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Python Course

Python Basics

What is Python?
Python is a popular and High Level programming language.
It was created by Guido van Rossum, and released in 1991.

Why to Learn Python?

Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
Python is Open Source which means its available free of cost.
Python is simple and so easy to learn
Python has powerful development libraries include AI, ML etc.
Python is much in demand and ensures high salary
Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux).

Careers with Python

Python developer
Artificial Intelligence

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Game developer
Full-stack developer
Machine learning engineer
Data scientist
Data analyst
Data engineer
Many more other roles

Applications on Python
Netflix
BGMI
Robots
many more

Features of Python
Easy-to-learn
Easy-to-read
Easy-to-maintain
Easy to Connect with Databases
Open Source
Large Standard libraries like Numpy,Pandas, Matplotlib etc.....

Python Install
By Clicking below link you can get official Python Website

link: https://www.python.org/

Steps to install Python

Go to Python.org website
Click on Download
Download Requried Python Version
After that click on file Explorer
Click on Download Folder
Double Tab on Python Installer

In [ ]:

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On clicking the Install Now, The installation process starts.

The installation process will take few minutes to complete and once the installation is
successful, the following screen is displayed.

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- Verify the Python version -- Open command prompt -- Type python --version

Finaly you get below interface after installization

In [ ]:

Python First Program

In [1]: print("Hello World")

Hello World

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In [1]: import sys

# Print only the Python version as a string

print("Python version:", sys.version)

Python version: 3.11.5 | packaged by Anaconda, Inc. | (main, Sep 11 2023, 13:26:23)
[MSC v.1916 64 bit (AMD64)]

Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.
Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

In [4]: #with Indentation

if 10 > 2:
print("Ten is greater than two!")

Ten is greater than two!

In [4]: # Without Indentation

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Cell In[4], line 3

print("Five is greater than two!")
^
IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement on line 2

Python Comments

Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.
Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them

In [9]: #hfkasfhhkfasjhfkjahfianfiasifhaikjf

In [4]: #This is a comment

print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

In [ ]: print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment

Multiline Comments

Python does not really have a syntax for multiline comments.

To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:

In [5]: #This is a comment

#written in

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#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

Python Identifiers
A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module or other
object.
An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore (_) followed by zero or
more letters, underscores and digits (0 to 9).
Python is a case sensitive programming language. Thus, 'Manpower' and 'manpower' are
two different identifiers in Python.

Python keywords
python keywords are Reserved Words
you cannot use them as constant or variable or any other identifier names.
All the Python keywords contain lowercase letters

In [6]: import keyword

# Get the list of Python keywords

python_keywords = keyword.kwlist

# Display the list of keywords

print(python_keywords)

len(python_keywords)

['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async', 'await', 'break', 'class',
'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else', 'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'globa
l', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or', 'pass', 'raise',
'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']
35
Out[6]:

In [ ]:

Python Variables
Python variables are the reserved memory locations used to store values with in a Python
Program.
This means that when you create a variable you reserve some space in the memory.
Variables are containers for storing data values.

In [3]: # creating a Variable

a = 10
print(a)
# where 'a' is variable and it is store a Value '10' by assign in it

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Rules to Create a Variables

A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and
_)
A variable name cannot start with a number or any special character like $, (, * % etc.
Python reserved keywords cannot be used naming the variable.
Python variable names are case-sensitive which means Name and NAME are two different
variables in Python.
Variable name can't start with Digits

In [4]: #vaild Variables

var = 1678
var_3 = 'Python'
_var = 'Welcome to Data Science Course'

In [2]: print(var)

1678

In [9]: #invaild Variables

1_var = 565
@var = 'Data'
for = 'Python'

Cell In[9], line 3

1_var = 565
^
SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal

In [22]: #You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.
x = 57
y = "Data science"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

<class 'int'>
<class 'str'>

Multiple Variables
In [4]: x, y, z = "Cherry", "Apple", "Banana"

print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Cherry
Apple
Banana

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In [24]: #One Value to Multiple Variables

x=y=z = 100
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

100
100
100

Python Data Types

It defines what type of data we are going to store in a variable.
The data stored in memory can be of many types.
Python has various built-in data types

-- Data Type --> Examples

Numeric --> int, float, complex

String --> str
Sequence --> list, tuple, range
Mapping --> dict
Boolean --> bool
Set --> set

Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

int
float
complex

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In [1]: x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j #1+6j # complex # real number + imgeariy nymber

In [2]: print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

<class 'int'>
<class 'float'>
<class 'complex'>

Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(), and complex() methods
Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

In [5]: x = 1 # int 1.0

y = 2.844 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))

1.0
2
(1+0j)
<class 'float'>
<class 'int'>
<class 'complex'>

In [6]: y = 2.8j
c = float(y)
c

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[6], line 2
1 y = 2.8j
----> 2 c = float(y)
3 c

TypeError: float() argument must be a string or a real number, not 'complex'

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Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.

In [7]: print(15 > 9)

print(13 == 9)
print(1 < 9)

True
False
True

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give you True or False in return,

In [10]: print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15>9))

True
True

Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values. Python divides the operators in the following
groups: - Arithmetic operators - Assignment operators - Comparison operators - Logical operators - Identity
operators - Membership operators - Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common mathematical
operations

In [11]: a = 67
b = 86

In [12]: # Addition
c = a + b
print(c)

153

In [13]: #Subtraction
d = a - b
print(d)

-19

In [14]: #Multiplication
f = a * b
print(f)

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In [15]: #Division
g = a / b #returns the quotient
print(g)

0.7790697674418605

In [16]: #Modulus
h = a % b
print(h) # It returns the remainder

67

In [15]: a = 5
b = 2
#Exponentiation
j = a ** b
print(j)

25

In [16]: #Floor division

k = a // b
print(k)

Assignment Operators
-- Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

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In [19]: # assign 10 to a
a = 10

# assign 5 to b
b = 5

# assign the sum of a and b to a

a += b --- # a = a + b a = a - b a -= b

print(a)

15

In [ ]: c = 3
g = 5

c *= g
c= c * g

Comparison Operators
-- Comparison operators compare two values/variables and return a boolean result: True or
False.

