THE HISTORY OF ALGEBRA

The part of mathematics in which letters and other general symbols are used to represent
numbers qualities in formulae and equations.

The word Algebra comes from the Arabic word “al-jab and this comes from the treatise written
in the year 830 which meant something like, “restoration” or “completion” as suggested by
Persian mathematician Muhammed Ibn Musa. Algebra began with computations similar to that
of basic arithmetic but with letters standing in for numbers. Algebra as a proper field of
mathematics can be traced to the end of 16th century but the true theory of algebra started much
earlier.

Algebra can essentially be considered as doing computations similar to those of arithmetic but
with non-numerical mathematical objects (commonly letters of alphabet). Until 19 th century,
Algebra consisted essentially of theory of equations.

STAGES OF ALGEBRA

Algebra didn’t always make use of symbolism in mathematics instead it went through three
distinct stages as follows.

1. Rhetorical Algebra. Equations are written in full sentences for example the rhetorical
form of x+1=2 is “the thing plus one equals two”. Rhetorical Algebra was first developed
by Ancient Babylonians and remained dominant up to the 16th century.
2. Syncopated Algebra. Some symbolism is used but does not contain all the characteristic
of symbolic Algebra. For example, there may be a restriction that subtraction may be
used only once with in one side of the equation which is not the symbolic algebra.
Syncopated Algebraic expressions first appeared in Diophantus Arithmetica in the 3rd
century by CE followed by Brahmagupta’s Brahma in the 7th century.
3. Symbolic Algebra. Full symbolism is used. Early steps towards this can be seen in the
word of several Islamic mathematicians such as Ibn Ai-Banna in the 13th and 14th
centuries. Although full symbolic algebra was developed by Francois Viete in the 16th
century. Later Rene Descartes in the 17th century introduced the modern notation e.g use
of “x” and showed that the problems occurring in geometry can be expressed and solved
in terms of Algebra.
 ALGEBRA IN BABYLON

The origin of Algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians who developed a positional
number system that greatly aided them in solving rhetorical algebraic equations. The
Babylonians were not interested in exact solutions but approximations and they would
commonly use linear interpolation to approximate intermediate values. One of the most famous
tablets is the Plimpton322 tablet created around 1900 to 1600 BCE which gives a table of
Pythagorean triples and represents some of the most advanced mathematics prior to Greek
mathematics. A set of 3 positive numbers that satisfy the formula of the Pythagoras theorem that
is expressed as a 2+b2 =c2, where a,b and c are positive integers.

3-4-5 6-8-10 9-12-15

5-12-13 10-24-26 15-36-39

7-24-25 14-48-50 21-72-75

9-40-41 18-80-82 27-120-123

Babylonians algebra was much more advanced by Egyptian Algebra of the time whereas
Egyptians were mainly concerned with linear equations. The Babylonians were more concerned
with quadratic and cubic equations. The Babylonians had developed flexible algebraic operations
which they were able to add equals to and multiply both sides of the operation by like quantities
so as to eliminate fractions and factors.

ALGEBRA IN EGYPT

The ancient Egyptians were the first civilization to develop and solve second degree (quadratic)
equation. This information is found in the Berlin papyrus fragment. Additionally, the Egyptians
solve the first-degree algebraic equations, found in Rhind mathematical papyrus. In the history of
mathematics, Egyptian algebra existed a time ranging from C 3020BCE to C. 300BCE

