SS121 ETHICS

LESSON 1

Introduction to Ethics
Key Concepts
1.1 Definition of Ethics
1.2 Importance of Studying Ethics
1.3 Moral vs. Non-Moral Standards
1.4 Moral Dilemma
1.5 Freedom

DAVAO DEL NORTE STATE COLLEGE

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Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics
Learning Outcomes:
 Define what Ethics is
 Distinguish moral from non-moral standards
 Identify the different levels of moral dilemma on actual events
 Explain why only human beings can be ethical
 Create a personal belief on freedom

Activity:
In the table below, identify whether you consider a certain act as “always good” in all
circumstance, “always bad” in all circumstance, or if “it depends” on the circumstance. Put a
check on the box if your answer is either of the first options above. If your answer is the
latter, instead of putting a check, identify which of the possible factor/s given below may
affect that judgment.
Possible factors affecting judgment:
- Culture
- Religious belief
- Tradition
- Law of the land
- Others (specify your answer)

ACT ALWAYS GOOD ALWAYS IT DEPENDS

BAD
Lying
Euthanasia or mercy-
killing
Donating to charity
Child-marriage
Stealing
Preserving natural
resources
Rape
Suicide
Polygamy
Abortion

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Analysis:
Having already an idea of right and wrong, and good and bad, we may have refreshed our
previous understanding of the basic principles and concept of ethics. With this prior
knowledge, how do you reflect to the following question below? State your opinion in short
but concise manner.
1. How do you think does social norm affects a person’s judgment and perception of
what good and bad is?
2. Would it be possible for a society to exist peaceably without a unified standard or
basis of right and wrong? Explain your answer briefly.

Abstraction:
You might be wondering, “Why should human beings be moral? Why should I do what
is right?

Here are some compelling reasons:

a. It is enlightened self-interest- “I will be better off”
b. It is traditional law- “Because some authority says so”
c. It is a responsibility- “It is expected of me”
d. It is what is fair and equitable- “It is about fairness and justice”
But most of all,
e. People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives; and these are
better met when people treat each other in a manner that promotes what is right and
good.

WHAT IS ETHICS?

Have you asked yourself, what does it mean to think ethically? What makes a moral
life moral? What makes an action good or bad? These questions are not only practical ones,
but they are also concerned with ethical reflection grounded from our personal experience.
It refers to our freedom, our capacity to live according to what we consider as good, and what
composes these considerations of ours. Our different historical and cultural backgrounds
and different manners of upbringing means that we adhere to different forms of the norms
which determines what is good or bad, what is right or wrong. This course will help us to
explore how philosophers and thinkers have tried to solve the natural intuition of the good
and how they understood the various paths of living a life according to the good.
According to Pasco, et al., (2018), ethics originated from the Greek word ethos, which
means custom, characteristic, or habitual way of doing things, or action that is properly
derived from one’s character. Furthermore, they added that the Latin word mos or moris
(plural mores), the origin of the adjective moral is equivalent to ethos. Therefore, by

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etymology, ethical and moral are synonymous. It is also connected with another Greek word
ēthikos, which means characteristic, customary, or habitual.

DEFINITION OF ETHICS FROM VARIOUS AUTHORS:

For Lilie(1957), ethics is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in
societies. It judges conduct as right or wrong, good or bad. (p.2)

For Mackenzie (1901), ethics is concerned about men’s habits and customs. It seeks
the underlying principles behind these habitual acts, and investigates what
constitutes the rightness or wrongness of these principles, the good or evil of these
habits. (p.1)

For Montemayor (1994), ethics is both a normative and a practical science that is
based on reason. It studies human conduct and provides norms for its natural
integrity and honesty. (p.8)

For Pasco, et al., (2018), ethics for Filipino students is philosophy of human action
that enables them to learn the art of living. (p.19)

BRANCHES OF ETHICS

As a branch of philosophy, ethics can be divided into Normative, Metaethics, and

Applied ethics. The first branch, normative ethics, is concerned on the various theories that
serves as the basis of moral rules that governs behavior. Its scope of inquiry includes asking
the reasons behind as to why or why not a particular act should be committed. It is followed
by metaethics which attempts to answer non-moral questions about morality. Its primary
concern is the study of meanings and the various epistemological foundations of moral
statements. Lastly, applied ethics is the field that deals with clear and specific moral questions.
It is the branch of ethics that primarily deals with ethical situations and questions regarding
abortion, cloning, and other moral issues.

To better understand the interrelationship of the three, let us use a football analogy
provided by Mark Dimock and Andrew Fisher. They compared an applied ethicist to that of
a football player. When he kicks the ball, there is a possibility that he might score a goal. In
this sense, an applied ethicist can score a goal by offering sound and rational arguments. If
he is able to convince someone to change his moral perspectives, then it counts as a goal. The
normative ethicist serves as the referee. He is concerned with setting up the rules to be
followed in playing the game. The last character, the metaethicist, serves a role quite similar

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to a football commentator. Instead of playing the game themselves, they provide comments
and judgments as the game is being played. For example, a commentator might point out the
appropriateness or inappropriateness of a tactic being used by a player. Similarly, a
metaethicist remarks on the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the ethical language
being used in dealing with ethical situations.

WHY STUDY ETHICS?

The moral situation of today is very confusing and difficult to resolve. Our sense of
morality, which stems from traditionally accepted and established ethical norms are being
questioned, scrutinized, and undermined. The ethical problems that we encounter are very
relevant because they affect our day to day lives. Because of this, there is an urgency to not
only know what or how it is to think morally, but to actually live it. A truly moral life both
requires a deep understanding of the basic principles that govern and guide human action,
and living a life that is responsible for everyone’s welfare. Ethics attempts to find out the
truth about the rightness or wrongness of human conduct. Although vast knowledge about
ethics does not necessarily guarantee living a morally upright life, a student of ethics is more
likely to be correct in his application of moral rules to a specific situation compared to a man
who has knowledge about the particulars of the case but has no knowledge of ethics. In this
light, we are challenged to be responsible not only for ourselves, but also for each of our
fellowman and the entirety of the world. This is why human responsibility and respect for
human dignity is at the forefront of studying ethics.

The problems confronting humankind can be traced to our irresponsibility and

neglect for the most basic human value, our dignity as a human person. Today, humans are
being viewed not as a unique end in itself, but as a mere means to an end. The contemporary
world has reduced the value of a human person to his functionality and usefulness. Hence,
this challenges each one’s responsibility to recognize and respect the inherent and universal
value of every human person, our dignity. Respecting the human person means to respect
each one’s uniqueness. In this sense, ethics is a basic respect for every men’s right to profess
and practice his faith, to pursue and achieve the good life, and to nourish himself to reach the
fullness of his potentials.

Everyone is responsible in ensuring that respect for human dignity and its inherent
rights. Although people has the right to do activities that leads to their advancement, or the
achievement of the goals of the society, they must act responsibly to ensure that it will not
harm or endanger others, and will not violate the dignity of the human person. It is because
without dignity, a human is less than human, it becomes less than what it truly is. Ethics helps

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us in considering what is worthy for us, as a human person. This means that to live rightly is
not only about seeking our own happiness, but to live as a human person ought to live.

MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

MORAL STANDARD
Moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or
beliefs (Lynn, 1997). It deals with matters that the person thinks have serious consequence
and is based on good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-interest.

Characteristics of Moral Standards

1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being. (it
can injure, or benefit them)
2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards, including
self-interest.
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but in how the person
perceives the reasonableness of the action. (no one is telling you it is right or wrong
but you just believe the action is right or wrong)
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal.
5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. (not based on personal opinion)
6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings.
(When you hurt someone you feel guilty.)
Some examples of moral standards:

 Don't kill.
 Speak the truth.
 Be careful with what you say and do to others.
 Respect the property of others.
 Treat people in need or distress as we would want to be treated if our situation
were reversed.

NON MORAL STANDARDS

Non-moral standards can be considered as relative standards by which something or
someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary because
these rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular group.
Etiquette
It is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society. Table
manners such as the proper use of utensils and the proper manner of eating are examples of
etiquette.

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Policy
It is a clear, simple statement of how an organization plans to handle its services,
actions, or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with decision making. Example is the
wearing of school uniform and ID.

Law
Law is a rule created and enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain
order, resolve disputes, and protect a person’s liberty and rights.

Commandment
It is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by a divine entity
such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009).

MORAL DILEMMA

In the academic and practical pursuit of ethics, encountering a moral dilemma is an

inevitable reality. A moral dilemma is characteristically defined as a situation wherein a
moral agent has two choose between two actions with two conflicting moral situations, none
of which nullifies or overrides each other. A moral dilemma is a situation where: a. there are
two or more actions that you can possibly do, b. there is a moral reason(s) for doing such
actions, c. you cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose
one.
Jean Paul Sartre, a renowned existentialist, gave a famous example of a moral
dilemma, whose resolution is quite obscure to ethicists. Sartre tells a story of a student
whose brother died during the attack of the Germans in 1940. The student, who wants to
avenge the death of his brother, wants to join the army in order to fight the German forces
which he regards as evil. However, the student’s mother was living with him, and he is the
only one who can support and console her in life since his brother is already dead. Sartre
describes the student as torn between two kinds of moral obligations: personal devotion to
his mother or contributing to the effort to defeat an evil aggressor. The former can be
described as having limited scope but certain effect, while the latter as having a wider scope
but uncertain effect.
In Sartre’s example, none of the two cases clearly overrides each other. In this sense,
it represents a genuine moral dilemma. A situation wherein one of the two choices obviously
overrides the other is only called a conflict, not a moral dilemma.

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 Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
1. Personal Moral Dilemma – is when your decision in a situation where there is moral
conflict is the cause of either your own; that of another person; or a group of
people’s potential harm.

2. Organizational dilemma – is when a member or members of the organization is in a

situation where there is moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either
some members of the group or organization.

3. Structural moral dilemma – is when a person or group of persons who holds high
level positions in the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire
social system is affected.

FREEDOM

Why only human beings can be ethical?

According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental difference between animal and
human ethics is that animals behave instinctively while human behaviour is rational.

Rational Behavior
It is a decision making process where the person acts in ways that best achieve his or
her needs in accordance with his or her set preferences, priorities, and principles.

The Human person as free being

A human person is a being with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or
her own development toward self-fulfillment. One of the inborn properties of the human
person is freedom.

Perspectives in Freedom
1. Gabriel Marcel

Freedom is a gift from God. It is the ability to make significant choices, and not
just arbitrary (not important) choices.
Freedom is defined by Marcel in both a negative and positive
sense. Negatively, freedom is, “The absence of whatever resembles an
alienation from oneself,” and positively as when, “The motives of my action
are within the limits of what I can legitimately consider as the structural traits
of my self,” (TF, 232). Freedom, then, is always about the possibilities of the
self, understood within the confines of relationships with others. As an
existentialist, Marcel’s freedom is tied to the raw experiences of the
body. However, the phenomenology of Marcelian freedom is characterized
by his insistence that freedom is something to be experienced, and the self is

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 fully free when it is submerged in the possibilities of the self and the needs of
others. Although all humans have basic, autonomous freedom (Marcel
thought of this as “capricious” freedom), in virtue of their embodiment and
consciousness; only those persons who seek to experience being by freely
engaging with other free beings can break out of the facticity of the body and
into the fulfilment of being. The free act is significant because it contributes
to defining the self, “By freedom I am given back to myself,” (VII vii). At first
glance, Marcelian freedom is paradoxical: the more one enters into a self-
centered project, the less legitimate it is to say that the act is free, whereas
the more the self is engaged with other free individuals, the more the self is
free. However, the phenomenological experience of freedom is less
paradoxical when it is seen through the lens of the engagement of
freedom. Ontologically, we rarely have experiences of the singular self;
instead, our experiences are bound to those with whom we interact. Freedom
based on the very participation that the free act seeks to affirm is the ground
of the true experience of freedom towards which Marcel gravitates.
https://iep.utm.edu/marcel/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20defined%20by%20Marcel
,%E2%80%9D%20(TF%2C%20232).

