Easy Access Rules for Flight Crew ANNEX I (Part-FCL)

Licencing (Part-FCL)
SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

AMC1 FCL.210(c) Training course

ED Decision 2018/009/R

CHANGE OF TRAINING ORGANISATION

In cases where the applicant completes the training course (theoretical knowledge instruction or flight
instruction) at a different DTO or ATO (‘completing training organisation’) from the one where they
have started the training course (‘starting training organisation’), the applicant should request from
the starting training organisation a copy of the records kept in accordance with point DTO.GEN.220 or
point ORA.ATO.120

FCL.215 Theoretical knowledge examination

Regulation (EU) 2020/359

Applicants for a PPL shall demonstrate a level of theoretical knowledge appropriate to the privileges
granted through examinations in the following subjects:
(a) common subjects:
— Air law,
— Human performance,
— Meteorology,
— Communications, and
— Navigation.
(b) specific subjects concerning the different aircraft categories:
— Principles of flight,
— Operational procedures,
— Flight performance and planning, and
— Aircraft general knowledge.

AMC1 FCL.210; FCL.215 Training course and theoretical knowledge

examination
ED Decision 2020/005/R

SYLLABUS OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PPL(A) AND PPL(H)

The following tables contain the syllabi for the courses of theoretical knowledge, as well as for the
theoretical knowledge examinations for the PPL(A) and PPL(H). The training and examination should
cover aspects related to non-technical skills in an integrated manner, taking into account the particular
risks associated to the licence and the activity.
The DTO or the ATO responsible for the training should check if all the appropriate elements of the
training course of theoretical knowledge instruction have been completed to a satisfactory standard
before recommending the applicant for the examination.
The applicable items for each licence are marked with ‘x’. An ‘x’ on the main title of a subject means
that all the sub-divisions are applicable.

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 Easy Access Rules for Flight Crew ANNEX I (Part-FCL)
Licencing (Part-FCL)
SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
1. AIR LAW AND ATC PROCEDURES
International law: conventions, agreements and organisations
The Convention on international civil aviation (Chicago) Doc.
7300/6
Part I Air Navigation: relevant parts of the following chapters: x x
(a) general principles and application of the convention;
(b) flight over territory of Contracting States;
(c) nationality of aircraft;
(d) measures to facilitate air navigation;
(e) conditions to be fulfilled on aircraft;
(f) international standards and recommended practices;
(g) validity of endorsed certificates and licences;
(h) notification of differences.
Part II The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO): x x
objectives and composition
Annex 8: Airworthiness of aircraft
Foreword and definitions x x
Certificate of airworthiness x x
Annex 7: Aircraft nationality and registration marks
Foreword and definitions x x
Common- and registration marks x x
Certificate of registration and aircraft nationality x x
Annex 1: Personnel licensing
Definitions x x
Relevant parts of Annex 1 connected to Part-FCL and Part- x x
Medical
Annex 2: Rules of the air
Essential definitions, applicability of the rules of the air, general x x
rules (except water operations), visual flight rules, signals and
interception of civil aircraft
Procedures for air navigation: aircraft operations doc. 8168-
ops/611, volume 1
Altimeter setting procedures (including
IACO doc. 7030 – regional supplementary procedures)
Basic requirements (except tables), x x
procedures applicable to operators and pilots (except tables)
Secondary surveillance radar transponder operating
procedures (including ICAO Doc. 7030 – regional
supplementary procedures)
Operation of transponders x x
Phraseology x x
Annex 11: Doc. 4444 air traffic management
Definitions x x
General provisions for air traffic services x x
Visual separation in the vicinity of aerodromes x x
Procedures for aerodrome control services x x
Radar services x x
Flight information service and alerting service x x
Phraseologies x x
Procedures related to emergencies, communication failure and x x
contingencies

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 Easy Access Rules for Flight Crew ANNEX I (Part-FCL)
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SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Annex 15: Aeronautical information service
Introduction, essential definitions x x
AIP, NOTAM, AIRAC and AIC x x
Annex 14, volume 1 and 2: Aerodromes
Definitions x x
Aerodrome data: conditions of the movement area and related x x
facilities
Visual aids for navigation: x x
(a) indicators and signalling devices;
(b) markings;
(c) lights;
(d) signs;
(e) markers.
Visual aids for denoting obstacles: x x
(a) marking of objects;
(b) lighting of objects.
Visual aids for denoting restricted use of areas x x
Emergency and other services: x x
(a) rescue and fire fighting;
(b) apron management service.
Annex 12: Search and rescue
Essential definitions x x
Operating procedures: x x
(a) procedures for PIC at the scene of an accident;
(b) procedures for PIC intercepting a distress transmission;
(c) search and rescue signals.
Search and rescue signals: x x
(a) signals with surface craft;
(b) ground or air visual signal code;
(c) air or ground signals.
Annex 17: Security
General: aims and objectives x x
Annex 13: Aircraft accident investigation
Essential definitions x x
Applicability x x
National law
National law and differences to relevant x x
ICAO Annexes and relevant EU regulations.
2. HUMAN PERFORMANCE
Human factors: basic concepts
Human factors in aviation
Becoming a competent pilot x x
Basic aviation physiology and health maintenance
The atmosphere: x x
(a) composition;
(b) gas laws.

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(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Respiratory and circulatory systems: x x
(a) oxygen requirement of tissues;
(b) functional anatomy;
(c) main forms of hypoxia (hypoxic and anaemic):
(1) sources, effects and countermeasures of carbon
monoxide;
(2) counter measures and hypoxia;
(3) symptoms of hypoxia.
(d) hyperventilation;
(e) the effects of accelerations on the circulatory system;
(f) hypertension and coronary heart disease.
Man and environment
Central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems x x
Vision: x x
(a) functional anatomy;
(b) visual field, foveal and peripheral vision;
(c) binocular and monocular vision;
(d) monocular vision cues;
(e) night vision;
(f) visual scanning and detection techniques and
importance of ‘look-out’;
(g) defective vision.
Hearing: x x
(a) descriptive and functional anatomy;
(b) flight related hazards to hearing;
(c) hearing loss.
Equilibrium: x x
(a) functional anatomy;
(b) motion and acceleration;
(c) motion sickness.
Integration of sensory inputs: x x
(a) spatial disorientation: forms, recognition and avoidance;
(b) illusions: forms, recognition and avoidance:
(1) physical origin;
(2) physiological origin;
(3) psychological origin.
(c) approach and landing problems.
Health and hygiene
Personal hygiene: personal fitness x x
Body rhythm and sleep: x x
(a) rhythm disturbances;
(b) symptoms, effects and management.
Problem areas for pilots: x x
(a) common minor ailments including cold, influenza and
gastro-intestinal upset;
(b) entrapped gases and barotrauma, (scuba diving);
(c) obesity;
(d) food hygiene;
(e) infectious diseases;
(f) nutrition;
(g) various toxic gases and materials.