Ancient Egypt Algebra dealt with linear equations while the Babylonians found those equations
too elementary and developed mathematics to a high level than Egyptians. Rhind Papyrus also
known as Ahmes Papyrus is an ancient papyrus written in 1650 BCE byAhmes who transcribed
from the earliest work that he dated to between 200 and 1800 BCE. The Rhind papyrus contains
problems whose linear equations inform of ax=b where a and b are known while x is the
unknown referred to as “aha” or “a heap”. The solutions are possibly arrived by false position
method where the first specific value is substituted into the left-hand side of the equation. Then
the arithmetic calculations are done and the result is compared to the right-hand side of the
equation. Algebra mathematics
Algebra mathematics is a branch of mathematics in which arithmetic operations and other
formal manipulations are applied to abstract symbols rather than specific.
Asthmatic operations in Algebra mathematics
There are basically four operations which includes additional (finding the sum), subtraction
(finding out the difference), Division (finding out the quotient)
Abstract symbols in Algebra mathematics
This is where there is on obvious relationship between a symbol and what it represents (e.g.
the ward dog doesn't sound, look of feel like (dog)
Examples of abstract symbols included
Symbol meaning. Examples
= Equals 1+1= 2
≠ not equal to π ≠2
European history of algebra
Europe. It is a peninsula of the Eurasian supper continent and is bordered by the Arctic ocean to
the north, the Atlantic ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, black and Caspian sea to the
south.
Ask etch map showing the location of Europe
Algebra in Europe started in late middle Ages with the Italian cities and their expanding trade
with the East.
The 12th century saw a flood of translations from Arabic into Latin.
Islamic works on Algebra were translated into Latin since the 12th century and the decimal
position system was increasingly adopted in places suchs Italy where the important tradition of
"Abaccists" developed.
Leonardo Pisano an early Abaccist wrote his Liber Abbaci in 1202. It contained no specific
innovation and strickly followed the Islamic tradition of formulating and solving problems in
purely rhetorical fashion .
By the 13th century , European mathematics was beginning to rival the mathematics of other
lands .In the 13th century the solution of a cubic equation by Fibonacci is representative of the
beginning of arrival in European algebra.
Example
X^3+2x^2+10x=20 (8) .
He computed the positive solution to the equation to 8 decimal places ( although he gives his
solution in sexagesimal).
He solved his cubic equation by using the formula :Fn=Fn-1+Fn-2 for n>1
Solution.
n Term F(n-1) F(n-2) Fn=F(n-1)+F(n-1)
0 First - - F0=0
1 Second F0=0 - F1=1
2 Third F1=1 F0=0 F2=0+1
3 Fourth F2=1 F1=1 F3=1+1=2
4 Fifth F3=2 F2=1 F4=2+1=3
5 Sixth F4=3 F3=2 F5=3+2=5
6 Seventh F5=5 F4=3 F6=5+3=8

In the 14th century we find the work of the Abbacists first attempt to introduce abbreviations for
unknowns another important milestone in the way towards full fledged manipulation of abstract
symbols thus for instance,c for cossa (thing),CE for censo (square) ,cuz for cube and R for
Radice (root) and even combination of this for obtaining higher powers. These eventually led to
the works of Nicolas chuquet' s triparty (1484), where as part of a discussion on how to use th
Hindu -Ara
bic numerals.we find relatively complicated symbolic expressions such as R^214^-pR180 (i.e
√14+√180).
He introduced amore flexible way of writing equations ie he could write an equation of the
form 3^2.p^-.12eqaulxa.9^1. as 3x^2+12=9x like the Islamic tradition where coefficients were
always positive .
Since the solution would involve the square root of -63 .we thus find a very illustrative
example of the difficulties involved in reaching more general and flexible conception of
numbers. The same mathematician would allow for the use of negative numbers in certain
contexts and even introduce a useful notation for dealing with them,yet at the same time he
would completely avoid their use in different and still closely connected context.
As the Islamic world was declining after the 15th century, the European world was ascending
and it's were algebra was further developed.
Modern notations for Arithmetic operations was introduced between the end of the 15th century
and the beginning of the 16th cent by Johannes widman and Michael Stifel.
Micheal stifel played a big role in teaching Europeans about algebra because Widman wrote
books about algebra in German. That was the first algebraic text to be written in German.
Johannes also played a big role in giving lectures about algebra and it's uses in Europe.
At the end of the 16th century Francois viete introduced symbols now called variables for
representing indeterminate or unknown numbers.
This created anew algebra consisting of computing with symbolic expressions as if they where
numbers.
His main invention in 1591 is the use of well chosen symbols of one kind for unknowns (vowels)
and and another kind for known quantities (constants). This not only allowed flexibility in
solving linear and quadratic equations but also the introduction of real key point absent from all
it's predecessors work, namely aclear analysis of the relationship between the forms of solutions
and the values of the coefficients of the original equation
He was after getting ageneral solutions rather than just a bag of tricks which specific problems.
Viete by combining existing usage with his own innovation was able to clearly formulate
equations and provide rules for transforming factors from one side to the other in order to find
the solutions .
Example Acubus+cplano in aequatusDsolido in modern terms :(x^3+cx=d)
And the rule would state that
Zplano/G +Aplano/B aeq. Gin Aplano+Bin Zplano/BinG
Viete showed how to transform given equations into others already known eg in modern
notation x^3+ax^2=b^2x to X^2+ax=b thus he reduced the number of cases of cubic equations
from 13 given by cardano and Bombelli. Since he used no negative or zero coefficients ,he did
not generalise all the possible cases into a single one.
He later refraced his answers in plain words as if to reassure his contemporaries and perhaps
even himself of the validity of these new methods.

