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Basic Engineering Mathematics

Seventh Edition

John Bird
Seventh edition published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 John Bird

First edition published by Newnes 1999

Sixth edition published by Routledge 2014

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bird, J. O., author.
Title: Basic engineering mathematics / John Bird.
Description: 7th ed. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York,
NY : Routledge, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016055537| ISBN 9781138673700 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315561776 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Engineering mathematics.
Classification: LCC TA330 .B513 2017 | DDC 620.001/51–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016055537

ISBN: 978-1-138-67370-0 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-56177-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Times by
Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird

 Contents
Preface xi 6.3 Direct proportion 46
6.4 Inverse proportion 50
Acknowledgements xiii
1 Basic arithmetic 1 7 Powers, roots and laws of indices 52
1.1 Introduction 1 7.1 Introduction 52
1.2 Revision of addition and subtraction 2 7.2 Powers and roots 52
1.3 Revision of multiplication and division 3 7.3 Laws of indices 54
1.4 Highest common factors and lowest
common multiples 5 8 Units, prefixes and engineering notation 59
1.5 Order of operation and brackets 7 8.1 Introduction 59
8.2 SI units 59
2 Fractions 9
8.3 Common prefixes 60
2.1 Introduction 9
8.4 Standard form 63
2.2 Adding and subtracting fractions 10
8.5 Engineering notation 65
2.3 Multiplication and division of fractions 12
8.6 Metric conversions 67
2.4 Order of operation with fractions 14
8.7 Metric - US/Imperial conversions 70

Revision Test 1 16
Revision Test 3 75

3 Decimals 17
3.1 Introduction 17 9 Basic algebra 76
3.2 Converting decimals to fractions and vice 9.1 Introduction 76
versa 17 9.2 Basic operations 77
3.3 Significant figures and decimal places 19 9.3 Laws of indices 80
3.4 Adding and subtracting decimal
numbers 20 10 Further algebra 84
3.5 Multiplying and dividing decimal 10.1 Introduction 84
numbers 21 10.2 Brackets 84
10.3 Factorisation 86
4 Using a calculator 23 10.4 Laws of precedence 87
4.1 Introduction 23
4.2 Adding, subtracting, multiplying and 11 Solving simple equations 90
dividing 23 11.1 Introduction 90
4.3 Further calculator functions 25 11.2 Solving equations 90
4.4 Evaluation of formulae 29 11.3 Practical problems involving simple
equations 94
5 Percentages 35
5.1 Introduction 35
Revision Test 4 99
5.2 Percentage calculations 36
5.3 Further percentage calculations 37
5.4 More percentage calculations 39 Multiple choice questions Test 1 100

Revision Test 2 42 12 Transposing formulae 102

12.1 Introduction 102
6 Ratio and proportion 43 12.2 Transposing formulae 102
6.1 Introduction 43 12.3 Further transposing of formulae 104
6.2 Ratios 44 12.4 More difficult transposing of formulae 107
13 Solving simultaneous equations 111 18 Graphs reducing non-linear laws to linear form 175
13.1 Introduction 111 18.1 Introduction 175
13.2 Solving simultaneous equations in two 18.2 Determination of law 175
unknowns 111 18.3 Revision of laws of logarithms 178
13.3 Further solving of simultaneous equations 113 18.4 Determination of laws involving
13.4 Solving more difficult simultaneous logarithms 179
equations 115
19 Graphical solution of equations 184
13.5 Practical problems involving simultaneous
19.1 Graphical solution of simultaneous
equations 117
equations 184
13.6 Solving simultaneous equations in three
19.2 Graphical solution of quadratic equations 186
unknowns 121
19.3 Graphical solution of linear and quadratic
equations simultaneously 190
Revision Test 5 123 19.4 Graphical solution of cubic equations 190
20 Graphs with logarithmic scales 193
14 Solving quadratic equations 124 20.1 Logarithmic scales and logarithmic graph
14.1 Introduction 124 paper 193
14.2 Solution of quadratic equations by 20.2 Graphs of the form y = axn 194
factorisation 125
20.3 Graphs of the form y = abx 197
14.3 Solution of quadratic equations by
‘completing the square’ 127 20.4 Graphs of the form y = aekx 198
14.4 Solution of quadratic equations by
formula 129 Revision Test 7 201
14.5 Practical problems involving quadratic
equations 130 21 Angles and triangles 203
14.6 Solution of linear and quadratic equations 21.1 Introduction 203
simultaneously 133 21.2 Angular measurement 203
21.3 Triangles 209
15 Logarithms 134 21.4 Congruent triangles 213
15.1 Introduction to logarithms 134 21.5 Similar triangles 215
15.2 Laws of logarithms 136 21.6 Construction of triangles 217
15.3 Indicial equations 139
22 Introduction to trigonometry 220
15.4 Graphs of logarithmic functions 140
22.1 Introduction 220
16 Exponential functions 141 22.2 The theorem of Pythagoras 220
16.1 Introduction to exponential functions 141 22.3 Sines, cosines and tangents 223
16.2 The power series for ex 142 22.4 Evaluating trigonometric ratios of acute
16.3 Graphs of exponential functions 144 angles 225
16.4 Napierian logarithms 146 22.5 Solving right-angled triangles 227
16.5 Laws of growth and decay 149 22.6 Angles of elevation and depression 231