In [ ]: print()

In [20]: a = 50

b = 28

# equal to operator

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print( a == b)

# not equal to operator

print('a != b =', a != b)

# greater than operator

print('a > b =', a > b)

# less than operator

print('a < b =', a < b)

# greater than or equal to operator

print('a >= b =', a >= b)

# less than or equal to operator

print('a <= b =', a <= b)

a == b = False
a != b = True
a > b = True
a < b = False
a >= b = True
a <= b = False

Logical Operators
-- Logical operators are used to check whether an expression is True or False. -- Python logical
operators are used to combile two or more conditions and check the final result.

In [18]: # logical and operator

#x = 5

print(5 > 3 and 5 < 81)

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True

In [20]: # logical or operator

#x = 5

print(5 > 9 or 5 < 44)

True

In [22]: #not operation

x = 5

print(not(x > 3 and x < 10))

print(not(5 > 9 or 5 < 4))

False
True

Identity Operators
-- Identity whether the value is present or not

In [2]: x1 = 5
y1 = 5
x2 = 'Hello'
y2 = 'Hello'

print(x1 is not y1) # prints False

print(x2 is y2) # prints True

# False, as x and y are different objects in memory

False
True

In [27]: t = [1,2,3]
i = [1,2,3]

print(t is i)

False

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Here, we see that x1 and y1 are integers of the same values, so they are equal as well as identical. Same is the case
with x2 and y2 (strings).But x3 and y3 are lists. They are equal but not identical. It is because the interpreter
locates them separately in memory although they are equal.

Membership operators
-- They are used to test whether a value or variable is found in a sequence or not

In [1]: x = 'Hello world'

y = [1,2,3,4,5,6] #{1:'a', 2:'b'} #dict == key and value

# check if 'H' is present in x string

print('H' in x) # prints True

# check if 'hello' is present in x string

print('hello' not in x) # prints True

# check if '1' key is present in y

print(1 in y) # prints True

# check if 'a' key is present in y

print('a' in y) # prints False

True
True
True
False

Bitwise operators
Bitwise operators act on operands as if they were strings of binary digits. They operate bit by bit, hence the name.
For example, 2 is 10 in binary and 7 is 111

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In [4]: """
The & operator compares each bit and set it to 1 if both are 1, otherwise it is set to

6 = 0110
3 = 0011
-----------
2 = 0010
===========
"""
print(6 & 3)

In [ ]: """
The | operator compares each bit and set it to 1 if one or both is 1, otherwise it is

6 = 0110
3 = 0011
---------
7 = 0111
=========

"""

print(6 | 3)

In [ ]: """
The ^ operator compares each bit and set it to 1 if only one is 1, otherwise (if both

6 = 0110
3 = 0011
----------
5 = 0101
==========

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"""

print(6 ^ 3)

In [ ]: """
The ~ operator inverts each bit (0 becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0).

Inverted 3 becomes -4:

3 = 0000000000000011
-4 = 1111111111111100

simple formal

-(n+1) -(3+1) = -4
"""

print(~3)
print(~83)

In [2]: """
The << operator inserts the specified number of 0's (in this case 2) from the right an

If you push 00 in from the left:

3 = 000011 # 8 4 2 1
becomes
12 = 001100

"""
print(3 << 2)

12

In [6]: """
The >> operator moves each bit the specified number of times to the right. Empty holes

If you move each bit 2 times to the right, 8 becomes 2:

8 = 1000
becomes
2 = 0010

"""

print(8 >> 2)

Precedence
-- Operator precedence describes the order in which operations are performed.

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In [31]: print((6 + 3) - (6 + 3))

In [2]: 6+(4+7)-5

12
Out[2]:

In [ ]: 6 +11 - 5

In [1]: 17-5

12
Out[1]:

In [32]: 9+7-(4-2)*5

6
Out[32]:

In [ ]: 90-67+4*3/5

In [4]: 7+(4*4)-8**2

-41
Out[4]:

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Data Types

Python List
-> It is commonly used data type that represents an ordered, mutable (modifiable), and iterable sequence of
elements. -> Lists are used to store collections of items, and these items can be of any data type, including
numbers, strings, or even other lists. -> Lists are defined using square brackets [] and elements are separated by
commas.

Creation of Lists:
In [3]: # Creating an empty list
my_list = []

# Creating a list with elements

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
names = ["Apple", "Banana", "Cherry"]
mixed_types = [1, "apple", 3.14, True]

In [6]: a =29.9
print(type(a))

<class 'float'>

In [4]: print(type(mixed_types))

<class 'list'>

Access List Elements

In Python, lists are ordered and each item in a list is associated with a number. The number is
known as a list index.

The index of the first element is 0, second element is 1 and so on.

Python allows negative indexing for its sequences. The index of -1 refers to the last item, -2 to
the second last item and so on.

In [5]: languages = ["Python", "Swift", "C++","c"]

# access item at index 0

print(languages[0]) # Python

# access item at index 2

print(languages[2]) # C++

Python
C++

In [6]: # pos Index = 0 1 2 4

lst1 = [1,2,3,4,5]
#neg index == -4 -3 -2 -1

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print(lst1[-2])

In [7]: languages = ["Python", "Swift", "C++", "java"]

# access item at index 0

print(languages[-1]) # java

# access item at index 2

print(languages[-2]) #c++

java
C++

Slicing of a List
In Python, it is possible to access a portion of a list using the slicing operator :

In [ ]: # variable_name[start_value : End_value]----- n-1 only for end_value

In [9]: # List slicing in Python

my_list = ['E','t','e','r','n','a','l','t','e','k']

# items from index 2 to index 4

print(my_list[2:7]) # n-1

# items from index 5 to end

print(my_list[5:])

# items beginning to end

print(my_list[:])

['e', 'r', 'n', 'a', 'l']

['a', 'l', 't', 'e', 'k']
['E', 't', 'e', 'r', 'n', 'a', 'l', 't', 'e', 'k']

In [9]: my_list = ['E','t','e','r','n','a','l','t','e','k']

print(my_list[-3:-1]) # n+1

['t', 'e']

List Operations
List Contain Two types of Operations 1) Concatenation 2) Repetition

In [12]: #concatenation

a = [1, 2, 3]
b = [4, 5, 6]

c = a + b
print(c)

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

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In [11]: # Repetition

a = [3,6,9,12]

b = a * 7

print(b)

[3, 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, 9, 12, 3, 6,

9, 12]

Change List Items

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

In [2]: lst = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

lst[-1] = "Pine"
print(lst)

['apple', 'Pine', 'cherry']

In [3]: lt = [2, 3.5, "Python", 4]

In [4]: lt[2]= "Java"

lt[3] = 76

print(lt)

[2, 3.5, 'Java', 76]

In [6]: #Change a Range of Item Values

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]
thislist[1:4] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"] # 1,2,3
print(thislist)

['apple', 'blackcurrant', 'watermelon', 'ty', 'kiwi', 'mango']

list methods
1) append():

Adds an element to the end of the list.