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Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Intoxication: x x
(a) prescribed medication;
(b) tobacco;
(c) alcohol and drugs;
(d) caffeine;
(e) self-medication.
Basic aviation psychology
Human information processing
Attention and vigilance: x x
(a) selectivity of attention;
(b) divided attention.
Perception: x x
(A) perceptual illusions;
(B) subjectivity of perception;
(C) processes of perception.
Memory: x x
(a) sensory memory;
(b) working or short term memory;
(c) long term memory to include motor memory (skills).
Human error and reliability
Reliability of human behaviour x x
Error generation: social environment (group, organisation) x x
Decision making
Decision-making concepts: x x
(a) structure (phases);
(b) limits;
(c) risk assessment;
(d) practical application.
Avoiding and managing errors: cockpit management
Safety awareness: x x
(a) risk area awareness;
(b) situational awareness.
Communication: verbal and non-verbal communication x x
Human behaviour
Personality and attitudes: x x
(a) development;
(b) environmental influences.
Identification of hazardous attitudes (error proneness) x x
Human overload and underload
Arousal x x
Stress: x x
(a) definition(s);
(b) anxiety and stress;
(c) effects of stress.
Fatigue and stress management: x x
(a) types, causes and symptoms of fatigue;
(b) effects of fatigue;
(c) coping strategies;
(d) management techniques;
(e) health and fitness programmes;

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 Easy Access Rules for Flight Crew ANNEX I (Part-FCL)
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SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
3. METEOROLOGY
The atmosphere
Composition, extent and vertical division
Structure of the atmosphere x x
Troposphere x x
Air temperature
Definition and units x x
Vertical distribution of temperature x x
Transfer of heat x x
Lapse rates, stability and instability x x
Development of inversions and types of inversions x x
Temperature near the earth’s surface, surface effects, diurnal x x
and seasonal variation, effect of clouds and effect of wind
Atmospheric pressure
Barometric pressure and isobars x x
Pressure variation with height x x
Reduction of pressure to mean sea level x x
Relationship between surface pressure centres and pressure x x
centres aloft
Air density
Relationship between pressure, temperature and density x x
ISA
ICAO standard atmosphere x x
Altimetry
Terminology and definitions x x
Altimeter and altimeter settings x x
Calculations x x
Effect of accelerated airflow due to topography x x
Wind
Definition and measurement of wind
Definition and measurement x x
Primary cause of wind
Primary cause of wind, pressure gradient, coriolis force and x x
gradient wind
Variation of wind in the friction layer x x
Effects of convergence and divergence x x
General global circulation
General circulation around the globe x x
Local winds
Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain and valley winds, x x
Venturi effects, land and sea breezes
Mountain waves (standing waves, lee waves)
Origin and characteristics x x
Turbulence
Description and types of turbulence x x
Formation and location of turbulence x x
THERMODYNAMICS
Humidity
Water vapour in the atmosphere x x
Mixing ratio x x

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Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Temperature/dew point, relative humidity x x
Change of state of aggregation
Condensation, evaporation, sublimation, freezing and melting, x x
latent heat
Adiabatic processes
Adiabatic processes, stability of the atmosphere x x
CLOUDS AND FOG
Cloud formation and description
Cooling by adiabatic expansion and by advection x x
Cloud types and cloud classification x x
Influence of inversions on cloud development x x
Fog, mist, haze
General aspects x x
Radiation fog x x
Advection fog x x
Steaming fog x x
Frontal fog x x
Orographic fog (hill fog) x x
PRECIPITATION
Development of precipitation
Processes of development of precipitation x x
Types of precipitation
Types of precipitation, relationship with cloud types x x
AIR MASSES AND FRONTS
Air masses
Description, classification and source regions of air masses x x
Modifications of air masses x x
Fronts
General aspects x x
Warm front, associated clouds, and weather x x
Cold front, associated clouds, and weather x x
Warm sector, associated clouds, and weather x x
Weather behind the cold front x x
Occlusions, associated clouds, and weather x x
Stationary front, associated clouds, and weather x x
Movement of fronts and pressure systems, life cycle x x
Changes of meteorological elements at a frontal wave x x
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Anticyclone
Anticyclones, types, general properties, cold and warm x x
anticyclones, ridges and wedges, subsidence
Non-frontal depressions
Thermal, orographic and polar depressions, troughs x x
CLIMATOLOGY
Climatic zones
General seasonal circulation in the troposphere x x
Typical weather situations in the mid-latitudes
Westerly situation x x
High-pressure area x x
Flat-pressure pattern x x

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SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Local winds and associated weather
e.g. Foehn x x
FLIGHT HAZARDS
Icing
Conditions for ice accretion x x
Types of ice accretion x x
Hazards of ice accretion, avoidance x x
Turbulence
Effects on flight, avoidance x x
Wind shear
Definition of wind shear x x
Weather conditions for wind shear x x
Effects on flight, avoidance x x
Thunderstorms
Conditions for, and process of, development, forecast, location, x x
type specification
Structure of thunderstorms, life cycle, squall lines, electricity in x x
the atmosphere, static charges
Electrical discharges
Development and effects of downbursts x x
Thunderstorm avoidance x x
Inversions
Influence on aircraft performance x x
Hazards in mountainous areas
Influence of terrain on clouds and precipitation, frontal passage x x
Vertical movements, mountain waves, wind shear, turbulence, x x
ice accretion
Development and effect of valley inversions x x
Visibility-reducing phenomena
Reduction of visibility caused by precipitation and obscuration x x
Reduction of visibility caused by other phenomena x x
METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
Observation
Surface observations x x
Radiosonde observations x x
Satellite observations x x
Weather radar observations x x
Aircraft observations and reporting x x
Weather charts
Significant weather charts x x
Surface charts x x
Information for flight planning
Aviation weather messages x x
Meteorological broadcasts for aviation x x
Use of meteorological documents x x
Meteorological warnings x x
Meteorological services
World area forecast system (WAFS) and meteorological offices x x