Revision Test 8 234

Revision Test 6 153
23 Trigonometric waveforms 236
Multiple choice questions Test 2 154 23.1 Graphs of trigonometric functions 236
23.2 Angles of any magnitude 237
17 Straight line graphs 156 23.3 The production of sine and cosine waves 240
17.1 Introduction to graphs 156 23.4 Terminology involved with sine and
17.2 Axes, scales and co-ordinates 156 cosine waves 240
17.3 Straight line graphs 158 23.5 Sinusoidal form: A sin(ωt ± α) 243
17.4 Gradients, intercepts and equations 24 Non-right-angled triangles and some practical
of graphs 161 applications 246
17.5 Practical problems involving straight 24.1 The sine and cosine rules 246
line graphs 168 24.2 Area of any triangle 247
 24.3 Worked problems on the solution of Revision Test 11 315
triangles and their areas 247
24.4 Further worked problems on the solution
30 Vectors 317
of triangles and their areas 249
30.1 Introduction 317
24.5 Practical situations involving
30.2 Scalars and vectors 317
trigonometry 250
30.3 Drawing a vector 318
24.6 Further practical situations involving
30.4 Addition of vectors by drawing 319
trigonometry 252
30.5 Resolving vectors into horizontal and
25 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 255 vertical components 321
25.1 Introduction 255 30.6 Addition of vectors by calculation 322
25.2 Changing from Cartesian to polar 30.7 Vector subtraction 326
co-ordinates 255 30.8 Relative velocity 327
25.3 Changing from polar to Cartesian 30.9 i, j and k notation 328
co-ordinates 257
25.4 Use of Pol/Rec functions on
31 Methods of adding alternating waveforms 330
calculators 258
31.1 Combining two periodic functions 330
31.2 Plotting periodic functions 331
Revision Test 9 260
31.3 Determining resultant phasors by
drawing 332
Multiple choice questions Test 3 261 31.4 Determining resultant phasors by the sine
and cosine rules 334
26 Areas of common shapes 266 31.5 Determining resultant phasors by
26.1 Introduction 266 horizontal and vertical components 335
26.2 Common shapes 266
26.3 Areas of common shapes 269 Revision Test 12 338
26.4 Areas of similar shapes 276
27 The circle and its properties 278 Multiple choice questions Test 4 340
27.1 Introduction 278
27.2 Properties of circles 278
27.3 Radians and degrees 280 32 Presentation of statistical data 343
27.4 Arc length and area of circles and 32.1 Some statistical terminology 344
sectors 281 32.2 Presentation of ungrouped data 345
27.5 The equation of a circle 285 32.3 Presentation of grouped data 348

Revision Test 10 287 33 Mean, median, mode and standard deviation 355
33.1 Measures of central tendency 355
33.2 Mean, median and mode for discrete
28 Volumes and surface areas of common solids 289
data 356
28.1 Introduction 289
33.3 Mean, median and mode for grouped
28.2 Volumes and surface areas of common
data 357
shapes 289
33.4 Standard deviation 358
28.3 Summary of volumes and surface areas of
common solids 296 33.5 Quartiles, deciles and percentiles 360
28.4 More complex volumes and surface
areas 296 34 Probability 362
28.5 Volumes and surface areas of frusta of 34.1 Introduction to probability 363
pyramids and cones 302 34.2 Laws of probability 364
28.6 Volumes of similar shapes 306
29 Irregular areas and volumes and mean values 307 Revision Test 13 369
29.1 Areas of irregular figures 307
29.2 Volumes of irregular solids 310 Multiple choice questions Test 5 370
29.3 Mean or average values of waveforms 311
35 Introduction to differentiation 372 37.3 Arithmetic progressions 405
35.1 Introduction to calculus 372 37.4 Geometric progressions 408
35.2 Functional notation 372
38 Binary, octal and hexadecimal numbers 412
35.3 The gradient of a curve 373
38.1 Introduction 412
35.4 Differentiation from first principles 374
38.2 Binary numbers 413
35.5 Differentiation of y = ax n by the
38.3 Octal numbers 416
general rule 375
38.4 Hexadecimal numbers 419
35.6 Differentiation of sine and cosine
functions 378 39 Inequalities 423
35.7 Differentiation of eax and ln ax 380 39.1 Introduction to inequalities 423
35.8 Summary of standard derivatives 381 39.2 Simple inequalities 424
35.9 Successive differentiation 382 39.3 Inequalities involving a modulus 424
35.10 Rates of change 382 39.4 Inequalities involving
35.11 Differentiation of a product 384 quotients 425
35.12 Differentiation of a quotient 385 39.5 Inequalities involving square
35.13 Function of a function 386 functions 426
39.6 Quadratic inequalities 427
36 Standard integration 388
36.1 The process of integration 388
Revision Test 15 430
36.2 The general solution of integrals of the
form ax n 389
36.3 Standard integrals 389 Multiple choice questions Test 7 431
36.4 Definite integrals 392
36.5 The area under a curve 394 List of formulae 432