2. Aristotle

Freedom is Complementary to Reason – freedom without reason is not

freedom at all. Freedom to achieve one purpose in life needs reason to fulfill it, in
other words, self-direction.
In Book III of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle says that, unlike non-
rational agents, we have the power to do or not to do, and much of what we
do is voluntary, such that its origin is ‘in us’ and we are ‘aware of the
particular circumstances of the action’. Furthermore, mature humans make
choices after deliberating about different available means to our ends,
drawing on rational principles of action. Choose consistently well (poorly),
and a virtuous (vicious) character will form over time, and it is in our power
to be either virtuous or vicious.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/

3. Jean Paul Sartre

Freedom is Absolute – we are so free that even “not choosing” is a choice.

Freedom demands responsibility. Sartre’s concept of freedom is rooted in his
existentialism.
For Sartre, existence precedes essence, freedom is absolute, and
existence is freedom. It has been made clear that Sartre does not believe that any
essence or substance can be attributed to individuals prior to their existence.
Individuals first of all exist, and there is no ‘human nature’ which exists outside
or inside beings. Freedom is therefore limitless, but the physical limitations of
the world are taken into consideration. Sartre writes “no limits to my freedom
can be found except freedom itself or, if you prefer, that we are not free to cease

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 being free”[20] (1943, 439). However, individuals are born into the world or into
a ‘situation’ – this is what he calls ‘facticity’. The facticity of the human condition
involves the limits imposed on the individual by the world. For example, I can
choose to jump off a cliff and fly, but I will probably crash because I do not have
wings. This does not mean that I am not free – I am still free to choose to fly, but
I will have to deal with the consequences of my actions. Sartre writes that
freedom means “by oneself to determine oneself to wish. In other words success
is not important to freedom” (1943, 483). It is important to note the difference
between choice, wish and dream. Following Sartre’s example, it would be absurd
to say that an imprisoned in individual is free to leave prison when he wishes to.
It would be futile to say that the same individual can always dream of being
liberated one day. But what is true and indicative of his freedom is that he can
always choose to attempt an escape (Ibid). A critique of this point was made by
McGill, who asserted that choice cannot be the only guiding principle of freedom
(Natanson 1973). As I wrote in the second paragraph of this section, this indeed
could be seen as potentially dangerous. However, as Natanson argues, “McGill
desires non-ontological criteria of freedom; and with these Sartre is not
concerned”[21] (Ibid, 80). Another possible critique is that such an extreme form
of freedom leads Sartre to return to a philosophy of essence (Desan 1960). This
critique is understandable in that if freedom is the ‘stuff’ our being, then freedom
is an essence. However, if one accept Sartre’s premise that existence is freedom,
then one cannot conclude that freedom is an essence. Individuals are not free
before they exist, and they do not exist before being free.
https://www.e-ir.info/2013/01/23/jean-paul-sartre-existential-freedom-and-the-
political/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20therefore%20limitless%2C%20but,%5D%20(1943%2C%20
439).

Why is ethics connected with human actions?

In a simplified way, ethics is all about determining the morality of human conduct.
Morality is the standard upon which we base the rightness or wrongness of a human action.
Ethics seeks to investigate the motive, the circumstances and the very nature of the act itself
in order to judge a human action as right or wrong. It is also important to note that the human
acts that concerns ethics are those that are freely and willfully committed. In this sense, the
scope of ethics only covers human actions insofar as they are free acts.

Concluding Remarks

Amid all the technological, technical, and moral advancements of today, ethics
remains to be perennial as an academic subject and as a way of life. It seeks to provide a
just and appropriate guide to navigate the moral ills, issues, and questions prevalent in
the classroom setting, in the social media, in the families, and in the world. It provides
questions which seeks to clarify our moral standpoints as well as answers that might
satisfy our moral hunger. As a 21st century learner, a moral life should not only be
confined in academic discussions and social media posts. Instead, a truly moral life is a
life of integration between learned and lived values and moral principles.

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References:

Printed Books

Maboloc, C.R. (2010) Ethics and human dignity. Rex Book Store.

Montemayor, F. (1994) Ethics: The philosophy of life. National Book Store.

Pasco, M.O., & Rodriguez, A.M., & Suarez, V. (2018) Ethics. C & E Publishing.

Ebooks

Dimmock, M., Fisher, A. (2017) Ethics for a-level. (eBook edition) Open Book Publishers.

Lillie, W. (1957) An introduction to ethics. (eBook edition). Methuen & Co. LTD. London.

Mackenzie, J. (1901) Manual of ethics. (eBook edition). Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc.

Seth, J. (1911) A study of ethical principles. (eBook edition). Charles Scribner Sons.

Online Source

Heimbach, D. (2015, May 11). How the Term “Ethics” Has Evolved. The Ethics & Religious Liberty Comission.
Retrieved from: https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/how-the-term-ethics-has-evolved/

Hernandez, J.G. Gabriel Marcel in Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy

https://iep.utm.edu/marcel/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20defined%20by%20Marcel,%E2%8
0%9D%20(TF%2C%20232).

Manzi, Yvonne. (2013, January 23) Jean-Paul Sartre: Existential “Freedom” and the Political in E-
International Relations

https://www.e- ir.info/2013/01/23/jean-paul-sartre-existential-freedom-and-the-
political/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20therefore%20limitless%2C%20but,%5D%20(1943%2C%
20439)

Moral Dilemmas. (2018) In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/moral-dilemmas/

O’Connor, Timothy and Christopher Franklin, "Free Will", The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/

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Application:
Name: _____________________________________________ Date:
__________________________
Course & Set: _____________________________________

Note: See last page for rubrics.

Question Guide: (For Regular Program)

Using the question guide below, make a quick interview of your family members to
identify how the role as played by each of the family members have been a conscious or
unconscious expression of their set of moral/ethical principles as members of the
smallest unit of society called family.
1. Who provides and sustains the family’s financial and material needs? Why?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________.

2. How important is it for Filipino family to always look after the welfare of each of the
family members especially at times when someone is sick to the point that he cannot
work anymore to provide for his/her own daily needs?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Name: _____________________________________________ Date:

__________________________
Course & Set: _____________________________________
Question Guide: (For DJAL)
1. Identify at least five moral norms/standards in your culture like, “you shall not kill”
or “you shall not lie”.
a.
b.
c.

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 d.
e.

2. Evaluate these standards whether their moral basis and arguments in saying that
this action is good or bad are rational, impartial, and objective. Elaborate your
answer.

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________.

Name: _____________________________________________ Date:

__________________________
Course & Set: _____________________________________

Question Guide: (For SETBI)

1. Give at least 3 circumstances of a genuine moral dilemma.
a.
b.
c.

2. Are legality and morality the same? If one commits illegal acts, does it mean that
he/she is immoral? Support your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

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Name: _____________________________________________ Date:
__________________________
Course & Set: _____________________________________

Question Guide: (For DNLI)

1. Give at least 3 moral dilemmas you encountered in your workplace.
a.
b.
c.

2. What course of action did you take to resolve these dilemmas?

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

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 SS121 ETHICS
LESSON 2

The Moral Agent

Key Concepts
2.1 Human Acts vs Acts of Man
2.2 Culture and Morality
2.3 Cultural Relativism
2.4 Universal Values
2.5 The Filipino Way

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Lesson 2: The Moral Agent
Learning Outcomes:
 Distinguish the difference between human acts and acts of man.
 Define culture and cultural relativism.
 Reconcile the belief on universal values versus cultural determinism.
 Identify universal values.
 Intensify the practice of Filipino values.
 Check their personal growth against the stages of development.

Activity:

Instructions: Identify whether the following action is done voluntarily or

involuntarily. Check (√) the box of your corresponding answer.
Action Voluntary Action Involuntary Action
1. Public speaking
2. Hearing the birds
chirping
3. Walking down the
aisle in the church
4. Breathing
5. Sweating
6. Your heart beats
faster when you see
your crush
7. Kicking
8. Smiling

Analysis:
After identifying the actions above as voluntary or involuntary, what was your basis
in classifying them as voluntary or involuntary?
I classified the action as voluntary because
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.

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 I classified the action as involuntary because
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.

Abstraction:

HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN

Ethics is primarily concerned with man’s action. In this light, it is important to know
and distinguish man’s action, because not all actions are subject to the examination of ethics.
Hence, the distinction between human act and act of man should be drawn as used and
understood in ethics.

Montemayor (1994) defines human acts as:

1. Voluntary (free) acts of man.
2. Acts done with knowledge and consent.
3. Acts which are proper to man which is acted with knowledge and freedom of the
will.
4. Acts which man is conscious, under his control, and for which man is responsible
of it.
5. Acts which man is the master, as man has the power and control of doing and not
doing as he pleases.

Human acts, therefore, are actions done with KNOWLEDGE, FREEDOM, and
VOLUNTARINESS.
a. KNOWLEDGE - Has intellectual knowledge of the act;
- When the doer is conscious and aware of the reason and the
consequences of one’s action – good or bad.
b. FREEDOM - When the doer acts on its own initiative and choice without
being forced to do so.
c. VOLUNTARINESS – An act is done voluntarily or willfully when the doer
approves/consents to the act and owning it as its own.
- It requires knowledge and freedom.

For instance, cheating - according to our school’s regulation, cheating is an act of

dishonesty, hence, it is not tolerated and permitted in any form (KNOWLEDGE). But despite
of this knowledge, students remain free, they have the FREEDOM to follow or not to follow
such regulation. If the student opted to follow the regulation, its spring from his/her
VOLUNTARINESS or WILLINGNESS. And if the student opted to cheat, it is still the same,
he/she acts voluntarily.

An act is a human act when the three qualities are present. The children below the
age of reason (when the time man can distinguish right and wrong; around 8 years old), those
who are clinically diagnosed as having mental illness (due to the fact that they cannot know
Ethics | 17
what is right and what is wrong), and the like, are morally exempted. It is due to their
incapacity to discern and to distinguish right from wrong that makes them inept in making
moral judgment. Hence, actions committed under this circumstance cannot be called human
act.

On the other hand, acts of man are actions done according to our biological and
physiological make up. It is instinctive, involuntary, and not within the control of the will
(Agapay, 1991). Ex. Breathing, digestion, sweating, snoring, sneezing, and the like. As such,
it is not the concern of ethics.

Determinants of Morality of Human Action

On the basis of their relation to the norm of morality, actions are classified into moral,
immoral, or amoral.

Moral Actions – are those actions which are in conformity with the norm of morality. They
are good actions and are permissible.
Immoral Actions – are those actions which are not in conformity with the norm of morality.
They are bad or evil and are not permissible.
Amoral Actions or Indifferent Actions - are those actions which stand neutral in relation
to the norm of morality. They are neither good nor bad in themselves. But certain amoral
actions may become good or bad because of the circumstances attendant to them. Eg. Playing
basketball, Eating, etc.

The morality of the human acts depends on:

1. The Object
The first quality describing the human acts is the object. It is like the basic actor of morality
or the action itself, the substance of the human act.
The object chosen morally specifies the act of the will, insofar as reason recognizes and
judges it to be or not to be in conformity with the true good.