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SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
4. COMMUNICATIONS
VFR COMMUNICATIONS
Definitions
Meanings and significance of associated terms x x
ATS abbreviations x x
Q-code groups commonly used in RTF airground x x
communications
Categories of messages x x
General operating procedures
Transmission of letters x x
Transmission of numbers (including level information) x x
Transmission of time x x
Transmission technique x x
Standard words and phrases (relevant RTF phraseology x x
included)
R/T call signs for aeronautical stations including use of x x
abbreviated call signs
R/T call signs for aircraft including use of abbreviated call signs x x
Transfer of communication x x
Test procedures including readability scale x x
Read back and acknowledgement requirements x x
Relevant weather information terms (VFR)
Aerodrome weather x x
Weather broadcast x x
Action required to be taken in case of communication failure x x
Distress and urgency procedures
Distress (definition, frequencies, watch of distress frequencies, x x
distress signal and distress message)
Urgency (definition, frequencies, urgency signal and urgency x x
message)
General principles of VHF propagation and allocation of x x
frequencies
5. PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
5.1. PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: AEROPLANE
Subsonic aerodynamics
Basics concepts, laws and definitions
Laws and definitions: x x
(a) conversion of units;
(b) Newton´s laws;
(c) Bernoulli’s equation and venture;
(d) static pressure, dynamic pressure and total pressure;
(e) density;
(f) IAS and TAS.
Basics about airflow: x x
(a) streamline;
(b) two-dimensional airflow;
(c) three-dimensional airflow.
Aerodynamic forces on surfaces: x x
(a) resulting airforce;
(b) lift;

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Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
(c) drag;
(d) angle of attack.
Shape of an aerofoil section: x x
(a) thickness to chord ratio;
(b) chord line;
(c) camber line;
(d) camber;
(e) angle of attack.
The wing shape: x x
(a) aspect ratio;
(b) root chord;
(c) tip chord;
(d) tapered wings;
(e) wing planform.
The two-dimensional airflow about an aerofoil
Streamline pattern x x
Stagnation point x x
Pressure distribution x x
Centre of pressure x x
Influence of angle of attack x x
Flow separation at high angles of attack x x
The lift – α graph x x
The coefficients
The lift coefficient Cl: the lift formula x x
The drag coefficient Cd: the drag formula x x
The three-dimensional airflow round a wing and a fuselage
Streamline pattern: x x
(a) span-wise flow and causes;
(b) tip vortices and angle of attack;
(c) upwash and downwash due to tip vortices;
(d) wake turbulence behind an aeroplane (causes,
distribution and duration of the phenomenon).
Induced drag: x x
(a) influence of tip vortices on the angle of attack;
(b) the induced local α;
(c) influence of induced angle of attack on the direction of
the lift vector;
(d) induced drag and angle of attack.
Drag
The parasite drag: x x
(a) pressure drag;
(b) interference drag;
(c) friction drag.
The parasite drag and speed x x
The induced drag and speed x x
The total drag x x
The ground effect
Effect on take off and landing characteristics of an aeroplane x x

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SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
The stall
Flow separation at increasing angles of attack: x x
(a) the boundary layer:
(1) laminar layer;
(2) turbulent layer;
(3) transition.
(b) separation point;
(c) influence of angle of attack;
(d) influence on:
(1) pressure distribution;
(2) location of centre of pressure;
(3) CL;
(4) CD;
(5) pitch moments.
(e) buffet;
(f) use of controls.
The stall speed: x x
(a) in the lift formula;
(b) 1g stall speed;
(c) influence of:
(1) the centre of gravity;
(2) power setting;
(3) altitude (IAS);
(4) wing loading;
(5) load factor n:
(i) definition;
(ii) turns;
(iii) forces.
The initial stall in span-wise direction: x x
(a) influence of planform;
(b) geometric twist (wash out);
(c) use of ailerons.
Stall warning: x x
(a) importance of stall warning;
(b) speed margin;
(c) buffet;
(d) stall strip;
(e) flapper switch;
(f) recovery from stall.
Special phenomena of stall: x x
(a) the power-on stall;
(b) climbing and descending turns;
(c) t-tailed aeroplane;
(d) avoidance of spins:
(1) spin development;
(2) spin recognition;
(3) spin recovery.
(e) ice (in stagnation point and on surface):
(1) absence of stall warning;
(2) abnormal behaviour of the aircraft during stall.

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Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
CL augmentation
Trailing edge flaps and the reasons for use in take-off and x x
landing:
(a) influence on CL - α-graph;
(b) different types of flaps;
(c) flap asymmetry;
(d) influence on pitch movement.
Leading edge devices and the reasons for use in take-off and x x
landing
The boundary layer
Different types: x x
(a) laminar;
(b) turbulent.
Special circumstances
Ice and other contamination: x x
(a) ice in stagnation point;
(b) ice on the surface (frost, snow and clear ice);
(c) rain;
(d) contamination of the leading edge;
(e) effects on stall;
(f) effects on loss of controllability;
(g) effects on control surface moment;
(h) influence on high lift devices during takeoff, landing and
low speeds.
Stability
Condition of equilibrium in steady horizontal flight
Precondition for static stability x x
Equilibrium: x x
(a) lift and weight;
(b) drag and thrust.
Methods of achieving balance
Wing and empennage (tail and canard) x x
Control surfaces x x
Ballast or weight trim x x
Static and dynamic longitudinal stability
Basics and definitions: x x
(a) static stability, positive, neutral and negative;
(b) precondition for dynamic stability;
(c) dynamic stability, positive, neutral and negative.
Location of centre of gravity: x x
(a) aft limit and minimum stability margin;
(b) forward position;
(c) effects on static and dynamic stability.
Dynamic lateral or directional stability
Spiral dive and corrective actions x x
Control
General
Basics, the three planes and three axis x x
Angle of attack change x x
Pitch control
Elevator x x

