8 Special Senses

WHAT
The special senses
respond to stimuli involved
in vision, hearing, balance, HOW
smell, and taste.
A variety of receptors,
housed in special sense
organs such as the eye, ear,
and nose, help detect stimuli
in your surroundings.

WHY
Without your
special senses, you
could not smell or taste your
favorite food, appreciate
colors, or hear your
Instructors may assign
favorite song.
a related “Building
Vocabulary” activity
using Mastering A&P

P
eople are responsive creatures. Hold freshly hearing—are called special senses. Receptors
baked bread before us, and our mouths water. for a fifth special sense, equilibrium, are housed in
Sudden thunder makes us jump. These stimuli the ear, along with the organ of hearing. In con-
(the bread and thunder) and many others continually trast to the small and widely distributed general
greet us and are interpreted by our nervous system. receptors, the special sense receptors are either
We are told that we have five senses that keep large, complex sensory organs (eyes and ears) or
us in touch with what is going on in the external localized clusters of receptors (taste buds and
world: touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing. olfactory epithelium).
Actually, touch is a mixture of the general senses In this chapter we focus on the functional anat-
that we considered in Chapter 7—the temperature, omy of each special sense organ, but keep in mind
pressure, and pain receptors of the skin and the that sensory inputs overlap. What we experience—
proprioceptors of muscles and joints. The other our “feel” of the world—is a blending of stimulus
four “traditional” senses—smell, taste, sight, and effects.

294
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 295

The adult eye is a sphere that measures about 1 inch

CONCEPT LINK (2.5 cm) in diameter. Only the anterior one-sixth of
Recall the three basic functions of the nervous system the eye’s surface is normally seen. The rest of it is
(Figure 7.1, p. 243). Each of the special senses gathers enclosed and protected by a cushion of fat and the
unique sensory information that, once integrated, will walls of the bony orbit. The accessory structures of
influence motor output. For example, if you saw a ball the eye include the extrinsic eye muscles, eyelids,
moving toward your head, this sensory input might conjunctiva, and lacrimal apparatus.
result in a motor output that would move your body out Anteriorly the eyes are protected by the eyelids,
of the path of the ball. Additionally, recall that each which meet at the medial and lateral corners of the
type of sensory information is processed in a specialized eye, the medial commissure (canthus) and lateral
area of the cerebrum (Figure 7.13c, p. 259). commissure (canthus), respectively (Figure 8.1).
The space between the eyelids in an open eye is
called the palpebral fissure. Projecting from the border
PART I: THE EYE AND VISION of each eyelid are the eyelashes. Modified sebaceous
Of all the senses, vision has been studied most. glands associated with the eyelid edges are the tarsal
Nearly 70 percent of all sensory receptors in the glands. These glands produce an oily secretion that
body are in the eyes. The optic tracts that carry infor- lubricates the eye (Figure 8.2a, p. 296). Ciliary
mation from the eyes to the brain are massive bun- glands, which are modified sweat glands, lie be- 8
dles, containing over a million nerve fibers. We rely tween the eyelashes (cilium 5 eyelash), and their
heavily on our sight and often have to “see it to ducts open at the eyelash follicles. On the medial
believe it” (Figure 8.1). aspect of each eye is the lacrimal caruncle (see
Figure 8.1), a raised area containing sebaceous and
sweat glands that produce an oily, whitish secretion
8.1 Anatomy of the Eye that also lubricates the eye.
A delicate membrane, the conjunctiva (kon-
8.1a External and junk0ti9vah), lines the eyelids and covers part of
Accessory Structures the outer surface of the eyeball (Figure 8.2a). It
Learning Objective ends at the edge of the transparent cornea by fus-
� When provided with a model or diagram, identify ing with the corneal epithelium. The conjunctiva
the accessory eye structures, and list the functions secretes mucus, which helps to lubricate the eye-
of each. ball and keep it moist.

Site where Eyebrow

conjunctiva
merges with Eyelid
cornea Eyelashes

Palpebral Pupil
fissure Lacrimal
caruncle
Lateral Medial
commissure commissure
(canthus) (canthus)

Iris Sclera Figure 8.1 Surface

(covered by anatomy of the eye and
Eyelid conjunctiva) accessory structures.
296 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Homeostatic
Imbalance 8.1
Inflammation of the conjunctiva, called conjunctivitis,
results in reddened, irritated eyes. Pinkeye, its infec-
Lacrimal gland tious form caused by bacteria or viruses, is highly
contagious.
Excretory duct
of lacrimal gland
The lacrimal apparatus (Figure 8.2b) consists
Conjunctiva
of the lacrimal gland and a number of ducts that
drain lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity. The
lacrimal glands are located above the lateral end of
Eyelid each eye. They continually release a dilute salt solu-
tion (tears) onto the anterior surface of the eyeball
Eyelashes through several small ducts. The tears flush across
the eyeball into the lacrimal canaliculi medially,
Tarsal then into the lacrimal sac, and finally into the
glands
nasolacrimal duct, which empties into the inferior
(a) Eyelid meatus of the nasal cavity (see Figure 8.2b). Tears
contain mucus, antibodies, and lysozyme (li9so-
zı̄m), an enzyme that destroys bacteria. Thus, they
cleanse and protect the eye surface as they moisten
and lubricate it. When lacrimal secretion increases
substantially, tears spill over the eyelids and fill the
Lacrimal Lacrimal sac nasal cavities, causing congestion and the “sniffles.”
gland
This happens when the eyes are irritated by foreign
Excretory ducts
objects or chemicals and when we are emotionally
of lacrimal gland upset. In the case of irritation, the enhanced tearing
acts to wash away or dilute the irritating substance.
The importance of “emotional tears” is poorly under-
stood, but some suspect that crying is important in
Lacrimal canaliculus
reducing stress. Anyone who has had a good cry
Nasolacrimal duct would probably agree, but this has been difficult to
prove scientifically.
Inferior meatus
of nasal cavity
Homeostatic
Imbalance 8.2
Nostril Because the nasal cavity mucosa is continuous with
that of the lacrimal duct system, a cold or nasal
inflammation often causes the lacrimal mucosa to
(b) become inflamed and swell. This impairs the drainage
of tears from the eye surface, causing “watery” eyes.
Figure 8.2 Accessory structures of the eye.
(a) Sagittal section of the accessory structures
associated with the anterior part of the eye. (b) Anterior
view of the lacrimal apparatus.
Six extrinsic eye muscles (external eye muscles)
are attached to the outer surface of each eye. These
muscles produce gross eye movements and make it
possible for the eyes to follow a moving object.
Figure 8.3 gives the names, locations, actions, and
cranial nerve serving each of the extrinsic muscles.
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 297

Trochlea

Superior
oblique muscle

Superior
oblique tendon
Superior Axis at
rectus muscle center of
eye
Conjunctiva
Medial rectus Inferior
muscle rectus muscle
Lateral rectus
muscle Lateral
rectus muscle

Optic Inferior Inferior 8

nerve rectus oblique Common
muscle muscle tendinous ring
(a) (b)

Controlling
Name Action cranial nerve

Lateral rectus Moves eye laterally VI (abducens)

Medial rectus Moves eye medially III (oculomotor)
Superior rectus Elevates eye and turns it medially III (oculomotor)
Inferior rectus Depresses eye and turns it medially III (oculomotor)
Inferior oblique Elevates eye and turns it laterally III (oculomotor)
Superior oblique Depresses eye and turns it laterally IV (trochlear)

(c)
Figure 8.3 Extrinsic muscles of the eye. (a) Lateral view of the right eye.
(b) Superior view of the right eye. The four rectus muscles originate from
the common tendinous ring, a ringlike tendon at the back of the eye socket.
(c) Summary of cranial nerve supply and actions of the extrinsic eye muscles.

Did You Get It?

8.1b Internal Structures: The Eyeball
Learning Objectives
1. What is the role of the eyelids?
2. Which four accessory glands or structures help � Name the layers of the wall of the eye, and
lubricate the eye? indicate the major function of each.
3. What is the role of lysozyme in tears? � Explain how the functions of rods and cones differ.
4. What is the visual role of the external eye muscles?
� Define blind spot, cataract, and glaucoma.
For answers, see Appendix A.
� Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the
retina.
� Discuss the importance of an ophthalmoscopic
examination.
298 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Q Which layer of the eye would be the first to be

affected by deficient tear production?

Sclera
Ciliary body Choroid
Ciliary zonule Retina

Cornea
Fovea centralis
Iris
Pupil
Optic nerve
Aqueous
humor
(in anterior
segment)

Lens
Scleral venous sinus Central artery
(canal of Schlemm) and vein of
Vitreous humor the retina
(in posterior segment) Optic disc
(blind spot)
(a)

Ciliary body Vitreous humor

in posterior
segment
Iris
Retina
Margin
of pupil Choroid
Sclera
Aqueous humor Fovea centralis
(in anterior
segment) Optic disc
Lens Optic nerve
Cornea
Ciliary zonule

(b)
Figure 8.4 Internal anatomy of the eye (sagittal section).
(a) Diagrammatic view. (b) Photograph.