Answers to Practice Exercises 436

Revision Test 14 399
Answers to multiple choice questions 455

Multiple choice questions Test 6 401 Index 456

37 Number sequences 403

37.1 Simple sequences 403
37.2 The nth term of a series 404
Preface

Basic Engineering Mathematics, 7 th Edition intro- procedures. However, these are kept to a minimum, for
duces and then consolidates basic mathematical princi- problem solving is extensively used to establish and
ples and promotes awareness of mathematical concepts exemplify the theory. It is intended that readers will gain
for students needing a broad base for further voca- real understanding through seeing problems solved and
tional studies. In this seventh edition, new material has then solving similar problems themselves.
been added on metric conversions, metric to imperial This textbook contains over 800 worked problems,
conversions, numbering systems, comparing numerical followed by some 1,600 further problems (all with
methods, further differentiation methods, together with answers – at the end of the book). The further prob-
other minor modifications. lems are contained within 168 Practise Exercises; each
The text covers: Practise Exercise follows on directly from the relevant
section of work. Fully worked solutions to all 1,600
(i) Basic mathematics for a wide range of introduc- problems have been made freely available to all via
tory/access/foundation mathematics courses the website – see page xii. 425 line diagrams enhance
(ii) ‘Mathematics for Engineering Technicians’ for the understanding of the theory. Where at all possible
BTEC First NQF Level 2; chapters 1 to 12, 16 to the problems mirror potential practical situations found
18, 21, 22, 24, and 26 to 28 are needed for this in engineering and science.
module. At regular intervals throughout the text are 15 Revision
(iii) The mandatory ‘Mathematics for Technicians’ Tests to check understanding. For example, Revision
for BTEC National Certificate and National Test 1 covers material contained in chapters 1 and 2,
Diploma in Engineering, NQF Level 3; chapters Revision Test 2 covers the material contained in chap-
7 to 10, 14 to 17, 19, 21 to 24, 26 to 28, 32, 33, 35 ters 3 to 5, and so on. These Revision Tests do not have
and 36 are needed for this module. In addition, answers given since it is envisaged that lecturers/instruc-
chapters 1 to 6, 11 and 12 are helpful revision tors could set the Tests for students to attempt as part of
for this module. their course structure. Lecturers/instructors may obtain
(iv) GCSE revision, and for similar mathematics solutions to the Revision Tests online – see page xii.
courses in English-speaking countries world- At the end of the book a list of relevant formulae con-
wide. tained within the text is included for convenience of
reference.
Basic Engineering Mathematics, 7 t h Edition provides a ‘Learning by Example’ is at the heart of Basic Engi-
lead into Engineering Mathematics, 8 t h Edition. neering Mathematics, 7 t h Edition.
Each topic considered in the text is presented in a way
that assumes in the reader little previous knowledge of JOHN BIRD
that topic. Royal Naval Defence College of Marine and Air
Engineering, HMS Sultan,
Theory is introduced in each chapter by an out- formerly of University of Portsmouth
line of essential theory, definitions, formulae, laws and and Highbury College, Portsmouth
Free Web downloads at For instructors/lecturers
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
For students 1. Full solutions to the 1,600 questions con-
tained in the 168 Practice Exercises
1. Full solutions to the 1,600 questions con-
tained in the 168 Practice Exercises 2. Full solutions and marking scheme to each of
the 15 Revision Tests
2. Download multiple choice questions and
answer sheet 3. Revision Tests – available to run off to be
given to students
3. List of essential formulae
4. Download multiple choice questions and
4. Famous engineers/scientists – From time answer sheet
to time in the text, 18 famous mathemati-
cians/engineers are referred to and empha- 5. List of essential formulae
sised with an asterisk∗ . Background infor- 6. Illustrations – all 425 available on Power-
mation on each of these is available via the Point
website. Mathematicians/engineers involved 7. Famous engineers/scientists – 18 are men-
are: Boyle, Celsius, Charles, Descartes, tioned in the text, as listed previously.
Faraday, Henry, Hertz, Hooke, Kirchhoff,
Leibniz, Morland, Napier, Newton, Ohm,
Pascal, Pythagoras, Simpson and Young.
 Chapter 1
Basic arithmetic
Why it is important to understand: Basic arithmetic
Being numerate, i.e. having an ability to add, subtract, multiply and divide whole numbers with some
confidence, goes a long way towards helping you become competent at mathematics. Of course electronic
calculators are a marvellous aid to the quite complicated calculations often required in engineering;
however, having a feel for numbers ‘in our head’ can be invaluable when estimating. Do not spend too
much time on this chapter because we deal with the calculator later; however, try to have some idea
how to do quick calculations in the absence of a calculator. You will feel more confident in dealing with
numbers and calculations if you can do this.

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• understand positive and negative integers

• add and subtract integers
• multiply and divide two integers
• multiply numbers up to 12 × 12 by rote
• determine the highest common factor from a set of numbers
• determine the lowest common multiple from a set of numbers
• appreciate the order of operation when evaluating expressions
• understand the use of brackets in expressions
• evaluate expressions containing +, −, ×, ÷ and brackets

Examples of integers include . . . − 5, −4, −3, −2, −1,

1.1 Introduction 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
Arithmetic operators
Whole numbers
The four basic arithmetic operators are add (+), subtract
Whole Numbers are simply the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3,
(−), multiply (×) and divide (÷).
4, 5, . . .
It is assumed that adding, subtracting, multiplying and
Counting numbers dividing reasonably small numbers can be achieved
Counting Numbers are whole numbers, but without the
without a calculator. However, if revision of this area
zero, i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . is needed then some worked problems are included in
Natural numbers the following sections.
Natural Numbers can mean either counting numbers or When unlike signs occur together in a calculation, the
whole numbers. overall sign is negative. For example,
Integers
Integers are like whole numbers, but they also include 3 + (−4) = 3 + −4 = 3 − 4 = −1
negative numbers.

Basic Engineering Mathematics. 978-1-138-67370-0, © 2017 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
2 Basic Engineering Mathematics

and (ii) Place 3 in the units column.