2. The Motive or Intention

In contrast to the object, the intention resides on the acting subject.
The motive or intention is that for the sake of which is something is done and concerned
with the goal of the activity.
It is the reason behind our action. Man usually puts an act as a means to accomplish an
end and it is different from the act itself.

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The end or intention of the agent can modify or change human actions in four ways:

a) An indifferent act may become morally good or evil depending on the motives.
b) An objectively good act done on an account of an evil motive becomes morally
evil.
c) An objectively good act on account of good intention may receive more
goodness.
d) An objectively evil act can never become a good despite the good motive.

3. The Circumstances
The circumstances, including the consequences are secondary elements of a moral act.
They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evilness of the
human acts. Circumstances play an important role in affecting the morality of our actions,
because man’s act are performed at a definite time and place, in particular manner, for
certain reasons, etc., All of which in one way or another, increase or diminish the
responsibility of an action.

1. Who 5. Why
2. Where 6. How
3. What and by what means 7. When
4. With whom

These three are the determining elements of morality of the particular action performed by
a free agent. The human acts are also defined by these three elements which characterize the
moral order and make our acts good, evil or indifferent.

CULTURE AND MORALITY

What is culture?

“The last thing a fish would ever notice would be the water” (from a famous anthropologist)

Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human

experience. The Father of Sociology, Emile Durkheim asserted that culture has the power
over individuals to create beliefs such as belief in God. Durkheim added that with more
people holding the same beliefs, social order is also strengthened. Meanwhile, the Father of
Ethics | 19
cultural anthropology, Edward Taylor stated that in general, culture is the way of life of a
group of people that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Culture includes
language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from
one generation to another.

5 Basic Elements of Culture

SYMBOLS
Symbols can be anything that a group of people find
meaningful.
Ex: in religious group, the cross is a symbol for Christianity
while the crescent is for Islam.

LANGUAGE
Language is a complex symbol system that enable human beings to communicate either
verbally or through writing.

BELIEFS
Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true or by an individual or a group of
people. These assumption/convictions could be about events, people or things.
Ex. Ancient civilizations attributed events to spirits and gods. This is what we now call as
“superstitious beliefs”.

VALUES
Values are culturally acceptable standard of behavior. It is what a person considers
important or beneficial in life.

NORMS
Norm is an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about what is
considered is normal or correct/incorrect social behavior. For instance, The Filipino norm
in relating to other people to other people is to get along well with others, even with
complete strangers. This Filipino traits called “pakikisama”.

How does culture affect human behavior?

Since human beings are naturally social creatures, we as people, are also:
 Naturally drawn to participate in culture.
 People want to belong.
 To be accepted by peers.
 We also need protection from danger and being part of social group not only feeds
our need to be accepted, it also increases the human being chance of survival.

Ethics | 20
How does culture define moral behavior?

The Republic, a philosophical work written by ancient philosopher Plato, cited three
critical element that jointly influence the human person’s moral development. These
elements are:

 native traits (or what we might call genetic characteristics)

 Early childhood experience
 One’s cultural surroundings

Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable

norms, it would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct. He
also expressed that the power of culture over an individual is more potent in children
because they do not have any pre-existing values.

How moral character is developed?

First, let us take the most basic definition of the terms moral, character, and moral
character. MORAL is “concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the
goodness and badness of the human character”. CHARACTER is defined as “the mental and
moral qualities distinct to an individual”. MORAL CHARACTER refers to the “existence (or
lack of) virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honest and loyal”.

Philosophical Views on Moral Character

Confucian Traditions

The philosophy of moral development is rooted in ancient views. For Confucian

tradition, oral development was attributed to “four beginnings” of the human personality.
These four beginnings were considered as seeds of human personality that will naturally
unfold to become human activities. The teaching of Mencius, considered as the “Second Sage”
of Confucianism stresses that people are born with the knowledge of the good. As such,
people have the natural capacity to be good. According to Mencius, people have four innate
ethical dispositions which are:

 Benevolence (rén)
 righteousness (yì)
 wisdom (zhì)
 propriety (lĭ)

Ethics | 21
Each of the four virtues is associated with a characteristic emotion or motivational attitude:
“The feeling of compassion is benevolence. The feeling of disdain is righteousness. The
feeling of respect is propriety. The feeling of approval and disapproval is wisdom”.

Aristotle & Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequence and
particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person. Although action and
consequence are significant, virtue ethics does not focus on whether an action is right or
wrong; nor on whether the consequence are good or bad. It is more concerned with whether
the person is acting as a virtuous person should act in the situation.

Virtue Ethics is largely identified with Aristotle. In ancient western philosophy,

Aristotle's discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential view on
the topic. Aristotle argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a
person is focused on being a good person the right action will follow effortlessly, and you
will do good things.

So what does it mean to be virtuous?

Virtue for Greeks is equivalent to excellence. A person of virtue is someone who

performs the distinctive activity of being human well. The principle of being virtuous is
called “DOCTRINE OF THE GOLDEN MEAN” – that moral behavior is the one that is in the
middle of two extreme behaviors (or what he called vices). When he said “extreme behavior”,
it meant the act was either excessive of deficient.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg’s Theory

Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting technique. His theory
holds the moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has identifiable
development stages and each become more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas as
the person progress from one stage to the next. Kohlberg asserted that the process Of moral
development was principally concerned with justice, and that the process goes on
throughout the individual’s lifetime.
After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg outlined three broad
levels and six specific stages of moral development.

Three Broad Levels are;

Ethics | 22
 Level I: Pre-conventional morality
Stage I: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
Stage II: Reward Orientation
Level II: Conventional Morality
Stage III: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
Stage IV: Authority Orientation
Level III: Post Conventional
Stage V: Social Contract Orientation
Stage VI: Ethical-Principal Orientation

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
The central tenet in the concept of Cultural Relativism is that “Different cultures have
different moral codes.” There is no concept of universal truth in ethics. The customs of
different societies are all that exist. These customs cannot be judged as “right” or “wrong”,
since it affirms the idea that an independent, universal, ethical standards exists, which can
be used to judge these different customs. In 1906, William Graham Summer, a great
pioneering sociologist said,

“The "right" way is the way which the ancestors used and which
has been handed down. The tradition is its own warrant. It is not
held subject to verification by experience. The notion of right is
in the folkways. It is not outside of them, of independent origin,
and brought to test them. In the folkways, whatever is, is right.
This is because they are traditional, and therefore contain in
themselves the authority of the ancestral ghosts. When we come
to the folkways we are at the end of our analysis.”

As a short summary, these are the following central claims made by cultural
relativists:

1. Different societies have different moral codes.

2. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code better
than another.
3. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is merely one among
many.
4. There is no "universal truth" in ethics; that is, there are no moral truths that hold for
all peoples at all times.
5. The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if
the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right,
at least within that society.
6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other peoples. We should
adopt an attitude of tolerance toward the practices of other cultures.

Ethics | 23
 The Cultural Differences Argument

1. Different cultures have different moral codes.

2. Therefore, there is no objective "truth" in morality. Right and wrong are only
matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.

To many people, the argument provided above is very persuasive. However, in a

logical point of view, this argument is not sound. The trouble is that the conclusion does not
follow the premise. Even if the premise is true, the conclusion might still be false. On one
hand, the premise is only concerned with what people believe. People from different
societies believe different things. On the other hand, the conclusion is concerned about what
really is the case. Hence, the conclusions does not follow logically from this premise. Of
course not; we would never draw such a conclusion because we realize that, in their beliefs
about the world, the members of some societies might simply be wrong. There is no reason
to think that if the world is round everyone must know it. Similarly, there is no reason to
think that if there is moral truth everyone must know it. The fundamental mistake in the
Cultural Differences Argument is that it attempts to derive a substantive conclusion about a
subject from the mere fact that people disagree about it.

The Consequences of Taking Cultural Relativism Seriously

What would be the possible consequences of taking cultural relativism seriously?

1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own.
2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the standards of our
society.
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.

UNIVERSAL VALUES

It cannot be denied that in reality, societies really have different moral codes.
However, there are values that continue to be universally true. These are values which find
common ground despite having different forms and enunciations in the world’s various
societies. These universal values are:

1. Care for children: If all societies fail in caring for the children, society would soon cease to
exist.
2. Truth telling: It would be impossible to communicate with each other if dishonesty and
falsity would govern societies.
3. Prohibition against murder: If people would be freely permitted to murder each other, in a
small or large scale, society would collapse.

Ethics | 24
THE FILIPINO WAY
Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity

The Filipino culture is mix of both Eastern and Western culture. The beliefs and
traditions of pre-colonial. Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage (Baringer,
2006)

Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan (Psychologist, educator and former Chairperson of the

Commission on Higher Education) wrote the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino
character are rooted in factors such as;

1. The home environment

2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
6. Religion
7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
9. Mass media, and
10. Leadership and role models

Strengths of the Filipino Character

The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but those are what we have in
common the most. The strong aspects of the Filipino character are;
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
2. Family orientation
3. Joy and humor
4. Flexibility, adaptable and creativity
5. Hard work and industry
6. Faith and religiosity
7. Ability to survive

Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

The areas that need improvement in order to grow and develop as a person. An
informed Filipino will also result in a stronger and more progressive nation, generally, these
weaknesses are;
1. Extreme Personalism
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
3. Lack of Discipline
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiatives
5. Colonial Mentality

Ethics | 25
 6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflections

References:

Agapay, R. (1991). Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators.
National Book Store.

Kohlberg, L. (1981). Essays on Moral Development. Vol.1of the Philosophy of Moral

Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row

Licuanan, P. (1994). “A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People-Building Nation.” In

Values in Philippine Culture and Education: Philippine Philosophical Studies I, ed. By Manuel
Dy Jr.., 31-48. Washington, DC: The Council for Research In Values and Philosophy

Montemayor, F. (1994) Ethics: The philosophy of life. National Book Store.

Palma-Angeles, A. “Cultural Drivers of Corruption in Business and Governance.” In Business

Ethics in Asia: Issues and Cases, edited by Bulaong, G., Dewi, L., Santiago, J. Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University Press

Rachels, J. (2004). “What is Morality”, Chapter 1 and “The Challenge of Cultural Relativism”,
Chapter 2 in the Elements of Moral Philosophy. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill College.

Van Norden, Bryan, "Mencius", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2019 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/mencius/>.

Application:
(For all programs)

According to Sec. 261 (a) of the Omnibus Election Code of the Philippines, vote-
buying and vote-selling are prohibited acts and are punishable by the law. For the last 20
years, it has been observed that vote-buying has been a rampant practice as a means to win
a position in the government. In the 2022 national and local elections, the Department of
Interior and Local Government (DILG) said at least 245 vote buying incidents were reported.
There were about 41 suspects identified for vote-buying from January 1 to May 9, according
to Interior Secretary Ano. Authorities have gathered evidence for 25 cases, while 20 cases
are under investigation, and four have been referred to the prosecution office and one has
been filed before the courts.
https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2022/05/13/2180747/245-vote-buying-incidents-
recorded?fbclid=IwAR0x2FIVGeZDzpTUiKh5byp5OQbb5dNpKPCLSd0SqfOnKdU0M7KJQnpu91M

Ethics | 26
 1. What do you think is the root cause of this problem based on different perspectives?
a. According to moral perspective
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________.
b. According to cultural perspective
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________.

c. According to personal perspective

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________.
2. What is the best solution that you can recommend to address this problem?
Formulate a personal response and a collective solution (as a nation).
a. Personally,
_________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________.
b. As a nation, we can
_________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________.