In [40]: numbers = [1, 2, 3]

numbers.append(4)
print(numbers)

[1, 2, 3, 4]

2) extend():

Appends elements from another iterable to the end.

In [41]: numbers = [1, 2, 3]

more_numbers = [4, 5, 6]

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numbers.extend(more_numbers)
print(numbers)

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

3) insert():

Inserts an element at a specified position.

In [7]: numbers = [1, 2, 3]

numbers.insert(1, 99) # 1 indicates Index and 99 indicates value

#numbers.insert(2, 9)
#numbers.insert(-1, 9)
print(numbers)

[1, 99, 2, 3]

4) remove():

Removes the first occurrence of a value.

In [6]: numbers = [1,3,6,2,3,2,4]

numbers.remove(3)
print(numbers)

[1, 6, 2, 3, 2, 4]

5) pop():

Removes and returns an element at a specified index.

In [10]: numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 4]

popped_element = numbers.pop(1)
print(numbers)
print(popped_element)

[1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 4]
2

6) index():

Returns the index of the first occurrence of a value.

In [14]: numbers = [10, 20, 30, 20, 40, 30, 30, 40]
index = numbers.index(40)
print(index)

count():

Returns the number of occurrences of a value.

In [16]: numbers = [1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 6, 7, 9, 6, 0, 2, 6, 4]

count = numbers.count(4)
print(count)

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8) sort():

Sorts the list in ascending order.

In [26]: numbers =[1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 6, 7, 9, 6, 0, 2, 6, 4]

numbers.sort()
print(numbers)

[0, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6, 7, 9]

In [8]: j = ['apple', 'cherry', 'pineaple','banana','Support', 'dog']

j.sort()
print(j)

['Support', 'apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'dog', 'pineaple']

9) reverse():

Reverses the order of elements in the list.

In [28]: numbers = [ 6, 0, 2, 6, 4]
numbers.reverse()
print(numbers)

[4, 6, 2, 0, 6]

List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list based on the
values of an existing list.

Syntax

newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]

Condition

The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.

In [49]: fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)

['apple', 'banana', 'mango']

In [50]: newlist = [x for x in fruits if x == "apple"]

In [51]: print(newlist)

['apple']

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Python Strings
In Python, a string is a sequence of characters.

We use single quotes or double quotes to represent a string in Python.

Strings are one of the most commonly used data types, and they are used to represent text.

Strings are immutable, meaning that once a string is created, you cannot modify its content
directly.

However, you can perform various operations and use methods to manipulate and work with
strings.

In [ ]: # create a string using double quotes

str1 = "Python, sjljsfljsf , jlkfljljflk j, jljglgajk"

# create a string using single quotes

str2 = 'Python'

In [52]: # If need any multi-line strings using triple qoutes

str3 = """This is a
multi-line string."""
print(str3)

This is a
multi-line string.

String Operations
1) Concatenation:

Combining two or more strings.

In [11]: str1 = "Hello"

str2 = "World"
result = str1 +" "+ str2
print(result)

Hello World

2) Repetition:

Repeating a string multiple times.

In [13]: str1 = "Python "

result = str1 * 3
print(result)

Python Python Python

3) Indexing:

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Accessing individual characters in a string.

In [14]: my_string = "Python "

print(my_string[0])
print(my_string[-1])

4) Slicing:

Extracting a substring from a string.

In [40]: my_string = "Hello, World!" #0123456789101112

substring = my_string[7:12]
print(substring)

World

Python - Format - Strings

1. Old Style Formatting (% operator):

Uses the % operator and placeholders.

In [21]: name = "sai"

age = 30
formatted_string = "My name is %s and I am %d years old." % (name, age)
print(formatted_string)

My name is sai and I am 30 years old.

1. Format Method:

Uses the format() method with placeholders.

In [19]: name = "sai"

age = 35
formatted_string = "My name is {} and I am {} years old.".format(name, age)
print(formatted_string)

My name is sai and I am 35 years old.

1. String Interpolation (f-strings - Python 3.6 and later):

Uses f-strings, where expressions inside curly braces {} are evaluated and replaced

In [24]: name = "sai"

age = 25
formatted_string = f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old."
print(formatted_string)

My name is sai and I am 25 years old.

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In [2]: name = "sai"

age = 34
location = "hyderabad"

format_str = f"My name is {name} and i am {age} year old. i am from {location}."
print(format_str)

My name is sai and i am 34 year old. i am from hyderabad.

String Methods
1) len():

Returns the length of the string.

In [26]: my_string = "Python is easy language"

length = len(my_string)
print(length)

23

2) lower() / upper():

Converts the string to lowercase / uppercase.

In [27]: my_string = "hello"

print(my_string.upper())

HELLO

In [28]: my_string = "HELLO WORLD"

print(my_string.lower())

hello world

In [29]: f = "PYTHON IS GOOD LANGUAGE"

print(f.lower())

python is good language

3) strip():

Removes leading and trailing whitespaces.

In [30]: my_string = " Python "

stripped_string = my_string.strip()
print(stripped_string)

Python

In [6]: str1 = " myself vamsi and i am from ananatapur "

v = str1.strip()
print(v)

myself vamsi and i am from ananatapur

4) replace():
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Replaces a substring with another substring.

In [38]: my_string = "Hello, World!"

new_string = my_string.replace("World", "Python") # (old value,new value)
print(new_string)

Hello, Python!

In [7]: g = " hi Good"

h = g.replace("hi", "Hello")
print(h)

Hello Good

5) split():

Splits the string into a list of substrings.