By the end of 16th century and throughout the 17th century there were still lively debates
among mathematicians about the legimacy of using irrationals some prominent mathematicians
like pascal , Barrow, Newton were willing to grant them legitimacy only as geometric
magnitudes.
Negative numbers were some times seen as problematic and absurd .
This gave birth to complex numbers even though Bombelli had given precise rules for their
arithmetic they still ignored by many mathematicians.Descartes for ones rejected them totally.
Towards the eighth century all discussions dwindled away and a new phase in development of
concepts of numbers began with the search for adequate foundations for various systems was
initiated
 ALGEBRA IN GREEK (GREEK GEOMETRIC ALGEBRA) e.g., solving
linear equations ax=bc)

The Greeks originally learnt algebra from Egypt as indicated in their writings of the 6 th century
BCE. Later they learned Mesopotamian algebra from Persians. They studied number theory
beginning with Pythagoras around 500 BCE continuing with Euclid around 300BCE. The
Culmination of Greek algebra is the work of the Diophantus in the 3rd century BCE. The Greek
mathematicians represented the sides of geometric objects, lines and letters associated with them
which is called geometric algebra. They invented the application of areas to obtain the solutions
to equations to solve geometric algebra.

Greek algebra was a branch of mathematics that focused on solving equations and manipulating
mathematical expressions using symbols and unknowns. It is a precursor to the modern algebraic
system and played a significant role in the development of mathematics as we know it today.

One of the earliest known Greek mathematicians to contribute to algebra was Diophantus
(200284 BC), who lived in the 3rd century CE. Diophantus wrote a series of books known as the
Arithmetica, which contained many algebraic equations and methods for solving them.
Diophantus used symbols to represent unknown quantities, and his work laid the foundation for
the use of algebraic notation in later centuries.

He looked at 3 types of equations

Ax^2+Bx^2 =C

Ax^2= Bx + C 3.

Ax2 + C= Bx

He avoided negative coefficients and considered A, B and C to be positive in all cases.

He introduced the idea that math problems like X + Y =7 could have many solutions for example
X=2, Y=5 and X=1, Y=6

Another important figure in the development of Greek algebra was Euclid, who lived in the 4th
century BCE. Euclid wrote a book called the Elements, which is still considered one of the most
important works in the history of mathematics. While the Elements does not contain any
algebraic equations, it did introduce the concept of proofs and logical reasoning, which are
essential to the study of algebra.

Another important concept in Greek algebra was the use of geometric figures to represent
equations. For example, the Greeks used the area of a rectangle to represent the product of two
numbers, and they used the length of a line segment to represent the square root of a number.
Also Eculid also that ;

If there are two straight lines of the same length and one of them be cut into any number of
segments however,the rectangle contained by the two straight lines is equal to the rectangles
contained by the uncut straight line and each of the segments. But I his is nothing is nothing
more than the geometric version of the (left).

Also he introduced the distributive law , a( b+c+d) = ab +ac + ad . and associative law where (x
+y ) + z = x + (y + z ) which helped in the solving mathematical problems.

It is believed that another father of algebra was Al- Khwarizmi a Persian Mathematician who is
said to have given exhaustive explanation for algebraic solution of quadratic equations with the
root. Also, he was the first mathematician to teach algebra.

Quadratic formulae 𝑥 = −𝑏±√𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐 2𝑎

to quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 for a≠0

Other Greek mathematicians who contributed to the development of algebra include Hippocrates
of Chios, who introduced the concept of quadratic equations, and Apollonius of Perga, who
wrote a series of books known as the Conics that dealt with the geometry of conic sections.

Overall, Greek algebra laid the foundation for many of the concepts and techniques used in
modern algebra, and its influence can still be seen in the study of mathematics today.

ALGEBRA AMONG THE CHINESE

The beginning of Chinese algebra is seen in the work of Xia ting (about 580 – about 640). He
wrote the Jigu Suanjing

Ancient Chinese developed MTCs independently of other cultures. By the end of 11th century
BCE, they had algebra, geometry, trigonometry, decimals etc.

Basically, the Chinese used a method called stick method of multiplication which involved
properly placing and crossing sticks. You simply layout sticks consistent with the place values of
the digits being multiplied and then you count the places where the sticks cross each other. For
example, consider the algebraic expression below;

(x+2y)(x+3y). multiplying theme.