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Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Downwash effects x x
Location of centre of gravity x x
Yaw control
Pedal or rudder x x
Roll control
Ailerons: function in different phases of flight x x
Adverse yaw x x
Means to avoid adverse yaw: x x
(a) frise ailerons;
(b) differential ailerons deflection.
Means to reduce control forces
Aerodynamic balance: x x
(a) balance tab and anti-balance tab;
(b) servo tab.
Mass balance
Reasons to balance: means x x
Trimming
Reasons to trim x x
Trim tabs x x
Limitations
Operating limitations
Flutter x x
vfe x x
vno, vne x x
Manoeuvring envelope
Manoeuvring load diagram: x x
(a) load factor;
(b) accelerated stall speed;
(c) va;
(d) manoeuvring limit load factor or certification category.
Contribution of mass x x
Gust envelope
Gust load diagram x x
Factors contributing to gust loads x x
Propellers
Conversion of engine torque to thrust
Meaning of pitch x x
Blade twist x x
Effects of ice on propeller x x
Engine failure or engine stop
Windmilling drag x x
Moments due to propeller operation
Torque reaction x x
Asymmetric slipstream effect x x
Asymmetric blade effect x x
Flight mechanics
Forces acting on an aeroplane
Straight horizontal steady flight x x
Straight steady climb x x
Straight steady descent x x

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course course
Straight steady glide x x
Steady coordinated turn: x x
(a) bank angle;
(b) load factor;
(c) turn radius;
(d) rate one turn.
5.2. PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: HELICOPTER
Subsonic aerodynamics
Basic concepts, laws and definitions x x
Conversion of units x x
Definitions and basic concepts about air: x x
(a) the atmosphere and International Standard Atmosphere;
(b) density;
(c) influence of pressure and temperature on density.
Newton’s laws: x x
(a) Newton’s second law: Momentum equation;
(b) Newton’s third law: action and reaction.
Basic concepts about airflow: x x
(a) steady airflow and unsteady airflow;
(b) Bernoulli’s equation;
(c) static pressure, dynamic pressure, total pressure and
stagnation point;
(d) TAS and IAS;
(e) two-dimensional airflow and three-dimensional airflow;
(f) viscosity and boundary layer.
Two-dimensional airflow x x
Aerofoil section geometry: x x
(a) aerofoil section;
(b) chord line, thickness and thickness to chord ratio of a
section;
(c) camber line and camber;
(d) symmetrical and asymmetrical aerofoils sections.
Aerodynamic forces on aerofoil elements: x x
(a) angle of attack;
(b) pressure distribution;
(c) lift and lift coefficient
(d) relation lift coefficient: angle of attack;
(e) profile drag and drag coefficient;
(f) relation drag coefficient: angle of attack;
(g) resulting force, centre of pressure and pitching moment.
Stall: x x
(a) boundary layer and reasons for stalling;
(b) variation of lift and drag as a function of angle of attack;
(c) displacement of the centre of pressure and pitching
moment.
Disturbances due to profile contamination: x x
(a) ice contamination;
(b) ice on the surface (frost, snow and clear ice).
The three-dimensional airflow round a wing and a fuselage x x
The wing: x x
(a) planform, rectangular and tapered wings;

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(b) wing twist.
Airflow pattern and influence on lift: x x
(a) span wise flow on upper and lower surface;
(b) tip vortices;
(c) span-wise lift distribution.
Induced drag: causes and vortices x x
The airflow round a fuselage: x x
(a) components of a fuselage;
(b) parasite drag;
(c) variation with speed.
Transonic aerodynamics and compressibility effects
Airflow velocities x x
Airflow speeds: x x
(a) speed of sound;
(b) subsonic, high subsonic and supersonic flows.
Shock waves: x x
(a) compressibility and shock waves;
(b) the reasons for their formation at upstream high
subsonic airflow;
(c) their effect on lift and drag.
Influence of wing planform: sweep-angle x x
Rotorcraft types x x
Rotorcraft x x
Rotorcraft types: x x
(a) autogyro;
(b) helicopter.
Helicopters x x
Helicopters configurations: the single main rotor helicopter x x
The helicopter, characteristics and associated terminology: x x
(a) general lay-out, fuselage, engine and gearbox;
(b) tail rotor, fenestron and NOTAR;
(c) engines (reciprocating and turbo shaft engines);
(d) power transmission;
(e) rotor shaft axis, rotor hub and rotor blades;
(f) rotor disc and rotor disc area;
(g) teetering rotor (two blades) and rotors with more than
two blades;
(h) skids and wheels;
(i) helicopter axes and fuselage centre line;
(j) roll axis, pitch axis and normal or yaw axis;
(k) gross mass, gross weight and disc loading.
Main rotor aerodynamics x x
Hover flight outside ground effect x x
Airflow through the rotor discs and round the blades: x x
(a) circumferential velocity of the blade sections;
(b) induced airflow, through the disc and downstream;
(c) downward fuselage drag;
(d) equilibrium of rotor thrust, weight and fuselage drag;
(e) rotor disc induced power;
(f) relative airflow to the blade;
(g) pitch angle and angle of attack of a blade section;