The eye itself, called the eyeball, is a hollow sphere

(Figure 8.4). Its wall is composed of three tunics, or
layers, and its interior is filled with fluids called humors
by tears.
that help to maintain its shape. The lens, the main
A
its cornea), which normally is continuously washed
The outermost fibrous layer (the sclera and especially focusing apparatus of the eye, is supported upright
within the eye cavity, dividing it into two chambers.
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 299

Layers Forming the Wall of the Eyeball inside the eye. They also act as phagocytes to remove
Now that we have covered the general anatomy of dead or damaged receptor cells and store vitamin A
the eyeball, we are ready to get specific. needed for vision.
The transparent inner neural layer of the retina
Fibrous Layer The outermost layer, called the fibrous contains millions of receptor cells, the rods and
layer, consists of the protective sclera (sklĕ9rah) and cones, which are called photoreceptors because
the transparent cornea (kor9ne-ah). The sclera (thick they respond to light (Figure 8.5, p. 300). Electrical
white connective tissue) is seen anteriorly as the “white signals pass from the photoreceptors via a two-
of the eye.” The central anterior portion of the fibrous neuron chain—bipolar cells and then ganglion
layer is crystal clear. This “window” is the cornea cells—before leaving the retina via the optic nerve
through which light enters the eye. The cornea is well and being transmitted to, and interpreted by, the
supplied with nerve endings. Most are pain fibers, and optic cortex. The result is vision.
when the cornea is touched, blinking and increased The photoreceptor cells are distributed over the
tear production occur. Even so, the cornea is the most entire retina, except where the optic nerve leaves the
exposed part of the eye, and it is very vulnerable to eyeball; this site is called the optic disc. Since there
damage. Luckily, its ability to repair itself is extraordi- are no photoreceptors at the optic disc, it results in a
nary. Furthermore, the cornea is the only tissue in the blind spot in our vision. When light from an object
body that is transplanted from one person to another is focused on the optic disc, the object disappears 8
without the worry of rejection. Because the cornea from our view and we cannot see it.
has no blood vessels, it is beyond the reach of the The rods and cones are not evenly distributed in
immune system. the retina. The rods are densest at the periphery, or
edge, of the retina and decrease in number as the
Vascular Layer The middle, or vascular layer, of center of the retina is approached. The rods allow us
the eyeball, has three distinguishable regions. Most to see in gray tones in dim light, and they provide
posterior is the choroid (ko9roid), a blood-rich our peripheral vision.
nutritive tunic that contains a dark pigment. The
pigment prevents light from scattering inside the Homeostatic
eye. Moving anteriorly, the choroid is modified to Imbalance 8.3
form two smooth muscle structures, the ciliary Anything that interferes with rod function hinders
(sil9e-er-e) body, which is attached to the lens by a our ability to see at night. This condition, called
suspensory ligament called the ciliary zonule, and night blindness, dangerously impairs our ability to
the iris. The pigmented iris has a rounded open- drive safely at night. Its most common cause is pro-
ing, the pupil, through which light passes. longed vitamin A deficiency, which eventually causes
Circularly and radially arranged smooth muscle the neural retina to deteriorate. Vitamin A is one of
fibers form the iris, which acts like the diaphragm the building blocks of the pigments the photorecep-
of a camera. That is, it regulates the amount of light tor cells need to respond to light (see “A Closer
entering the eye so that we can see as clearly as pos- Look” on p. 301). Vitamin A supplements will
sible in the available light. In close vision and restore function if taken before degenerative changes
bright light, the circular muscles contract, and the in the neural retina occur.
pupil constricts, or gets smaller. In distant vision
and dim light, the radial fibers contract to enlarge
(dilate) the pupil, which allows more light to enter Cones are discriminatory receptors that allow us
the eye. Cranial nerve III (oculomotor) controls the to see the details of our world in color under bright
muscles of the iris. light conditions. They are densest in the center of the
retina and decrease in number toward the retinal edge
Sensory Layer The innermost sensory layer of the (the opposite of rods). Lateral to each blind spot is the
eye is the delicate two-layered retina (ret9ı̆-nah), fovea centralis (fo9ve-ah sen-tră9lis), a tiny pit that
which extends anteriorly only to the ciliary body. contains only cones (see Figure 8.4). Consequently,
The outer pigmented layer of the retina is com- this is the area of greatest visual acuity, or point of
posed of pigmented cells that, like those of the cho- sharpest vision, and anything we wish to view criti-
roid, absorb light and prevent light from scattering cally is focused on the fovea centralis.
 Visible light

Pigmented
layer of retina 420 nm 530 nm
(blue cones) (green cones)

Light absorption by cone populations

Rod 560 nm
(red cones)
Cone

Bipolar
cells

Ganglion Pathway
cells of light
(a)
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength (nanometers)

Figure 8.6 Sensitivities of the three cone types to

different wavelengths of visible light.

Pigmented
layer of Neural layer There are three varieties of cones. Each type is
retina of retina most sensitive to particular wavelengths of visible
light (Figure 8.6). One type responds most vigorously
to blue light, another to green light. The third cone
Central variety responds to a range including both green and
artery red wavelengths of light. However, this is the only
and vein cone population to respond to red light at all, so
of retina
these are called the “red cones.” Impulses received at
Optic disc the same time from more than one type of cone by
the visual cortex are interpreted as intermediate col-
ors, similar to what occurs when two colors of paint
are mixed. For example, simultaneous impulses from
blue and red color receptors are seen as purple or
violet tones. When all three cone types are stimu-
lated, we see white. If someone shines red light into
Sclera
Optic one of your eyes and green into the other, you will
nerve Choroid see yellow, indicating that the “mixing” and interpre-
tation of colors occur in the brain, not in the retina.
(b)
Figure 8.5 The three major types of neurons Homeostatic
composing the retina. (a) Notice that light must pass Imbalance 8.4
through the thickness of the retina to excite the rods Lack of all three cone types results in total color
and cones. Electrical signals flow in the opposite blindness, whereas lack of one cone type leads to
direction: from the rods and cones to the bipolar cells partial color blindness. Most common is the lack of
and finally to the ganglion cells. The ganglion cells red or green receptors, which leads to two varieties of
generate the nerve impulses that leave the eye via the
red-green color blindness. Red and green are seen as
optic nerve. (b) Schematic view of the posterior part of
the same color—either red or green, depending on
the eyeball illustrating how the axons of the ganglion
cells form the optic nerve. The site where the optic the cone type present. Many color-blind people are
nerve meets the retina is the optic disc.
 Learn more at Mastering A&P > Study Area >
Additional Study Tools > A Closer Look A
CLOSER
Visual Pigments— LOOK
The Actual Photoreceptors
he names of the tiny photorecep- the fatter cones taper to pointed tips. are not blinded and unable to see in
T tor cells of the retina reflect their
shapes. As shown to the left, rods are
In each type of photoreceptor, there is
a region called an outer segment,
bright sunlight.
A good deal is known about the
slender, elongated neurons, whereas attached to the cell body. The outer structure and function of rhodopsin,
segment corresponds to a the purple pigment found in rods
light-trapping dendrite, in (see figure below). It is formed from

Light
Light
ht

which the discs containing the union of opsin and retinal.

Lig

the visual pigments are When light strikes rhodopsin, retinal

stacked like a row of straightens out and releases the pro-
pennies. tein. As these changes occur, the pur-
Process of The behavior of the visual ple color of rhodopsin changes to the
bipolar cell Synaptic pigments is dramatic. When yellow of retinal and finally becomes
endings light strikes them, they lose colorless as retinal changes to vitamin
Rod their color, or are “bleached”; A. Thus the term “bleaching” accu-
cell Rod cell shortly afterward, they regen- rately describes the color changes that
body body
erate their pigment. Absorp- occur when light hits the pigment.
Cone
cell tion of light and pigment Rhodopsin is regenerated as vitamin A
body bleaching cause electrical is again converted to retinal and
Nuclei
changes in the photoreceptor recombined with opsin in an ATP-
Mitochondria cells that ultimately cause requiring process. The cone pigments,
nerve impulses to be transmit- although similar to rhodopsin, differ
ted to the brain. Pigment in the specific kinds of proteins they
regeneration ensures that you contain.
Inner segment

Retinal
(visual yellow)
Light absorption
causes Releases
Outer segment

Opsin
Rhodopsin
(visual purple)
Bleaching of
the pigment

Discs
containing The Essentials
visual pigments • Rhodopsin, the pigment in rods, is formed when opsin (a protein)
binds to retinal (a modified form of vitamin A).
Pigmented

• When light hits rhodopsin, rhodopsin breaks apart into its compo-
nents, opsin and retinal. Retinal then degrades to become unmod-
layer

ified vitamin A.
• Rhodopsin is visually purple, but in the presence of light, gradually
Melanin the eye sees yellow (retinal) then clear (vitamin A) in a process
granules called pigment “bleaching”.

301
302 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

unaware of their condition because they have learned eyeball from collapsing inward by reinforcing it
to rely on other cues—such as differences in intensi- internally, just as water keeps a water balloon
ties of the same color—to distinguish green from inflated. Aqueous humor is similar to blood plasma
red, for example, on traffic signals. Because the genes and is continually secreted by a special area of the
regulating color vision are on the X (female) sex choroid. Like the vitreous humor, it helps maintain
chromosome, color blindness is a sex-linked condi- intraocular (in0trah-ok9u-lar) pressure, the pressure
tion. It occurs almost exclusively in males. inside the eye. It also provides nutrients for the avas-
cular lens and cornea. Aqueous humor is reabsorbed
Lens into the venous blood through the scleral venous
sinus, or canal of Schlemm (shlĕm), which is
Light entering the eye is focused on the retina by the
located at the junction of the sclera and cornea.
lens, a flexible biconvex crystal-like structure. Recall
the lens is held upright in the eye by the ciliary zon-
ule attached to the ciliary body (see Figure 8.4). Homeostatic
Imbalance 8.6
If drainage of aqueous humor is blocked, fluid backs
Homeostatic up like a clogged sink. Pressure within the eye may
Imbalance 8.5 increase to dangerous levels and compress the deli-
In youth, the lens is transparent and has the consis- cate retina and optic nerve. The resulting condition,
tency of firm jelly, but as we age it becomes increas- glaucoma (glaw-ko9mah; “vision going gray”), can
ingly hard and cloudy. Cataracts, the loss of lens lead to blindness unless detected early. Glaucoma
transparency, cause vision to become hazy and dis- is a common cause of blindness in the elderly.
torted and can eventually cause blindness. Other risk Unfortunately, many forms of glaucoma progress
factors for forming cataracts include diabetes melli- slowly and have almost no symptoms at first. Thus,
tus, frequent exposure to intense sunlight, and heavy sight deteriorates slowly and painlessly until the
smoking. Current treatment of cataracts is either spe- damage is done. Signs of advanced glaucoma include
cial cataract glasses or surgical removal of the lens seeing halos around lights, headaches, and blurred
and replacement with a lens implant. vision. A simple instrument called a tonometer (to-
nom9e-ter) is used to measure the intraocular pres-
sure, which should be tested yearly in people over
40. Glaucoma is commonly treated with eyedrops
that increase the rate of aqueous humor drainage.
Laser or surgical enlargement of the drainage chan-
nel is another option.

