Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Module 1
Civil engineering discipline and building science

Introduction to civil engineering

Civil engineering is one of the oldest branch of engineering which involves surveys, planning,
designing, construction and maintenance/repairs for any construction project including supervision
for expected quality of materials of construction and strength, stability, durability through
supervision as well as efficient construction management techniques.
Scope of different fields of Civil Engineering:
• Surveying
• Structural Engineering
• Geotechnical Engineering
• Hydraulics and Water resources
• Transportation Engineering
• Environmental Engineering
• Construction Planning and Project Management

1. SURVEYING:
Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and representing them
on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.
• To determine the relative position of any objects or points of the earth.
• To determine the distance and angle between different objects.
• To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plan.
• To develop methods through the knowledge of modern science and the technology and use
them in the field.
• To solve measurement problems in an optimal way.

2. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:
Structural engineering is based upon physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural
performance of different materials and geometries. It utilises a number of simple structural elements
to build complex structural systems.
• It deals with analysis and design of structures
• Sections of structural elements like beams, columns, slabs, etc are designed
• It includes design of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and steel structures
• Structural analysis is done to calculate stresses in structural components on the basis of loads,
acting on structures
• Design of multi-storeyed buildings, towers, retaining walls, water tanks, bridges requires skills
and knowledge of structural engineering.

3. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING:
Geotechnical engineering is the subject that deals with the properties of soil (sand, silt and clay) in
terms of construction technology, and assessment of slope stability and the risk of landslides.
The study of properties and behaviour of soil under loads and changes in environmental conditions.
• It deals with the investigation of soil and bedrock.
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• It helps to select the type of foundation.
• It deals with the design foundation for buildings, dams, retaining walls, bridges, road pavements.
• It helps to study the effect of soil.
• It deals with the study of compaction of soil.

4. HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING:

Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to problems dealing
with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water.

HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING:
• It deals with the study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics.
• It deals with the planning and manage the flow and storage of water.
• It includes design of hydraulic structures like dams, canals, etc.
• Design of hydro power plants for generation of electricity.

Water resource engineering deals with planning, designing and developing water resources.

WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING:

• It includes design of reservoir capacity to store the water.
• It also includes watershed planning, water harvesting techniques.
• It also deals with the study of measurement of rainfall, study of rainfall, runoff and flood control.

5. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:
Transportation engineering involves planning, design, operation, and maintenance of transportation
systems to help build smart, safe, and liveable communities.
• It includes roadways, railways, airways and waterways.
• Role of transportation engineer is to construct facilities related to each mode of transportation.
• It helps to improve the crucial sections of railways and roads.
• It helps to develop the roads to remote places.
• Ports and harbours should be designed to accommodate.
• It involves geometric design of roadways.
• It involves accident study for safe and comfort transport system.
• For an airport, the runway and other facilities such as taxiways, terminal buildings, control
towers, etc should be properly designed.

6. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:
Environmental engineering deals with the study of the natural environment/ecosystems, inter-
relation between biotic and abiotic factors, safety of people against different types of pollution and
treatment disposal of wastes.
• It deals with pollution control (water, air, noise and land) and public health engineering.
• It deals with the supply of purified water to the public.
• It involves measurement (quantification) of industrial pollutants.
• Research and development for recycling/ reusing the mass or energy from wastes.
• Conservation and preservation of natural resources and environment (ecosystems).
• Design, erection/construction and maintenance of water filters and water supply schemes (pipe
lines).

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7. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING & PROJECT ENGINEERING:
Construction planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the management and execution
of construction projects that involves choice of technology, definition of work tasks, estimation of
the required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions
among the different work tasks.
• It deals with the planning of different activities like manpower, materials and machinery to
complete the construction economically and within time.
• It gives guidelines regarding the execution of construction work to be carried out.
• It helps in preparing construction schedule (Schedule is a systematic path of different activities
carried out one after the other).
• It helps in proper management of materials, labour and equipments.
• Due to proper construction management there is overall control on work and finance.

Basic Materials of Construction

1.Brick:
Brick is a small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun dried clay, used in construction.