In [46]: my_string = "Python is fun and python is good to learn"

words = my_string.split()
print(words)

['Python', 'is', 'fun', 'and', 'python', 'is', 'good', 'to', 'learn']

6) join():

Joins a list of strings into a single string.

In [48]: words = ['Python', 'is', 'fun', 'and', 'python','easy', 'to', 'learn']

joined_string = ' '.join(words)
print(joined_string)

Python is fun and python easy to learn

Python Tuples
A tuple is a data type that represents an ordered, immutable (unchangeable) sequence of
elements.

Tuples are similar to lists, but the key difference is that tuples cannot be modified once they are
created.

They are defined using parentheses () and elements are separated by commas.

Features of Python Tuple

Tuples are an immutable data type, meaning their elements cannot be changed after they are
generated.

Each element in a tuple has a specific order that will never change because tuples are ordered
sequences.

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Creating a Tuple
In [54]: #Empty Tuple:

empty_tuple = ()

In [9]: #Tuple with Elements:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "orange")
fruits

('apple', 'banana', 'orange')

Out[9]:

In [56]: #Mixed Data Types:

mixed_tuple = (1, "apple", 3.14, True)
mixed_tuple

(1, 'apple', 3.14, True)

Out[56]:

In [61]: #Single-element Tuple:

single_element_tuple = (42,)
single_element_tuple

(42,)
Out[61]:

In [ ]: single_element_tuple = 42

Accessing of Tuples
Tuples support indexing and slicing, just like lists.

In [67]: # 0 1 2
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "orange")
print(fruits[2]) #index
print(fruits[0:7]) #slicing

orange
('apple', 'banana', 'orange')

In [ ]:

Immutability:
Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its elements or add/remove elements.

In [77]: fruits = ("apple", "banana", "orange")

# This will raise an error
fruits[2] = "pear"
#print(fruits)
fruits

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[77], line 3
1 fruits = ("apple", "banana", "orange")
2 # This will raise an error
----> 3 fruits[2] = "pear"
4 #print(fruits)
5 fruits

TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Tuple Operations
1) Concatenation:

Combining two tuples.

In [74]: tuple1 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple2 = ('a', 'b', 'c')
result = tuple1 + tuple2
print(result)

(1, 2, 3, 'a', 'b', 'c')

2) Repetition:

Repeating a tuple.

In [75]: tuple1 = (1, 2, 3)

result = tuple1 * 20
print(result)

(1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1,
2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2,
3, 1, 2, 3)

Tuple Methods
Tuples have limited methods compared to lists due to their immutability

1) count():

Returns the number of occurrences of a specified value.

In [ ]: numbers = (1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 2, 4, 2, 9,4,8,2,9767,2)

count_of_2 = numbers.count(4)
print(count_of_2)

2) index():

Returns the index of the first occurrence of a specified value.

In [11]: numbers = (1, 2, 5, 3, 4, 5, 7)

index_of_3 = numbers.index(5)

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print(index_of_3)

Python Dictionaries
A dictionary is a data structure that allows you to store and retrieve data in a key-value pair
format.

Dictionaries are also known as associative arrays or hash maps in other programming
languages.

They are defined using curly braces {} and consist of key-value pairs separated by colons.

Creating Dictionaries:
In [13]: # Empty dictionary
empty_dict = {}

# Dictionary with key-value pairs

student = {'name': 'Reddy','age': 25,'grade': 'A'}
# dict1 = {Key:value,key:value,key:value} ----> Syntax

# Dictionary with mixed data types

mixed_dict = {
'name': 'Vamsi',
'age': 30,
'grades': [85, 90, 92]
}
mixed_dict

{'name': 'Vamsi', 'age': 30, 'grades': [85, 90, 92]}

Out[13]:

In [ ]:

In [65]: print(empty_dict)
print(student)
print(mixed_dict)

{}
{'name': 'Eternaltek', 'age': 25, 'grade': 'A'}
{'name': 'Vamsi', 'age': 30, 'grades': [85, 90, 92]}

Accessing Values:
You can access the values in a dictionary using the keys.

In [19]: # Dictionary with key-value pairs

student = {
'name': 'Sai',

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'age': 65,
'grade': 'A',
1: "Radika"
}

In [16]: # Dictionary with mixed data types

mixed_dict = {
'name': 'Vamsi',
'age': 30,
'grades': [85, 90, 92]
}

In [20]: print(student[1]) # Output: Sai

print(mixed_dict['grades']) # Output: [85, 90, 92]

Radika
[85, 90, 92]

In [4]: print(student['age'])

25

Modifying and Adding Entries:

Dictionaries are mutable, so you can modify existing entries or add new ones.

In [21]: # Dictionary with key-value pairs

student = {
'name': 'Sai',
'age': 65,
'grade': 'A'
}

In [25]: # Modifying an entry

student['age'] = 26

# Adding a new entry

student['gender'] = 'Female'
student['Qulification'] = 'B.Tech'
print(student)

{'name': 'Sai', 'age': 26, 'grade': 'A', 'gender': 'Female', 'Qulification': 'B.Tec
h'}

In [6]: print(student)

{'name': 'Sai', 'age': 26, 'grade': 'A', 'gender': 'Female', 'Qulification': 'B.Tec
h'}

Dictionary Methods:
1) get():

Returns the value for a specified key. It allows you to provide a default value if the key is not
found.

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In [26]: g = student.get('grade')
gender = student.get('gender', 'Not specified')
h = student.get('location', 'Not Prividied')
#g = student.get('exper')

In [27]: print(g)
print(gender)
print(h)

A
Female
Not Prividied

2) keys():

Returns a view of all the keys in the dictionary.

In [13]: keys = student.keys()

print(keys)

dict_keys(['name', 'age', 'grade', 'gender', 'Qulification'])

3) values():

Returns a view of all the values in the dictionary.

In [14]: values = student.values()

print(values)

dict_values(['Sai', 26, 'A', 'Female', 'B.Tech'])

4) items():

Returns a view of all key-value pairs as tuples.

In [15]: items = student.items()

print(items)

dict_items([('name', 'Sai'), ('age', 26), ('grade', 'A'), ('gender', 'Female'), ('Qul

ification', 'B.Tech')])

5) pop():

Removes and returns the value for a specified key.