(+5) × (−2) = −10 (iii) 2 − 6 is not possible; therefore change one hun-
Like signs together give an overall positive sign. For dred into ten tens (leaving 5 in the hundreds
example, column). In the tens column, this gives us
12 − 6 = 6
3 − (−4) = 3 − −4 = 3 + 4 = 7
(iv) Place the 6 in the tens column.
and
(v) 5 − 3 = 2
(−6) × (−4) = +24
(vi) Place the 2 in the hundreds column.
Prime numbers
A prime number can be divided, without a remainder, Hence, 632 − 369 = 263
only by itself and by 1. For example, 17 can be divided
only by 17 and by 1. Other examples of prime numbers Problem 3. Add 27, −74, 81 and −19
are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 19 and 23.
This problem is written as 27 − 74 + 81 − 19.
Adding the positive integers: 27
1.2 Revision of addition and 81
subtraction
Sum of positive integers is 108
You can probably already add two or more numbers
together and subtract one number from another. How- Adding the negative integers: 74
ever, if you need revision then the following worked 19
problems should be helpful. Sum of negative integers is 93

Problem 1. Determine 735 + 167 Taking the sum of the negative integers
from the sum of the positive integers gives 108
HTU −93
7 35
+1 67 15
Thus, 27 − 74 + 81 − 19 = 15
9 02
1 1 Problem 4. Subtract −74 from 377

(i) 5 + 7 = 12. Place 2 in units (U) column. Carry 1 This problem is written as 377 − −74. Like signs
in the tens (T) column. together give an overall positive sign, hence
(ii) 3 + 6 + 1 (carried) = 10. Place the 0 in the tens 377 − −74 = 377 + 74 377
column. Carry the 1 in the hundreds (H) column. + 74
(iii) 7 + 1 + 1 (carried) = 9. Place the 9 in the hun- 451
dreds column. Thus, 377 − −74 = 451
Hence, 735 + 167 = 902
Problem 5. Subtract 243 from 126
Problem 2. Determine 632 − 369
The problem is 126 − 243. When the second number is
HTU larger than the first, take the smaller number from the
6 32 larger and make the result negative. Thus,
−3 69
126 − 243 = −(243 − 126) 243
2 63 −126
117
(i) 2 − 9 is not possible; therefore change one ten
into ten units (leaving 2 in the tens column). In
Thus, 126 − 243 = −117
the units column, this gives us 12 − 9 = 3
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 Basic arithmetic 3

Problem 6. Subtract 318 from −269 110

The problem is −269 − 318. The sum of the negative B

integers is
269 12
+318
d
587
A
Thus, −269 − 318 = −587

60
Now try the following Practice Exercise

Practice Exercise 1 Further problems on

addition and subtraction (answers on 50 38
page 436) 120
In Problems 1−15, determine the values of the
Figure 1.1
expressions given, without using a calculator.
1. 67 kg − 82 kg + 34 kg

2. 73 m − 57 m 1.3 Revision of multiplication and

3. 851 mm − 372 mm division

4. 124 − 273 + 481 − 398 You can probably already multiply two numbers
together and divide one number by another. However, if
5. £927 − £114 + £182 − £183 − £247 you need a revision then the following worked problems
should be helpful.
6. 647 − 872

7. 2417 − 487 + 2424− 1778 − 4712 Problem 7. Determine 86 × 7

8. −38419 − 2177 + 2440− 799 + 2834 HTU

86
9. £2715 − £18250 + £11471 − £1509 + × 7
£113274 6 02
10. 47 + (−74) − (−23) 4
11. 813 − (−674) (i) 7 × 6 = 42. Place the 2 in the units (U) column
and ‘carry’ the 4 into the tens (T) column.
12. 3151 − (−2763)
(ii) 7 × 8 = 56; 56 + 4 (carried) = 60. Place the 0 in
13. 4872 g − 4683 g the tens column and the 6 in the hundreds (H)
column.
14. −23148 − 47724
Hence, 86 × 7 = 602
15. $53774 − $38441 A good grasp of multiplication tables is needed when
multiplying such numbers; a reminder of the multipli-
16. Calculate the diameter d and dimensions A cation table up to 12 × 12 is shown below. Confidence
and B for the template shown in Fig. 1.1. All with handling numbers will be greatly improved if this
dimensions are in millimetres. table is memorised.
4 Basic Engineering Mathematics

Multiplication table
× 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144

Hence, 764 × 38 = 29032

Problem 8. Determine 764 × 38
Again, knowing multiplication tables is rather important
764 when multiplying such numbers.
It is appreciated, of course, that such a multiplication
× 38
can, and probably will, be performed using a calculator.
6 112 However, there are times when a calculator may not be
2 2 920 available and it is then useful to be able to calculate the
2 9 032 ‘long way’.

(i) 8 × 4 = 32. Place the 2 in the units column and Problem 9. Multiply 178 by −46
carry 3 into the tens column.
(ii) 8 × 6 = 48; 48 + 3 (carried) = 51. Place the 1 in When the numbers have different signs, the result will
the tens column and carry the 5 into the hundreds be negative. (With this in mind, the problem can now
column. be solved by multiplying 178 by 46.) Following the
procedure of Problem 8 gives
(iii) 8 × 7 = 56; 56 + 5 (carried) = 61. Place 1 in the 178
hundreds column and 6 in the thousands column. × 46
(iv) Place 0 in the units column under the 2 1068
(v) 3 × 4 = 12. Place the 2 in the tens column and 7120
carry 1 into the hundreds column. 8188
(vi) 3 × 6 = 18; 18 + 1 (carried) = 19. Place the 9 in
the hundreds column and carry the 1 into the
Thus, 178 × 46 = 8188 and 178 × (−46) = −8188
thousands column.
(vii) 3 × 7 = 21; 21 + 1 (carried) = 22. Place 2 in the
Problem 10. Determine 1834 ÷ 7
thousands column and 2 in the ten thousands
column.
 262
(viii) 6112 + 22920 = 29032 7 1834
 Basic arithmetic 5