Uses/ Applications:
• First class and second class bricks are used for permanent structures such as buildings, dams,
roads, bridge piers, etc.
• First class bricks are also used for architectural effects on structures.
• Second class bricks are used in construction but the surface should be plastered evenly because of
the irregular size and shape of bricks.
• Third class or sun dried bricks are used only for temporary structures.
• Broken bricks are used as aggregate for foundation and road works.
• Manufacture of surki (powdered bricks) to be used in lime plaster and lime concrete.

Characteristics/ Requirements/ Properties of good bricks:

• Bricks should be of uniform colour, size and shape. Standard size of brick should be maintained.
• They should be sound and compact.
• They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules, etc with
sharp and square edges.
• They should not absorb more than 1/5 of their own weight of water when immersed in water for
24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
• The compressive strength of bricks should be in the range of 15 - 35 N/mm2.
• They should not change in volume when wetted.
• They should neither be over burnt or under burnt.
• They should be sound proof (i.e., no voids should be present)
• They should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
• They should be free from lime pitting (i.e., imperfection on the surface due to presence of large
lime particles)

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2. Cement & Mortars:

Cement: Cement is powder of alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide, and magnesium oxide burned
together in a kiln and finely pulverised and used as an ingredient of mortar and concrete.

Uses of cement:
• Production of concrete and mortar.
• Cement mortar can be used for masonry work, plaster, pointing, etc.
• Used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, columns, etc.
• Used for the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
• Used for manufacturing precast pipes, garden seats, flower pots, dust bins, fencing posts, etc.

Requirements/ characteristics of good cement:

• Provides strength to masonry.
• Stiffens or hardens early.
• Possesses good plasticity.
• Excellent building material.
• Easily workable.
• Good moisture resistant.

Types of cement:
• Ordinary Portland cement (OPC): It is a fine powder that when mixed with water becomes the
binding material that holds aggregates together in concrete.
• Portland pozzolana cement (PPC): Portland pozzolana cement is created by grinding
pozzolanic clinker, sometimes with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with ordinary
Portland cement.
• Rapid hardening cement: It is used for its high strength in the early stages of the hardening
process. It has increased lime content, combined with a finer grinding process, for better strength
development. It is used for projects with early-stage formwork removal or when the focus is on
increasing construction rates and decreasing costs.
• Extra rapid hardening cement: It is prepared by adding calcium chloride to rapid-hardening
cement. This cement type may be useful for cold-weather concrete projects due to its fast setting
rate.
• Low heat cement: It is produced by monitoring the percentage of tricalcium aluminate in the
mixture. It helps to maintain low heat during the hydration process, making this more resistant to
sulfates and less reactive. It may be suitable for mass concrete construction or projects to help
prevent cracking due to heat.
• Sulfates resisting cement: It helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on concrete. It is used
for constructing foundations in soil with high sulfate content, canal linings, culverts and retaining
walls.
• Quick setting cement: This concrete sets and becomes stronger quickly. It is beneficial for time-
sensitive projects or those located near stagnant or running water.
• Blast furnace slag cement: It is manufactured by grinding clinker with up to 60% slag. It is less
expensive to produce and thus a good choice for financially conscious projects.
• High alumina cement: It is created by melting bauxite and lime together and grinding it with
clinker. It is used for projects where cement is subject to extreme weather like high temperatures
or frost.

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• White cement : It is a type of OPC that is white instead of grey. It is expensive and often used in
architectural projects and interior and exterior decorative projects like designing garden floors,
floors, swimming pools and ornamental concrete products.

Mortar: Mortar is paste (capable of setting and hardening) obtained by adding water to a mixture
of fine aggregates such as sand and binding material (ex: clay, gypsum, lime or cement or their
combinations).

Uses of mortar:
• To bind masonry blocks like stones, bricks and to plaster slabs and walls.
• Used to give neat finishes to the wall, concrete surfaces, and pointed joints to masonry.
• Used to prepare concrete blocks, to fill joints and cracks in walls and as a filler material in stone
masonry and ferro-cement works.