In [16]: # Dictionary with mixed data types

mixed_dict = {
'name': 'Vamsi',
'age': 30,
'grades': [85, 90, 92]
}

In [17]: age =mixed_dict.pop('age')

print(age)
#print(student)

30

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In [18]: name = mixed_dict.pop()

name

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[18], line 1
----> 1 name = mixed_dict.pop()
2 name

TypeError: pop expected at least 1 argument, got 0

6) popitem():

Removes and returns the last inserted key-value pair as a tuple.

In [28]: print(student)

{'name': 'Sai', 'age': 26, 'grade': 'A', 'gender': 'Female', 'Qulification': 'B.Tec
h'}

In [31]: last_item = student.popitem()

print(last_item)

('Qulification', 'B.Tech')

7) update():

Updates the dictionary with elements from another dictionary or from an iterable of key-value
pairs.

In [20]: # Dictionary with key-value pairs

student = {
'name': 'Reddy',
'age': 25,
'grade': 'A'
}
student

{'name': 'Reddy', 'age': 25, 'grade': 'A'}

Out[20]:

In [32]: new_data = {'age': 27, 'grade': 'A+'}

student.update(new_data)
print(student)

{'name': 'Sai', 'age': 27, 'grade': 'A+', 'gender': 'Female'}

Python Sets
In Python, a set is a collection of unique elements, and it is defined using curly braces {} and sep
by , (comma)

Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Sets are unordered, mutable, and do not allow duplicate elements.

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Sets provide a variety of methods for performing common set operations like union,
intersection, difference, and more

Creating Sets:
In [4]: # Creating an empty set
#empty_set = set()

# Creating a set with elements

fruits = {'apple', 'banana', 'orange'}

# Converting a list to a set

numbers = set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
print(numbers)

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

In [23]: numbers

'[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]'
Out[23]:

In [84]: # Creating an empty set

empty_set = set()
empty_set

set()
Out[84]:

In [5]: #Duplicate Items in a Set

numbers = {2, 4, 6, 6, 2, 8, 8, 3, 2, 9, 5}
print(numbers)

{2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}

Add and Update Set Items in Python

Sets are mutable. However, since they are unordered, indexing has no meaning.

We cannot access or change an element of a set using indexing or slicing.

Set data type does not support it.

1) Add Items to a Set in Python

In Python, we use the add() method to add an item to a set.

In [12]: numbers = {21, 34, 54, 12, 67, 87, 90}

#print('Initial Set:',numbers)

# using add() method

numbers.add(45)

print('Updated Set:', numbers)

Updated Set: {34, 67, 21, 54, 87, 90, 12, 45}

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In [ ]:

2) Update Python Set

The update() method is used to update the set with items other collection types (lists, tuples,
sets, etc).

In [14]: companies = {'microsoft', 'Technologies'}

tech_companies = ['apple', 'google', 'apple']

update_companies = companies.update(tech_companies)

print(companies)

{'microsoft', 'Technologies', 'google', 'apple'}

In [ ]:

Remove an Element from a Set

We use the discard() method to remove the specified element from a set.

In [17]: languages = {'Swift', 'Java', 'Python'}

#print('Initial Set:',languages)

# remove 'Java' from a set

#removedValue = languages.discard('Java')

# remove 'Java' from a set

removedValue = languages.remove('Python')
print('Set after remove():', languages)

Set after remove(): {'Java', 'Swift'}

In [18]: #finding the len of set

even_numbers = {2,4,6,8,10,12,14,12,16,18}
#print('Set:',even_numbers)

# find number of elements

print('Total Elements:', len(even_numbers))

Total Elements: 9

Python Set Operations

Python Set provides different built-in methods to perform mathematical set operations like
union, intersection, subtraction, and symmetric difference.

1) Union of Two Sets

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The union of two sets A and B include all the elements of set A and B.

Combines elements from two sets, removing duplicates.

In [91]: # first set

c = {1, 3, 5}

# second set
d = {0, 2, 4}

# perform union operation using |

print('Union using |:', c | d)

# perform union operation using union()

print('Union using union():', c.union(d))

Union using |: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Union using union(): {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

In [ ]: A.union(B)

2) Set Intersection

The intersection of two sets A and B include the common elements between set A and B.

Returns common elements between two sets.

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In [4]: # first set

A = {1, 3, 5, 8, 4, 0}

# second set
B = {1, 2, 3, 0, 5, 4}

# perform intersection operation using &

print('Intersection using &:', A & B)

# perform intersection operation using intersection()

print('Intersection using intersection():', A.intersection(B))

Intersection using &: {0, 1, 3, 4, 5}

Intersection using intersection(): {0, 1, 3, 4, 5}

3) Difference between Two Sets

The difference between two sets A and B include elements of set A that are not present on set B.

Returns elements that are in the first set but not in the second.

In [20]: # first set

A = {2, 3, 5, 9, 0, 4}

# second set

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B = {1, 2, 6, 4, 7}

# perform difference operation using -

print('Difference using -:', A - B)

# perform difference operation using difference()

print('Difference using difference():', A.difference(B))

Difference using -: {0, 9, 3, 5}

Difference using difference(): {0, 9, 3, 5}

In [7]: # perform difference operation using -

print('Difference using -:', B-A)

# perform difference operation using difference()

print('Difference using difference():', B.difference(A))

Difference using -: {1, 6, 7}

Difference using difference(): {1, 6, 7}

4) Set Symmetric Difference

The symmetric difference between two sets A and B includes all elements of A and B without the
common elements.

Returns elements that are in either of the sets, but not in both.

In [9]: # first set

A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 4}

# second set
B = {1, 2, 6, 4, 9}

# perform difference operation using ^

print('using ^:', A ^ B)

# using symmetric_difference()
print('using symmetric_difference():', A.symmetric_difference(B))

using ^: {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
using symmetric_difference(): {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

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In [ ]:

Python Conditions Statements

In Python, conditional statements are used to control the flow of a program based on certain
conditions.

The if, else, and elif (short for "else if") keywords are used for creating conditional structures.

1) Python if Statement

An if statement executes a block of code only if the specified condition is met.