The ophthalmoscope (of-thal9mo-sko– p) is an

instrument that illuminates the interior of the eye-
ball, allowing the retina, optic disc, and internal
blood vessels at the fundus, or posterior wall of the
eye, to be viewed and examined (Figure 8.7). Such an
examination can detect certain pathological condi-
tions, such as diabetes, arteriosclerosis, and degener-
The cataract in this photo appears as a milky structure that
seems to fill the pupil.
ation of the optic nerve and retina.

Did You Get It?

The lens divides the eye into two segments, or 5. What is the meaning of the term blind spot in
chambers. The anterior (aqueous) segment, anterior to relation to the eye?
the lens, contains a clear watery fluid called aqueous 6. What function does the choroid of the vascular layer
humor. The posterior (vitreous) segment, posterior to have in common with the pigmented layer of the
retina?
the lens, is filled with a gel-like substance called
7. How do the rods and cones differ from each other?
vitreous (vit9re-us) humor, or the vitreous body For answers, see Appendix A.
(see Figure 8.4). Vitreous humor helps prevent the
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 303

Q
Fovea Blood Optic disc Retina
As you look at this figure, are your lenses relatively
centralis vessels thick or relatively thin?

Retina

Light from distant source Focal point

(a)

Light from near source Focal point

Lateral Medial Retina

8

Figure 8.7 The posterior wall (fundus) of the

retina as seen with an ophthalmoscope. Notice
the optic disc, from which the blood vessels radiate.

8.2 Physiology of Vision

(b)
8.2a Pathway of Light through the
Eye and Light Refraction Figure 8.8 Relative convexity of the lens during
focusing for distant and close vision. (a) Light rays
Learning Objectives
from a distant object are nearly parallel as they reach
� Describe image formation on the retina. the eye and can be focused without requiring changes
� Define the following terms: accommodation, in lens convexity. (b) Diverging light rays from close
astigmatism, emmetropia, hyperopia, myopia, objects require that the lens bulge more to focus the
and refraction. image sharply on the retina.
When light passes from one substance to another
substance that has a different density, its speed must bulge more to make close vision possible
changes and its rays are bent, or refracted. Light rays (Figure 8.8b). To achieve this, the ciliary body contracts
are bent in the eye as they encounter the cornea, toward the lens, slackening the ciliary zonules and
aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor. allowing the lens to become more convex. This ability
The refractive, or bending, power of the cornea of the eye to focus specifically for close objects (those
and humors is constant. However, that of the lens less than 20 feet away) is called accommodation. The
can be changed by changing its shape—that is, by image formed on the retina as a result of the light-
making it more or less convex, so that light can be bending activity of the lens is a real image—that is, it
properly focused on the retina. The greater the lens is reversed from left to right, upside down (inverted),
convexity, or bulge (which makes it thicker), the and smaller than the object (Figure 8.9, p. 304).
more it bends the light. The flatter (thinner) the lens, The normal eye is able to accommodate prop-
the less it bends the light. erly. However, vision problems occur when a lens
The resting eye is “set” for distant vision. In gen- is too strong (overconverging) or too weak
eral, light from a distant source (over 20 feet away)
approaches the eye as parallel rays (Figure 8.8a), and
A
would be bulged and thus relatively thick.
the lens does not need to change shape to focus prop- You would be using your close vision, so your lenses
erly on the retina. However, light from a close object
tends to scatter and diverge, or spread out, and the lens
304 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Fixation point

Nearly parallel rays

from distant object Image
Right eye Left eye
Figure 8.9 Real image (reversed left to right, and
upside down) formed on the retina. Notice that
the farther away the object, the smaller its image on
the retina. Optic
nerve
(underconverging) or when there are structural prob- Optic Optic
chiasma tract
lems of the eyeball (as described in “A Closer Look”
on near- and farsightedness.)

8.2b Visual Fields and Visual

Pathways to the Brain
Learning Objective
� Trace the visual pathway to the visual cortex.

Axons carrying impulses from the retina are bundled Optic

together at the posterior aspect of the eyeball and radiation
leave the back of the eye as the optic nerve. At the Thalamus Occipital lobe
optic chiasma (ki-as9mah; chiasm 5 cross) the fibers (visual cortex)
from the medial side of each eye cross over to the
Figure 8.10 Visual fields of the eyes and visual
opposite side of the brain. The fiber tracts that result
pathway to the brain (inferior view). Notice that
are the optic tracts. Each optic tract contains fibers
the visual fields overlap considerably (area of binocular
from the lateral side of the eye on the same side and vision). Notice also the retinal sites at which a real image
the medial side of the opposite eye. For example, the would be focused when both eyes are fixed on a close,
right optic tract contains lateral fibers from the right pointlike object.
eye and medial fibers from the left eye. The optic
tract fibers synapse with neurons in the thalamus,
whose axons form the optic radiation, which runs Homeostatic
to the occipital lobe of the brain. There they synapse Imbalance 8.7
with the cortical cells, and visual interpretation, or Hemianopia (hem0e-ah-no9pe-ah) is the loss of
seeing, occurs. (Figure 8.10 shows the visual pathway the same side of the visual field of both eyes,
from the eye to the brain). which results from damage to the visual cortex on
Each side of the brain receives visual input from one side only (as occurs in some strokes). Thus,
both eyes—from the lateral field of the eye on its the person would not be able to see things past
own side and from the medial field of the other eye. the middle of the visual field on either the right or
Also notice that each eye “sees” a slightly different left side, depending on the site of the stroke. Such
view but that their visual fields overlap quite a bit. As individuals should be carefully attended and
a result of these two phenomena, humans have bin- warned of objects in the nonfunctional side of the
ocular vision. Binocular vision, literally “two-eyed visual field. Their food and personal objects should
vision,” provides for depth perception, also called always be placed on their functional side, or they
“three-dimensional” vision, as our visual cortex fuses might miss them.
the two slightly different images delivered by the two
eyes into one “picture.”
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Additional Study Tools > A Closer Look A
CLOSER
LOOK
Bringing Things into Focus
he eye that focuses images cor- Nearsightedness, or myopia Nearby objects are in focus, however,
T rectly on the retina is said to have
emmetropia (em0ĕ-tro9pe-ah), liter-
(mi0o9pe-ah; “short vision”), occurs
when the parallel light rays from dis-
because the lens “accommodates”
(bulges) to focus the image properly
ally, “harmonious vision”; see part (a) tant objects are focused in front of the on the retina. Correction requires con-
of the figure. retina; see part (b) of the figure. cave corrective lenses that diverge the

Emmetropic (normal) vision Astigmatism (multiple focal points)

Focal point is on retina. Corrected with special cylindrically ground lenses

Focal
plane

(a) (d)

Myopic eye (nearsighted: eyeball too long)

Concave lens moves focal
Focal point is in front
Eyeball point further back.
of retina.
too long

(b)

Hyperopic eye (farsighted: eyeball too short)

Focal point is Convex lens moves focal
behind retina. Eyeball point forward.
too short

(c)

305
A CLOSER LOOK (continued)

light rays before they enter the eye, so eyestrain as their endlessly contracting The Essentials
that they converge farther back, on ciliary muscles tire from overwork.
the retinal surface. Correction of hyperopia requires con- • Light rays must converge directly
Farsightedness, or hyperopia vex corrective lenses that converge the on the retinal surface for objects
(hi 0per-o9pe-ah; “far vision”), occurs light rays before they enter the eye. to be seen in focus.
when the parallel light rays from dis- Unequal curvatures in different • Nearsighted people see near
tant objects are focused behind the parts of the cornea (think football objects clearly but need correc-
retina; see part (c) of the figure. shaped, rather than round) or lens tive lenses to see distant objects.
People with hyperopia see distant cause astigmatism (ah-stig9mah- • Farsighted people see distant
objects clearly because their ciliary tizm); see part (d) of the figure. In this objects clearly but need correc-
muscles contract continuously to condition, blurry images occur tive lenses to see nearby objects.
increase the light-bending power of because points of light are focused
• Astigmatism is the presence of
the lens, which moves the focal point not as points on the retina but as lines
uneven curvatures in the cornea
forward onto the retina. Therefore, (astigma 5 not a point). Special cylin-
or lens, resulting in multiple
nearby objects appear blurry, and drically ground lenses or contacts are
focal points on the retina and
hyperopic individuals are subject to used to correct astigmatism.
blurry vision.