Grading Rubric for Essay

4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) and all required some required but some required Information is not presented,
information is information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
presented. and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally presented, making
easy to follow. it difficult to follow.
Organization of Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts and logical. but is slightly illogical. well.
(30%)

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors
(20%) errors, spelling are rare and do not spelling, or substantially interfere from
& punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors reading the paper.
the paper. interfere with
reading the paper.

Ethics | 27
 SS121 ETHICS
LESSON 3

The Act
Key Concepts
3.1 Feelings as instinctive and trained response to moral
dilemmas
3.2 Reason and impartiality as requirements for ethics
3.2.1 7 step moral reasoning process
3.3 Moral Courage

Ethics | 28
Lesson 3: The Act
Learning Outcomes:
 Explain some philosophical insights on feelings, and its influence in decision-making.
 Compare reasonable and emotional responses
 Discuss how reason and impartiality become a requirement for morality
 Present real-life cases against the 7-step model that uses reason and impartiality

Activity:
Match the pictures in Column A with each appropriate emotions in Column B. Write
only the letter of your answer in the space provided below.

Column A

b.
https://www.google.com/search?q=happy+meme+hd&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjCiLaex__5AhXRBaYKHT
a. wMDRoQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=happy+meme+hd&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIGCAAQHhAHMgYIABAeEAcyBggAEB4QCDoFC
https://www.google.com/search?q=frustrated+meme+hd&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwist6jNxv_5AhWIG6YKHQkODwYQ2- AAQgAQ6CAgAEB4QBxAFOggIABAeEAgQB1DWHliiJWCmLWgBcAB4AIABWYgBhwSSAQE2mAEAoAEBqg
cCegQIABAA&oq=frustrated+meme+hd&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoGCAAQHhAIOgYIABAeEAc6CAgAEB4QCBAHOggIABAeEAcQBVDMC ELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=COsWY8LkCtGLmAW8mLTQAQ&bih=656&biw=683#imgrc
Vi3GmDRHGgAcAB4AIABYIgBuQeSAQIxMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=XuoWY6yQBYi3mAWJnLww& =BjvivdZCFrslfM&imgdii=0OIX0_4nn1ynSM
bih=656&biw=683#imgrc=0PuOIX8daQlJzM

c.
https://www.google.com/search?q=angry+meme&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiuxIG7
wv_5AhXrglYBHZ3qBJsQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&cshid=1662445117345137&biw=1366&bih=600&dpr=1#i
mgrc=GjXICv_bZ1dLsM

d.
https://www.google.com/search?q=surprised+meme+hd&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKE
wj0z7fMxv_5AhXOtlYBHQ_xAZsQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=683&bih=656&dpr=1#imgrc=MirWHvQVepN
rsM

Ethics | 29
 e.
https://www.google.com/search?q=sad+meme+hd&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiB5Z_vxv_5AhVH7ZQKHYD
PCIgQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=sad+meme+hd&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIFCAAQgAQyBggAEB4QBzIGCAAQHhAHMgYIABA
eEAUyBggAEB4QCDIGCAAQHhAIMgYIABAeEAgyBggAEB4QBToICAAQHhAHEAU6CAgAEB4QCBAHUJMG
WPIZYP4baAJwAHgAgAFriAGxBJIBAzUuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=peo
f. https://www.google.com/search?q=satisfied+meme+hd&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj1mZ2hzP_5A
WY8H-Dsfa0wSAn6PACA&bih=656&biw=683#imgrc=2DggREKBtDkPxM hUJdZQKHW-dDqIQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=satisfied+meme+hd&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoGCAAQHhAHOggIABAeEAcQBToIC
AAQHhAIEAdQ2RxYhitg1ixoAXAAeACAAV2IAdUIkgECMTOYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABA
Q&sclient=img&ei=TPAWY_XDDonq0QTvurqQCg&bih=656&biw=683#imgrc=IsR7lktNKmY5eM

Column A Column B
Anger
Surprised
Happy
Frustrated
Sad
Relaxed

Analysis:
Based on the activity, a single emotion can be displayed variously. Consequently, a single
situation can evoke different emotions. Now, let us answer the following questions.

1. Do you use your emotions as basis of your actions or judgements? Why?

2. Do you trust its reliability as basis of your judgement? Explain.

Abstraction:

FEELINGS AS INSTINCTIVE AND TRAINED RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS

"A man does what he must - in spite of personal consequences, in spite of obstacles and dangers and
pressures - and that is the basis of all human morality.“
- John F. Kennedy (1917 - 1963), 35th President of the United States

Ethics | 30
Philosophical Insights on Feelings

Hume and the Philosophy of the Mind

David Hume’s Ethics: “Theory of the Mind”

I. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the “slave of
the passions”.
II. Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.
III. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of
approval (esteem, praise), disapproval (blame) felt by spectators who
contemplate a character trait or action.
IV. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are
artificial.

Although reason is needed to discover the facts of any concrete situations, reason
alone is insufficient to yield a judgment that something is virtuous or vicious (Hume, 2003).
According to Hume’s “Theory of Mind”, humans have what he called as passions (which he
used to describe emotions or feelings).

Classification of Passion:

Direct Passions- arises immediately- without complex reflection on our part-

whenever we see something good or bad. Sometimes, these passions are sparked
instinctively-for example, a desire for food when experiencing hunger. Others,
though, are not connected with instinct and are more the result of social conditioning.

Example of Direct Passion:

Direct passions include desire, aversion, hope, fear, grief, and joy. (Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosphy, 2016; Cohon, 2010).

Indirect Passions- are the secondary effects of a previous feeling of pleasure and
pain. These passions arise from a double relation between ideas and impressions.

Example of Indirect Passion:

Pride- is a passion that emanated from the pleasure you get for possessing something
admirable (it could be intellect, physique, property, family, etc.) Pride therefore is a
result of the person, the object of the passion, and quality of the object.

Other indirect passions are love, hate, and humility.

Ethics | 31
Max Scheler and the Philosophy of Feelings

Scheler sought to know what comprised the structures of consciousness, including

that of mental acts such as feeling, thinking, resolve, etc.- as well as the inherent objects or
correlates of these mental acts such as values, concepts, and plans. In Max Scheler’s
philosophy, the emotion is the most important aspect in human existence. Scheler asserted
that emotions/feelings are inherent, objective, and it exists even if you have not experienced
it before (a priori).

Sensual Feelings Involves bodily pleasure or pain.

Vital Feelings Life functions such as health,

sickness, energy, fatigue, etc.

Psychic Feelings About aesthetics, justice and

knowledge (scientific).

Spiritual Feelings About divinity; Holiness.

What is the Role of Feelings in Decision-making?

Reasons play a role in making decisions. Philosophers encourage the use of reason
in making moral decisions. However, it should be noted too that our moral compasses are
also powerfully influenced by feelings. Hume claimed that in any given situation, a person
would act based on emotions rather than reason (Bucciarelli, et al., 2008).

World War 1 was at its peak and soldiers were dying in thousands. Horror gripped the
heart of a World War 1 soldier as he saw his lifelong friend fall in battle. Caught in a trench
with continuous gunfire whizzing over his head. The soldier asked his lieutenant if he might
go out into the "no man's land" between the trenches to bring his fallen comrade back. "You
can go," said the lieutenant, "but I don't think it will be worth it. Your friend is probably dead
and you may throw your life away."

The lieutenant's advice didn't matter, and the soldier went anyway. Miraculously he managed
to reach his friend, hoist him onto his shoulder and bring him back to their company's trench.
As the two of them tumbled in together to the bottom of the trench, the officer checked the
wounded soldier, and then looked kindly at his friend.

"I told you it wouldn't be worth it," he said. "Your friend is dead and you are mortally
wounded." The soldier replied "Sir, it was worth it." The lieutenant asked in dismay "What do
you mean; worth it, your friend is dead"
"YES, Sir" the private answered. "But it was worth it because when I got to him, he was still
alive and I had the satisfaction of hearing him say, "JIM........, I KNEW YOU'D COME."

Ethics | 32
If you were on the same situation as the soldier who saw his friend fall in the battle, would
you risk your life to bring back your friend to the trench?

Why feelings can be obstacles to making the right decision?

There are three central features as to why emotions can be obstacles in making the right
decision:
1. Its non-deliberate nature
2. Its partial nature (Been Zeev, 1997); and
3. It is capricious (Pizarro, 2000)

The Non-deliberate Nature of Feelings

Deliberate means the act was intentional, planned, with conscious effort. Non-
deliberate is the contrary term that denotes spontaneous actions. It is doing something
without thinking it through. For instance, you run to your bed the moment you turn off the
light because you are afraid. Why did the darkness scare you? You never thought about it,
you just run. “Being overcome by emotions” is that customary restraints failed (“I couldn’t
help myself”; “I totally blanked out”; “I felt overwhelmed”; “I don’t know, I just felt like doing
it”) Under characterization, emotions are no different from mindless automatic reflex.

THE NON-DELIBERATE NATURE OF FEELINGS SUMMARY BY PROFESSOR AARON BE’EN

ZEEV

• Responsibility entails free choice; if we are not free to behave in a certain way
manner, then we are not responsible for this behavior.
• Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation in which alternatives are considered
and the best one is chosen. Without such consideration, we clearly cannot understand
the possible alternatives and are not responsible for preferring one of them.
• Since intellectual deliberation is absent from emotions, we cannot be responsible for
our emotions.

The Partial Nature of Feelings

Emotions notoriously play favorites. It operates on a principle called “The law of

concern” (Fridja, 1988) where emotions give focus only on matters of personal interest.
However, emotions are quiet when it is of no personal concern. Example, a catastrophic
event like an earthquake. The sorrow that you feel for earthquake victims from other
countries is nowhere near the level of sorrow that you feel if your family were the victims.

THE 2 ASPECTS OF PARTIAL NATURE OF FEELINGS:

1. Decisions based on feelings focus only on a narrow area, and

2. It reflects personal and self-interest perspectives.
Ethics | 33
 Emotions influence our attention. Thus, it governs what attracts and holds attention.
Emotions make us preoccupied with specific matter s and we become oblivious to everything
else.

Example- the feeling of “being in love”. In romantic stories, this type of love is portrayed
as spending every waking moment thinking about the person you are “in love” with, and
everything else is just a blur.

The Capricious Nature of Feelings

The third problem with emotions is that it rises up for arbitrary reasons. For example,
you did not give money to an old beggar asking for alms simply because she tugged at your
shirt and startled you. Aspects or situations that have nothing to do in moral situations could
rile up your emotions, and this emotion will certainly influence your subsequent moral
judgment (Pizarro, 2000)

How emotions Help in Making the Right Decisions?

Emotions are the foundation of all our cognitive and behavioral processes; and
emotional responses often guide a person in making beneficial choices without any
conscious reasoning (Arnold, 1960; Damasio, 2003)

3 ways that feelings, especially negative feelings, help in making the right decisions:

1. It signals the need to adjust behavior.

2. It can help us learn from our mistakes.
3. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.

Studies have shown that negative feelings are integral to our ability to learn. The surge
of negative emotions triggers “counterfactual thinking” (Smallman and Roese, 2009).

Counterfactual thinking is a psychological concept about the human tendency to create

possible or alternatives scenarios other than what had actually happened. Have you ever
replayed a situation in your mind repeatedly, thinking about how you could have done better
or how you should have reacted instead? This analysis of what went wrong present an
opportunity to reflect and prepare oneself in making a different and possibly better choice
in the future.

REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS REQUIREMENTS FOR ETHICS

Is reason a requirement for morality?