(i) 7 into 18 goes 2, remainder 4. Place the 2 above Now try the following Practice Exercise
the 8 of 1834 and carry the 4 remainder to the
next digit on the right, making it 43 Practice Exercise 2 Further problems on
(ii) 7 into 43 goes 6, remainder 1. Place the 6 above multiplication and division (answers on
page 436)
the 3 of 1834 and carry the 1 remainder to the
next digit on the right, making it 14 Determine the values of the expressions given in
Problems 1 to 9, without using a calculator.
(iii)7 into 14 goes 2, remainder 0. Place 2 above the
4 of 1834 1. (a) 78 × 6 (b) 124 × 7
1834 2. (a) £261 × 7 (b) £462 × 9
Hence, 1834 ÷ 7 = 1834/7 = = 262
7
The method shown is called short division. 3. (a) 783 kg × 11 (b) 73 kg × 8
4. (a) 27 mm × 13 (b) 77 mm × 12

Problem 11. Determine 5796 ÷ 12 5. (a) 448 × 23 (b) 143 × (−31)

6. (a) 288 m ÷ 6 (b) 979 m ÷ 11
1813 896
 483 7. (a) (b)
12 5796 7 16
48 21424
99 8. (a) (b) 15900 ÷ − 15
96 13
36 88737
36 9. (a) (b) 46858 ÷ 14
11
00
10. A screw has a mass of 15 grams. Calculate,
(i) 12 into 5 won’t go. 12 into 57 goes 4; place 4 in kilograms, the mass of 1200 such screws
above the 7 of 5796 (1 kg = 1000 g).
11. Holes are drilled 35.7 mm apart in a metal
(ii) 4 × 12 = 48; place the 48 below the 57 of 5796
plate. If a row of 26 holes is drilled, deter-
(iii) 57 − 48 = 9 mine the distance, in centimetres, between
the centres of the first and last holes.
(iv) Bring down the 9 of 5796 to give 99
12. A builder needs to clear a site of bricks and
(v) 12 into 99 goes 8; place 8 above the 9 of 5796 top soil. The total weight to be removed is 696
tonnes. Trucks can carry a maximum load of
(vi) 8 × 12 = 96; place 96 below the 99 24 tonnes. Determine the number of truck
loads needed to clear the site.
(vii) 99 − 96 = 3

(viii) Bring down the 6 of 5796 to give 36

(ix) 12 into 36 goes 3 exactly. 1.4 Highest common factors and

lowest common multiples
(x) Place the 3 above the final 6
When two or more numbers are multiplied together, the
(xi) 3 × 12 = 36; Place the 36 below the 36
individual numbers are called factors. Thus, a factor is a
(xii) 36 − 36 = 0 number which divides into another number exactly. The
highest common factor (HCF) is the largest number
5796 which divides into two or more numbers exactly.
Hence, 5796 ÷ 12 = 5796/12 = = 483
12 For example, consider the numbers 12 and 15
The method shown is called long division. The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 (i.e. all the
numbers that divide into 12).
6 Basic Engineering Mathematics

The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5 and 15 (i.e. all the numbers The factors which are common to each of the numbers
that divide into 15). are 3 in column 2 and 5 in column 3. Hence, the HCF
1 and 3 are the only common factors; i.e. numbers is 3 × 5 = 15
which are factors of both 12 and 15
Hence, the HCF of 12 and 15 is 3 since 3 is the highest Problem 14. Determine the LCM of the numbers
number which divides into both 12 and 15 12, 42 and 90
A multiple is a number which contains another number
an exact number of times. The smallest number which The LCM is obtained by finding the lowest factors of
is exactly divisible by each of two or more numbers is each of the numbers, as shown in Problems 12 and 13
called the lowest common multiple (LCM). above, and then selecting the largest group of any of the
For example, the multiples of 12 are 12, 24, 36, 48, factors present. Thus,
60, 72, . . . and the multiples of 15 are 15, 30, 45,
12 = 2 × 2 × 3
60, 75, . . .
60 is a common multiple (i.e. a multiple of both 12 and 42 = 2 × 3 ×7
15) and there are no lower common multiples.
Hence, the LCM of 12 and 15 is 60 since 60 is the 90 = 2 × 3×3 × 5
lowest number that both 12 and 15 divide into.
Here are some further problems involving the determi- The largest group of any of the factors present is shown
nation of HCFs and LCMs. by the broken lines and is 2 × 2 in 12, 3 × 3 in 90, 5 in
90 and 7 in 42
Hence, the LCM is 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 1260 and
Problem 12. Determine the HCF of the numbers
is the smallest number which 12, 42 and 90 will all
12, 30 and 42
divide into exactly.
Probably the simplest way of determining an HCF is to
Problem 15. Determine the LCM of the numbers
express each number in terms of its lowest factors. This
150, 210, 735 and 1365
is achieved by repeatedly dividing by the prime numbers
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, . . . (where possible) in turn. Thus,
Using the method shown in Problem 14 above:
12 = 2 × 2 × 3 150 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 5
30 = 2 ×3×5 210 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7
42 = 2 ×3×7 735 = 3 ×5 × 7×7
The factors which are common to each of the numbers
1365 = 3 ×5 × 7 × 13
are 2 in column 1 and 3 in column 3, shown by the
broken lines. Hence, the HCF is 2 × 3; i.e. 6. That is, Hence, the LCM is 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 7 × 7 × 13
6 is the largest number which will divide into 12, 30 = 95550
and 42.
Now try the following Practice Exercise
Problem 13. Determine the HCF of the numbers
30, 105, 210 and 1155 Practice Exercise 3 Further problems on
highest common factors and lowest
Using the method shown in Problem 12: common multiples (answers on page 436)
Find (a) the HCF and (b) the LCM of the following
30 = 2 × 3 × 5 groups of numbers.
105 = 3×5×7 1. 8, 12 2. 60, 72

