B.Sc.

IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

Semester-IV
DSC 4: Thermal Physics and Electronics
Unit-4
Semiconductor devices: Review of Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors, p-n junction and its
Characteristics and Parameters, Diode approximations, Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifier, Zener diode
voltage regulators: Regulator circuit with no load, Loaded Regulator. (5 hours).
Review of Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors:
The band theory is explained on the consideration that solids consist of valence band, conduction band
and the energy gap between the valence and the conduction band. Based on the conductivity solids are
categorized into three categories, conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
The conductivity of the semiconductor lies between the conductivity of conductors and insulators. At
low temperature semiconductor behaves as insulators and at room temperature semiconductor behaves as
conductors. There are two types of semiconductors, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors:
A semiconductor in which holes and electrons are created fully
by thermal excitation across the energy gap is called intrinsic
semiconductor or pure semiconductor. In a pure semiconductor (Si or
Ge) each atom behaves as if there are eight electrons in its valence shell
sand therefore the entire material behaves as an insulator at low
temperature.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1 eV (Si)
to shake off the valence electrons. This energy become available to the
semiconductor even at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of the crystal structure electrons from few
covalent bonds comes out. The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is created. The vacant space in
bond is called hole. This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond. In other words one can
say that hole shifts from one covalent bond to another in a similar way as an electron does in an attempt to fill
the hole. Thus as electrons shifts one side hole shifts in opposite direction constitutes current. These electrons
and holes are called intrinsic carriers and such a semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. In an
intrinsic semiconductor concentration of electrons and holes are same.
Extrinsic semiconductors:
The conductivity of a semiconductor is increased by a process called doping. It is the process of adding
impurity atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor crystal to increase its electrical conductivity. A doped
semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor. The impurity added is called a dopant. Due to doping
there is an imbalance between the two types of charge carriers. In other words, the number of electrons and
number of holes are unequal in an extrinsic semiconductor.
A semiconductor can be doped to have an excess of free electrons or an excess of holes. Hence, there
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

are two types of extrinsic semiconductor namely, n-type and p-type.

N-type semiconductor:
Germanium or silicon doped with any one of the
pentavalent atoms like phosphorus, arsenic of antimony is an
n-type semiconductor.
The crystal structure of silicon doped with phosphorus
as pentavalent impurity is as shown in figure. The impurity
atom is surrounded by four silicon atoms. Four of the five
valence electrons of phosphorus are involved in covalent
bonds. The fifth valence electron will be loosely bound. It can
be freed easily. In this way, each impurity atom donates a free
electron to the semiconductor and does not leave behind hole. Hence the impurity atom is called a donor and
as there are excess number of electrons, this type of extrinsic semiconductor is called as negative type of
semiconductor or simply n-type semiconductor. In n-type semiconductor electrons are also released by the
breakage of covalent bonds at room temperature of about 300 K, these electrons leave behind holes. But the
concentrations of these holes are very less. Thus, in n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority charge
carriers and holes are minority charge carriers.
P-type semiconductor:
Germanium or silicon doped with any of trivalent atoms like
Aluminium, Boron, Indium or Gallium is a p-type semiconductor.
The crystal structure of silicon doped with aluminium as
trivalent impurity atom is as shown in the figure. The impurity atom
is surrounded by four silicon atoms. It provides electrons to fill only
three covalent bonds as it has only three valence electrons. The
vacancy that exists in the fourth band constitutes a hole. This hole
accepts electron form the neighbourhood. The impurity atom is
therefore called an acceptor impurity. A hole is created at the site
of the silicon atom from which an electron is accepted aby the impurity atom. The number of holes at any
instant exceeds the number of electrons at that instant, as there are excess number of holes, this type of extrinsic
semiconductor is called as positive type of semiconductor or simply p-type semiconductor. In p-type
semiconductor electrons are also released by the breakage of covalent bonds at room temperature of about 300
K. But the concentrations of these electrons are very less. Thus, in p-type semiconductor, holes are majority
charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.
P-N Junction:
Junction diode is formed by placing a p-type crystal in contact with n-type crystal and subjecting to
high pressure so that it becomes a single piece. The assembly so obtained is called p-n junction or junction
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