Reason- is the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by a logical process.
Ethics | 34
 Immanuel Kant argued that reason alone is the basis for morality, and once the
person understood this basic requirement for morality, he or she would see that acting
morally is the same as acting rationally (Beck, 1960). In Kant’s view, the definition of
morality alone shows that a person must decide what to do. You, as a person, are able to
think and reflect on different actions and then choose what action to think. That a moral
decision means mere desires did not force you to act in a particular manner. You acted by
the power of your will.

Is impartiality a requirement for morality?

Impartiality is commonly understood as a principle of justice. It denotes that

decision should be “based on objective criteria rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or
preferring to benefit one person over another for improper reasons”. Impartiality stresses
everyone ought to be given equal importance and not favor one class (people, animals, or
things) in a capricious way.

Why impartiality is a requirement for morality?

For example, during an exam you saw your friend (who is sitting next to you) secretly
open her notebook to look for an answer on one of the test questions. Your teacher noticed
that your classmate was doing something suspicious. He called your classmate and asked if
she was cheating. Your classmate answered “No”. Your teacher did not trust your classmate’s
answer so he asked you. What will you say?

“At the very least is the effort to guide one’s action based on the most logical choice (reason)
while giving equal importance to the interests of each person affected by your decisions
(impartiality)” (Rachels, 2004)

For your decisions to be moral, you should think how your answer will affect your friend,
your teacher, the rest of your classmates and how it will affect you as a person.

Difference between Responses based on Reason and on Feelings

Philosopher and Professor Dr. James Rachels asserted that in moral reasoning, you
could not rely on your feelings no matter how powerful these feelings may be. Feelings can
be irrational and merely a product of your prejudice, selfishness, or cultural condition.

An argument is reasonable if:

A. The facts are correct.
B. The moral principles are correctly applied
C. Everyone’s well-being is treated equally important.

Ethics | 35
7 STEP MORAL REASONING PROCESS

The seven-step moral reasoning model is one way to ensure that the moral decisions
we make are rational, impartial, and objective. The steps are the following:

1. Gather the Facts

Do not jump to conclusions. Ask questions (who, what, where, when, how and
why). There may be instances when facts are hard to find or are not available because of
the uncertainty that surround ethical issues. Nevertheless, gather as many facts as you
can. Clarify what assumptions you are making

2. Identify the Stakeholders

Identify all the persons involved and will be affected in an ethical situation. Who
are the primary stakeholders? Who are the secondary? Why are they involved in the
issue? Try to see situations through the eyes of the people affected.

3. Articulate the Dilemma

Once you have gathered the facts and identified the stakeholders, it is important
that you express the ethical dilemma. What are the competing values? The purpose of
articulating the dilemma is to make sure that you understand the situation and the moral
conflict you are facing. Awareness and comprehension are important in making the right
decision, especially when there are lives that will be affected.

4. List the Alternatives

Think creatively about potential actions, as they may be choices you neglected.
This will help ensure that you have not been pushed back into a corner. For example, you
may already have solutions A and solution B. Try to brainstorm and come up with
solution C that might satisfy the interests of the primary parties involved.

5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles

In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you want to uphold in making
your decision. Then compare whether your alternative actions are in line with your
values. Identify the values and comparing your action with these values are important
because it will help identify if your alternative action is illegal or unethical, thus making
this action easy to discard.

Ethics | 36
 6. Weigh the Consequence

When considering the effects of your actions, filter your choices to determine if
your options will violate ethical values. Determine all the stakeholders will be affected by
your decision.

7. Make a Decision

Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must avoid “paralysis by

analysis” or the state of over analyzing (over-thinking) a situation so that a decision or
action is never taken, in effect paralyzing the outcome. There is no easy, painless decision
to a moral dilemma. However, it is also important that the decision you make reflects the
value you want to uphold.

MORAL COURAGE

It is the courage to put your moral principles into action even though you may be in
doubt, are afraid, or face adverse consequences. Moral courage involves careful deliberation
and mastery of self. Moral courage is essential not for only a virtuous life, but also a happy
one because integrity is essential to self-esteem.

Moral Imagination- An ability to imaginatively discern various possibilities for

acting within a given situation to envision the potential help and harm that are likely to result
from a given action (Johnson, 1994).

What is the “Will”?

Generally, “will” is the mental capacity to act decisively on one’s desire. It is the
faculty of the mind to initiate action after coming to a resolution following careful
deliberation (Joachim, 1952). Within Ethics, “will” is an important topic along with reason
because of its role in enabling a person to act deliberately.

Why is the “will” as important as reason?

Aristotle believed that “will” is the product of intellect and sensation; and that “will”
gave the person the capacity for “exciting movement in space”. On one hand, it is reason
which guides us as we choose the appropriate or proper way of acting. On the other hand,
will is as important because it is the one responsible in actualizing what our reason came up
with as the proper action.

Ethics | 37
 Developing the “Will”

Aristotle discussed the difference between what people decide to do and what they
actually do. In Aristotle’s philosophy, using the intellect to decide is just one part of the moral
decision. The resolve to put the decision into action is the role of the “will”. He said since vice
and virtues are up to us, “we become just by the practice of just actions; self-control by
exercising self-control; and courageous by practicing acts of courage (as translated by Baird,
2016).”

References:
Que, Nemesio S., S.J. “Notes on Moral Deliberation.” Introduction to course notes for PH
104: Foundations of Moral Value: Ateneo de Manila University
Rachels, J. (2004). “What is Morality”, Chapter 1 and “The Challenge of Cultural Relativism”,
Chapter 2 in the Elements of Moral Philosophy. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill College

Application:
Research materials on Moral Dilemmas. Choose one particular dilemma
you can relate with, and propose an ethical solution to the dilemma while
utilizing the 7-step Moral Reasoning Process.
Grading Rubric for Essay
4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate and Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) all required some required but some required Information is not presented,
information is information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
presented. and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally easy presented, making it
to follow. difficult to follow.
Organization of Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows well but Thoughts flows well. Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts and logical. is slightly illogical.
(30%)

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors
(20%) errors, spelling are rare and do not spelling, or substantially interfere from
& punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors reading the paper.
the paper. interfere with
reading the paper.

Ethics | 38
SS121 ETHICS
LESSON 4
Ethical Theories and Principles
Key Concepts
4.1 Virtue Ethics
4.2 Natural Law Theory
4.3 Kantian Ethics
4.4 Utilitarianism
4.5 Justice and Fairness

Ethics | 39
Lesson 4: Ethical Theories and Principles

Learning Outcomes:
 Define the different ethical theories and principles
 Apply each principle in a given situation
 Evaluate the best moral framework that suits one’s personal experience

Activity:
Recall some of your views on the different ethical problems prevalent today. Fill in the table
below by marking (x) if you think it is always good, always bad, or it depends upon the
situation.

ISSUE ALWAYS ALWAYS BAD DEPENDS

GOOD
1.Abortion

2.Euthanasia

3.Teenage
Pregnancy
4. Cheating in the
online
examinations.
5. Divorce

6.Same-sex union

Analysis:
Having already recalled your personal views, review your stand on different ethical issues
prevalent today. How do you reflect to the following questions below? State your opinion in
a short and concise manner.
1. What is the basis of your opinion on a particular ethical issue? Is it rooted on your
personal idea or derived from an ethical framework?

Ethics | 40
 2. Would it be possible to have a unified society despite believing in different ethical
frameworks? Why or why not?

Abstraction:
Virtue Ethics
Main Proponent: Aristotle
Aristotle lived and died around 384-322 B.C.E.
Born in Stagira, Greece.
His father was Nicomachus, a court physician during the reign of
King Amyntas III.
Became tutor of Alexander the Great.
Became student of Plato in Academy.
Founded the Lyceum.

Moral Code:
“We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.”
“Act as a virtuous person would act in your situation.”

Virtue Ethics is the general term for theories that put emphasis on the role of
character and virtue in living one’s life rather than in doing one’s duty or in acting to bring
about good consequences. In simple terms, it means striving to become the best version of
yourself and it will ensure that good things will naturally and effortlessly flow from you.

How does Virtue Ethics work?

It believes in the fixed nature of a thing, nature being the principle of operation. The
only way for a thing to flourish is to adhere to its nature, the way it is originally designed to
function. Hence, it posits the idea of proper functioning. Every creature has a designed
function. If a thing fulfills its function, it is good. If it doesn’t, it’s bad. Furthermore, being
virtuous is not about God’s plan, it is not concerned with the divine. Rather, it believes that
our nature as a human being has built into us the desire to be virtuous.

Ethics | 41
What does it mean to be virtuous?

For Aristotle, it means doing the right thing, at the right time, in the right way, in the
right amount, toward the right people. This means that a virtuous person is someone who is
able to assess a situation first, before deciding what is the appropriate action to be done.

What is Virtue?

In this theory, it highlights virtue as the Golden Mean or the midpoint between the
Vices of Deficiency and Excess. The right action is always the midpoint between two actions.
Below are examples of Virtues with its corresponding deficiency and excess.

Defect or too Virtues Excess or too

little (Golden much
Mean)
Impassivity Even temper Irascibility

Cowardice Bravery Foolhardiness

Disadvantage Justice Gain

Mock modesty Truthfulness Boastfulness

Churlishness Friendliness Flattery

Mean spirit Pride Vanity

Disdain Dignity Servility

Cowardice Courage Recklessness

A virtuous person, therefore, is someone who always seeks to identify the golden
mean in a particular situation, and strives to act in accordance with the golden mean.

How do you become virtuous?

Virtues are not acquired from books. It is a skill, a way if living, and that’s something
that can only be learned through experience. Virtue therefore is practical wisdom. A virtuous
character is developed through habituation- if you do a virtuous thing over and over again,

Ethics | 42
eventually it will become part of your character. You also need to find Moral Exemplars,
people who already possess virtue. They will serve as our guide as we strive to become
virtuous.

Why do you need to become virtuous?

In Virtue Ethics, it is important to become virtuous in order to attain Eudaimonia. It

is a Greek word Aristotle referred to as happiness. In practical terms, eudaimonia is a
pleasant activity or excellent rational action where one judges his whole life as successful
and is worth living. It is not an immediate result of a certain human action, but a
conglomeration of human virtuous acts so as to achieve a eudaemon life.

For Aristotle, therefore, morality is about striving to become the best version of
ourselves by honing our strengths and overcoming our weaknesses. It is an on-going process
of always seeking the golden mean, the virtue, in every situation and trying to emulate what
a virtuous person will do if put in a particular situation. Copying what a moral exemplar
should do in a moral situation might seem to be a bit inauthentic at first, but virtue ethics is
about forming habits. By repeatedly doing what is good, it naturally becomes part of our
character and will lead us to become a virtuous person.

Natural Law Theory

Main Proponent: St. Thomas Aquinas
 St. Thomas Aquinas was born on January 28, 1225 and died on
March 7, 1274, aged 48-49.
• Born in Roccasecca, Italy.
• Known as a Doctor of the Church because of his immense
contribution to theology and the doctrine of the Catholic Church
• His most important works are the Summa Theologica where he
expounded on the 5 proofs of God’s existence and the Summa
Contra Gentiles or the “Book on the truth of the Catholic faith
against the errors of the unbelievers”.

Moral Code:
“God is good. He is the one who created you. Therefore, you are good. In order to
follow the Natural Law, it is important is that you don’t forget you are good.”