210 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 3. 50, 70 4. 270, 900

1155 = 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 5. 6, 10, 14 6. 12, 30, 45

 Basic arithmetic 7

1.5.2 Brackets and operators

7. 10, 15, 70, 105 8. 90, 105, 300
The basic laws governing the use of brackets and
9. 196, 210, 462, 910 10. 196, 350, 770 operators are shown by the following examples.
(a) 2 + 3 = 3 + 2; i.e. the order of numbers when
adding does not matter.
1.5 Order of operation and brackets (b) 2 × 3 = 3 × 2; i.e. the order of numbers when
multiplying does not matter.
1.5.1 Order of operation
(c) 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4; i.e. the use of brackets
Sometimes addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi- when adding does not affect the result.
sion, powers and brackets may all be involved in a
calculation. For example, (d) 2 × (3 × 4) = (2 × 3) × 4; i.e. the use of brackets
when multiplying does not affect the result.
5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ (3 + 5) − 3 2
(e) 2 × (3 + 4) = 2(3 + 4) = 2 × 3 + 2 × 4; i.e. a
This is an extreme example but will demonstrate the number placed outside of a bracket indicates
order that is necessary when evaluating. that the whole contents of the bracket must be
When we read, we read from left to right. However, multiplied by that number.
with mathematics there is a definite order of precedence (f ) (2 + 3)(4 + 5) = (5)(9) = 5 × 9 = 45; i.e. adja-
which we need to adhere to. The order is as follows: cent brackets indicate multiplication.
Brackets (g) 2[3 + (4 × 5)] = 2[3 + 20] = 2 × 23 = 46; i.e.
Order (or pOwer) when an expression contains inner and outer
Division brackets, the inner brackets are removed
Multiplication first.
Addition
Subtraction Here are some further problems in which BODMAS
needs to be used.
Notice that the first letters of each word spell BOD-
MAS, a handy aide-mémoire. Order means pOwer. For
example, 42 = 4 × 4 = 16 Problem 16. Find the value of 6 + 4 ÷ (5 − 3)
5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ (3 + 5) − 3 2 is evaluated as
follows: The order of precedence of operations is remembered
by the word BODMAS. Thus,
5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ (3 + 5) − 3 2
6 + 4 ÷ (5 − 3) = 6 + 4 ÷ 2 (Brackets)
= 5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ 8 − 3 2 (Bracket is removed and
= 6+2 (Division)
3 + 5 replaced with 8)
=8 (Addition)
= 5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ 8 − 9 (Order means pOwer; in
this case, 32 = 3 × 3 = 9)
Problem 17. Determine the value of
= 5−3×4+3−9 (Division: 24 ÷ 8 = 3) 13 − 2 × 3 + 14 ÷ (2 + 5)
= 5 − 12 + 3 − 9 (Multiplication: − 3 × 4 = −12)
= 8 − 12 − 9 (Addition: 5 + 3 = 8)
13 − 2 × 3 + 14 ÷ (2 + 5) = 13 − 2 × 3 + 14 ÷ 7 (B)
= −13 (Subtraction: 8 − 12 − 9 = −13)
= 13 − 2 × 3 + 2 (D)
In practice, it does not matter if multiplication is per- = 13 − 6 + 2 (M)
formed before division or if subtraction is performed
= 15 − 6 (A)
before addition. What is important is that the pro-
cess of multiplication and division must be completed =9 (S)
before addition and subtraction.
8 Basic Engineering Mathematics

15 5 + 14 − 1
Problem 18. Evaluate = +
3 6+8−9+1
16 ÷(2 + 6) + 18[3 + (4 × 6) − 21]
18
= 5+
16 ÷ (2 + 6) + 18[3 + (4 × 6) − 21] 6
= 16 ÷ (2 + 6) + 18[3 + 24 − 21] (B: inner bracket = 5+3= 8
is determined first)
= 16 ÷ 8 + 18 × 6 (B) Now try the following Practice Exercise
= 2 + 18 × 6 (D)
Practice Exercise 4 Further problems on
= 2 + 108 (M)
order of precedence and brackets (answers
= 110 (A) on page 436)
Note that a number outside of a bracket multiplies all Evaluate the following expressions.
that is inside the brackets. In this case,
1. 14 + 3 × 15
18[3 + 24 − 21] = 18[6], which means 18 × 6 = 108 2. 17 − 12 ÷ 4

3. 86 + 24 ÷ (14 − 2)
Problem 19. Find the value of
(144 ÷ 4) 4. 7(23 − 18) ÷ (12 − 5)
23 − 4(2 × 7) +
(14 − 8) 5. 63 − 8(14 ÷ 2) + 26
(144 ÷ 4) 36 40
23 − 4(2 × 7) + = 23 − 4 × 14 + (B) 6. − 42 ÷ 6 + (3 × 7)
(14 − 8) 6 5
= 23 − 4 × 14 + 6 (D) (50 − 14)
7. + 7(16 − 7) − 7
= 23 − 56 + 6 (M) 3