diode or crystal diode. The surface of contact of p and n-type crystals is called junction. A p-n junction is
shown in Figure. The p-type region has (positive) holes as majority charge-carriers. Similarly, the n-type
region has (negative) electrons as majority charge carriers.
In addition to these majority charge-carriers,
there are a few minority charge-carriers in each region.
The p-region contains a few electrons while the n-
region contains a few holes. Thus we find that at the
junction there is a decreasing hole concentration from
left to right which makes the holes diffuse from p-side
to n-side. Similarly electrons diffuse from right to left
across the junction. Holes leaving and electrons entering the p-side make it negative. Similarly holes entering
and electrons leaving the n-region make it positive. Thus, there is net negative charge on the p-side of the
junction and net positive charge on the n-side. This produces an electric field across the junction as if a
fictitious battery is connected with its positive terminal to n and negative terminal to p section. Equilibrium is
established when the field becomes large enough to stop further diffusion of the majority charge-carriers. The
field, however, helps the minority carriers to move across the junction. The region on either side of the junction
which becomes depleted (free) of the mobile charge-carriers is called the ‘depletion region’. The thickness of
this region is of the order of 10−6 𝑚. The potential difference across the depletion region is called the ‘potential
barrier’.
Forward and Reverse Biasing of a Junction Diode:
1. Forward Bias: When a battery is connected to the diode with p-
section connected to positive pole and n-section to the negative pole,
the junction diode is said to be forward biased (Fig). If the forward bias
is greater than the potential barrier, the majority carriers move towards
the junction and cross it. The current which flows due to majority
carriers is called forward current. It increases with forward bias.
2. Reverse Bias: When a battery is connected to junction diode with p-
section connected to negative pole and n-section connected to the positive
pole, the junction is said to be reverse biased (Fig). When reverse bias is
applied, the majority carriers do not cross the junction. However a very
little amount of current flows due to the motion of minority carriers. This
current is called reverse current. This current increases with increasing
temperature.
Thus we see that the junction diode offers a low resistance for the current to flow in one direction
(under forward bias) but a very high resistance in the opposite direction (under reverse bias). It thus acts as a
rectifier.
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

V-I Characteristics of a Junction Diode:

Graphs drawn between bias voltage and circuit current of a junction diode are called characteristics of
the diode.
Forward Bias Characteristic:
This is obtained by plotting a graph between
forward bias voltage and circuit current. The circuit
used is shown in (Fig 1). The milliammeter
measures the current. The voltmeter V measures the
p.d. across the diode. The forward voltage is
gradually increased in steps and corresponding
milliammeter readings are noted. A graph is then plotted between voltage and current (Fig 2). Practically no
current flows until the barrier voltage is overcome. Once the external voltage exceeds the barrier potential, the
current increases rapidly.
Reverse Bias Characteristic:
Connections are made as shown in Figure. The reverse voltage is
gradually increased in steps and corresponding microammeter readings are
noted. A graph is then plotted between voltage and current (Fig. above
graph for reverse bias). With reverse bias the reverse current remains very
small over a long range, increasing very slightly with increasing bias.
Avalanche breakdown:
If the reverse bias is made very high, the covalent bonds near the junction break down and a large
number of electron-hole pairs are liberated. The reverse current then increases abruptly to a relatively large
value. This is known as “Avalanche breakdown”, and may damage the junction by excessive heat generated
unless the current is limited by external circuit. This phenomenon is used in making zener diodes.
The maximum voltage that a junction diode can bear without breakdown is called zener voltage or
reverse breakdown voltage
Dynamic resistance:
Both the forward bias and reverse bias characteristics of the p-n junction do not obey Ohm’s law.
Therefore, the resistance offered by junction diode depends upon the applied voltage. The dynamic resistance
of junction diode is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage to the small change in current produced. It
∆𝑉
is also called a.c. resistance of the junction diode and is denoted by 𝑟𝑑 = .
∆𝐼