Syntax
if condition:

# body of if statement

Here, if the condition of the if statement is:

True - the body of the if statement executes.

False - the body of the if statement is skipped from execution.

In [ ]:

In [22]: number = 43
# check if number is greater than 0
if number > 0: #condition --- if condition is TRue it will the return the body statem
print('Number is positive')
#print("Python")

#print('This statement always executes')

In [26]: number = int(input("Enter your age: "))

Enter your age: 67

In [29]: number = 78
if number > 0:
print("Given number is positive")

Given number is positive

In [33]: voter_age = int(input("Enter your age: "))

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if voter_age > 18:
print("your are eligible for vote!.")
else:
print(" your not eligible for vote!.")

Enter your age: 14

your not eligible for vote!.

Python else Statement

An if statement can have an optional else clause.

The else statement executes if the condition in the if statement evaluates to False.

Syntax

if condition:

# body of if statement

else:

# body of else statement

Here, if the condition inside the if statement evaluates to

True - the body of if executes, and the body of else is skipped.

False - the body of else executes, and the body of if is skipped

In [19]: number = 56

if number > 0:
print('Positive number')

else:
print('Negative number')

#print('This statement always executes')

Positive number

In [ ]:

python elif condition

syntax: if condition:

#body statement

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elif condition:

#body statements

else:

#body statements

In [34]: number = 0

if number > 0:
print("Positive number")

elif number <0:

print('Negative number')

else:
print('Zero')

#print('This statement is always executed')

Zero

In [ ]:

1) static type input: intital assgin by developer or code writer 2) dymanic type input: inputs enter
by user

In [33]: number = int(input("Enter your lucky number: ")) #number you to mention int()

if number > 0:
print("your lucky number is Positive")
elif number < 0:
print("your lucky is negative")
else:
print("your lucky number is Zero")

Enter your lucky number: 6

your lucky number is Positive

In [35]: name = input("Enter you name: ")

print(name)

Enter you nameVamsi Reddy

Vamsi Reddy

Python Nested if Statements

It is possible to include an if statement inside another if statement.

In [ ]: number= int(input("Enter your number: "))

# outer if statement
if number >= 0: #-8 >= 0
# inner if statement
if number == 0:
print('Number is 0')
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# inner else statement
else:
print('Number is positive')

# outer else statement

else:
print('Number is negative')

In [ ]: #example on conditional statements

#Example 2: Grading System

score = int(input("Enter your score: "))

if score >= 90:

grade = 'A'
elif score >= 80:
grade = 'B'
elif score >= 70:
grade = 'C'
elif score >= 60:
grade = 'D'
elif score >= 50:
grade = 'E'
else:
grade = 'F'

print(f"Your grade is {grade}")

In [4]: # Three nested if conditions example

# Sample values for demonstration

a = 15
b = 25
c = 25

if a > 10:
print("a is greater than 10")

if b > 20:
print("b is greater than 20")

if c > 30:
print("c is greater than 30")
else:
print("c is not greater than 30")

else:
print("b is not greater than 20")

else:
print("a is not greater than 10")

a is greater than 10
b is greater than 20
c is not greater than 30

Loop Statements
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Python while Loop

Python while loop is used to run a block code until a certain condition is met.

The syntax of while loop is:

while condition:

# body of while loop

Here,

-> A while loop evaluates the condition

-> If the condition evaluates to True, the code inside the while loop is executed.

-> condition is evaluated again.

-> This process continues until the condition is False.

-> When condition evaluates to False, the loop stops.

In [46]: # program to display numbers from 1 to 5

# initialize the variable

i = 0

# while loop from i = 1 to 5

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while i <= 5:

i = i + 1 #increment
print(i)

1
2
3
4
5
6

In [45]: # Print numbers from 1 to 5 using a while loop

count = 1
while count <= 5:
print(count)
count += 1

1
2
3
4
5

Python for Loop:

The for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, tuple, dictionary, string, or
range).

The syntax of a for loop is:

for val in sequence:

# statement(s)

Here, val accesses each item of the sequence on each iteration.

The loop continues until we reach the last item in the sequence.

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In [103… language = 'Python'

# iterate over each character in language

for x in language:
print(x)

P
y
t
h
o
n

In [12]: #Example 1: Iterate Over a List

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'orange']

for fruit in fruits:

print(fruit)

apple
banana
orange

In [1]: #Example 2: Iterate Over a Range

for number in range(19, 50):
print(number)

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19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49

In [2]: #Example 3: Iterate Over a String

word = "Eternaltek"

for char in word:

print(char)

E
t
e
r
n
a
l
t
e
k

In [47]: #Example 4: Iterate Over a Dictionary

student_grades = {'Vamsi': 90, 'Reddy': 85, 'Kumar': 92, 'shiva': 98}

for name, grade in student_grades.items():

print(f"{name}'s grade is {grade}")

Vamsi's grade is 90
Reddy's grade is 85
Kumar's grade is 92
shiva's grade is 98

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In [ ]:

Control Statements
In Python, pass, break, and continue are control flow statements used within loops.

They provide ways to control the execution of a loop or to handle certain situations.

Here's an explanation of each, along with examples:

In [ ]:

1. pass:
The pass statement is a no-operation statement.

It is a placeholder where syntactically some code is required, but no action needs to be taken.

In [54]: for i in range(10): #output = 0,1,,2,3,4

if i == 6:
pass # do nothing for i = 2
else:
print(i)

0
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
9

In this example, when i is equal to 3, the pass statement is executed, and the loop continues
without doing anything.

It is often used when a statement is syntactically required, but you want to skip its execution.

In [ ]:

2. break:
The break statement is used to exit a loop prematurely.

When a break statement is encountered, the loop terminates immediately, and the control is
transferred to the statement immediately following the loop.

In [52]: for i in range(10): #0123456789

if i == 5:

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break # exit the loop when i reaches 5
print(i)

0
1
2
3
4

In this example, the loop will print values from 0 to 4. When i becomes 5, the break statement is
encountered, and the loop is terminated.

In [ ]:

3. continue:
The continue statement is used to skip the rest of the code inside a loop for the current iteration
and move to the next iteration.