= 29 − 56 (A) (7 − 3)(1 − 6)
8.
4(11 − 6) ÷ (3 − 8)
= −27 (S)
(3 + 9 × 6) ÷ 3 − 2 ÷ 2
9.
3 × 6 + (4 − 9) − 32 + 5
Problem 20. Evaluate
   
3 + 52 − 32 + 23 4 × 32 + 24 ÷ 5 + 9 × 3
15 ÷ 3 + 2 × 7 − 1 10. +
+ √ 2 × 32 − 15 ÷ 3
1 + (4 × 6) ÷ (3 × 4) 3 × 4 + 8 − 32 + 1
 2 + 27 ÷ 3 + 12 ÷ 2 − 3 2

3+ 52 − 32 + 23 15 ÷ 3 + 2 × 7 − 1 5 + (13 − 2 × 5) − 4
+ √ √
1 + (4 × 6) ÷ (3 × 4) 3 × 4 + 8 − 32 + 1 1+ 25 + 3 × 2 − 8 ÷ 2
11.   −
3+4+8 15 ÷ 3 + 2 × 7 − 1 3 × 4 − 32 + 42 + 1
= +
1 + 24 ÷ 12 3×2+8−9+1
3+4+8 5+2×7−1 (4 × 2 + 7 × 2) ÷ 11
= + √
1+2 3×2+8−9+1 9 + 12 ÷ 2 − 23

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 1 to 4 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Chapter 2
Fractions
Why it is important to understand: Fractions
Engineers use fractions all the time, examples including stress to strain ratios in mechanical engineering,
chemical concentration ratios and reaction rates, and ratios in electrical equations to solve for current
and voltage. Fractions are also used everywhere in science, from radioactive decay rates to statistical
analysis. Calculators are able to handle calculations with fractions. However, there will be times when
a quick calculation involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions is needed.
Again, do not spend too much time on this chapter because we deal with the calculator later; however, try
to have some idea how to do quick calculations in the absence of a calculator. You will feel more confident
to deal with fractions and calculations if you can do this.

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• understand the terminology numerator, denominator, proper and improper fractions and mixed numbers
• add and subtract fractions
• multiply and divide two fractions
• appreciate the order of operation when evaluating expressions involving fractions

A mixed number is a combination of a whole number

2.1 Introduction 1
and a fraction. 2 is an example of a mixed number. In
2
A mark of 9 out of 14 in an examination may be writ- 5 1
fact, = 2
9 9 2 2
ten as or 9/14. is an example of a fraction. The There are a number of everyday examples in which
14 14
number above the line, i.e. 9, is called the numera- fractions are readily referred to. For example, three
tor. The number below the line, i.e. 14, is called the people equally sharing a bar of chocolate would have
denominator. 1 1
each. A supermarket advertises off a six-pack of
When the value of the numerator is less than the 3 5
value of the denominator, the fraction is called a beer; if the beer normally costs £2 then it will now
3
9 cost £1.60. of the employees of a company are
proper fraction. is an example of a proper 4
14 women; if the company has 48 employees, then 36 are
fraction.
women.
When the value of the numerator is greater than the value
Calculators are able to handle calculations with frac-
of the denominator, the fraction is called an improper
5 tions. However, to understand a little more about frac-
fraction. is an example of an improper fraction. tions we will in this chapter show how to add, subtract,
2

Basic Engineering Mathematics. 978-1-138-67370-0, © 2017 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
10 Basic Engineering Mathematics

multiply and divide with fractions without the use of a 72

The fraction of girls is
calculator. 180
Dividing both the numerator and denominator by the
lowest prime number, i.e. 2, gives
Problem 1. Change the following improper
fractions into mixed numbers: 72 36
=
9 13 28 180 90
(a) (b) (c)
2 4 5 Dividing both the numerator and denominator again by
2 gives
9 9
(a) means 9 halves and = 9 ÷ 2, and 9 ÷ 2 = 4 72 36 18
2 2 = =
and 1 half, i.e. 180 90 45
9 1 2 will not divide into both 18 and 45, so dividing both the
=4 numerator and denominator by the next prime number,
2 2
i.e. 3, gives
13 13
(b) means 13 quarters and = 13 ÷ 4, and 72 36 18 6
4 4 = = =
13 ÷ 4 = 3 and 1 quarter, i.e. 180 90 45 15
13 1 Dividing both the numerator and denominator again by
=3 3 gives
4 4
28 28 72 36 18 6 2
(c) means 28 fifths and = 28 ÷ 5, and 28 ÷ 5 = = = = =
5 5 180 90 45 15 5
5 and 3 fifths, i.e. 72 2
So = in its simplest form.
28 3 180 5
=5 2
5 5 Thus, of the students are girls.
5
Problem 2. Change the following mixed numbers
into improper fractions:
2.2 Adding and subtracting fractions
3 7 3
(a) 5 (b) 1 (c) 2
4 9 7 When the denominators of two (or more) fractions to
be added are the same, the fractions can be added ‘on
3 3 sight’.
(a) 5 means 5 + . 5 contains 5 × 4 = 20 quarters.
4 4
3 2 5 7 3 1 4
Thus, 5 contains 20 + 3 = 23 quarters, i.e. For example, + = and + =
4 9 9 9 8 8 8
3 23 In the latter example, dividing both the 4 and the 8 by
5 =
4 4 4 1
4 gives = , which is the simplified answer. This is
3 8 2
The quick way to change 5 into an improper called cancelling.
4
4 × 5 + 3 23 Addition and subtraction of fractions is demonstrated in
fraction is = the following worked examples.
4 4
7 9 × 1 + 7 16
(b) 1 = = 1 1
9 9 9 Problem 4. Simplify +
3 2
3 7 × 2 + 3 17
(c) 2 = =
7 7 7 (i) Make the denominators the same for each frac-
Problem 3. In a school there are 180 students of tion. The lowest number that both denominators
which 72 are girls. Express this as a fraction in its divide into is called the lowest common multiple
simplest form or LCM (see Chapter 1, page 6). In this example,
the LCM of 3 and 2 is 6
 Fractions 11