8.2c Eye Reflexes bring about the lens bulge, and the circular (or con-
Learning Objective
strictor) muscles of the iris produce the accommoda-
tion pupillary reflex. In addition, the extrinsic
� Discuss the importance of the convergence and muscles must converge the eyes as well as move them
pupillary reflexes.
to follow the printed lines. This is why long periods
Both the internal and external (extrinsic) eye mus- of reading tire the eyes and often result in what is
cles are necessary for proper eye function. The auto- commonly called eyestrain. When you read for an
nomic nervous system controls the internal muscles. extended time, look up from time to time and stare
As mentioned earlier, these muscles include those of into the distance. This temporarily relaxes all the eye
the ciliary body, which alters lens curvature, and the muscles and provides an excellent opportunity to
radial and circular muscles of the iris, which control think about what you just read!
pupil size. The external muscles are the rectus and
oblique muscles attached to the eyeball exterior (see
Figure 8.3), which control eye movements and make Did You Get It?
it possible to follow moving objects. They are also 8. What are the refractory media of the eye?
responsible for convergence, which is the reflexive 9. What name is given to the ability of the eye to
focus on close objects?
movement of the eyes medially when we view close
10. What is the difference between the optic tract and
objects. When convergence occurs, both eyes are the optic nerve?
aimed toward the near object being viewed. The 11. In what way does the photopupillary reflex protect
extrinsic muscles are controlled by somatic fibers of the eyes?
cranial nerves III, IV, and VI (see Figure 8.3). 12. How is astigmatism different from myopia and
When the eyes are suddenly exposed to bright hyperopia?
For answers, see Appendix A
light, the pupils immediately constrict; this is the
photopupillary reflex. This protective reflex pre-
vents excessively bright light from damaging the del-
icate photoreceptors. The pupils also constrict PART II: THE EAR: HEARING
reflexively when we view close objects; this AND BALANCE
accommodation pupillary reflex provides more
acute vision. At first glance, the machinery for hearing and bal-
Reading requires almost continuous work by ance appears crude. Fluids must be stirred to stimu-
both sets of muscles. The muscles of the ciliary body late the receptors of the ear: sound vibrations move

306
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 307

fluid to stimulate hearing receptors, whereas gross and middle ear structures are involved with hearing
movements of the head disturb fluids surrounding only. The internal ear functions in both equilibrium
the balance organs. Receptors that respond to such and hearing.
physical forces are called mechanoreceptors
(mek0ah-no-re-sep9terz). 8.3a External (Outer) Ear
Our hearing apparatus allows us to hear an The external ear, or outer ear, is composed of the
extraordinary range of sound, and our highly sensi- auricle and the external acoustic meatus. The auricle
tive equilibrium receptors keep our nervous system (aw9ri-kul), or pinna (pin9nah), is what most peo-
continually up to date on the position and move- ple call the “ear”—the shell-shaped structure sur-
ments of the head. Without this information, it rounding the auditory canal opening. In many
would be difficult if not impossible to maintain our animals, the auricle funnels (collects and directs)
balance or to know which way is up. Although these sound waves into the auditory canal, but in humans
two sense organs are housed together in the ear, their this function is largely lost.
receptors respond to different stimuli and are acti- The external acoustic meatus (or auditory
vated independently of one another. canal) is a short, narrow chamber (about 1 inch long
by ! inch wide) carved into the temporal bone of
the skull. In its skin-lined walls are the ceruminous
8.3 Anatomy of the Ear (sĕ-roo9mı̆-nus) glands, which secrete waxy yellow 8
Learning Objective cerumen. This earwax provides a sticky trap for
foreign bodies and repels insects.
� Identify the structures of the external, middle, and
internal ear, and list the functions of each. Sound waves entering the auditory canal eventu-
ally hit the tympanic (tim-pan9ik; tympanum 5
Anatomically, the ear is divided into three major drum) membrane, or eardrum, and cause it to
areas: the external, or outer, ear; the middle ear; and vibrate. The canal ends at the eardrum, which sepa-
the internal, or inner, ear (Figure 8.11). The external rates the external from the middle ear.

External (outer) ear Middle ear

Internal (inner) ear

Vestibulocochlear
nerve
Auricle
(pinna) Semicircular
canals
Vestibule
Cochlea
Oval window
(beneath stapes)
Round window

Pharyngotympanic
(auditory) tube

External acoustic Tympanic Hammer Anvil Stirrup

meatus membrane (malleus) (incus) (stapes)
(auditory canal) (eardrum)
Auditory ossicles
Figure 8.11 Anatomy of the ear. Note that the inner ear structures (vestibule, cochlea,
semicircular canals) represent a cast of the cavity formed by the bony labyrinth.
308 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

8.3b Middle Ear Like dominoes falling, when the eardrum moves, it
The middle ear cavity, or tympanic cavity, is a moves the hammer and transfers the vibration to the
small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the tem- anvil. The anvil, in turn, passes the vibration on to
poral bone. It is flanked laterally by the eardrum and the stirrup, which presses on the oval window of the
medially by a bony wall with two openings, the oval inner ear. The movement at the oval window sets the
window and the inferior, membrane- covered round fluids of the inner ear into motion, eventually excit-
window. The pharyngotympanic (think throat- ing the hearing receptors.
eardrum: pharynx-tympanic) tube, or auditory tube,
runs obliquely and slightly downward to link the
8.3c Internal (Inner) Ear
middle ear cavity with the throat, and the mucosae The internal ear is a maze of bony chambers called
lining the two regions are continuous. Normally, the the bony labyrinth, or osseous labyrinth (lab9ı̆-
pharyngotympanic tube is flattened and closed, but rinth; “maze”), located deep within the temporal
swallowing or yawning can open it briefly to equal- bone behind the eye socket. The three subdivisions
ize the pressure in the middle ear cavity with the of the bony labyrinth are the spiraling, pea-sized
external, or atmospheric, pressure. This is an impor- cochlea (kok9le-ah, “snail”), the vestibule (ves9ti-
tant function because the eardrum does not vibrate ! and the semicircular canals. The vestibule is
bul),
freely unless the pressure on both sides is the same. situated between the semicircular canals and the
When the pressures are unequal, the eardrum bulges cochlea. The views of the bony labyrinth typically
inward or outward, causing hearing difficulty (voices seen in textbooks, including this one, are somewhat
may sound far away) and sometimes earaches. The misleading because we are really talking about a cav-
ear-popping sensation of the pressures equalizing is ity. Figure 8.11 can be compared to a cast of the bony
familiar to anyone who has flown in an airplane. labyrinth—that is, a labyrinth that was filled with
plaster of paris and then had the bony walls removed
after the plaster hardened. The shape of the plaster
Homeostatic then reveals the shape of the cavity that worms
Imbalance 8.8 through the temporal bone.
Inflammation of the middle ear, otitis media The bony labyrinth is filled with a plasmalike
(o-ti9tis me9de-ah), is a fairly common result of a fluid called perilymph (per9ı̆-limf). Suspended in
sore throat, especially in children, whose pharyngo- the perilymph is a membranous labyrinth, a sys-
tympanic tubes run more horizontally. In otitis tem of membrane sacs that more or less follows the
media, the eardrum bulges and often becomes shape of the bony labyrinth. The membranous laby-
inflamed. When large amounts of fluid or pus accu- rinth itself contains a thicker fluid called endolymph
mulate in the cavity, an emergency myringotomy (en9do-limf).
(lancing of the eardrum) may be required to relieve
the pressure. A tiny tube is implanted in the eardrum
that allows pus to drain into the external ear canal. Did You Get It?
The tube usually falls out by itself within the year. 13. Which region(s) of the ear (external, middle, or
internal) serve hearing only?
14. Which structures of the ear transmit sound
vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window?
The more horizontal course of the pharyngotym- For answers, see Appendix A.
panic tube in infants also explains why it is never a
good idea to “prop” a bottle or feed them when they
are lying flat (a condition that favors the entry of the
food into that tube).
8.4 Hearing
The tympanic cavity is spanned by the three Learning Objectives
smallest bones in the body, the ossicles (os9sı̆-kulz), � Explain the function of the spiral organ of Corti in
which transmit and amplify the vibratory motion of hearing.
the eardrum to the fluids of the inner ear (see � Define sensorineural deafness and conductive
Figure 8.11). These bones, named for their shape, are deafness, and list possible causes of each.
the hammer, or malleus (mă9le-us); the anvil, or � Explain how a person is able to localize the source
incus (in9kus); and the stirrup, or stapes (sta9pez).! of a sound.
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 309

Temporal Perilymph in scala vestibuli

bone Vestibular
Spiral Vestibular Hair (receptor) Tectorial membrane
organ of membrane cells of spiral membrane
Corti organ of Corti
Afferent fibers
of the cochlear
nerve
Temporal
8
bone

Cochlear Fibers of
duct (contains Perilymph in Basilar Supporting the cochlear
endolymph) scala tympani membrane cells nerve
(a) (b)
Figure 8.12 Anatomy of the cavities of the bony labyrinth contain cells (hair cells) rest on the basilar
cochlea. (a) A cross-sectional view perilymph. The cochlear duct (mem- membrane, and the hairs of the hair
of one turn of the cochlea, showing branous labyrinth) contains endo- cells are embedded in the tectorial
the position of the spiral organ of lymph. (b) Detailed structure of the membrane.
Corti in the cochlear duct. The spiral organ of Corti. The receptor

Within the cochlear duct, the endolymph-containing The receptor cells, positioned on the basilar mem-
membranous labyrinth of the cochlea is the spiral brane in the spiral organ of Corti, are stimulated by
organ of Corti (kor9te), which contains the hearing the vibrating movement of the basilar membrane
receptors, or hair cells (Figure 8.12a). The chambers against the gel-like tectorial (tek-to9re-al) membrane
(scalae) above and below the cochlear duct bordered that lies over them. The “hairs” of the receptor cells
by bone contain perilymph. Sound waves that reach are embedded in the stationary tectorial membrane
the cochlea through vibrations of the eardrum, ossi- such that when the basilar membrane vibrates against
cles, and oval window set the cochlear fluids into it, the “hairs” bend (see Figure 8.12b). The length of
motion (Figure 8.13, p. 310). As the sound waves are the fibers spanning the basilar membrane “tunes”
transmitted by the ossicles from the eardrum to the specific regions to vibrate at specific frequencies. In
oval window, their force (amplitude) is increased by general, high-pitched sounds disturb the shorter,
the lever activity of the ossicles. In this way, nearly the stiffer fibers of the basilar membrane and stimulate
total force exerted on the much larger eardrum receptor cells close to the oval window, whereas low-
reaches the tiny oval window, which in turn sets the pitched sounds affect longer, more floppy fibers and
fluids of the inner ear into motion, and these pressure activate specific hair cells further along toward the
waves set up vibrations in the basilar membrane. apex of the cochlea (Figure 8.14, p. 310).
310 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

EXTERNAL EAR MIDDLE EAR INTERNAL EAR

Auditory Ear- Hammer, Oval Fluids in cochlear canals

Pinna
canal drum anvil, stirrup window Upper and middle lower
Pressure

Spiral organ Time

One Amplitude Amplification
of Corti
vibration in middle ear
stimulated

Figure 8.13 Route of sound waves through the ear. To excite the hair cells in the
spiral organ of Corti in the inner ear, sound wave vibrations must pass through air,
membranes, bone, and fluid.

