is defined by the equation
to time.
• It is assumed positive if the angular
velocity is increasing in an algebraic
sense. • angular acceleration is defined by
• Angular acceleration is the rotational
analog of the concept of acceleration on
a line.
• If the units of angular velocity are
radians per second, then angular
acceleration is measured in radians per
second squared.
 τ

• It can loosely be called the “twisting

force” on an object.
• The torque on an object is defined as the
product of the force applied to the object
and the smallest distance between the
line of action of the force and the
object’s axis of rotation. • (a) A force applied to a cylinder so that it
passes through the axis of rotation. τ = 0.
• (b) A force applied to a cylinder so that its
line of action misses the axis of rotation.
Here τ is counterclockwise.
 τ

• If r is a vector pointing from the axis of

rotation to the point of application of the
force, and if F is the applied force, then
the torque can be described as

• where θ is the angle between the vector

r and the vector F.
• The units of torque are newton-meters
in SI units and pound-feet in the Eng-
lish system.
 • Newton’s law for objects moving along • A similar equation describes the
a straight line describes the relationship relationship between the torque applied
between the force applied to an object to an object and its resulting angular
and its resulting acceleration. This rela- acceleration. This relationship, called
tionship is given by the equation Newton’s law of rotation, is given by the
equation
F=ma
where: where:
F = net force applied to an object τ- is the net applied torque
m = mass of the object α-is the resulting angular acceleration
a = resulting acceleration J- moment of inertia
• For linear motion, work is defined as the • The units of work are joules in SI and foot-
application of a force through a distance. pounds in the English system.
In equation form, • For rotational motion, work is the
application of a torque through an angle.
Here the equation for work is

where it is assumed that the force is

collinear with the direction of motion. For
the special case of a constant force applied
and if the torque is constant,
collinearly with the direction of motion, this
equation becomes just
• Power is the rate of doing work, or the • By the definition, and assuming that force is
increase in work per unit time. The constant and collinear with the direction of
equa-tion for power is motion, power is given by

It is usually measured in joules per second Similarly, assuming constant torque, power in
(watts), but also can be measured in foot- rotational motion is given by
pounds per second or in horsepower.
• Similarly, assuming constant torque, power • If other units are used to measure any of the
in rotational motion is given by above quantities, then a constant must be
introduced into the equation for unit
conversion factors.

where torque is measured in pound-feet and

speed is measured in revolutions per minute.
 Are the fundamental mechanism by
which energy is converted from one
form to another in motors,
generators, and transformers

Produced by electric currents, which

can be macroscopic currents in wires,
or microscopic currents associated
with electrons in atomic orbits.
1. A current-carrying wire produces a
magnetic field in the area around it.

2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a

voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through
that coil. (This is the basis of transformer
action.)

3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a

magnetic field has a force induced on it. (This
is the basis of motor action.)

4. A moving wire in the presence of a

magnetic field has a voltage induced in it.
(This is the basis of generator action.)
 • The basic law governing the production of a
magnetic field by a current is Ampere’s law:

where:
H = the magnetic field intensity produced
by the current
If the core is composed of iron or certain other
dl = is a differential element of length
similar metals (collectively called ferromagnetic
along the path of integration.
materials), essentially all the magnetic field
Inet= current
produced by the current will remain inside the
core, so the path of integration in Ampere’s law is
the mean path length of the core lc.
 • The relationship between the magnetic field The actual magnetic flux density produced in a
intensity H and the resulting mag-netic flux piece of material is thus given by a product of two
density B produced within a material is terms:
given by
H, representing the effort exerted by the current
to establish a magnetic field μ, representing the
relative ease of establishing a magnetic field in a
given material

where: The units of magnetic field intensity are ampere-

H = magnetic field intensity turns per meter, the units of per-meability are
μ = magnetic permeability of material henrys per meter, and the units of the resulting
B = resulting magnetic flux density produced flux density are webers per square meter, known
as teslas (T).
• The current passing within the path of Here H is the magnitude of the magnetic field
integration Inet is then Ni, since the coil of intensity vector H. Therefore, the magnitude of
wire cuts the path of integration N times the magnetic field intensity in the core due to the
while carrying current i. Ampere’s law thus applied current is
becomes
• The permeability of free space is called μ0, Relative permeability is a convenient way to
and its value is compare the magnetizability of materials.

In a core, the magnitude of the flux density is

given by

• The permeability of any other material

compared to the permeability of free space is
called its relative permeability: Now the total flux in a given area is given by

where dA is the differential unit of area

• If the flux density vector is perpendicu-lar to a Thus, the total flux in the core due to the current
plane of area A, and if the flux density is i in the winding is
constant throughout the area, then this
equation reduces to

where A is the cross-sectional area of the core.

In a simple electric circuit such as the one shown
in figure, the voltage source V drives a current I
around the circuit through a resistance R. The
relation-ship between these quantities is given by
Ohm’s law:
In the electric circuit, it is the voltage or
electromotive force that drives the current flow.
By analogy, the corresponding quantity in the
magnetic circuit is called the magnetomotive
force (mmf). The magnetomotive force of the
magnetic circuit is equal to the effective current
flow applied to the core, or

where F is the symbol for magnetomotive force,

measured in ampere-turns.