In ancient China, algebraic concepts were developed as part of mathematical investigations

aimed at solving practical problems. They employed a range of methods that were often quite
different from symbolic algebra we are familiar with today. One notable method used in Chinese
algebra was the “jia-Xian” or “false position” method. This involved setting up an initial
approximation and refining it through a series of calculations. This approach was particularly
useful for solving linear equations and could be extended to quadratic equations.

Another significant technique was the use of “chalansuan” or method of “celestial unknown”.
This approach involved in solving equations with multiple variables using a system of equations.
The unknown quantities were treated as celestial bodies and their positions and relationships
were determined based on observations. This acted as a precursor to modern method of solving
systems of linear equations e.g. solve the following

1. The sum of A and Bis 12

2. The difference between A and B is 4. Find the value of A and B using method
of celestial unknown.

In multiplication, they used stick method to multiply algebraic expressions. E.g.

(x+2y)(x+3y)

History of of Indian algebra

The subject algebra originates in Indian. its origin can be traced back to the shatapatha Brahman
(200 BCE) and satras (800-200 BCE). Algebra was used to construct and design vedics. The
Indian name for Algebra is Bijagonita.Bija means ‘analysis’ and Ganita means science of
calculation. Therefore, meaning science of calculating analysis.

Algebra is also called Cavyaktaganita cavyakta means ‘unknown’ and Ganita means science of
calculation. Algebra then means calculation of unknowns.

In the 7th century, two separate fields, arithmetric (which include measurement) and algebra
began to emerge in Indian mathematics. The two fields would be calledpati-ganita (literally
mathematics of the algorithms) and bija-ganita (literally mathematics of seeds, with seed like the
seeds of the plants representing unknowns with the potential to generate, in this case, the
solutions of the equations.

Brahmagupta in his astronomical work (628 CE) included two chapters (12 and 18) devoted to
these fields . chapter 12 containing 66 sanskrit verses was divived in to sectionssuch as basic
operations including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion and barter and also practical
mathematics

He developed a theorem called Brahmagupta’s theorem which stated that if a ctclic quadrilateral
has diagonals that are perpendicular to each other, then the perpendicular line drawn from the
point of the intersection of the diagonals to any of the quadrilateral always bisects

A C

D
Brahmagupta’s formula . the area A of the cyclic quadrilateral with the sides of lengths a, b, c, d
respectively is given by A=√ ( S−a )( S−b ) ( S−c )( S−d )

Where S, the semiperimeter, given by

a+b+ c+ d
S=
2

Brahmagupta’s theprem on the rational triangles. A triangle with rational sides a, b, c and
rational area is of the form.

Chapter 18 cntained 103 sanskirit verses which began with the rules for arithemetical operations,
involving zero and negative numbers and is considered the first systemic treatment of bthe
subject. The rules included

a+0=a

a × 0 = 0 wereball correct with one exception 0/0 =0. Later in the chapter, he gave the first
explicit ( although still not completely general solution of the quadratic equation

2
a x +bx=c

To the absolute number multiuplied by four times the coefficient of the square , add the square of
the coefficient of the middle term, the square root of the sameless .

This is equalvalent to

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a

During the Indian Golden Age of Mathematics, this was the period of the great intellectual
growth and innovation of mathematics between 5th and 12th century BCE. Indian Algebra
flourished and made significant advancement by the great mathemathicians

1. Bhaskara II (C. 1114 – 1185) also know as Bhaskaracharya. He expanded Brahmagupta’s

work and made the following contributions:
 A proof of the Pythagorean theorem by calculating the same area in two different ways
and then cancelling out terms toget a 2+ b2=c 2
 In Lilavati, solutions of quadratic, cubic and indetermined equations are explained
  Solutions of the indetermined quadratic equations of the type a x 2 +b= y 2
 Interger solutions of linear and quadratic indeterminate equations
2. Aryabhatta (476-550CE) was the first of the major mathematician astronomer from the
classical age of the Indian Mathematics. He wrote the Aryabhatiya,a work that covers
topics such as algebra.

HISTORY OF ALGEBRA IN ARABIC

The roots of Arabic algebra can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as the Babylonians,
Greeks, Indians, and Persians. The term “algebra” itself comes from the Arabic word “al-Jabr,”
which means “reunion of broken parts.