Once stimulated, the hair cells transmit impulses could say that we hear “in stereo.” Functionally, this
along the cochlear nerve (a division of cranial helps us to determine where sounds are coming
nerve VIII—the vestibulocochlear nerve) to the audi- from in our environment.
tory cortex in the temporal lobe, where interpreta- When the same sounds, or tones, keep reaching
tion of the sound, or hearing, occurs. Because sound the ears, the auditory receptors tend to adapt, or stop
usually reaches the two ears at different times, we responding, to those sounds, and we are no longer
aware of them. This is why the drone of a continu-
ously running motor does not demand our attention
after the first few seconds. However, hearing is the
Stapes Fibers of
sensory last sense to leave our awareness when we fall asleep
Scala
vestibuli neurons or receive anesthesia and is the first to return as we
Oval awaken.
window Perilymph
Figure 8.14 Activation of the cochlear hair cells.
(a) The cochlea is drawn as though it were uncoiled to
make the events of sound transmission easier to follow.
Sound waves of low frequency (black arrows), below
the level of hearing, travel entirely around the cochlear
duct without exciting hair cells in the spiral organ of
Round Scala Basilar Cochlear Corti. But sounds of higher frequency penetrate
window tympani membrane duct
through the cochlear duct (white arrows) to the scala
(a) tympani. This causes different areas of the basilar
membrane to vibrate maximally in response to different
Fibers of basilar membrane frequencies of sound, stimulating particular hair cells
and sensory neurons. The differential stimulation of hair
cells is perceived in the brain as sound of a certain pitch.
Apex
Base (short, (long, (b) The length and stiffness of the fibers spanning the
stiff fibers) floppy basilar membrane tune specific regions to vibrate at
fibers) specific frequencies. The higher notes—up to 20,000
Hertz (Hz)—are detected by shorter, stiffer hair cells
20,000 2,000 200
20 along the base of the basilar membrane. Lower notes—
(High notes) (Low notes)
Frequency (Hz) as low as 20 Hz—are detected by longer, floppy fibers
(b) near the apex.
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 311

Did You Get It?

Membranes in vestibule
15. From the air outside the body, through what
substances do sound waves travel to excite the
receptor cells of the cochlea?
16. Which nerve transmits impulses from the spiral
organ of Corti to the brain?
17. Do high-pitched sounds peak close to or far from
the oval window?
For answers, see Appendix A.

Otoliths
8.5 Equilibrium Otolithic
membrane
Learning Objectives
Hair tuft
� Distinguish between static and dynamic
equilibrium. Hair cell
� Describe how the equilibrium organs help Supporting cell
maintain balance.
8
The equilibrium sense is not easy to describe because
it does not “see,” “hear,” or “feel.” What it does is Nerve fibers of
respond (frequently without our awareness) to vari- (a) vestibular division
of cranial nerve VIII
ous head movements. The equilibrium receptors of
the inner ear, collectively called the vestibular Gravity Force of
apparatus, can be divided into two branches—one Otolithic Otoliths gravity
branch is responsible for monitoring static equilib- membrane
Hair cell
rium, and the other monitors dynamic equilibrium.

8.5a Static Equilibrium

Within the membranous sacs of the vestibule are
receptors called maculae (mak9u-le; “spots”) that
are essential to our sense of static equilibrium
(Figure 8.15). The maculae report on changes in the
position of the head in space with respect to the pull
of gravity when the body is not moving (static 5 at
rest). Because they provide information on which
way is up or down, they help us keep our head erect.
The maculae are extremely important to divers swim-
ming in the dark depths (where most other orienting
cues are absent), enabling them to tell which way is
up (to the surface). Each macula is a patch of recep-
tor (hair) cells with their “hairs” embedded in the Head upright Head tilted
otolithic membrane, a gelatinous mass studded (b)
with otoliths (o9tŏ-liths), tiny stones made of cal-
Figure 8.15 Structure and function of maculae
cium salts. As the head moves, the otoliths “roll” in
(static equilibrium receptors). (a) Diagrammatic view
response to changes in the pull of gravity. This move- of part of a macula.(b) When the head is tipped, the
ment creates a pull on the gel, which in turn bends otoliths in the gelatinous otolithic membrane move in
the hairs of the hair cells. Bending activates the hair the direction of gravitational pull, stimulating the
cells, which send impulses along the vestibular maculae. This creates a pull on the hair cells, causing
nerve (a division of cranial nerve VIII) to the cere- them to bend and send a nerve impulse.
bellum of the brain, informing it of the position of
the head in space.
312 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Semicircular
canals Endolymph
Ampulla
Ampulla
Vestibular
nerve

Vestibule Cupula of crista

ampullaris
Flow of
endolymph

(a) (b)
Figure 8.16 Structure and function of a crista ampullaris
(dynamic equilibrium receptor region). (a) Arranged in the three Cupula
spatial planes, the ducts forming the semicircular canals each have a
swelling called an ampulla at their base. (b) Each ampulla contains a Nerve
crista ampullaris, a receptor that is a cluster of hair cells that project fibers
into a gelatinous cap called the cupula. (c) When head position Direction of body
changes during rotation or in an angular direction, inertia causes the movement
endolymph in the semicircular ducts to lag behind; and as the cupula (c)
moves, it drags across the endolymph, which bends the hair cells in
the opposite direction. The bending results in increased impulse
transmission in the sensory neurons. This mechanism adjusts quickly
if the angular motion (or rotation) continues at a constant speed.

8.5b Dynamic Equilibrium in an arclike or angular direction, the endolymph in

The dynamic equilibrium receptors, found in the the canal lags behind the movement (Figure 8.16c).
semicircular canals, respond to angular or rotational Then, as the cupula drags against the stationary
movements of the head rather than to straight-line endolymph, the cupula bends with the body’s
movements. When you twirl on the dance floor or motion. (The action is much like that of a diver's fins
suffer through a spinning carnival ride, these recep- in water—when the diver kicks forward, the fin
tors are working overtime. The semicircular canals bends backward.) This stimulates the hair cells, and
(each about ! inch, or 1.3 cm, around) are oriented impulses are transmitted up the vestibular nerve to
in the three planes of space. Thus, regardless of the cerebellum. Bending the cupula in the opposite
which plane you move in, there will be receptors to direction reduces impulse generation. When you are
detect the movement. moving at a constant rate, the receptors gradually
Within the ampullae, slightly wider regions at the stop sending impulses, and you no longer have the
base of each membranous semicircular canal sensation of motion until your speed or direction of
(Figure 8.16a), are multiple receptor regions, each movement changes.
called a crista ampullaris (kris9tah am0pu-lar9is), or Although the receptors of the semicircular canals
simply crista, which consists of a tuft of hair cells and vestibule are responsible for dynamic and static
covered with a gelatinous cap called the cupula equilibrium, respectively, they usually act together.
(ku9pu-lah) (Figure 8.16b). When your head moves Besides these equilibrium senses, sight and the
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Physical Therapy Assistant

A s the population ages, a growing
number of people find themselves
needing in-home medical care as they
In some cases, she will use electrical
stimulation or ultrasound to stimulate
nerves or muscles. If the patient has a
strengthen and show patients how to
regain their mobility.”
Physical therapy assistants work any-
recover from injuries or surgical proce- new piece of equipment, such as a where physical therapists are found—
dures. Many of these patients rely on cane or a walker, she helps him or her including hospitals, nursing homes, and
physical therapy assistants like Leslie learn to use it. She reviews any pre- clinics. They usually work directly with
Burgess. scribed medication to make sure the patients and under the supervision of a
A licensed physical therapy assistant patient is taking it and discusses safety physical therapist.
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plan written by a licensed physical ther- such as rugs or cords the patient could therapy assistants complete an associ-
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improving mobility, own.
reducing pain, and/ Anatomy is an The Essentials
or helping the important part of
patient function physical therapy • An understanding of anatomy is
with a disability. work, Burgess essential for physical therapy
Burgess’s job is says. “Working assistants (PTAs) to effectively
to help patients with various devi- direct patient exercise.
carry out these ations of move- • PTAs work in hospitals, clinics,
treatment plans, vis- ment, you need and nursing homes and may visit
iting the patient to know what patients at home.
two or three times a bones and mus- • Supervising patient exercises,
week, for 6 to 8 cles are involved teaching proper use of equipment,
weeks or more, so that you know and monitoring patient progress
depending on the which bones and are central tasks for a PTA.
patient’s progress. muscles to

proprioceptors of the muscles and tendons are also 8.5c Hearing and Equilibrium
important in providing the cerebellum with infor- Deficits
mation used to control balance.
Homeostatic
Imbalance 8.9
Did You Get It? Children with ear problems or hearing deficits often
18. What sense do the vestibule and semicircular pull on their ears or fail to respond when spoken to.
canals serve? Under such conditions, tuning fork or audiometry
19. Describe the different receptors for static and testing is done to try to diagnose the problem.
dynamic equilibrium and their locations. Deafness is defined as hearing loss of any degree—
20. What are otoliths, and what is their role in equilibrium?
from a slight loss to a total inability to hear sound.
For answers, see Appendix A.
Generally speaking, there are two kinds of deafness,