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(h) lift and profile drag on the blade element;
(i) resulting lift and thrust on the blade and rotor thrust;
(j) collective pitch angle changes and necessity of blade
feathering;
(k) required total main rotor-torque and rotor-power;
(l) influence of the air density.
Anti-torque force and tail rotor: x x
(a) force of tail rotor as a function of main rotor-torque;
(b) anti-torque rotor power;
(c) necessity of blade feathering of tail rotor blades and yaw
pedals.
Maximum hover altitude OGE: x x
(a) total power required and power available;
(b) maximum hover altitude as a function of pressure
altitude and OAT.
Vertical climb x x
Relative airflow and angles of attack: x x
(a) climb velocity VC, induced and relative velocity and angle
of attack;
(b) collective pitch angle and blade feathering.
Power and vertical speed: x x
(a) induced power, climb power and profile power;
(b) total main rotor power and main rotor torque;
(c) tail rotor power;
(d) total power requirement in vertical flight.
Forward flight x x
Airflow and forces in uniform inflow distribution: x x
(a) assumption of uniform inflow distribution on rotor disc;
(b) advancing blade (90°) and retreating blade (270°);
(c) airflow velocity relative to the blade sections, area of
reverse flow;
(d) lift on the advancing and retreating blades at constant
pitch angles;
(e) necessity of cyclic pitch changes;
(f) compressibility effects on the advancing blade tip and
speed limitations;
(g) high angle of attack on the retreating blade, blade stall
and speed limitations;
(h) thrust on rotor disc and tilt of thrust vector;
(i) vertical component of the thrust vector and gross weight
equilibrium;
(j) horizontal component of the thrust vector and drag
equilibrium.
The flare (power flight): x x
(a) thrust reversal and increase in rotor thrust;
(b) increase of rotor RPM on non governed rotor.
Power and maximum speed: x x
(a) induced power as a function of helicopter speed;
(b) rotor profile power as a function of helicopter speed;
(c) fuselage drag and parasite power as a function of
forward speed;

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(d) tail rotor power and power ancillary equipment;
(e) total power requirement as a function of forward speed;
(f) influence of helicopter mass, air density and drag of
additional external equipment;
(g) translational lift and influence on power required.
Hover and forward flight in ground effect x x
Airflow in ground effect and downwash: rotor power decrease x x
as a function of rotor height above the ground at constant
helicopter mass
Vertical descent x x
Vertical descent, power on: x x
(a) airflow through the rotor, low and moderate descent
speeds;
(b) vortex ring state, settling with power and consequences.
Autorotation: x x
(a) collective lever position after failure;
(b) up flow through the rotor, auto-rotation and anti-
autorotation rings;
(c) tail rotor thrust and yaw control;
(d) control of rotor RPM with collective lever;
(e) landing after increase of rotor thrust by pulling collective
and reduction in vertical speed.
Forward flight: Autorotation x x
Airflow through the rotor disc: x x
(a) descent speed and up flow through the disc;
(b) the flare, increase in rotor thrust, reduction of vertical
speed and ground speed.
Flight and landing: x x
(a) turning;
(b) flare;
(c) autorotative landing;
(d) height or velocity avoidance graph and dead man’s
curve.
Main rotor mechanics x x
Flapping of the blade in hover x x
Forces and stresses on the blade: x x
(a) centrifugal force on the blade and attachments;
(b) limits of rotor RPM;
(c) lift on the blade and bending stresses on a rigid
attachment;
(d) the flapping hinge of the articulated rotor and flapping
hinge offset;
(e) the flapping of the hinge less rotor and flexible element.
Coning angle in hover: x x
(a) lift and centrifugal force in hover and blade weight
negligible
(b) flapping, tip path plane and disc area.
Flapping angles of the blade in forward flight x x
Forces on the blade in forward flight without cyclic feathering: x x
(a) aerodynamic forces on the advancing and retreating
blades without cyclic feathering;

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(b) periodic forces and stresses, fatigue and flapping hinge;
(c) phase lag between the force and the flapping angle
(about 90°);
(d) flapping motion of the hinged blades and tilting of the
cone and flap back of rotor;
(e) rotor disc attitude and thrust vector tilt.
Cyclic pitch (feathering) in helicopter mode, forward flight: x x
(a) necessity of forward rotor disc tilt and thrust vector tilt;
(b) flapping and tip path plane, virtual rotation axis or no
flapping axis and plane of rotation;
(c) shaft axis and hub plane;
(d) cyclic pitch change (feathering) and rotor thrust vector
tilt;
(e) collective pitch change, collective lever, swash plate,
pitch link and pitch horn;
(f) cyclic stick, rotating swash plate and pitch link
movement and phase angle.
Blade lag motion x x
Forces on the blade in the disc plane (tip path plane) in forward x x
flight:
(a) forces due to the Coriolis effect because of the flapping;
(b) alternating stresses and the need of the drag or lag
hinge.
The drag or lag hinge: x x
(a) the drag hinge in the fully articulated rotor;
(b) the lag flexure in the hinge less rotor;
(c) drag dampers.
Ground resonance: x x
(a) blade lag motion and movement of the centre of gravity
of the blades and the rotor;
(b) oscillating force on the fuselage;
(c) fuselage, undercarriage and resonance.
Rotor systems x x
See-saw or teetering rotor x x
Fully articulated rotor: x x
(a) three hinges arrangement;
(b) bearings and elastomeric hinges.
Hinge less rotor and bearing less rotor x x
Blade sailing: x x
(a) low rotor RPM and effect of adverse wind;
(b) minimising the danger;
(c) droop stops.
Vibrations due to main rotor: x x
(a) origins of the vibrations: in plane and vertical;
(b) blade tracking and balancing.
Tail rotors x x
Conventional tail rotor x x
Rotor description: x x
(a) two-blades tail rotors with teetering hinge;
(b) rotors with more than two blades;
(c) feathering bearings and flapping hinges;

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(d) dangers to people and to the tail rotor, rotor height and
safety.
Aerodynamics: x x
(a) induced airflow and tail rotor thrust;
(b) thrust control by feathering, tail rotor drift and roll;
(c) effect of tail rotor failure and vortex ring.
The fenestron: technical lay-out x x
The NOTAR: technical lay-out x x
Vibrations: high frequency vibrations due to the tail rotors x x
Equilibrium, stability and control x x
Equilibrium and helicopter attitudes x x
Hover: x x
(a) forces and equilibrium conditions;
(b) helicopter pitching moment and pitch angle;
(c) helicopter rolling moment and roll angle.
Forward flight: x x
(a) forces and equilibrium conditions;
(b) helicopter moments and angles;
(c) effect of speed on fuselage attitude.
Control x x
Control power x x
(a) fully articulated rotor;
(b) hinge less rotor;
(c) teetering rotor.
Static and dynamic roll over x x
Helicopter performances
Engine performances x x
Piston engines: x x
(a) power available;
(b) effects of density altitude.
Turbine engines: x x
(a) power available;
(b) effects of ambient pressure and temperature.
Helicopter performances x x
Hover and vertical flight: x x
(a) power required and power available;
(b) OGE and IGE maximum hover height;
(c) influence of AUM, pressure, temperature and density.
Forward flight: x x
(a) maximum speed;
(b) maximum rate of climb speed;
(c) maximum angle of climb speed;
(d) range and endurance;
(e) influence of AUM, pressure, temperature and density.
Manoeuvring: x x
(a) load factor;
(b) bank angle and number of g’s;
(c) manoeuvring limit load factor.
Special conditions: x x
(a) operating with limited power;
(b) over pitch and over torque.