The region of the characteristic curve, where dynamic resistance is almost independent of the applied
voltage, is called the linear region of junction diode.
The Zener Diode:
The diode which operates in the reverse breakdown region with a sharp
breakdown voltage is called a Zener diode. The symbolic representation is as
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

in figure. It is an ordinary P-N junction diode except that it is properly doped to have a very sharp and almost
vertical breakdown. It is exclusively operated under reverse bias conditions. It is designed to operate in
breakdown region without damage. By adjusting the doping level it is possible to produce zener diodes with
a breakdown voltage ranging from 2V to 800 V. Zener diode primarily depends for its working on Zener
Effect. In a heavily doped diode, the depletion region is very narrow. When the reverse bias voltage across
the diode is increased, the electric field across the depletion region becomes very strong. When this field is
≈ 3 × 107 𝑉/𝑚, electrons are pulled out of the covalent bonds. A large number of electron-hole pairs are
thereby produced. The reverse current rises steeply. This is Zener effect. The external applied voltage
accelerates the minority carriers in the depletion region. These carriers gain sufficient energy to ionise atoms
by collision. The electrons produced thereby accelerate to sufficiently large velocities to be able to ionise other
atoms. This creates a sort of chain reaction. The cumulative effect of this chain reaction is the avalanche effect.
Characteristics of the Zener Diode:
Forward Bias:
The circuit connections are made as shown in Figure 1. The diode is given a forward biasing. The
voltage is varied in regular steps of 0.1 volts by adjusting the rheostat. The corresponding current is recorded
using a milliammeter. The readings are tabulated. A graph is plotted taking voltage along the x-axis and current
along the y-axis. Typical current-voltage characteristics for a zener diode are shown in Figure 2. When forward
biased, its characteristics are just that of an ordinary semiconductor diode.

Reverse Bias:
Connections are made as shown in Figure. The voltage is
varied in regular steps of 1 volt by adjusting the rheostat. The
corresponding current is recorded using milliammeter and tabulated.
A graph of voltage against reverse current is drawn (Fig 2). When
reverse biased, a small reverse saturation current flows through it. This current remains approximately
constant until a certain critical voltage, called breakdown voltage, is reached. Beyond this voltage, the reverse
current 𝐼𝑅 increases sharply to a high value. This breakdown voltage 𝑉𝑍 is called the Zener voltage and the
reverse current as zener current. 𝑉𝑍 remains constant even when Zener current 𝐼𝑍 increases considerably. This
ability of a diode is called regulating ability which enables us to use zener diode for voltage regulation.
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:

In a voltage regulated power supply unit, the output voltage is
constant and it is independent of the variations of input supply voltage
and load resistance. The circuit diagram of a Zener diode voltage
regulator is shown in Figure. The unregulated dc is applied across the
diode through a series resistor R, which limits the input current. The
value of the series resistor R is so chosen that initially the diode operates in the breakdown region. The P-
junction of the Zener diode is connected to the negative of the input voltage and N-junction to the positive.
Thus the Zener diode is reverse biased. The output voltage 𝑉0 remains essentially constant (equal to 𝑉𝑍 ) even
though the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 and the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 may vary over a wide range.
Working:
Let I be the current drawn from the supply source, 𝐼𝑍 the current through the Zener diode and 𝐼𝐿 that
across the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 . Applying Kirchhoff ’s laws, we get
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑍 + 𝐼𝐿 … . (1)
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 – 𝐼𝑅 … . (2)
𝑉0 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐿 … . . (3)
The variation in the output voltage may be due to two causes. First, the load current may vary. Second,
the input voltage may vary.
Variation of load current:
Suppose the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 varies and the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 remains constant. Since the output
voltage 𝑉0 tends to remain constant, Eq. (2) gives
𝛿𝐼 = 0 ∵ V𝑖 and R are constant

Then Eq. (1) gives

𝛿𝐼 = 𝛿𝐼𝑍 + 𝛿𝐼𝐿 = 0
𝛿𝐼𝑍 = − 𝛿𝐼𝐿
Thus, if the load resistance increases, when the supply voltage is fixed, the load current 𝐼𝐿 decreases and the
Zener diode current 𝐼𝑍 increases by an equal amount. Thus the voltage 𝑉0 across the load will tend to remain
constant.
Variation in input voltage:
Now suppose that the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 remains constant and supply voltage 𝑉𝑖 varies. Since 𝑉0 tends
to remain constant, we get from Eq. (2),
𝛿𝑉𝑖 = 𝑅 𝛿𝐼
Also Eq. (3) gives,
𝛿𝐼𝐿 = 0
∴ Eq. (1) gives,
𝛿𝐼 = 𝛿𝐼𝑍
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