Requirements/ characteristics of good mortar:

• Possess adhesion quality.
• Mortar should be water resistant.
• Deformability of mortar should be low.
• It should be economical.
• It should be easily workable in the site condition.
• Workability of mortar should be good. It helps the mortar to be paved thinly and evenly.
• Possess high durability.
• To improve the speed of construction, good mortar should set quickly.
• Cracks should not be developed in the joint formed by the mortar.

Types of mortar:
• Cement mortar : Cement mortar is a type of mortar where cement is used as binding material and
sand is used as fine aggregate.
• Lime mortar : Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as
binding material and sand is used as fine aggregate.
• Gypsum mortar : Gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of
many ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a lower firing temperature.
• Mud mortar : Mud mortar is a type of mortar where mud is used as binding material and sawdust,
rice husk or cow-dung is used as fine aggregate. Mud mortar is useful where lime or cement is
not available.
• Composite mortar : It is a composite form of a mixture of a fine aggregate, a binder and water
which creates a paste used in masonry construction as a bedding and adhesive to bind and fill the
gaps between adjacent blocks of brick, concrete or stone.

3. Plain Concrete:
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse
aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time.

Properties:
• It should have high compressive strength.
• It should be able to resist climatic and chemical actions to be durable.
• It should be highly workable. It should be easy to mix, manage and transport. It should be free
from bleeding and segregation.
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• It should be highly resistive towards the fire to prevent problems like firing, spalling of concrete,
etc.

Uses:
• Used in the construction of foundations.
• Used as bed concrete below wall footings, column footings and on walls below beams.
• Used to construct sill to obtain hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
• Used as coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
• Used for flagging the area around the buildings.
• Used to construct pavements.
• Used as plinth protection.
• Used in the construction of storm/ sewer at drains and small retaining walls.

4. Reinforced Concrete:
RCC is a composite building material consisting of concrete reinforced with steel.
In RCC, steel is embedded in concrete in such a manner that the two materials ac together in
resisting forces. The reinforcing steel absorbs the tensile and shear stresses in a concrete structure.

Properties:
• It has good strength in tension and compression.
• It is economical.
• It is a versatile building material (can be placed into various shapes, form, surface, texture and
size at construction site).
• It is highly durable.
• It is fire resistant.
• It has ease of construction.

Uses:
• RCC is used for the construction of roof slabs, columns, beams and footings in residential and
commercial structures.
• It is used for the construction of bridges of small, medium and long spans resulting in
aesthetically superior and economical structures in comparison with steel bridges.
• It is used in the construction of roads that is designed to carry heavy traffic loads.
• It is used in the construction of almost all types of foundation of structures.
• Pipes and conduits have been constructed from reinforced concrete.

5. Prestressed Concrete:
PSC is a structural material that allows for predetermined, engineering stresses to be placed in
members to counteract the stresses that occur when they are subjected to loading.
The principle behind prestressed concrete is that the compressive stresses induced by. High strength
steel tendons in a concrete member before loads are applied will balance the tensile stresses
imposed in the member during the service.

Properties:
• It has lighter members hence saving in materials.
• PSC is economical when compared to RCC.
• It possess improved resistance to shearing force.
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• PSC members are stiffer than RCC members.

Uses:
• PSC is used in the construction of superstructure of bridges.
• Used in the construction of runways.
• Used in the construction of water tanks.
• Used in the construction of tall columns and retaining walls.

6. Structural Steel:
Steel is a kind of alloy that is made of iron and carbon. Due to its high strength it is often used to
build the framework of skyscrapers.

Properties:
It has high density value.
It has high tensile strength and yield strength.
It has high strength to weight ratio.
It has high high durability and ductility.
It is corrosive resistive.
It has high hardness property.

Uses:
• Used as reinforcement in RCC structures.
• Used to construct high rise buildings.
• Used to construct industrial buildings.
• Used to construct residential buildings.
• Used to construct bridges.