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6. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
General
Operation of aircraft: ICAO Annex 6, General requirements
Definitions x x x x
Applicability x x x x
Special operational procedures and hazards (general aspects) x x x x
Noise abatement
Noise abatement procedures x x x x
Influence of the flight procedure (departure, cruise and x x x x
approach)
Runway incursion awareness (meaning of surface markings and x x x x
signals)
Fire or smoke
Carburettor fire x x x x
Engine fire x x x x
Fire in the cabin and cockpit, (choice of extinguishing agents x x x x
according to fire classification and use of the extinguishers)
Smoke in the cockpit and (effects and action to be taken) and x x x x
smoke in the cockpit and cabin (effects and actions taken)
Windshear and microburst
Effects and recognition during departure and approach x x x x
Actions to avoid and actions taken during encounter x x x x
Wake turbulence
Cause x x x x
List of relevant parameters x x x x
Actions taken when crossing traffic, during take-off and landing x x x x
Emergency and precautionary landings
Definition x x x x
Cause x x x x
Passenger information x x x x
Evacuation x x x x
Action after landing x x x x
Contaminated runways
Kinds of contamination x x
Estimated surface friction and friction coefficient x x
Rotor downwash x x
Operation influence by meteorological conditions (helicopter)
White out, sand or dust x x
Strong winds x x
Mountain environment x x
Emergency procedures
Influence by technical problems
Engine failure x x
Fire in cabin, cockpit or engine x x
Tail, rotor or directional control failure x x
Ground resonance x x
Blade stall x x
Settling with power (vortex ring) x x
Overpitch x x
Overspeed: rotor or engine x x

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Dynamic rollover x x
Mast bumping x x
7. FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING
7.1. MASS AND BALANCE: AEROPLANES OR HELICOPTERS
Purpose of mass and balance considerations
Mass limitations
Importance in regard to structural limitations x x x x
Importance in regard to performance limitations x x x x
CG limitations
Importance in regard to stability and controllability x x x x
Importance in regard to performance x x x x
Loading
Terminology
Mass terms x x x x
Load terms (including fuel terms) x x x x
Mass limits
Structural limitations x x x x
Performance limitations x x x x
Baggage compartment limitations x x x x
Mass calculations
Maximum masses for take-off and landing x x x x
Use of standard masses for passengers, baggage and crew x x x x
Fundamentals of CG calculations
Definition of centre of gravity x x x x
Conditions of equilibrium (balance of forces and balance of x x x x
moments)
Basic calculations of CG x x x x
Mass and balance details of aircraft
Contents of mass and balance documentation
Datum and moment arm x x x x
CG position as distance from datum x x x x
Extraction of basic mass and balance data from aircraft
documentation
BEM x x x x
CG position or moment at BEM x x x x
Deviations from standard configuration x x x x
Determination of CG position
Methods
Arithmetic method x x x x
Graphic method x x x x
Load and trim sheet
General considerations x x x x
Load sheet and CG envelope for light aeroplanes and for x x x x
helicopters
7.2. PERFORMANCE: AEROPLANES
Introduction
Performance classes x x
Stages of flight x x
Effect of aeroplane mass, wind, altitude, runway slope and x x
runway conditions

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Gradients x x
SE aeroplanes
Definitions of terms and speeds x x
Take-off and landing performance
Use of aeroplane flight manual data x x
Climb and cruise performance
Use of aeroplane flight data x x
Effect of density altitude and aeroplane mass x x
Endurance and the effects of the different recommended x x
power or thrust settings
Still air range with various power or thrust settings x x
7.3. FLIGHT PLANNING AND FLIGHT MONITORING
Flight planning for VFR flights
VFR navigation plan
Routes, airfields, heights and altitudes from VFR charts x x x x
Courses and distances from VFR charts x x x x
Aerodrome charts and aerodrome directory x x x x
Communications and radio navigation planning data x x x x
Completion of navigation plan x x x x
Fuel planning
General knowledge x x x x
Pre-flight calculation of fuel required
Calculation of extra fuel x x x x
Completion of the fuel section of the navigation plan (fuel log) x x x x
and calculation of total fuel
Pre-flight preparation
AIP and NOTAM briefing
Ground facilities and services x x x x
Departure, destination and alternate aerodromes x x x x
Airway routings and airspace structure x x x x
Meteorological briefing
Extraction and analysis of relevant data from meteorological x x x x
documents
ICAO flight plan (ATS flight plan)
Individual flight plan
Format of flight plan x x x x
Completion of the flight plan x x x x
Submission of the flight plan x x x x
Flight monitoring and in-flight replanning
Flight monitoring
Monitoring of track and time x x x x
In-flight fuel management x x x x
In-flight re-planning in case of deviation from planned data x x x x
7.4. PERFORMANCE: HELICOPTERS
General
Introduction
Stages of flight x x
Effect on performance of atmospheric, airport or heliport and x x
helicopter conditions
Applicability of airworthiness requirements x x