In [56]: for i in range(10):

if i == 7:
continue # skip the rest of the code for i = 7
else:
print(i)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9

In [ ]:

In this example, the loop will print values from 0 to 4, skipping the printing step when i is equal
to 2 due to the continue statement.

In [ ]: def gin():

Python Functions
A function is a block of code that performs a specific task.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Types of function

There are two types of function in Python programming:

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Standard library functions - These are built-in functions in Python that are available to use.

User-defined functions - We can create our own functions based on our requirements.

The syntax to declare a function is:

def function_name(arguments):

# function body

return

Here,

def - keyword used to declare a function

function_name - any name given to the function

arguments - any value passed to function

return (optional) - returns value from a function

In [58]: #simple function

def greet():
print('Hello World!')

Calling a Function in Python

In the above example, we have declared a function named greet().

Now, to use this function, we need to call it.

Here's how we can call the greet() function in Python.

In [59]: def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

# Calling the function

greet("Reddy") #function_name(parameter)
greet("F")

Hello, Reddy!
Hello, F!

In [ ]:

In [62]: def vote(name,age):

print(f'your name is {name} and your {age} is Eogluta vote')

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#vote("reddy", 23)
vote("Reddy")

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[62], line 5
2 print(f'your name is {name} and your {age} is Eogluta vote')
4 #vote("reddy", 23)
----> 5 vote("Reddy")

TypeError: vote() missing 1 required positional argument: 'age'

Python Function Arguments

a function can also have arguments. An argument is a value that is accepted by a function. For
example,

In [65]: # function with two arguments

def add_numbers(num1, num2): # a , b - a -== num1 and b == num2
sum = num1 + num2 # c = a + b == c == sum
print("Sum: ",sum)

# function call with two values

add_numbers(44, 84)

add_number(454, 4)

Sum: 128
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[65], line 9
6 # function call with two values
7 add_numbers(44, 84)
----> 9 add_number(454, 4)

NameError: name 'add_number' is not defined

The return Statement in Python

A Python function may or may not return a value. If we want our function to return some value
to a function call, we use the return statement.

def add_numbers(): ... return sum Here, we are returning the variable sum to the function call.

In [72]: # function definition

def find_square(num):
result = num * num
return result

# function call
find_square(37)

#print('Square:',square)

1369
Out[72]:

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Python Library Functions

In Python, standard library functions are the built-in functions that can be used directly in our
program. For example,

print() - prints the string inside the quotation marks

sqrt() - returns the square root of a number

pow() - returns the power of a number

These library functions are defined inside the module. And, to use them we must include the
module inside our program.

For example, sqrt() is defined inside the math module.

In [73]: import math

# sqrt computes the square root

square_root = math.sqrt(4)

print("Square Root of 4 is",square_root)

# pow() comptes the power

power = pow(2, 3)

print("2 to the power 3 is",power)

Square Root of 4 is 2.0

2 to the power 3 is 8

Python Lambda
A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one expression.

Syntax

lambda arguments : expression

In [16]: x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(55)) # print(x(a))

65

In [1]: # A lambda function that adds two numbers

add = lambda x, y: x + y
result = add(3, 5)
print(result) # Output: 8

In [2]: def myfunc(n):

return lambda a : a * n
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mult = myfunc(5)

print(mult(11))

55

Global and Local Variables in Python

Python Global variables are those which are not defined inside any function and have a global
scope whereas Python local variables are those which are defined inside a function and their
scope is limited to that function only.

In other words, we can say that local variables are accessible only inside the function in which it
was initialized whereas the global variables are accessible throughout the program and inside
every function.

In [18]: #Creating local variables in Python

def f():

# local variable
s = "I love Eternaltek"
print(s)

# Driver code
f()

I love Eternaltek

In [19]: def rt():

pass

rt()

In [ ]: #Can a local variable be used outside a function?

#If we will try to use this local variable outside the function then let’s see what wi

In [23]: def f():

# local variable
s = "I love Eternaltek"
print("Inside Function:", s)

# Driver code
f()
print(s)

Inside Function: I love Eternaltek

rtyr

Python Global Variables

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These are those which are defined outside any function and which are accessible throughout
the program, i.e.,

inside and outside of every function. Let’s see how to create a Python global variable.

Create a global variable in Python

Defining and accessing Python global variables

In [24]: # This function uses global variable s

# Global scope
s = "I love Eternaltek"
def f():
print("Inside Function", s)

f()
print("Outside Function", s)

Inside Function I love Eternaltek

Outside Function I love Eternaltek

In [ ]:

Python Object Oriented Programming

Python is a versatile programming language that supports various programming styles,
including object-oriented programming (OOP) through the use of objects and classes.

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Python Classes/Objects
Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

class class_name: body of class

In [3]: class MyClass:

x = 5

Create Object
Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:

Object is physical entity

we can create any No. of object for class
Memory is allocated when we create object for class
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In [2]: obj1 = MyClass()

print(obj1.x)

In [4]: class Dog:

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def bark(self):
print("Woof!")

# Creating objects of the Dog class

dog1 = Dog("Buddy", 3)
dog2 = Dog("Max", 5)

# Accessing object attributes and calling methods

print(f"{dog1.name} is {dog1.age} years old.")
print(f"{dog2.name} is {dog2.age} years old.")
dog1.bark()

Buddy is 3 years old.

Max is 5 years old.
Woof!

The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to access
variables that belongs to the class.

It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to be the first
parameter of any function in the class:

In [11]: class self():

def __init__(self):
print("Hello world")

obj = self()

Hello world

The init() Function

The init method (pronounced "dunder init") is called the constructor.

It is automatically executed when an object is created from a class.

Its purpose is to initialize the attributes of the object.

In [4]: class Dog:

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
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# Creating a Dog object

my_dog = Dog(name="Buddy", age=3)
print(my_dog)

<__main__.Dog object at 0x000001D2B2465A50>

In [ ]:

In this example, when you create a Dog object (my_dog), the init method is automatically called,
and it initializes the name and age attributes of the object.

str Method:
The str method is used to provide a human-readable string representation of the object.

It is called when the str() function is used on an object or when print() is called with an object.