Ethics | 43
 The Natural Law Theory is one of the theistic ethical frameworks that are prevalent
in the Catholic and Protestant traditions. Its main tenet is based on the belief of God.
According to St. Thomas Aquinas, God created the world according to natural laws. Natural
laws are predictable, goal-driven systems whereby life is sustained, and ensures that
everything functions smoothly.

If the Natural Law Theory is based on the belief of God, how will people
know it if they do not know or believe in God?

Thomas Aquinas argued that when God created us, He already designed us with the
capacity we need to know the good. It is based on the idea that God wants us to want things,
things that are good. Hence, we don’t need the bible, religious education, or the Church in
order to know the Natural Law. It is through our natural instinct and our rationality that
we are able to identify the natural law from the basic goods God designed us to want and
seek. It is our instinct that shows us the basic good, and our reason allows us to derive the
natural law from them. The things that we are designed to seek are called as the basic goods
and there are 7 of them.

The Basic Goods

1. Life
2. Reproduction
3. Educate one’s offspring
However, because of the way God designed us, Aquinas classified goods that are
exclusive to humans.
4. Seek God
5. Live in society
6. Avoid offense
7. Shut ignorance
Every basic good also corresponds to a prohibition and a positive injunction, or a
formal command.

Example: I recognize the basic good of life, because of the reason that I value my own life. This
is evident due to the fact that my survival instinct helps me avoid danger and dangerous
situations. As a rational person, my reason allows me to see that the lives of others are as
valuable as my life is valuable.

Ethics | 44
 Prohibition The Basic Positive Injunction
Good
Do not kill Life Promote life
Don’t prevent reproduction Reproduction Procreate

If God created us men to seek the good, and he created us with the ability
to recognize and seek the good, then why do we violate the natural law?

According to Aquinas, there are two reasons why people despite having been
designed to seek what is good, violate the natural law.

1. Ignorance 2. Emotion

As humans, we seek things that Following the Aristotleian

seems to be good. However, tradition, Aquinas believes that
we might be wrong in men are both rational and
identifying these things as emotional creatures. Despite
good simply because we are having the natural capacity to use
ignorant. his reason, there are instances or
situations wherein his emotions
overpower his reason.

For Aquinas, therefore, morality is understood in terms of following the natural law.
Right or moral acts are simply those that acts are in accordance with the natural law.
Deontological/ Kantian Ethics
Main Proponent: Immanuel Kant
 Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724 and died on
February 12, 1804, aged 79.
• Born in Konigsberg, East Prussia (present-day
Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia) in 1724.
• His works related to moral philosophy are the
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
(1785) and The Critique of Practical Reason
(1788).

Ethics | 45
 Moral Code:
“In order to determine what is right, you have to use reason.”

Kant believed that morality and religion should be kept apart from each other. If
religion is the basis of morality, there would be disagreement since different religions teach
and follow different moral codes. For him, morality exists as something that is always
constant, almost as in a mathematical sense. 1 plus 1 is 2, no matter what your religion is or
even if you are an atheist. Moral truths are something that is absolute, it exempts and excuses
no one. For him, we are obligated to follow the moral truths. Hence, it is our duty and its
imperative for us to be moral, at all times and in all circumstances.

What are the imperatives?

An imperative is something that is defined as duty that is essential and urgent. Kant
distinguished two kinds, hypothetical and categorical. Take a look at a brief comparison of
both.
Hypothetical Imperatives Categorical Imperatives
 Commands that you must follow if  Commands that you must follow
you want something. These are regardless of your desires.
things that we ought to do for non-  Moral obligations are derived from
moral reasons. pure reason.
 These are based on our desire and is
based on prudence.
 EXAMPLE: If you want money, you
ought to get a job.
 EXAMPLE: If you want to get good
grades in the exam, you ought to put
in effort in studying.

How do you know what is moral?

Categorical Imperatives
For Kant, moral commands are always categorical and not hypothetical. Categorical is
all about ought, that is to say, one ought to do the moral law without any conditions since it
is simply done out of duty.

Ethics | 46
First formulation of Categorical Imperative:
The Universalizability Principle “act only according to a maxim by which you can, at the same
time will, that it shall become a universal law”.
Key Terms:
Maxim- a rule or principle of action
Universal Law- something that must be done in similar situations.

Second formulation of Categorical Imperative:

The Formula of Humanity “act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your
own person or in the person of any other, always as an end, and never as a mere means.”
Key Terms:
Mere means- to use something for your own benefit, without considering the benefit or
interests of the thing you are using.

From these two formulas, the two principles/determinants of Moral Imperative are derived
as:

UNIVERSALIZABILITY – an act is considered morally good if a maxim or law can be universal.

That maxim or law is made not only for our selves but also for others as well to perform or
to prohibit. Kant uses the example of lie and promise to illustrate the point of contradiction
under universalizability.

PERSON – respect for person is the basic thing about how we treat people we encounter in
our daily living. For Kant, the act that is good happens only when we deal with other people
not as merely means. The respect for person as end and means, and never solely as means to
serve one’s end must be considered at all times. In our treatment of other person, we should
always keep in mind not to treat them as “mere means” due to the fact that each of us are
self-governed. As humans, we are free and therefore we can always choose and make
decisions with our rational will.

Ethics | 47
Utilitarianism
Main Proponent: Jeremy Bentham

 Jeremy Bentham was born on February 15, 1748 and died on June 6, 1832,
aged 84.
• Born in London, England.
• Founder of Utilitarianism.
• His famous works related to moral philosophy are: Introduction to the
Principles of Morals and Legislation and A Fragment on Government.

Moral Code:
“Seek pleasure and avoid pain.”
“We should act always so as to produce the greatest good for the greatest
number.”

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical framework. It focuses on the results, or

consequences, of our actions, and treats intentions as irrelevant. Actions should be measured
in terms of the happiness, or pleasure, that they produce.

How does Utilitarianism classify an action as moral or immoral?

1. The basis for treating an act as morally right or wrong is its consequence.
2. What matters in every action is the amount of pleasure it produces. If an act does
not yield pleasure, then it is morally wrong.
3. The happiness experienced by every person is counted the same.

Bentham uses the Hedonic Calculus, a method that can calculate or measure happiness
and pain. Accordingly, Bentham is a hedonist and he understands happiness as pleasure in
which pleasure’s partner is pain.

Now to measure happiness or pleasure, all we need to do is to count all the happiness or
pleasure that an act brings minus the amount of pain that an act will also bring. If the amount
of happiness or pleasure is greater than the pain, then the act is good.
Hedonic Calculus: Amount of Pleasure (–) Amount of pain = moral or immoral act

Ethics | 48
Considerations in assessing an act:

1. Happiness/pleasure should be more intense;

2. Happiness/pleasure should last longer;
3. Happiness/pleasure should be more certain to occur;
4. Happiness/pleasure should be happening sooner rather than later;
5. Happiness/pleasure will produce in turn many happiness and few pains;
6. In determining the amount of happiness/pleasure, one has to consider how many
people will be affected.

For Utilitarians, therefore, the better position would be when there are more people
affected positively, that is, greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, and fewer
affected negatively.

Justice as Fairness
Main Proponent: John Rawls
 John Rawls was born on February 21, 1921 and died on
November 24, 2022, aged 81.
• Born in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
• His works related to moral philosophy are A
Theory of Justice and Lectures on the History of
Moral Philosophy.

Moral Code:
“Each person possesses and inviolabilty founded on justice that even the welfare
of the state cannot override. Therefore, the rights secured by justice are not
subject to political bargaining or to the calculus of social interest.- John Rawls”

John Rawls is one of the foremost political philosophers of recent times. In his book A
Theory of Justice, he sought to answer one prevalent ethical problem and thus presented an
ethical framework centered on distributive justice. Distributive justice, or economic justice,
is concerned with giving all members of society a "fair share" of the benefits and resources
available.

Ethics | 49
How can Rawls’ theory of justice be actualized?

Justice as Fairness

Original Position Veil of Ignorance

 Individuals freely agree on specific  Hypothetical/ theoretical veil that

social rules and institutions by entering covers all people that will make people
into a hypothetical social contract. ignorant of their race, gender, religions,
economic status, and personal desires.
 It is designed to be a fair and impartial
point of view that is to be adopted in  An individual sets aside his sex, race,
our reasoning about fundamental economic status.
principles of justice. Rawls envisions
people to agree on the fundamental  Parties do know of some fundamental
principles of the society in a completely interests, or general knowledge, such
unbiased and impartial manner. as:
o That citizens in the society have
 Parties are deprived of all knowledge of
different comprehensive
their personal characteristics and
doctrines and plans of life; that
social and historical circumstances.
all citizens have interests in
Examples are:
more primary goods;
o The race, ethnicity, gender, age,
o That the society is under
income, wealth, natural
conditions of moderate scarcity:
endowments, comprehensive
there is enough to go around,
doctrine, etc. of any of the
but not enough for everyone to
citizens in society, or to which
get what they want;
generation in the history of the
society these citizens belong; o General facts and common
sense about human social life;
o The political system of the
general conclusions of science
society, its class structure,
(including economics and
economic system, or level of
psychology) that are
economic development.
uncontroversial.

Ethics | 50
 Rawls theory of justice is somewhat social/ moral contractarian in nature. It relies on
the individuals’ choice to freely agree and enter into contract with his fellowmen. In this
sense, if individuals who adopted the original position choose to promote equality, justice as
fairness will be achieved. If, however, they choose to uphold inequality, then injustice will
prevail. Hence, if one wants to accept a social order that is just, then they should see to it that
the object of agreement is fair, that is, that social order takes into account the interest of all
members of such society equally. This is the barometer of where justice as fairness prevails.

Two Basic Principles of Justice as Fairness

First Principle: Equal Liberty Principle

“Each person has the same indefeasible claim to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic
liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme of liberties for all;”

As a foundation of a just society, equal access to the basic human needs, rights,
and liberties must be given to every person. It is the right of each person to have
the quality and quantity of liberty that is same with the liberty of others. The social
contract should try to ensure that everyone enjoys the maximum liberty possible
without intruding upon the freedom of others.

Examples of political liberties:

-Right to vote -Freedom of Thought
-Right to hold public office - Freedom of the person
-Freedom of Speech -Right to hold private property
Freedom of Assembly -Freedom from arbitrary arrest and seizure
-Liberty of Conscience

Second Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions:

a. They are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair
equality of opportunity;
b. They are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society
(the difference principle) (JF, 42–43).

It emphasizes the idea that everyone must receive equal opportunity in

society, and of the equal distribution of socio-economic inequalities. Social and economic
positions must be for everyone’s advantage and is open to all. Moreover, the social contract
Ethics | 51
should guarantee that everyone has an equal opportunity to prosper. In other words, if there
are any social or economic differences in the social contract, they should help those who are
the worst off. And, any advantages in the contract should be available to everyone.

Key Principles in understanding Rawls’ Theory of Justice

1. Life should not be sacrificed for the sake of majority.

This serves as a direct challenge against consequentialist ethics, particularly
utilitarianism.

2. Erroneous theory is tolerable in the absence of a good one

The second principle puts emphasis on the importance of law in the society.
For Rawls, an unjust law is better than no law at all. Hence, an act of injustice is
tolerable if and only if it is necessary to avoid greater act of injustice.

3. Individual liberties should be restricted in order to maintain equality of opportunity

Certain restrictions must be imposed through law to preserve freedom and
democracy.