Thus when the supply voltage varies but the load resistance remains constant, the total current 𝐼 and the Zener
current 𝐼𝑍 change equally to keep the load current 𝐼𝐿 constant. Thus if total current 𝐼 decreases by 𝛿𝐼, the diode
current 𝐼𝑍 also decreases by the same amount, so that load current 𝐼𝐿 remains constant and the voltage 𝑉0
across the load will tend to remain constant.
Distinguish a Zener diode from an ordinary junction diode:
1. Ordinary junction diodes are operated within the breakdown voltage in reverse biased condition.
Operation beyond breakdown voltage may damage them. But a Zener diode is specially designed for
operation beyond breakdown voltage. This breakdown voltage is called the Zener breakdown potential.
2. Ordinary diode is usually used for rectification while Zener diode is used for voltage regulation.
Diode Approximations:
The approximation technique that helps in analyzing the various initial criteria of the diode can be
defined as Diode Approximations. Each approximates relates from assuming ideal conditions to reaching
practical ones. The diode approximation can be done in three methods using first, second, and third.
First Approximation:
In the first situation of approximating the Diode considered to be in Ideal mode. It means there is zero
Internal Resistance and doesn’t have any consuming Voltage. This indicates that Diode in Ideal mode is a
Perfect Version of Switch.
Second Approximation:
The first condition is about the Ideal Mode of the Diode. It doesn’t require any initial voltage to turn
it into ON. But in the second case, it prefers a certain amount of voltage to turn the Diode ON.
In this case of Second Approximation, the Diode can be made to function as a switch by applying the
cut-off voltages. For example, if the silicon is the semiconductor material used. Then in this case, if the voltage
applied exceeds 0.7 volts the Diode is in ON mode. If it is below the minimum voltage then the diode is in
OFF mode. Therefore, in this way diode acts as a switch.
Third Approximation:
In this approximation, the cut-off voltage along with some Internal Resistance across the Diode is
observed. This condition exists in the practical application in the design of circuits. This type of resistance can
be referred to as Bulk Resistance. It is dependent upon the amount of the Forward Voltages and Forward
Currents applied to the diode.
P-N Junction Diode as Rectifier:
Rectification is the process in which ac is converted into dc. The device which is used for rectification
is called a rectifier. A junction diode allows a current to flow through it when it is forward biased. This property
of diode is used for rectification. There are two types of rectifiers a half-wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier.
A half-wave rectifier is one which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using only one half cycle of
the applied a.c. voltage. A full wave rectifier is one which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using
full cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier:

Construction: Figure shows the circuit for a half-wave rectifier. T is a transformer. The primary of the
transformer is connected to the ac mains. The diode D is connected across the secondary in series with a load
resistance 𝑅𝐿 .

Working:
The primary of the transformer is connected to the ac mains. An ac voltage will be induced across the
secondary. This voltage can be represented by 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃. Figure shows the variation of this input voltage
with time. 𝑉𝑚 is the peak value. During the first half cycle of a.c., one end of the secondary, say A, becomes
positive. Then the diode is forward biased. Hence current flows through the load 𝑅𝐿 in the direction of arrows.
The diode offers very little resistance when forward biased. Hence the p.d. across it is very small. The voltage
across the load 𝑅𝐿 is therefore practically the same as that across the secondary of the transformer, i.e., 𝑉𝑖 .
During the next half cycle, the end A becomes negative. The diode is now reverse biased. Therefore, no current
flows through the load 𝑅𝐿 . The voltage across the load is zero. The shape of the output voltage is shown in
Figure. This voltage in not a perfect dc. But it is unidirectional.
Mathematical Analysis:
The input voltage applied to the diode is given by
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 … . . (1)
Then, the instantaneous output current through the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is given by
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 … . (2) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
𝐼𝐿 = 0 … … . (3) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓
𝐼𝑚 = peak value of the current; 𝑅𝑓 = dynamic forward resistance of the diode.
D.C. (average) value of output current:
The average d.c. current over one complete cycle is given by
2𝜋
1
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = ∫ 𝐼𝐿 . 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
0
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli
𝜋 2𝜋
1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = [∫ 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 0. 𝑑𝜃]
2𝜋
0 𝜋

𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝜋0
2𝜋
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = [−(−1 − 1)]
2𝜋
𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒅𝒄 = = .[ ]
𝝅 𝝅 𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝒇
The dc voltage developed across the load 𝑅𝐿 is given by
𝑰𝒎
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = 𝑰𝒅𝒄 . 𝑹𝑳 = .𝑹
𝝅 𝑳
D.C. power output: The dc power output across the load 𝑅𝐿 is

𝟐 𝑰𝒎 𝟐
𝑫. 𝑪. 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑰𝒅𝒄 . 𝑹𝑳 = ( ) . 𝑹𝑳
𝝅
R.M.S. (effective) value of output current:
The root mean square value of the current, by definition, is given by
2𝜋 1/2
1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ∫ 𝐼𝐿 2 . 𝑑𝜃]
2𝜋
0

𝜋 2𝜋 1/2
1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ {∫ 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃. 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 0. 𝑑𝜃}]
2𝜋
0 𝜋

𝜋 2𝜋 1/2
2
𝐼𝑚 1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ {∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃). 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 0. 𝑑𝜃}]
2𝜋 2
0 𝜋
1/2
𝐼𝑚 2 1 sin 2𝜃 𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[ { (𝜃 − )} ]
2𝜋 2 2 0
1/2
𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[ . ]
2𝜋 2
1/2
𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[ ]
4
𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐
A.C. power input: The power supplied to the circuit from the ac source is given by

𝟐 𝑰𝒎 𝟐
𝑷𝑨𝑪 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 . (𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝒇 ) = . (𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝒇 )
𝟒
Rectifier efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of dc output power to the total ac power supplied to the rectifier.
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli
D. C. power output
𝜂=
A. C. power input
𝐼 2
( 𝜋𝑚 ) . 𝑅𝐿
𝜂=
𝐼𝑚 2
4 . (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓 )
4 𝑅𝐿
𝜂= ( )
𝜋 2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓
0.406
𝜂=
(1 + 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅𝐿 )
Theoretical maximum efficiency η = 0.406 = 40.6%.
Ripple factor: The ripple factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value of A.C. component to the D.C. component in the
rectifier output, i.e.,
r. m. s. valueof A. C. component of output voltage
𝛾=
D. C. component of output voltage
𝑉𝑎𝑐 𝐼𝑎𝑐
𝛾= =
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐
The effective (r.m.s.) value of total load current is given by,

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐼𝑑𝑐 2 + 𝐼𝑎𝑐 2

𝐼𝑎𝑐 = √𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 2

𝐼𝑎𝑐 1
= √𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 2
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝛾=√ −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 2

𝑰𝒎 𝟐
(𝟐) 𝝅𝟐
𝜸= √ −𝟏= √ − 𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏
𝑰𝒎 𝟐 𝟒
(𝝅)

This indicates that the amount of A.C. component present in the output of a half-wave rectifier is 121% of
D.C. output voltage. The half-wave rectifier is therefore a poor converter of ac into dc.
Peak inverse voltage: Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is defined as the maximum reverse voltage which the
rectifier has to withstand during the non-conducting period.
Voltage regulation: Voltage regulation is the ability of a rectifier to maintain a specific output voltage
irrespective of the variation in the load resistance.
Full-Wave Rectifier:
In a full-wave rectifier both halves of the input-cycle are used. There are two types of full-wave
rectifiers: (1) Centre tapped full-wave rectifier, and (2) Bridge rectifier.
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

Centre tapped full-wave rectifier: A full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 connected
to the secondary of the step-down transformer. The input A.C. signal is fed to the primary of the transformer
(Fig. 1).