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Definitions and terminology x x
Performance: SE helicopters
Definitions of terms x x
(a) masses;
(b) velocities: vx, vy;
(c) velocity of best range and of maximum endurance;
(d) power limitations;
(e) altitudes.
Take-off, cruise and landing x x
performance
Use and interpretation of diagrams and tables:
(a) Take-off:
(1) take-off run and distance available;
(2) take-off and initial climb;
(3) effects of mass, wind and density altitude;
(4) effects of ground surface and gradient.
(b) Landing:
(1) effects of mass, wind, density altitude and approach
speed;
(2) effects of ground surface and gradient.
(c) In-flight:
(1) relationship between power required and power
available;
(2) performance diagram;
(3) effects of configuration, mass, temperature and
altitude;
(4) reduction of performance during climbing turns;
(5) autorotation;
(6) adverse effects (icing, rain and condition of the
airframe).
8. AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
8.1. AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS, ELECTRICS,
POWERPLANT AND EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
System design, loads, stresses, maintenance
Loads and combination loadings applied to an aircraft’s x x x x
structure
Airframe
Wings, tail surfaces and control surfaces
Design and constructions x x
Structural components and materials x x
Stresses x x
Structural limitations x x
Fuselage, doors, floor, wind-screen and windows
Design and constructions x x x x
Structural components and materials x x x x
Stresses x x x x
Structural limitations x x x x
Flight and control surfaces
Design and constructions x x
Structural components and materials x x
Stresses and aero elastic vibrations x x

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Structural limitations x x
Hydraulics
Hydromechanics: basic principles x x x x
Hydraulic systems x x x x
Hydraulic fluids: types and characteristics, limitations x x x x
System components: design, operation, degraded modes of x x x x
operation, indications and warnings
Landing gear, wheels, tyres and brakes
Landing gear
Types and materials x x x x
Nose wheel steering: design and operation x x
Brakes
Types and materials x x x x
System components: design, operation, indications and x x x x
warnings
Wheels and tyres
Types and operational limitations x x x x
Helicopter equipments x x
Flight controls
Mechanical or powered x x x x
Control systems and mechanical x x x x
System components: design, operation, indications and x x x x
warnings, degraded modes of operation and jamming
Secondary flight controls
System components: design, operation, degraded modes of x x
operation, indications and warnings
Anti-icing systems
Types and operation (pitot and windshield) x x x x
Fuel system
Piston engine
System components: design, operation, degraded modes of x x x x
operation, indications and warnings
Turbine engine
System components: design, operation, degraded modes of x x
operation, indications and warnings
Electrics
Electrics: general and definitions
Direct current: voltage, current, resistance, conductivity, Ohm’s x x x x
law, power and work
Alternating current: voltage, current, amplitude, phase, x x x x
frequency and resistance
Circuits: series and parallel x x x x
Magnetic field: effects in an electrical circuit x x x x
Batteries
Types, characteristics and limitations x x x x
Battery chargers, characteristics and limitations x x x x
Static electricity: general
Basic principles x x x x
Static dischargers x x x x
Protection against interference x x x x

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Lightning effects x x x x
Generation: production, distribution and use
DC generation: types, design, operation, degraded modes of x x x x
operation, indications and warnings
AC generation: types, design, operation, degraded modes of x x x x
operation, indications and warnings
Electric components
Basic elements: basic principles of switches, circuit-breakers x x x x
and relays
Distribution
General: x x x x
(a) bus bar, common earth and priority;
(b) AC and DC comparison.
Piston engines
General
Types of internal combustion engine: basic principles and x x x x
definitions
Engine: design, operation, components and materials x x x x
Fuel
Types, grades, characteristics and limitations x x x x
Alternate fuel: characteristics and limitations x x x x
Carburettor or injection system
Carburettor: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, x x x x
indications and warnings
Injection: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, x x x x
indications and warnings
Icing x x x x
Air cooling systems
Design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications x x x x
and warnings
Lubrication systems
Lubricants: types, characteristics and limitations x x x x
Design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications x x x x
and warnings
Ignition circuits
Design, operation, degraded modes of operation x x x x
Mixture
Definition, characteristic mixtures, control instruments, x x x x
associated control levers and indications
Propellers
Definitions and general: x x
(a) aerodynamic parameters;
(b) types;
(c) operating modes.
Constant speed propeller: design, operation and system x x
components
Propeller handling: associated control levers, degraded modes x x
of operation, indications and warnings

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Performance and engine handling
Performance: influence of engine parameters, influence of x x x x
atmospheric conditions, limitations and power augmentation
systems
Engine handling: power and mixture settings during various x x x x
flight phases and operational limitations
Turbine engines
Definitions x x
Coupled turbine engine: design, operation, components and x x
materials
Free turbine engine: design, operation, components and x x
materials
Fuel
Types, characteristics and limitations x x
Main engine components
Compressor: x x
(a) types, design, operation, components and materials;
(b) stresses and limitations;
(c) stall, surge and means of prevention.
Combustion chamber: x x
(a) types, design, operation, components and materials;
(b) stresses and limitations;
(c) emission problems.
Turbine: x x
(a) types, design, operation, components and materials;
(b) stresses, creep and limitations.
Exhaust: x x
(a) design, operation and materials;
(b) noise reduction.
Fuel control units: types, operation and sensors x x
Helicopter air intake: different types, design, operation, x x
materials and optional equipments
Additional components and systems
Helicopter additional components and systems: lubrication x x
system, ignition circuit, starter, accessory gearbox, free wheel
units: design, operation and components
Performance aspects
Torque, performance aspects, engine handling and limitations: x x
(a) engine ratings;
(b) engine performance and limitations;
(c) engine handling.
Protection and detection systems
Fire detection systems
Operation and indications x X
Miscellaneous systems
Rotor design x x
Rotor heads
Main rotor
Types x x
Structural components and materials, stresses and structural x x
limitations