Types:
Based on the physical properties and their composition
• Stainless steel (Steel in combination with chromium)
• Carbon steel (Combination of iron and carbon)
• Alloy steel (Carbon steel along with various other alloying elements)
• Tool steel (Carbon alloy steel well suited to manufacture tools)

7. Construction Chemicals:
Construction chemicals are compounds that are added to concrete and mortar to enhance
compatibility with the structure of buildings. These chemical substances facilitate the reduction of
abrasions and increase in the bond strength, thus increasing the service period of the buildings.

Types:
• Concrete admixtures: Concrete chemicals or admixtures are added to concrete with cement,
aggregate, and water that helps in modifying or altering the properties of the concrete like curing
temperature range, workability, set colour, or time.
• Surface retarders: These are applied to fresh concrete to chemically delay the set of the surface
mortar. This prevents the premature hardening of the cement slurry before it reaches the area to
be cemented.
• Adhesives and sealants: Adhesives have qualities such as weatherproofing and they are rich in
bonding properties. It has a sufficient level of elasticity to handle the repeated contraction and
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expansion caused by temperature fluctuations. It is also used for panel fixing, tile fixing and floor
covering. Sealants are used to block an opening surface to prevent liquid or gas leakage, to seal
little cracks so that moisture, oxygen, dust particles cannot damage the construction.
• Protective coatings: In order to prevent the risk of corrosion, a layer of the specific material
called as protective coating is applied to the surface of another material. The coating is used to
meet requirements such as high durability, decorative or customised appearance, fire-proofing,
sound insulation, heat insulation, great strength, etc.
• Flooring compounds: Floor levelling compounds are used over a plywood subfloor to create a
level surface that will stick firmly to new flooring.
• Waterproofing chemicals: These chemicals are used for the structures which are constantly
dealing with liquids. The waterproofing compounds form membranes on the concrete surfaces to
protect them from ingress of water.
• Chemicals to repair and for maintenance of the structure: These are added to mortar to
increase characteristics like adhesion, toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and resistance to
chemicals. These improve the workability and adhesion of non-hardened mortar and require less
water t, which results in fewer pores and stronger cements, subsequently reducing water ingress
and permeability to salts.

Uses:
• To improve workability
• To increase efficiency
• To add effectiveness
• To protect any part of any structure
• To accelerate the speed of construction work.

Structural elements of a building

1. Foundation
• Foundation (substructure) - Lowest artificially prepared parts of the structure which are in direct
contact with the ground and which transmit the loads of the structures to the ground.
• Foundation bed / Foundation soil - The soil ground on which the foundations rest and ultimately
bears the load and interacts with the foundation of the building.
• Footing - Lowermost portion of the foundation which is in direct contact with the sub-soil.

Types of foundation:
• Isolated footing: It is used to transmit and distribute loads of single columns to the soil. It is used
in the case of light column loads, when columns are not closely spaced, and in the case of good
homogeneous soil.
• Wall footings: It is used to support structural or non structural walls to transmit and distribute the
loads of the soil. All footing runs along the direction of the wall.
• Combined footing: It is provided when the columns are closely spaced i.e., when their footing
overlaps with each other. It is also used when the soil bearing capacity is low.
• Cantilever or Strap footing: When two or more footing is connected by a beam, it is known as a
combined footing, and the beam connecting footing is known as a strap.
• Raft or Mat foundation: It is a continuous slab that covers the entire area of building a
foundation and transfers its weight to the ground.

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Isolated footing Wall footing Combined footing

Strap footing Mat footing

Functions of foundation:
• To distribute the total load coming on the structure onto a sub-soil to reduce intensity of load.
• To support the structures.
• To provide lateral stability to the structures against horizontal forces like wind, rain, earthquake,
etc.
• To prepare a level and hard surface for concreting and masonry work.
• To distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the sub-soil.
• To prevent or minimise cracks due to the movement of moisture in case of weak or poor soils.
• To provide structural safety against undermining or scouring due to animals, flood water, etc.

2. Plinth
• Plinth - Part of the superstructure located between the ground level and the floor level.
• Height of the plinth should be less than 45cm.
• Height of the plinth depends upon architectural elevation, ground level, highest flood level, etc.