Working:
During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, one end of the secondary, say A, becomes
positive and end B becomes negative. So the diode 𝐷1 is forward biased, and diode 𝐷2 is reverse biased. As a
result of this, the diode 𝐷1 conducts current whereas the diode 𝐷2 does not conduct. Current through the load
resistance flows from C to D producing output voltage 𝑉0. The current is shown by solid arrows.
During the negative half cycle of AC input, end A becomes negative and end B positive. So the diode
𝐷1 is reverse biased and the diode 𝐷2 is forward biased. As a result, the diode 𝐷1 does not conduct and 𝐷2
conducts current. Again current flows from C to D through the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 producing output voltage
𝑉0. The current is shown by the dotted arrows. Thus, during both the half cycles, current flows through the
load in the same direction. The output voltage is developed across the load 𝑅𝐿 during the entire cycle. It is a
pulsating D.C. voltage containing both A.C. and D.C. components. The input and the rectified output wave-
forms are shown in Fig.2.
Mathematical Analysis:
Let the diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 be identical and have the same dynamic resistance 𝑅𝑓 . At any instant, let
the magnitudes of AC voltages applied to the diodes be each equal to
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 … … . (1).
𝑉𝑚 is the peak input voltage. Let 𝑅𝑓 = dynamic forward resistance of the diode.
The current pulses in the two diodes are given by
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋 … . (2)
𝐼 = −𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋. (3)
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓
D.C. (average) value of output current: The output dc current 𝐼𝑑𝑐 is given by
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli
2𝜋
1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = ∫ 𝐼. 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
0
𝜋 2𝜋
1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = {∫ 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 . 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ −𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 . 𝑑𝜃}
2𝜋
0 𝜋

𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = {(− cos 𝜃)𝜋0 + (cos 𝜃)2𝜋
𝜋 }
2𝜋
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = {2 + 2}
2𝜋
𝟐 𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒅𝒄 =
𝝅
R.M.S. (effective) value of load current: The r.m.s. value of total output current is given by
2𝜋 1/2
1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ∫ 𝐼 2 . 𝑑𝜃]
2𝜋
0

𝜋 2𝜋 1/2
1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ {∫ 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃. 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃. 𝑑𝜃}]
2𝜋
0 𝜋

𝜋 2𝜋 1/2
𝐼𝑚 2 1 1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[ {∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃). 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃). 𝑑𝜃}]
2𝜋 2 2
0 𝜋
1/2
𝐼𝑚 2 1 sin 2𝜃 𝜋 1 sin 2𝜃 2𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[ { (𝜃 − ) + (𝜃 − ) }]
2𝜋 2 2 0 2 2 𝜋
1/2
𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[ . { + }]
2𝜋 2 2
1/2
𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[ ]
2
𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐
Power supplied to the circuit: The a.c. power input to the rectifier from the supply is given by
𝑰𝒎 𝟐
𝑷𝑨𝑪 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 . (𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝒇 ) = . (𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝒇 )
𝟐
Rectifier efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of dc output power to the total ac power supplied to the rectifier.
D. C. power output
𝜂=
A. C. power input
2𝐼 2
( 𝜋𝑚 ) . 𝑅𝐿
𝜂=
𝐼𝑚 2
2 . (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓 )
B.Sc. IV Semester Thermal Physics & Electronics A D B F G College, H Halli

8 𝑅𝐿
𝜂= 2
( )
𝜋 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓
0.8106
𝜂=
(1 + 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅𝐿 )
Theoretical maximum efficiency η = 0.8106 = 81.1%. Thus, the rectification efficiency of a full-wave
rectifier is double that of a half-wave rectifier under identical conditions.
Ripple factor: The ripple factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value of A.C. component to the D.C. component in the
rectifier output, i.e.,

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝛾=√ −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 2

𝑰 𝟐
( 𝒎)
√𝟐 𝝅𝟐
𝜸= √ −𝟏= √ − 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟑
𝟐𝑰𝒎 𝟐 𝟖
( 𝝅 )

The ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is 0.483 and is much smaller than that of half-wave rectifier. Hence,
in actual practice, a full-wave rectifier is preferred to a half-wave rectifier.
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