313
314 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

conduction and sensorineural. Conduction PART III: CHEMICAL SENSES:

deafness results when something interferes with the
conduction of sound vibrations to the fluids of the SMELL AND TASTE
inner ear. It can be permanent or temporary; some- Learning Objectives
thing as simple as a buildup of earwax may be the
cause. Other causes of conduction deafness include � Describe the location, structure, and function of
the olfactory and taste receptors.
fusion of the ossicles (a problem called otosclerosis
� Name the five basic taste sensations, and list
[o0to-sklĕ-ro9sis]), a ruptured eardrum, and otitis factors that modify the sense of taste.
media (inflammation of the middle ear).
The receptors for taste and olfaction are classified as
Sensorineural deafness occurs when there is
chemoreceptors (ke0mo-re-sep9terz) because they
degeneration or damage to the receptor cells in the
respond to chemicals in solution. Five types of taste
spiral organ of Corti, to the cochlear nerve, or to
receptors have been identified, but the olfactory
neurons of the auditory cortex. This often results
receptors (for smell) are believed to be sensitive to a
from extended listening to excessively loud sounds.
much wider range of chemicals. The receptors for
Thus, whereas conduction deafness results from
smell and taste complement each other and respond
mechanical factors, sensorineural deafness is a prob-
to many of the same stimuli.
lem with nervous system structures.
A person who has a hearing loss due to conduction
deafness will still be able to hear by bone conduction, 8.6 Olfactory Receptors and
even though his or her ability to hear air-conducted
sounds (the normal conduction route) is decreased or
the Sense of Smell
lost. In contrast, individuals with sensorineural deaf- Even though our sense of smell is far less acute than
ness cannot hear better by either conduction route. that of many other animals, the human nose is still
Hearing aids, which use skull bones to conduct sound no slouch in picking up small differences in odors.
vibrations to the inner ear, are generally very successful Some people capitalize on this ability by becoming
in helping people with conduction deafness to hear. tea and coffee blenders, perfumers, or wine tasters.
They are not helpful for sensorineural deafness. The thousands of olfactory receptors, receptors
Equilibrium problems are usually obvious. for the sense of smell, occupy a postage stamp–sized
Nausea, dizziness, and problems in maintaining bal- area in the roof of each nasal cavity (Figure 8.17). Air
ance are common symptoms, particularly when entering the nasal cavities must make a 90° turn
impulses from the vestibular apparatus “disagree” downward to enter the respiratory passageway below,
with what we see (visual input). There also may be so sniffing, which causes more air to flow superiorly
strange (jerky or rolling) eye movements. across the olfactory receptors, intensifies the sense of
A serious pathology of the inner ear is Ménière’s smell.
(mān0e-airz9) syndrome. The exact cause of this The olfactory receptor cells are neurons
condition is not fully known, but suspected causes equipped with olfactory hairs, long cilia that pro-
are arteriosclerosis, degeneration of cranial nerve trude from the nasal epithelium and are continu-
VIII, and increased pressure of the inner ear fluids. In ously bathed by a layer of mucus secreted by
Ménière’s syndrome, progressive deafness occurs. underlying glands. When the olfactory receptors
Affected individuals become nauseated and often located on the cilia are stimulated by chemicals dis-
have howling or ringing sounds in their ears and solved in the mucus, they transmit impulses along
vertigo (a sensation of spinning) that is so severe the olfactory filaments, which are bundled axons
that they cannot stand up without extreme discom- of olfactory neurons that collectively make up the
fort. Anti–motion sickness drugs are often prescribed olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I). The olfactory
to decrease the discomfort. nerve conducts the impulses to the olfactory cortex
of the brain. There the odor is interpreted, and an
“odor snapshot” is made. The olfactory pathways are
Did You Get It? closely tied into the limbic system (emotional-
21. How do sensorineural deafness and conduction visceral part of the brain). Thus, olfactory impres-
deafness differ from each other? sions are long-lasting and very much a part of our
For the answer, see Appendix A. memories and emotions. For example, the smell of
chocolate chip cookies may remind you of your
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 315

Q How does sniffing help to identify scents?

Olfactory bulb

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Olfactory tract
Olfactory filaments of
the olfactory nerve

Supporting cell
Olfactory Olfactory receptor
mucosa cell (sensory neuron)

Olfactory hairs
Mucus layer (cilia) 8
(a)
Route of sniffed air
containing odor molecules

(b)
Figure 8.17 Location and cellular makeup of the olfactory epithelium.

grandmother, and the smell of a special cologne may from head injuries, the aftereffects of nasal cavity
make you think of your father. Our reactions to inflammation (due to a cold, an allergy, or smok-
odors are rarely neutral. We tend to either like or dis- ing), or aging. Some brain disorders can destroy the
like certain odors, and we change, avoid, or add sense of smell or mimic it. For example, some epi-
odors according to our preferences. leptics experience olfactory auras (olfactory hallu-
The olfactory receptors are exquisitely sensi- cinations) just before they go into seizures.
tive—just a few molecules can activate them. Like the
auditory receptors, the olfactory neurons tend to
adapt rather quickly when they are exposed to an
unchanging stimulus, in this case, an odor. This is 8.7 Taste Buds and the Sense
why a woman stops smelling her own perfume after of Taste
a while but will quickly pick up the scent of another
perfume on someone else. The word taste comes from the Latin word taxare,
which means “to touch, estimate, or judge.” When
we taste things, we are, in fact, testing or judging our
Homeostatic environment in an intimate way, and many of us
Imbalance 8.10 consider the sense of taste to be the most pleasurable
Although it is possible to have either taste or smell of our special senses.
deficits, most people seeking medical help for loss of The taste buds, or receptors for the sense of
chemical senses have olfactory disorders, or taste, are widely scattered in the oral cavity. Of the
anosmias (ă-noz9me-uz). Most anosmias result 10,000 or so taste buds that we have, most are on the
tongue. A few are scattered on the soft palate, supe-
rior part of the pharynx, and inner surface of the
nasal cavity.
cheeks.
A
the olfactory receptors in the superior part of the
It brings more odor-containing air into contact with The dorsal tongue surface is covered with small
peglike projections, or papillae (pah-pil9e). The
316 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Epiglottis Taste bud

Connective
Palatine tonsil tissue
Epithelium
Lingual tonsil of tongue
Surface of
the tongue

Gustatory hairs
(microvilli)
Foliate emerging from
papillae a taste pore
Vallate
papilla

Fungiform Gustatory Basal Sensory

papillae (taste) cell cell nerve
fiber
(a)
Taste buds (c)

(b)
Figure 8.18 Location and structure of taste buds. (a) Taste buds on the
tongue are associated with papillae, projections of the tongue mucosa. (b) A
sectioned vallate papilla shows the position of the taste buds in its lateral walls.
(c) An enlarged view of one taste bud.

taste buds are found on the sides of the large round by basal cells (stem cells) found in the deeper
vallate papillae, or circumvallate (ser0kum-val9at) regions of the taste buds.
papillae, on the tops of the more numerous There are five basic taste sensations. The sweet
fungiform (fun9jı̆-form) papillae and in the foli- receptors respond to substances such as sugars, sac-
ate papillae on the sides of the tongue (Figure 8.18). charine, alcohols, some amino acids, and some lead
The specific receptor cells that respond to chemicals salts (such as those found in lead paint). Sour recep-
dissolved in the saliva are epithelial cells called tors respond to hydrogen ions (H+), or the acidity of
gustatory cells. Their long microvilli—the the solution; bitter receptors to alkaloids; and salty
gustatory hairs—protrude through the taste pore; receptors to metal ions in solution. Umami
and when they are stimulated, they depolarize, and (u-mah9me; “delicious”), a taste discovered by the
impulses are transmitted to the brain. Three cranial Japanese, is elicited by the amino acids glutamate
nerves—VII, IX, and X—carry taste impulses from and aspartate. Umami, appears to be responsible for
the various taste buds to the gustatory cortex. The the “beef taste” of steak and the flavor of monoso-
facial nerve (VII) serves the anterior two-thirds of dium glutamate, a food additive.
the tongue. The other two cranial nerves—the Historically, the tip of the tongue was believed to
glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve—serve be most sensitive to sweet and salty substances, its
the other taste bud–containing areas. Because of sides to sour, the back of the tongue to bitter, and the
their location, taste bud cells are subjected to huge pharynx to umami. Actually there are only slight dif-
amounts of friction and are routinely burned by hot ferences in the locations of the taste receptors in dif-
foods. Luckily, they are among the most dynamic ferent regions of the tongue, but the bitter receptors
cells in the body and are replaced every 7 to 10 days do seem to be clustered more at the rear of the
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 317

tongue. Most taste buds respond to two, three, four,

Homeostatic
or even all five taste modalities. Imbalance 8.11
Taste likes and dislikes have homeostatic value. A Congenital eye problems are relatively uncommon,
liking for sugar and salt will satisfy the body’s need but we can give some examples. Strabismus (strah-
for carbohydrates and minerals (as well as some biz9mus), which is commonly called “crossed eyes,”
amino acids). Many sour, naturally acidic foods results from unequal pulls by the external eye muscles
(such as oranges, lemons, and tomatoes) are rich that prevent the baby from coordinating movement of
sources of vitamin C, an essential vitamin. Umami the two eyes. If exercises to strengthen the weaker mus-
guides the intake of proteins, and because many nat- cles are not successful, surgery is always used to correct
ural poisons and spoiled foods are bitter, our dislike the condition because if it is allowed to persist, the
for bitterness is protective. brain may stop recognizing signals from the deviating
Many factors affect taste, and what is commonly eye, causing that eye to become functionally blind.
referred to as our sense of taste depends heavily on
stimulation of our olfactory receptors by aromas.
Think of how bland food tastes when your nasal pas-
sages are congested by a cold. Without the sense of
smell, our morning coffee would simply taste bitter.
In addition, the temperature and texture of food can 8
enhance or spoil its taste for us. For example, some
people will not eat foods that have a pasty texture
(avocados) or that are gritty (pears), and almost
everyone considers a cold greasy hamburger unfit to
eat. “Hot” foods such as chili peppers actually excite
pain receptors in the mouth.
This infant with strabismus is unable to focus both eyes
simultaneously on the same object.