During the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries), the translation movement in Baghdad
brought together scholars from various cultures, leading to the preservation and expansion of
mathematical knowledge. Mathematicians like Al-Khwarizmi (circa 780-850) wrote extensively
on solving linear and quadratic equations, introducing methods like completing the square. He
worked with an equation in the form a x 2 +bx +c=0

For example, given the quadratic equation a x 2 +bx +c=0 with a≠ 0

2 b c
x + x + =0
a a

2 b −c
x + x=
a a

( ) ( )
2 2
b
2 b −c b
x+ + = +
a 2a a 2a

2 2
b −c b
(x ¿ ¿ 2+ )= +( ) ¿
2a a 2a

2 −b ± √ b 2−4 ac
x=
2a
Al-Khwarizmi’s Contributions: He laid out systematic methods for solving equations. He
provided methods to reduce equations to standard forms and solve them, essentially presenting
the foundational concepts of algebra. He described the standard form in terms of;

 Squares ( x 2)
 Roots (X)
 Numbers (irregular constants like 42)
Also formed groups using squares,roots and numbers.
Square equal roots (a x 2=bx )
Square equal number (a x 2=c ¿
Roots equal number(bx=c ¿

Arabic mathematicians introduced a new level of abstraction by using symbols to represent

unknowns and constants, which greatly simplified algebraic expressions. This symbolic approach
was a significant advancement in mathematical thinking.

Mathematicians like Al-Kindi (circa 801-873) extended the work of Al-Khwarizmi, focusing on
the geometric aspects of algebra. Al-Khazin (circa 900-971) expanded the study of cubic
equations.

Ibn Al-Haytham (965-1040) worked on spherical trigonometry and studied the solutions of
equations with positive roots. Al-Samawal (1130-1180) made contributions to binomial
coefficients, and Al-Baghdadi (circa 980-1037) studied polynomial equations and developed
numerical methods for finding roots.

The knowledge of Arabic algebra spread to Spain (Al-Andalus), where scholars like Al-
Andalusia (1029-1070) made significant contributions to algebraic theory, further extending the
work of their predecessors.

The foundational work of Arabic mathematicians laid the groundwork for modern algebra. Their
systematic methods for solving equations, use of symbols, and abstract thinking set the stage for
the development of algebraic structures and more advanced mathematical concepts.
In conclusion, the history of Arabic algebra is a story of innovation, preservation, and
transmission of mathematical knowledge during the Islamic Golden Age. Arabic scholars not
only built upon the mathematical achievements of earlier civilizations but also developed new
methods and concepts that significantly influenced the trajectory of mathematics and laid the
foundation for the algebra we know today.

Modern algebra

Modern abstract algebra is a branch of mathematics concerned with the general algebraic
structure of various sets such as real numbers, complex numbers, matrices, vector spaces etc.

Modern algebra was written by the Dutch Mathematician Bartell Vander Warden and the subject
has had a deep effect on almost every branch of mathematics.

Basic algebraic structures in modern algebra

1. Fields. The familiar examples of the fields are the rational numbers (fractions a/b) where
a and b are positive and negative whole numbers, real numbers and complex numbers
inform of a +bi for example each of these is important enough to warrant a symbol for
example ℴ for rational, R for real numbers, ¢ for complex numbers.
a) Addition is commutative: a +b =b+a
b) Addition is associative: a+(b+c) =(a+b) +c for any elements in a set etc.

How modern mathematicians solve algebraic expressions

Modern mathematicians use a combination of techniques and principles to solve algebraic

expressions for example solve the algebraic expression for X in the equation 2X +5 =11

Solution

2X +5 = 11(isolate the variable on one side)

2X + 5-5 =11-5

2x = 6
 2X 6
=
2 2

X =3

These modern mathematicians use these fundamental principles of isolating variables,

performing operations on both sides of the equation and checking their solutions to solve more
complex algebraic expressions and equations. Additionally, they may use algebraic properties
such as distributive, property or factoring to simplify expressions before solving them.
Bibliography
Butzer, PL and D. Lohmann
Science in western and eastern civilization in Carolingian tinlmes l. Birkhouser, Boston,
1993Crombie A. C /(Allstair Cameron)
Augustine to Galileo: the history of science A.D. 400-; 1650.
Falcon press (London, 2952. second) edition entitled medieval & early modern science
2volumes, Double days NY 1959.
Dales Richard. The scientific achievement of the middle ages
Univ. Pernsylvia press Philadelphia, 1973
Grant. Edward, and John e. Murdoch eds
Mathematics and its application to science & natural philosophy in the Middle Ages;
essays in honor of Marshall clagett
Cambridge university press, Cambridge, 1987
Yeldham, F. The story of reconning in middle ages.
G. G. Harrap, London, 1926
Sullivan, J. W. In the history of mathematics in Europe from
The full of Greek science to rise of the conception of mathematics rigor. Oxford uriv.
Press. New York 1925.