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Design and construction x x
Adjustment x x
Tail rotor
Types x x
Structural components and materials, stresses and structural x x
limitations
Design and construction x x
Adjustment x x
Transmission
Main gear box
Different types, design, operation and limitations x x
Rotor brake
Different types, design, operation and limitations x x
Auxiliary systems x x
Drive shaft and associated installation x x
Intermediate and tail gear box
Different types, design, operation and limitations x x
Blades
Main rotor blade
Design and construction x x
Structural components and materials x x
Stresses x x
Structural limitations x x
Adjustment x x
Tip shape x x
Tail rotor blade
Design and construction x x
Structural components and materials x x
Stresses x x
Structural limitations x x
Adjustment x x
8.2. INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument and indication systems
Pressure gauge
Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy x x x x
Temperature sensing
Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy x x x x
Fuel gauge
Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy x x x x
Flow meter
Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy x x x x
Position transmitter
Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy x x x x
Torque meter
Design, operation, characteristics and accuracy x x
Tachometer
Design, operation, characteristics and accuracy x x x x
Measurement of aerodynamic parameters
Pressure measurement
Static pressure, dynamic pressure, density and definitions x x x x

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Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x x x
Temperature measurement: aeroplane
Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x
Displays x x
Temperature measurement: helicopter
Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x
Displays x x
Altimeter
Standard atmosphere x x x x
The different barometric references (QNH, QFE and 1013.25) x x x x
Height, indicated altitude, true altitude, pressure altitude and x x x x
density altitude
Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x x x
Displays x x x x
Vertical speed indicator
Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x x x
Displays x x x x
Air speed indicator
The different speeds IAS, CAS, TAS: definition, usage and x x x x
relationships
Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x x x
Displays x x x x
Magnetism: direct reading compass
Earth magnetic field x x x x
Direct reading compass
Design, operation, data processing, accuracy and deviation x x x x
Turning and acceleration errors x x x x
Gyroscopic instruments
Gyroscope: basic principles
Definitions and design x x x x
Fundamental properties x x x x
Drifts x x x x
Turn and bank indicator
Design, operation and errors x x x x
Attitude indicator
Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x x x
Directional gyroscope
Design, operation, errors and accuracy x x x x
Communication systems
Transmission modes: VHF, HF and SATCOM
Principles, bandwidth, operational limitations and use x x x x
Voice communication
Definitions, general and applications x x x x
Alerting systems and proximity systems
Flight warning systems
Design, operation, indications and alarms x x x x
Stall warning
Design, operation, indications and alarms x x
Radio-altimeter
Design, operation, errors, accuracy and indications x x

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Rotor or engine over speed alert system
Design, operation, displays and alarms x x
Integrated instruments: electronic displays
Display units
Design, different technologies and limitations x x x x
9. NAVIGATION
9.1. GENERAL NAVIGATION
Basics of navigation
The solar system
Seasonal and apparent movements of the sun x x
The earth
Great circle, small circle and rhumb line x x
Latitude and difference of latitude x x
Longitude and difference of longitude x x
Use of latitude and longitude co-ordinates to locate any specific x x
position
Time and time conversions
Apparent time x x
UTC x x
LMT x x
Standard times x x
Dateline x x
Definition of sunrise, sunset and civil twilight x x
Directions
True north, magnetic north and compass north x x
Compass deviation x x
Magnetic poles, isogonals, relationship between true and x x
magnetic
Distance
Units of distance and height used in navigation: nautical miles, x x
statute miles, kilometres, metres and ft
Conversion from one unit to another x x
Relationship between nautical miles and minutes of latitude x x
and minutes of longitude
Magnetism and compasses
General principles
Terrestrial magnetism x x
Resolution of the earth’s total magnetic force into vertical and x x
horizontal components
Variation-annual change x x
Aircraft magnetism
The resulting magnetic fields x x
Keeping magnetic materials clear of the compass x x
Charts
General properties of miscellaneous types of projections
Direct Mercator x x
Lambert conformal conic x x
The representation of meridians, parallels, great circles and
rhumb lines
Direct Mercator x x

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 Easy Access Rules for Flight Crew ANNEX I (Part-FCL)
Licencing (Part-FCL)
SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Lambert conformal conic x x
The use of current aeronautical charts
Plotting positions x x
Methods of indicating scale and relief (ICAO topographical x x
chart)
Conventional signs x x
Measuring tracks and distances x x
Plotting bearings and distances x x
DR navigation
Basis of DR
Track x x
Heading (compass, magnetic and true) x x
Wind velocity x x
Air speed (IAS, CAS and TAS) x x
Groundspeed x x
ETA x x
Drift and wind correction angle x x
DR position fix x x
Use of the navigational computer
Speed x x
Time x x
Distance x x
Fuel consumption x x
Conversions x x
Air speed x x
Wind velocity x x
True altitude x x
The triangle of velocities
Heading x x
Ground speed x x
Wind velocity x x
Track and drift angle x x
Measurement of DR elements
Calculation of altitude x x
Determination of appropriate speed x x
In-flight navigation
Use of visual observations and application to in-flight x x
navigation
Navigation in cruising flight, use of fixes to revise
navigation data
Ground speed revision x x
Off-track corrections x x
Calculation of wind speed and direction x x
ETA revisions x x
Flight log x x
9.2. RADIO NAVIGATION
Basic radio propagation theory
Antennas
Characteristics x x
Wave propagation

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 Easy Access Rules for Flight Crew ANNEX I (Part-FCL)
Licencing (Part-FCL)
SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
(PPL)

Aeroplane Helicopter
Bridge Bridge
PPL PPL
course course
Propagation with the frequency bands x x
Radio aids
Ground DF
Principles x x
Presentation and interpretation x x
Coverage x x
Range x x
Errors and accuracy x x
Factors affecting range and accuracy x x
NDB/ADF
Principles x x
Presentation and interpretation x x
Coverage x x
Range x x
Errors and accuracy x x
Factors affecting range and accuracy x x
VOR
Principles x x
Presentation and interpretation x x
Coverage x x
Range x x
Errors and accuracy x x
Factors affecting range and accuracy x x
DME
Principles x x
Presentation and interpretation x x
Coverage x x
Range x x
Errors and accuracy x x
Factors affecting range and accuracy x x
Radar
Ground radar
Principles x x
Presentation and interpretation x x
Coverage x x
Range x x
Errors and accuracy x x
Factors affecting range and accuracy x x
Secondary surveillance radar and transponder
Principles x x
Presentation and interpretation x x
Modes and codes x x
GNSS
GPS, GLONASS OR GALILEO
Principles x x
Operation x x
Errors and accuracy x x
Factors affecting accuracy x x

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