Maternal infections that occur during early preg-

Did You Get It? nancy, particularly rubella (German measles), may
22. What general name is used to describe both taste lead to congenital blindness or cataracts. If the
and smell receptors? Why? mother has a type of sexually transmitted infection
23. Where, relative to specific structures, are most taste
buds located? called gonorrhea (gon0o-re9ah), the bacteria will
24. Why does it help to sniff substances that you want infect the baby’s eyes during delivery. In the resulting
to smell? conjunctivitis, specifically called ophthalmia
For answers, see Appendix A. neonatorum (of-thal9me-ah ne0o-na-to9rum), the
baby’s eyelids become red, swollen, and produce
pus. All states have enacted laws requiring that all
PART IV: DEVELOPMENTAL newborn babies’ eyes be routinely treated with silver
nitrate or antibiotics shortly after birth.
ASPECTS OF THE SPECIAL
SENSES Generally speaking, vision is the only special
Learning Objective sense that is not fully functional when the baby is
born, and many years of “learning” are needed
� Describe changes that occur with age in the
special sense organs. before the eyes are fully mature. The eyeballs con-
tinue to enlarge until the age of 8 or 9, but the lens
The special sense organs, essentially part of the ner- grows throughout life. At birth, the eyeballs are fore-
vous system, are formed very early in embryonic shortened, and all babies are hyperopic (farsighted).
development. For example, the eyes, which are liter- As the eyes grow, this condition usually corrects
ally outgrowths of the brain, are developing by the itself. The newborn infant sees only in gray tones,
fourth week. All of the special senses are functional, makes uncoordinated eye movements, and often
to a greater or lesser degree, at birth. “sees” using only one eye at a time. Because the
318 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

lacrimal glands are not fully developed until about 2 the infant is able to localize sounds and will turn to
weeks after birth, the baby is tearless for this period, the voices of family members. The toddler listens
even though he or she may cry lustily. critically as he or she begins to imitate sounds, and
By 5 months, the infant is able to focus on arti- good language skills are closely tied to an ability to
cles within easy reach and to follow moving objects, hear well.
but visual acuity is still poor. For example, an object Except for ear inflammations (otitis) resulting
that someone with mature vision can see clearly 200 from bacterial infections or allergies, few problems
feet away has to be a mere 20 feet away before an affect the ears during childhood and adult life. By the
infant can see it clearly. (Such vision is said to be sixties, however, gradual deterioration and atrophy
20/200.) By the time the child is 5 years old, color of the spiral organ of Corti begin and lead to a loss
vision is well developed, visual acuity has improved in the ability to hear high tones and speech sounds.
to about 20/30, and depth perception is present, This condition, presbycusis (pres0bı̆-kyu9sis), is a
providing a readiness to begin reading. By school type of sensorineural deafness. In some cases, the ear
age, the earlier hyperopia has usually been replaced ossicles fuse (otosclerosis), which compounds the
by emmetropia (normal vision). This condition con- hearing problem by interfering with sound conduc-
tinues until about age 40, when presbyopia tion to the inner ear. Although presbycusis was once
(pres0be-o9pe-ah, “old vision”) begins to set in, the considered a disability of old age, it is becoming
result of decreasing lens elasticity. This condition much more common in younger people as our
makes it difficult to focus for close vision; it is basi- world grows noisier day by day. The damage caused
cally farsightedness. Your grandmother holding a by excessively loud sounds is progressive and cumu-
magazine at arm’s length to read it provides a famil- lative. Music played and heard at deafening levels
iar example of this developmental change in vision. definitely contributes to the deterioration of hearing
As aging occurs, the lacrimal glands become less receptors.
active, and the eyes tend to become dry and more The chemical senses, taste and smell, are sharp at
vulnerable to bacterial infection and irritation. The birth, and infants relish some food that adults con-
lens loses its crystal clarity and becomes discolored. sider bland or tasteless. Some researchers claim the
As a result, it begins to scatter light, causing a dis- sense of smell is just as important as the sense of
tressing glare when the person drives at night. The touch in guiding a newborn baby to its mother’s
dilator muscles of the iris become less efficient; thus, breast. However, very young children seem indiffer-
the pupils are always somewhat constricted. These ent to odors and can play happily with their own
last two conditions work together to decrease the feces. As they get older, their emotional responses to
amount of light reaching the retina, and visual acu- specific odors increase.
ity is dramatically lower by one’s seventies. In addi- There appear to be few problems with the chem-
tion to these changes, older people are susceptible ical senses throughout childhood and young adult-
to certain conditions that may result in blindness, hood. Beginning in the midforties, our ability to
such as glaucoma, cataracts, arteriosclerosis, and taste and smell diminishes, which reflects the grad-
diabetes. ual decrease in the number of these receptor cells.
Almost half of people over the age of 80 cannot
Homeostatic smell at all, and their sense of taste is poor. This may
Imbalance 8.12 explain why older adults are inattentive to formerly
Congenital abnormalities of the ears are fairly com- disagreeable odors and why they often prefer highly
mon. Examples include partly or completely missing seasoned foods or lose their appetite entirely.
pinnas and closed or absent external acoustic
meatuses. Maternal infections can have a devastating
effect on ear development, and maternal rubella dur- Did You Get It?
ing the early weeks of pregnancy results in sensori- 25. Fifty-year-old Mrs. Bates is complaining that she can’t
neural deafness. read without holding the newspaper out at arm’s
A newborn infant can hear after his or her first length. What is her condition, and what is its cause?
cry, but early responses to sound are mostly reflex- 26. Which of the special senses is least mature at birth?
27. What is presbycusis?
ive—for example, crying and clenching the eyelids in
For answers, see Appendix A.
response to a loud noise. By the age of 3 or 4 months,
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 319

Listen to the story of this chapter in a brief summary at Mastering A&P >
Summary Study Area > Author Narrated Audio Summaries

PART I: THE EYE AND VISION (pp. 295–306) • Fovea centralis—site where only cones are
found; area of sharpest vision
• Photoreceptors respond to light
• Lens—crystal-like structure that bends (refracts)
8.1 Anatomy of the Eye (pp. 295–302) light rays so they focus on the retina; divides the
eye into two chambers and is held in place by cili-
8.1a. External and accessory structures of the eye ary zonule attached to the ciliary body
• Eyelids protect the eyes; are associated with the ∘ If light is not focused on the lens, myopia,
eyelashes hyperopia, or astigmatism result; all can be
∘ Ciliary glands (modified sweat glands) and corrected with appropriate lenses
the tarsal glands (which produce an oily secre- • Humors—the anterior chamber contains
tion) both help keep the eye lubricated; associ- aqueous humor; the posterior chamber con-
ated with the eyelid edges tains vitreous humor
• Conjunctiva—mucous membrane that covers the ∘ Aqueous humor—similar to blood plasma; a
anterior eyeball and lines the eyelids, produces a clear, watery fluid anterior to lens; made by the
lubricating mucus choroid; provides nutrients to avascular cornea
• Lacrimal apparatus—includes a series of ducts and lens; reabsorbed into the scleral venous
and the lacrimal glands that produce tears, a sinus (canal of Schlemm)
saline solution that washes and lubricates the eye- ∘ Vitreous humor—gel-like fluid posterior to
ball and contains protective features, including lens; keeps eyeball inflated; never replaced
antibodies and lysozyme
• Extrinsic eye muscles move the eyes while fol- 8.2 Physiology of Vision (pp. 303–306)
lowing moving objects and for convergence
8.2a. Pathway of light through the eye
8.1b. Internal eyeball structures • Light enters the cornea and passes through the
• Three layers form the wall of the eyeball aqueous humor, pupil, lens, and vitreous humor
∘ Fibrous layer (outer layer)—includes sclera to the retina
(white of the eye) and the cornea ∘ The shape of the lens is adjusted (more convex)
■ The cornea is transparent and allows light to during the process of accommodation; the cili-
enter ary body contracts, the ciliary zonule slackens,
∘ Vascular layer—has three parts and the lens bulges; allows focus on a close
■ Choroid—contains blood vessels and dark object (less than 20 feet)
pigment to prevent light from scattering 8.2b. Visual fields and visual pathways to the
■ Ciliary body—made of smooth muscle; at-
brain
taches to lens via ciliary zonule (ligaments);
• Overlap of the visual fields and inputs from
when the ciliary body contracts, the lens
both eyes to each optic cortex provide for depth
bulges to accommodate close vision
■ Iris—made of smooth muscle; pigmented area
perception
that regulates the size of the pupil and, by do- ∘ Optic chiasma—the site where medial fibers
ing so, regulates how much light enters the eye from each eye cross over to the opposite side of
the brain
∘ Sensory layer—the retina; has two layers
■ Outer pigmented layer prevents scattering ∘ Pathway of nerve impulses from the retina:
of light optic nerve, optic chiasma, optic tract, thala-
■ Inner neural layer contains photoreceptor mus, optic radiation, visual cortex in occipital
cells (rods and cones), bipolar cells and lobe of brain
ganglion cells, which transmit impulses to 8.2c. Eye reflexes
the optic nerve
• Eye reflexes include the photopupillary
• Optic disc—site where optic nerve attaches reflex, accommodation pupillary reflex, and
to the retina; lacks photoreceptors, result- convergence
ing in a blind spot
320 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