Ethics | 52
References:
Image of Aristotle
https://www.google.com/search?q=aristotle&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3hfjBxYf7AhXrkVYBHajPB4oQ_AUoAXoECAMQAw&biw=1366&bih
=657&dpr=1

Image of St. Thomas Aquinas

https://www.google.com/search?q=st+thomas+aquinas&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwidp4XDxYf7AhVXfN4KHS0nAa0Q2cCegQIABAA&oq=st+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMgoIABCxAxCDARBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBD
MgQIABBDMgQIABBDMggIABCxAxCDATIICAAQgAQQsQMyCwgAEIAEELEDEIMBMgsIABCABBCxAxCDATIICAAQsQMQgwE6BwgAELEDEEM6BQgAEIAEUNAFWMYIYIsXa ABwAHgAgAG9AogBrAaSAQcwLjIu
MS4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=2DZeY53bH9f4-QatzoToCg&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=Q1Fzr0piJqBdPM

Image of Jeremy Bentham

https://www.google.com/search?q=jeremy+bentham&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiXn4eayYf7AhXyRvUHHZWDBLIQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=jeremy+b&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMggIABCABBCxAzIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIA
EMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDoKCAAQsQMQgwEQQzoECAAQQzoHCAAQsQMQQzoICAAQsQMQgwE6CwgAEIAEELEDEIMBOgcIABCABBADU
OsRWN0mYPE1aABwAHgAgAHJAYgBugqSAQUwLjguMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=tDpeY5f1EvKN1e8PlYeSkAs&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=rDDpM_N5Rr_xxM

Image of Immanuel Kant

https://www.google.com/search?q=immanuel+kant&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZgrHLp4z7AhUYfd4KHX65BiQQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=6
83&bih=656&dpr=1#imgrc=9rWBLYJPCPP8JM

Image of John Rawls

https://www.google.com/search?q=john+rawls&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjU4774qIz7AhVF95QKHQQvARIQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=john+rawls&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzILCAAQgAQQsQMQgwEyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCAB
DIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQ6CAgAEIAEELEDOgQIABBDOgcIABCxAxBDOgoIABCxAxCDARBDUI0LWMYXYIYZaABwAHgAgAGtAogB_A-
SAQcwLjguMi4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=9rdgY9SQKcXu0wSE3oSQAQ&bih=656&biw=683#imgrc=Eyp45Ja0rBpQYM

Crash Course on Philosophy: Natural Law Theory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_UfYY7aWKo

Crash Course on Philosophy: Kantian Ethics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw

Crash Course on Philosophy: Utilitarianism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a739VjqdSI

Crash Course on Philosophy: Virtue Ethics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ

PHILO-notes: John Rawls’ Theory of Justice

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EM5G-cXH_9M

Philosophy Vibe- Rawls- Justice and Fairness in Society

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8KPozy0NII

25+ Moral Dilemma Examples, Questions, and Scenarios

https://upjourney.com/moral-dilemma-examples-questions-and-scenarios

Freeman, Samuel, "Original Position", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/original-position/>.

Ethics | 53
Maiese, Michelle,. Burgess, Heidi. Types of Justice. Retrieved.
https://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/types_of_justice#:~:text=This%20article%20points%20out%20tha
t,All%20four%20of%20these%20are

Wenar, Leif, "John Rawls", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/rawls/>.

Additional Reading Materials:

Bulaong, Oscar. Et al (2018). Ethics: Foundations of Moral Valuation. Rex Book Store, Inc., Manila. DNSC LIB

Maboloc, Christopher Ryan (2010). Ethics and Human Dignity. Rex Book Store, Inc., Quezon City. DNSC LIB

Montemayor, Felix (1994). Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. National Book Store, Inc., Manila. DNSC LIB

Pasco, Marc Oliver & Suarez, V. Fullente & Rodriguez, Augustine Martin (2018). Ethics. C & E Publishing, INC.,
Quezon City. (pp. 132-151) DNSC LIB

Application:

The Whistleblower Dilemma

You encounter someone doing something wrong. Do you speak up? Do you report it?
Do you have the courage of your convictions?

Ethics is a class not just about theory, but also about concrete action.

Imagine you are doing very poorly in the class. Assume your teacher know cheating
during the final examination has taken place, but your teacher needs the support of a witness
to make the charge stick. If you have the courage to come forward and confirm the cheating by
your classmate/s you too know have cheated, your teacher will give you a “1.0” grade in the
class – you will have earned it with your actions.” Your teacher promises confidentiality, but
you will almost certainly be found out anyway as the one who spoke up. You will be
ostracized and cast out by your classmates as a whistleblower. Will you come forward and
report, or will you just keep quiet? Why? Choose one ethical framework (Virtue Ethics,
Natural Law Theory, Kantian Ethics, Utilitarianism, Justice as Fairness) to support
your answer.

Ethics | 54
 Grading Rubric for Essay
4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) and all required some required but some required Information is not presented,
information is information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
presented. and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally presented, making
easy to follow. it difficult to follow.
Organization of Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts and logical. but is slightly illogical. well.
(30%)

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors
(20%) errors, spelling are rare and do not spelling, or substantially interfere from
& punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors reading the paper.
the paper. interfere with
reading the paper.

Ethics | 55
 SS121 ETHICS
LESSON 5
Taxation
Key Concepts
5.1 Meaning of Taxation
5.2 Philosophical View of Taxation

Ethics | 56
Lesson 5: Taxation

Learning Outcomes:
 Define taxation and its purpose.
 Develop a sense of patriotism, civic awareness and social responsibility among young and
adult learners.
 Integrate the importance of paying taxes towards nation-building.

Activity:
Among the following agencies that comprise the Philippine Government, which do
you trust the most and the least? Check the box representing the percentage of your trust.

Department 0-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76-100%

1. Department
of
Education
(DepEd)

2. Philippine
Health
Insurance
Corporation
(PhilHealth)

3. Department
of Finance

4. Department
of Health

5. Department
of Public
Works and
Highways
(DPWH)

Ethics | 57
Analysis:
1. What is your criteria in choosing the department you trust the most? The least?
Elaborate.
2. To whom do you think that a Department/Agency secretary is answerable to?
The president of the government, or the people? Why?

Abstraction:

Meaning of Taxation
Fundamentally, the Government has three inherent powers namely; Power of Eminent
Domain, Police Power, and Power of Taxation. According to De Leon & De Leon (2012), it is
the inherent power of the State to demand forced contributions for public purpose or
purposes. Taxation is the act of laying a tax, i.e., the process or means by which the sovereign,
through its law-making body, raises income to defray the necessary expenses of government.
It is merely a way of apportioning the cost of government among those who in some measure
are privileged to enjoy its benefits and, therefore, must bear its burdens. It is imposed upon
the people for the usage and as support of the government. Additionally, it enables the
government to discharge its appropriate functions, especially its police power which ensures
the safety of the general public.

Etymology of Tax
The word Tax finds its origin from the Latin word Taxare, meaning to censure, to
charge, or to compute.

What are Taxes for?

Primarily, the purpose of taxation is to provide the government funds or
property which will enable it to ensure the general welfare and protection of its citizens.
Furthermore, it can be used to achieve social and economic goals such as providing funds for
infrastructures that will serve the general public. It is also utilized to provide quality services
in terms of healthcare, and in ensuring that quality education is provided especially in public
schools, colleges, and universities which are managed by the State. The funds from taxes are
also used in aid programs for the poor, disaster response, modernization of the military, and
other legitimate government expenditures.

Ethics | 58
Philosophical View of Taxation

Utilitarianism
In the previous lesson, it has been discussed that the primary aim of utilitarianism is
to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. In this sense, taxation
can be seen as moral in a Utilitarian point of view if it ensures that quality goods and services
will be available to the general public and not only to a select few. Furthermore, the State
should ensure that resources coming from taxes should be redistributed widely enough for
all or most people to enjoy them. A large amount of people having modest resources
generates more happiness compared to the same amount of total resources being only
concentrated in the hands of only a few.

Objectives of taxation such as providing better or best public services in healthcare

and education will result to a greater amount of satisfaction to large number of people,
thereby achieving the utilitarian principle. Aside from that, programs aiding the poor as part
of the redistribution of taxes by the government will result to a greater number of happiness
since providing resources from the rich to the poor increases the number of happiness of the
poor more than it decreases the happiness of the rich.

Kantian Ethics/ Deontological Ethics

Deontological Ethics highlights the Categorical Imperatives as absolute moral duties.
As a citizen, it is a moral duty to support the State by paying taxes. Since the State guarantees
its citizens’ safety and security, paying taxes are the citizens’ contribution to ensure that the
State can continue to carry out its duty in the best way possible.

Kantian Ethics also emphasizes respect for every person, particularly supported by
the formula of humanity. As such, every human person has a moral obligation to look after
one another, especially the less fortunate. In this sense, paying taxes faithfully will help out
in fulfilling this duty to your fellow human being.

Virtue Ethics
In Virtue Ethics, the development of a virtuous character by habitually committing
virtuous acts is the key to achieving Eudaimonia. Hence, several virtues or values in relation
to taxation can be highlighted.

Ethics | 59
 a. Justice

Taxation operates on the principle of justice, understood in the sense of justice as

giving what is due. If taxes are consistently, relatively moderate, people will be able to take
a relatively larger take-home pay.

b. Charity

People who have a larger take-home pay will more likely be able to afford charitable
donations, in time or in money. Hence, people will be able to participate in charitable acts
easier and more frequently.

c. Independence

It is better to earn money to provide for one’s needs, rather than to depend to others
such as relying on subsidies provided by the government. With just distribution of tax rates,
independence, particularly in terms of financial independence, will be easier to achieve.

Responsible attitude towards paying taxes is already a step in acquiring and

developing various virtues, thereby forming a virtuous character which leads to achieving
happiness, as Virtue Ethics teaches.

Ethics | 60
References:
Ethics and Taxation. Sean Xavier O. Alquilita, M.Phil. Retrieved:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JtW8NSe_5og

Brederode, R. (2020). Ethics and Taxation. Springer.

De Leon, Hector & De Leon, Hector Jr. (2012) The Fundamentals of Taxation. Rex Book
Store, Manila. (pp. 1-5)

De Leon, Hector & De Leon, Hector Jr. (2014) Textbook on the Philippine Constitution.. Rex
Book Store, Manila. (pp. 165-166))

Ethics | 61
Application:
1. Do you think collecting taxes are moral? Explain your answer in the following
viewpoints:

a. Utilitarian Ethics
b. Deontological Ethics
c. Virtue Ethics

Note: See rubrics at the last page.

Ethics | 62
 SS121 ETHICS
LESSON 6

Ethical Challenges of Today

Key Concepts
6.1 Moral Challenges of Globalization
6.2 Millenials and “Filennials”: Ethical
Challenges and Responses
6.3 Ethics and Religion

DAVAO DEL NORTE STATE COLLEGE

Ethics | 63
Lesson 6: Ethical Challenges of Today

Learning Outcomes:
 Identify the moral challenges of globalization
 State the qualities of “Fillinials”
 Differentiate Ethics from Religion
 Create a standpoint in dealing with globalization on Filipino
morality
 Appreciate the role of religion in a globalized world

Activity:
Recall your knowledge about some of the numerous religions of the world and some
of the ethical frameworks we have discussed. Try to identify which ethical framework/s is
compatible to a belief or teaching held by a religion. Give specific examples such as a practice,
doctrine, or commandment that shows conformity between the religion and the ethical
framework.
Religion Ethical Key Teaching
Framework
1. Christianity
2. Islam
3. Buddhism
4. Hinduism
5. Judaism

Analysis:
1. Are there any universal values shared between the different ethical frameworks
and various religions?
2. Is it still meaningful to search for universal values?