In [5]: class Dog:

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def __str__(self):
return f"{self.name}, {self.age} years old"

# Creating a Dog object

my_dog = Dog(name="Buddy", age=3)

# Using str() or print() on the object

#print(str(my_dog)) # Output: Buddy, 3 years old
print(my_dog) # Output: Buddy, 3 years old

Buddy, 3 years old

In this example, the str method is defined to return a formatted string representing the dog's
name and age.

When str() or print() is called on the my_dog object, the str method is invoked, providing a
readable output.

In [ ]:

Python Inheritance
Inheritance is a way of creating a new class for using details of an existing class without
modifying it.

The newly formed class is a derived class (or child class). Similarly, the existing class is a base
class (or parent class).

In [14]: # base class

class Animal:

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def eat(self):
print( "I can eat!")

def sleep(self):
print("I can sleep!")

# derived class
class Dog(Animal):

def bark(self):
print("I can bark! Woof woof!!")

class Cat(Animal):

def Mayoo(self):
print(" I can Mayoo! Mayoo!")

# Create object of the Dog class

dog1 = Dog()

# Calling members of the base class

dog1.eat()
dog1.sleep()

# Calling member of the derived class

dog1.bark();

obj2 = Cat()

obj2.eat()
obj2.sleep()
obj2.Mayoo()

I can eat!
I can sleep!
I can bark! Woof woof!!
I can eat!
I can sleep!
I can Mayoo! Mayoo!

In [ ]:

Python Encapsulation
Encapsulation is one of the key features of object-oriented programming.

Encapsulation refers to the bundling of attributes and methods inside a single class.

wrapping data and methods that work with data in one unit.

This also helps to achieve data hiding.

In Python, we denote private attributes using underscore as the prefix i.e single _(Protected) or
double __ (Private) and Public. For example,

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In [9]: class Demo():

def __init__(self,a,b):
self.__a = a # Private
self._b = b # PRotected
# print(self.__a)
class Demo1(Demo):
def output(self):
print(self._b)

d = Demo1(3,4)
d.output()

3
4

In [ ]:

Polymorphism
Polymorphism is another important concept of object-oriented programming. It simply means
more than one form.

That is, the same entity (method or operator or object) can perform different operations in
different scenarios.

In [ ]: #class Polygon:
# method to render a shape
#def render(self):
# print("Rendering Polygon...")

#class Square(Polygon):
# renders Square
# def render(self):
# print("Rendering Square...")

#class Circle(Polygon):
# renders circle
# def render(self):
# print("Rendering Circle...")

# create an object of Square

#s1 = Square()
#s1.render()
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# create an object of Circle

#c1 = Circle()
#c1.render()

In [9]: class sum1():

def add(self,a,b):
print(a+b)

obj = sum1()

print(obj.add(3,5))
print(obj.add('a','b'))

8
None
ab
None

Abstraction
Hiding the unnecessary details.

Abstraction allows you to focus on what an object does rather than how it achieves its
functionality.

In [ ]: class Car:
def start_engine(self):
pass # Abstract method, implementation details hidden

def drive(self):
pass # Abstract method, implementation details hidden

def stop_engine(self):
pass # Abstract method, implementation details hidden

In [ ]:

Key Points to Remember:

Object-Oriented Programming makes the program easy to understand as well as efficient.

Since the class is sharable, the code can be reused.

Data is safe and secure with data abstraction.

Polymorphism allows the same interface for different objects, so programmers can write
efficient code.

In [ ]:

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Python File I/OPython File Operation

A file is a container in computer storage devices used for storing data.

When we want to read from or write to a file, we need to open it first. When we are done, it
needs to be closed so that the resources that are tied with the file are freed.

Hence, in Python, a file operation takes place in the following order:

1) Open a file 2) Read or write (perform operation) 3) Close the file

Opening Files in Python

In Python, we use the open() method to open files.

To demonstrate how we open files in Python, let's suppose we have a file named test.txt with
the following content.

In [36]: # open file in current directory

s = open("test1.txt") #path mention
print(s)

<_io.TextIOWrapper name='test1.txt' mode='r' encoding='cp1252'>

In [ ]:

In [37]: #By default, the files are open in read mode (cannot be modified). The code above is e

s = open("test1.txt", "r")
print(s.read())

Hi Friends

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Reading Files in Python

After we open a file, we use the read() method to read its contents. For example,

In [38]: # open a file

file1 = open("test1.txt", "r")

# read the file

read_content = file1.read()
print(read_content)

Hi Friends

In [40]: # Write a file

file1 = open("test1.txt","w")
file1.write("Bye Friends") # data will replace with new data
print(file1)

<_io.TextIOWrapper name='test1.txt' mode='w' encoding='cp1252'>

In [42]: # to over come this problem we use append

file1 = open("test1.txt","a")
file1.write("Hi friends")
print(file1)

<_io.TextIOWrapper name='test1.txt' mode='a' encoding='cp1252'>

In [44]: # for read and write we use r+

file1 = open("test1.txt","r+")
print(file1.read())
file1.write("How are you friends")
print(file1)

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Bye FriendsHi friendsHi friendsHow are you friends
<_io.TextIOWrapper name='test1.txt' mode='r+' encoding='cp1252'>

Closing Files in Python

When we are done with performing operations on the file, we need to properly close the file.

Closing a file will free up the resources that were tied with the file.

It is done using the close() method in Python. For example,

In [45]: # open a file

file1 = open("test1.txt", "r")

# read the file

read_content = file1.read()
print(read_content)

# close the file

file1.close()

Bye FriendsHi friendsHi friendsHow are you friendsHow are you friends

Exception Handling in Files

If an exception occurs when we are performing some operation with the file, the code exits
without closing the file.

A safer way is to use a try...finally block.

The try...except block is used to handle exceptions in Python. Here's the syntax of try...except block: try: # code
that may cause exception except: # code to run when exception occurs

In [46]: try:
file1 = open("test1.txt", "r")
read_content = file1.read()
print(read_content)

finally:
# close the file
file1.close()

Bye FriendsHi friendsHi friendsHow are you friendsHow are you friends

In [ ]:

In [48]: try:
numerator = 10
denominator = 0

result = numerator/denominator

print(result)
except:
print("Error: Denominator cannot be 0.")

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# Output: Error: Denominator cannot be 0.

Error: Denominator cannot be 0.

In [ ]:

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