Functions of plinth:
• Evenly distributes and disperses load of the columns to the foundations.
• Acts as a barrier or a retaining wall that keeps the concrete filled ground floor below the raised
floor of the building.

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• Plinth prevents the dampness and moisture of the ground floor to reach the building’s top
structure.
• It gives strength and durability to the residential unit.
• Prevents cracks in the building when the foundation suffers from settlement.

3. Lintel
• Lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the portion of the
structure above it.
• Lintels are easy and simple in construction.
• The ends of the lintel is built into masonry and thus the load carried by lintels is transferred to the
masonry in jambs.

Functions of lintel:
• Supports the walls above the openings like doors, windows, etc.
• Provides the safeguard of the windows and doors.
• Withstands the imposed loads coming from the bricks above or block including the roofing
members.
• Transfers all imposed loads to the side walls.
• Can be used as decorative architectural element.

4.Chejja:
A sloping or horizontal structural projection usually provided over openings on external walls to
provide protection from sun and rain.

Functions of chejja:
• Protects the house from external sunlight.
• Protects the house by providing a barrier for rain water to enter.
• Can be used to place the compressor of AC.
• Protects the wooden windows from rain and sun.
• Serves as an aesthetic decoration to the building.

5. Masonry wall:
• Masonry is a term to indicate the part of the construction that uses brick, concrete blocks,
structural clay tile, and stone.
• These materials are held together with mortar.

Functions of masonry wall:

• Acts as a architectural effect.
• Granting fire and weather protection.
• Providing acoustic and thermal insulation.
• Subdividing space
• Supporting loads.

6. Column:
Column is a vertical compression member that spans from the substructure to the superstructure and
transfers load from the top of the structure to the foundation.

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Functions of columns:
• Column transfers the weight of the structure above to the other elements below.
• Columns chiefly support axial compressive loads.
• Load is transferred parallel to the longitudinal axis as compression.
• Columns are used to support floor/roof beams and the columns of the floor above.
• The columns at the bottom floor of a multi-storied building must carry the accumulative weight
of all the floors above.
• Location of the columns ideally should be consistent throughout all floors.

7. Beam:
A beam is a horizontal flexural member that carries loads perpendicular to their longitudinal
direction.

Functions of beam:
• A beam resists loads applied laterally to the beam’s axis.
• Beams are used to support the weight of floors, ceilings and roofs of a building and to transfer the
load to a vertical load bearing element of the structure.
• Beams carry wall loads which avoids loading concrete slab.
• Transfer beams are used to support the cumulative weight of stacked walls or other beams and to
transfer the load to the supports.
• The load capacity and the span of a ceiling can be increased by the used of beams.

8. Slab:
A slab is a flat, two dimensional planar structural component of building having a very small
thickness compared to its other two dimensions.

Functions of slab:
• To provide a flat surface.
• To act as sound, heat and fire insulator.
• It provides a covering shelter or working flat surface in buildings.
• To transfer the load by bending in one or two directions.
• The upper slab becomes the ceiling for the storey beneath it.

9. Staircase:
• Stair - Sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascent and descent between the
floors or landings.
• Staircase - Apartment or room of a building., in which the stair is located.
• Stairway - Opening or space occupied by the stair.

Types of stairs:
• Straight stairs: Stairs without any change in direction. This type of stair may consist of one or
more flights and they are used when the space available for staircase is long but narrow in width.
• Turning stairs: In this type the flights take turn.
Quarter turn stairs: A stair turning through a right angle.
Half turn stairs: A stair turning through two right angles. A half turn stair may be dog
legged type (no space between the flights in plan) or open newel type (an opening or well is
present between the flights in plan).
Three quarter turn stairs: A stair turning through three right angles.
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• Circular or helical or spiral stairs: The steps radiate from the centre and they do not have any
landing.

Straight stairs Quarter turn stairs Half turn stairs (Dog legged)

Three quarter turn stairs

Half turn stairs (Open newel)

Spiral stairs

Functions of stair case:

• Aesthetics and appearance.
• Access to another floor.
• Safe and easy means to travel.
• Degree of insulation.
• Escape routes in case of emergency like fire.

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