Ethics | 64
Abstraction:

MORAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION

Commonly, ethics has been associated with relationships concerning people,

exclusively. It is often forgotten that the interrelationship of men is situated in the
environment he lives in. The interpersonal connection we so value is linked to our
connection with nature. If we give importance to the relationship we have with the people
around us, it is also a given that we give greater value towards our relationship with nature.
In this lesson, let us examine how globalization made a significant impact towards man,
nature, and the moral challenges it brought.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), globalization can be defined

as “the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples and countries. It is
generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international
borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes
in institutions and policies at national and international levels that facilitate or promote such
flows.” Moreover, Thomas Friedman defined globalization as “the inexorable integration of
markets, transportation systems, and communication systems to a degree never witnessed
before - in a way that is enabling corporations, countries, and individuals to reach around the
world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before.”

Having established the significance of globalization in human relationships, the issue

of “transitional harm” also arises. “Harm” means damage or loss caused by a person or an
event or, the violation of core interest in physical and mental well-being.
The Rise of Radical Inequality

In a positive sense, globalization has allowed the technological era to flourish at an

exceedingly fast pace. It allowed men to harness machines and tools to extract natural
resources and enabled the present generation to live as conveniently and comfortably as
possible. However, globalization is also used by advanced capitalist countries to perpetuate
their political, ideological, and economic dominance over less advanced countries. Moreover,
it can also be indirectly linked to the rapid increase of climate change. Advanced countries
wantonly use resources, oftentimes without regard to the possible consequences of the
present and the future generations. The true purpose of production and consumption has
been lost, replaced by an unsatiable desire to possess, driven by compulsiveness and
recklessness. As various companies and corporations of all sorts and flags continue to supply
this seemingly endless demand, the capacity of nature to provide is pushed to its limits,

Ethics | 65
forced to provide more than what we actually need. Let us try to see how different ethical
frameworks view the moral implications of globalization.

Utilitarian Ethics:

Globalization has failed to maximize happiness for the greatest number of people.
Although globalization can be felt throughout the world since it enabled a nearly borderless
global community, the amount of its effects are distributed in varying degrees. On one hand,
advanced countries continue to reap its benefits while suffering relatively less from its
consequences. On the other hand, countries classified as third world suffer the dire results,
while progressing relatively slower. Hence, the amount of happiness induced by
globalization is relatively lesser to the pain it has brought to a greater amount of people, both
from the present and the future generations.

Deontological Ethics

Globalization will be condemned on the account that it exploited populations.

Countless people have been treated as “means to an end”, and not as end in themselves.
Instead of viewing people as individual subjects, most has been reduced as objects, whose
value are oftentimes measured by their capacity to either increase or decrease a statistical
record.

Virtue Ethics

In the classic Aristotleian view, virtue is the golden mean, a midpoint between the
extremes of deficiency and excess. As production and consumption continue to be driven
with an almost insatiable desire, globalization has effectively erased the concept of
moderation.

Globalization has been a key contributor into resolving key environmental issues.
However, it cannot be denied that it has also been the cause of the rapid increase in some
issues, such as global warming. Global warming has created a chain of extreme changes in
weather conditions. The ozone layer is rapidly depleting and deteriorating. While industrial
activity is mostly confined in the West, the entire world is suffering from the effects of the
climate change. Only advanced capitalist societies benefit from industrialization. The rest of
the world is forced to share the negative consequences of industrial activities.

Ethics | 66
 The Rise and Challenge of Pluralism

Globalization paved the way for the influx of foreign cultures into various societies.
Oftentimes, the native culture has been relegated into a secondary status in favour of foreign
ones. This results to a plurality of culture, values, and viewpoints to exist in a society.
Pluralism as a process refers to ways of recognition. It is a state of society in which
members of diverse ethnic, racial, religious or social groups maintain an autonomous
participation in and development of their traditional culture or special interest, within the
confines of a common civilization. In Philosophy, Pluralism means there is more than one
substance or principle. In Ethics, it is the supposition that there are many independent
sources of value and that there is no single truth. In political Philosophy, some points
hereunder summarizes Pluralism:
1. Pluralism is not diversity alone, but energetic engagement with diversity.
2. It is not just tolerance, but active seeking of understanding across differences.
3. Pluralism is not relativism, but the encounter of commitments.
4. Pluralism is based on dialogue.

Due to pluralism, the diversity of values has been further complicated. Oftentimes,
conflicting viewpoints results into arguments, and worse, armed conflict. Hence, a peaceful
response has been called in order to achieve some kind of unity and understanding amidst
the diversity present in world civilizations. A call for global ethics entails revisiting the
universal values which are:

1. Caring for the young

2. Murder is wrong
3. Telling the truth

MILLENIALS AND FILENNIALS: ETHICAL CHALLENGES AND

RESPONSES

In 2016, Fr. Armand Robleza explains that Filipino millenials or ‘filennials”, are open
to seeking global opportunity, demand flexible work schedules, and value work-life balance,
as supported by the findings of Department of Labor and Employment which found fresh
graduates to be picky. They are also hardworking, ambitious, socially and virtually
connected.

Ethics | 67
The generations of today:

1. Traditionalists (1900-1945)
2. Baby Boomers Generation (1946-1964)
3. Gen X (1960-1980)
4. Gen Y Millenials (1982-1994)
5. Gen Z (1997-2012)

Traits of Filennials

1. They value authenticity. 6. They are socially conscious.

2. They want to be rewarded for 7. They carefully consider prices.
their loyalty. 8. They love good content.
3. They favor word-of-mouth 9. The have a selective attention
recommendation. span.
4. They are tech-savvy. 10. They go at their own pace.
5. They will pay for experience.

Millenials are more used to experiencing ethical and moral differences of varying
cultural influences that they are exposed to online. Hence, this will make them tolerant
and accepting of people. However, if not cautious, this might also lead them to undesired
ethical and moral systems due to the unfiltered online content presented to them.

ETHICS AND RELIGION

What is religion?
The word Religion comes from the Latin word Religare, meaning to bind back. Religio
or religion implies a bond, a relationship or fellowship between man and God. Although
religion and ethics are often treated the same since they are both a system of belief and
practices, they are not synonymous. Ethics views religion man’s duty to bind himself in the
worship of God. This duty, however, is not based from a religious or ecclesiastical (church)
law. Rather, it is founded on the natural law since the yearning of God in the heart of man is
rooted in his rational nature. It is our natural duty to worship God that is the ultimate
foundation or all religious beliefs and practices.
Subjectively, religion can be understood as the act or habit inclining a person to
render worship of God. It involves the act of knowing, loving, and serving God. Objectively,
Ethics | 68
religion is a system of beliefs, rituals, moral practices and laws regulating the fulfilment of
the natural duty of worship. It is in this light that religion is understood as equal to creed or
faith. It is creed which differentiates churches or sects, such as Buddhism, Catholicism, Islam,
Protestantism and others.

The Role of Religion in a Globalized World

Globalization paved the way for the creation of international organizations such as
the United Nations (U.N.) and the ASEAN. Various religious traditions share values to uphold
with these institutions. In the rich history of the world, different religions have already come
in direct contact with one another. However, it is globalization that made this contact as
accessible as never seen before. With one click of a button, communication may already be
established. Despite our best efforts to attain lasting peace, ages of conflict continue to exist
in this globalized world. Hence, there are attitudes we need to pursue and adapt in order to
reach this noble goal.

1. Religious Tolerance

In history, numerous armed conflicts dubbed as “religious war” or “holy war” can be
traced. Plenty of reasons has been put forward to support these wars but what is common
among these arguments is the need to defend their faith, and the promotion of their beliefs
to foreign lands. Although these armed conflicts are still present today, the most common
form of religious persecution being experienced by a constantly growing number of religious
people is the mockery of their faith. “Heathen”, “idolatrous”, “superstitious”, “infidel”, are just
some of the words used in this deplorable activity.

No matter how imperfect it may seem, religion is sacred to a person. It is his

fulfillment of his natural duty to worship God, his response to his yearning spirit. It is integral
to his nature to establish and sustain a relationship with God in a way he sincerely and
genuinely understands.

It is religious tolerance when we recognize the faith of another person as an act of his
spirit, free and unique. It is religious tolerance when instead of coercing someone to believe
in our faith, we allow every person to be enlightened, thereby letting him join voluntarily. It
is religious tolerance when instead of emphasizing our differences, we join hands both in
acts of prayer and acts of service and work together towards the common good of mankind.

Ethics | 69
 2. The Ecumenical Movement

Ecumenism is the concept and principle that Christians who belong to different
Christian denominations should work together to develop closer relationships among their
Churches and promote Christian unity. It is a great positive step toward achieving
harmonious relationships among the Churches who share common roots in the teachings of
Christ. The Second Vatican Council provides the meaning and direction of ecumenism as
follows:

The term “ecumenical movement” indicates the initiatives

and activities planned and undertaken, according to the various
needs of the Church and as opportunities offer, to promote
Christian unity, These are: first, every effort to acoid expressions,
judgments and actions which do not represent the condition of
our separated brethren with truth and fairness and so make
mutual relations with them more difficult; then “dialogue”
between competent experts from different Churches and
Communities. At these meetings, which are organized in a
religious spirit, each explains the teaching of his Communion in
greater depth and brings out clearly its distinctive features. In
such dialogue, everyone gains a truer knowledge and more just
appreciation of the teaching and religious life of both
Communions. In addition, the way is prepared for cooperation
between them in the duties for the common good of humanity
which are demanded by every Christian conscience; and,
wherever this is allowed, there is prauer in common, Finally, all
are led to examine their own faithfulness to Christ’s will for the
Church and accordingly to undertake with vigor the task of
renewal and reform. (Decree on Ecumenism, Nov. 21, 1964,
The 16 Documents of Vatican II, Manila: St. Paul Publication,
p.213.)

Ethics | 70
References:

Printed Books:
Agapay, R.B. (1991) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators.
National Book Store.

Bulaong, O. Et al (2018). Ethics: Foundations of Moral Valuation. Rex Book Store, Inc.

Maboloc, C.R. (2010) Ethics and human dignity. Rex Book Store.

Montemayor, F. (1994) Ethics: The philosophy of life. National Book Store.

Pasco, M.O., & Rodriguez, A.M., & Suarez, V. (2018) Ethics. C & E Publishing.

Video Sources:
Ethics | 71
Crash Course on Philosophy: Kantian Ethics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw

Crash Course on Philosophy: Utilitarianism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a739VjqdSI

Crash Course on Philosophy: Virtue Ethics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ

Additional Readings:
Decree on Ecumenism. (1964). The 16 Documents of Vatican II. St. Paul
Publication.

Rachels, J. (2004). “What is Morality”, Chapter 1 and “The Challenge of Cultural Relativism”,
Chapter 2 in the Elements of Moral Philosophy. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill College.

https://leapoutdigital.com/understanding-filipino-millennials-top-10-traits-of-a-typical-
filennial/

Ethics | 72
Application: Short Essay

1. Provide some challenges to ethical behaviour in today’s world. As an ethics student,

how can you resolve these challenges in an ethical manner?
2. How do we respond to an increasingly pluralist world?

Ethics | 73
 Rubrics for Grading Essays

Grading Rubric for Essay

5 4 3 2
Content Content is accurate Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
and all required some required but some required Information is not presented,
information is information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
presented. and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally presented, making
easy to follow. it difficult to follow.
Organization Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows Thoughts are unorganized.
of Thoughts and logical. but is slightly illogical. well.

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors
errors, spelling are rare and do not spelling, or substantially interfere from
& punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors reading the paper.
the paper. interfere with
reading the paper.

Ethics | 74