PART II: THE EAR: HEARING AND 8.5 Equilibrium (pp. 311–314)
BALANCE (pp. 306–314) • Vestibular apparatus—equilibrium receptors
• Mechanoreceptors—respond to physical move- in inner ear; respond to head movements with
ment in order to detect a stimulus and send an respect to the pull of gravity
impulse 8.5a. Static equilibrium—report on head
movements when body is not moving
8.3 Anatomy of the Ear (pp. 307–308) • Receptors in the vestibule are called maculae
• The ear is divided into three major areas: external ∘ Maculae have hair cells embedded in otolithic
(outer) ear, middle ear, internal (inner) ear membrane (gel-like)
8.3a. External ear—includes the auricle (pinna), ■ Otoliths (calcium salt “stones”) are embed-

external acoustic meatus, and tympanic membrane ded on surface of otolithic membrane; move
(eardrum); involved with sound transmission only in response to body movement with respect
• Ceruminous glands secrete waxy cerumen to to the pull of gravity
■ Movement causes otoliths to pull on otolithic
protect the ear canal
membrane, bending hair cells
• Sound entering the external acoustic meatus
causes the eardrum to vibrate 8.5b. Dynamic equilibrium—report on rotational
movements of the head
8.3b. Middle ear cavity—includes ossicles,
pharyngotympanic tube; involved with sound • Receptors in the ampullae of the semicircular
transmission only canals are called crista ampullaris
• Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) trans- ∘ Crista have tufts of hair cells with hairs embed-
mit and amplify vibratory motion from the ear- ded in gel cap (cupula)
■ Movement of body causes endolymph to
drum to the oval window
move in opposite direction, bending cupula
• Pharyngotympanic tube allows pressure to be
and bending hair cells
equalized on both sides of the eardrum
8.5c. Hearing and equilibrium deficits
8.3c. Internal ear—maze of cavities within
the temporal bone (bony labyrinth); cochlea, • Deafness—any degree of hearing loss
vestibule, semicircular canals; involved in both ∘ Conduction deafness—something interferes
hearing and equilibrium with transmission of sound waves
■ Otosclerosis—fusion of the middle ear os-
• Cochlea houses hearing receptors; vestibule
houses static equilibrium receptors; semi- sicles, resulting in conduction deafness
circular canals house dynamic equilibrium ∘ Sensorineural deafness—something inter-
receptors feres with receptors or neural transmission of
• Bony labyrinth contains perilymph; membra- impulses to the brain
nous labyrinth contains endolymph • Equilibrium problems—result in nausea, dizzi-
ness, problems maintaining balance
8.4 Hearing (pp. 308–311) ∘ Ménière’s syndrome—results in progressive
• In the cochlear duct, the spiral organ of Corti deafness and vertigo (spinning sensation)
has hearing receptors called hair cells
∘ Hair cells are anchored to the basilar mem- PART III: CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL
brane; hairs of the hair cells are embedded in a AND TASTE (pp. 314–317)
tectorial membrane
• Chemoreceptors—respond to dissolved chemicals
∘ When sound causes vibrations at the tympanic
membrane, those waves are transmitted to the 8.6 Olfactory Receptors and the Sense
oval window by the ossicles, which cause the of Smell (pp. 314–315)
fluids in the cochlea to vibrate
■ The basilar membrane vibrates, bending the
• Olfactory receptors (smell receptors)—located
in the superior aspect of each nasal cavity
hairs of the hair cells attached to the station-
ary tectorial membrane, and sends an im- ∘ Sniffing helps to bring more air (containing
pulse to the brain that is processed as hearing odors) over the olfactory mucosa
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 321

• Olfactory pathways—closely linked to the limbic ∘ Strabismus—congenital eye problem resulting

system; odors stimulate the recall of memories from unequal pulling by extrinsic eye muscles;
and arouse emotional responses results in crossed eyes
∘ Absence of the external acoustic meatus—most
8.7 Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste important congenital ear problem
(pp. 315–317)
• Vision requires the most learning; infants have
• Gustatory cells (taste receptor cells) are located poor visual acuity (are farsighted) and lack color
in the taste buds vision and depth perception; eye continues to
∘ Taste buds occur on or around papillae, pri- grow and mature until age 8 or 9
marily on the tongue ∘ Problems of aging associated with vision in-
■ Fungiform papillae, foliate papillae, and
clude presbyopia, glaucoma, cataracts, and
vallate papillae occur in the mouth arteriosclerosis of the eye’s blood vessels
∘ Five major taste sensations are sweet, salt, sour, • Newborn infants can hear sounds, but ini-
bitter, and umami tial responses are reflexive; by toddlerhood,
■ Taste and appreciation of foods are in!u-
the child is listening critically and beginning
enced by smell, temperature, and texture to imitate sounds as language development
begins
PART IV: DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS ∘ Sensorineural deafness (presbycusis) is a nor-
OF THE SPECIAL SENSES (pp. 317–318) mal consequence of aging
• Special sense organs form early in embryonic • Taste and smell—most acute at birth; decrease in
development; maternal infections during the first sensitivity after age 40; the number of olfactory
5 or 6 months of pregnancy may cause visual and gustatory receptors decreases
abnormalities as well as sensorineural deafness

Access more practice questions at Mastering A&P > Study Area > Study by Chapter
Review Questions
Multiple Choice 4. Which cranial nerve is not involved in controlling the
action of the extrinsic eye muscles?
More than one choice may apply.
a. Abducens
1. Gustatory cells are
b. Oculomotor
a. bipolar neurons.
c. Trochlear
b. multipolar neurons.
d. Trigeminal
c. unipolar neurons.
5. The optic nerve transports nerve impulses generated by
d. epithelial cells.
a. bipolar cells.
2. Alkaloids excite gustatory hairs mostly at the
b. rods.
a. tip of the tongue.
c. cones.
b. back of the tongue.
d. ganglion cells.
c. vallate papillae.
6. When the eye focuses for far vision,
d. fungiform papillae.
a. the lens is at its thinnest.
3. Parts of the olfactory mucosa include the
b. the ciliary muscles contract.
a. mucus layer.
c. the light rays are nearly parallel.
b. olfactory bulb.
d. suspensory fibers of the ciliary zonule are slack.
c. olfactory hairs.
d. cribriform plate.
322 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

7. Convergence
f
a. requires contraction of the medial rectus muscles
g
of both eyes. a
b. is needed for near vision. h
c. involves transmission of impulses along the ab- b
ducens nerves. c i
d. can promote eyestrain.
8. Which of the following are paired incorrectly?
a. Tympanic cavity—ossicles
b. Round window—stapes d
c. Tympanic membrane—hammer
d. Oval window—incus e j
9. Movement of which structure triggers bending of
hairs of the hair cells in the spiral organ of Corti?
11. Match the letter of the appropriate structure on the
figure to its description.
d
b
a 1. Attachment of the optic nerve at this site
results in a blind spot
2. Gel-like fluid filling the posterior eye
chamber
3. Smooth muscle that contracts to cause lens
accommodation
4. Pigmented, vascular tunic deep to the fi-
brous tunic
5. Crystal-like structure that refracts (bends)
light so it focuses on the retina
6. Area of the sensory layer that detects color
c only
7. Transparent “window” that allows light to
enter the eye
10. Sounds entering the external acoustic meatus are
eventually converted to nerve impulses via a chain of 8. White portion of the fibrous tunic
events including 9. Sensory tunic; contains pigment and photo-
a. vibration of the eardrum. receptors
b. vibratory motion of the ossicles against the oval 10. Pigmented part of the eye visible anteri-
window. orly; made of smooth muscle
c. stimulation of hair cells in the spiral organ of
Corti.
d. resonance of the cupula.
 Chapter 8: Special Senses 323

Short Answer Essay 17. Which mechanism makes it possible for us to deter-
mine the source of a sound? What makes us unaware
12. Distinguish between tarsal and ciliary glands.
of repeating sounds?
13. Compare and contrast emmetropia, hyperopia, and
18. Normal balance depends on information transmitted
myopia. What type of lenses will help correct each of
from a number of sensory receptor types. Name at
these?
least three of these receptors.
14. Name the extrinsic eye muscles that allow you to
19. For each of the following descriptions, indicate
direct your eyes.
whether it applies to a macula or a crista ampullaris:
15. Some people suffer from total color blindness, whereas inside a semicircular canal; contains otoliths;
others only have to reckon with partial color blind- responds to linear acceleration and deceleration; has
ness. What is the difference between the two forms? a cupula; responds to rotational acceleration and
deceleration; inside the vestibule.
16. Name the structures of the outer, middle, and inner
ears, and give the general function of each structure
and each group of structures.

Critical Thinking and Clinical Application Questions

20. Nine children attending the same day-care center 22. A professor explains that the significance of smell and
developed red, inflamed eyes and eyelids. What are taste is illustrated by the fact that 4 of the 12 cranial
the most likely cause and name of this condition? nerves are involved in their registration. Clarify the
professor’s explanation.
21. Sylvia Marcus, age 70, recently had surgery for oto-
sclerosis. The operation was a failure and did not 23. Explain the role of vitamin A in vision.
improve her condition. What was the purpose of the
surgery, and exactly what was it trying to
accomplish?