(ii) 3 divides into 6 twice. Multiplying both numera- 2 1 2 1

4+ − 1 − which is the same as 3 + − which
1 3 6 3 6
tor and denominator of by 2 gives 4 1 3 1
3 is the same as 3 + − = 3 + = 3 +
6 6 6 2
1 2 2 1 1
= = Thus, 4 − 1 = 3
3 6 3 6 2

(iii) 2 divides into 6, 3 times. Multiplying both numer- 1 3

1 Problem 7. Evaluate 7 − 5
ator and denominator of by 3 gives 8 7
2
   
1 3 1 3 1 3
1 3 7 −5 = 7+ − 5+ = 7+ −5−
= = 8 7 8 7 8 7
2 6
1 3 7×1−8×3
(iv) Hence, = 2+ − = 2+
8 7 56
7 − 24 −17 17
1 1 2 3 5 = 2+ = 2+ = 2−
+ = + = + = 56 56 56
3 2 6 6 6
112 17 112 − 17 95 39
= − = = =1
56 56 56 56 56
3 7
Problem 5. Simplify − Problem 8. Determine the value of
4 16
5 1 2
4 −3 +1
(i) Make the denominators the same for each frac- 8 4 5
tion. The lowest common multiple (LCM) of 4
 
and 16 is 16 5 1 2 5 1 2
4 − 3 + 1 = (4 − 3 + 1) + − +
(ii) 4 divides into 16, 4 times. Multiplying both 8 4 5 8 4 5
3
numerator and denominator of by 4 gives 5 × 5 − 10 × 1 + 8 × 2
4 = 2+
40
25 − 10 + 16
3 12 = 2+
= = 40
4 16
31 31
= 2+ =2
7 40 40
(iii) already has a denominator of 16
16
(iv) Hence,
3 7 12 7 5 Now try the following Practice Exercise
− = − =
4 16 16 16 16
Practice Exercise 5 Introduction to
fractions (answers on page 436)
− =
15
1. Change the improper fraction into a
7
mixed number.
2 1 37
Problem 6. Simplify 4 − 1 2. Change the improper fraction into a
3 6 5
mixed number.
   
2 1 2 1 4
4 − 1 is the same as 4 − 1 which is the 3. Change the mixed number 2 into an
3 6   3 6 9
2 1 improper fraction.
same as 4 + − 1+ which is the same as
3 6
12 Basic Engineering Mathematics

2 4 2×4 8
For example, × = =
7 3 7 3 × 7 21
4. Change the mixed number 8 into an
8
improper fraction. 2
Problem 9. Simplify 7 ×
5. A box contains 165 paper clips. 60 clips 5
are removed from the box. Express this as
a fraction in its simplest form. 2 7 2 7 × 2 14 4
7× = × = = =2
6. Order the following fractions from the small- 5 1 5 1×5 5 5
est to the largest.
3 14
4 5 3 1 3 Problem 10. Find the value of ×
, , , , 7 15
9 8 7 2 5
7. A training college has 375 students of which Dividing numerator and denominator by 3 gives
120 are girls. Express this as a fraction in its
simplest form. 3 14 1 14 1 × 14
× = × =
7 15 7 5 7×5
Evaluate, in fraction form, the expressions given in
Dividing numerator and denominator by 7 gives
Problems 8 to 20.
1 × 14 1 × 2 2
1 2 5 4 = =
8. + 9. − 7×5 1×5 5
3 5 6 15
This process of dividing both the numerator and denom-
1 2 7 1
10. + 11. − inator of a fraction by the same factor(s) is called
2 5 16 4 cancelling.
2 3 2 1 2
12. + 13. − + 3 4
7 11 9 7 3 Problem 11. Simplify ×
5 9
2 1 7 2 5
14. 3 −2 15. − +
5 3 27 3 9 3 4 1 4
× = × by cancelling
3 3 5 2 5 9 5 3
16. 5 +3 17. 4 − 3
13 4 8 5 4
=
15
3 2 1 4 5
18. 10 − 8 19. 3 − 4 + 1
7 3 4 5 6 3 1 3
Problem 12. Evaluate 1 × 2 × 3
3 2 1 5 3 7
20. 5 − 1 − 3
4 5 2
Mixed numbers must be expressed as improper frac-
tions before multiplication can be performed. Thus,
     
3 1 3 5 3 6 1 21 3
2.3 Multiplication and division of 1 ×2 ×3 = + × + × +
5 3 7 5 5 3 3 7 7
fractions
8 7 24 8 × 1 × 8 64
= × × = =
5 3 7 5×1×1 5
2.3.1 Multiplication
4
To multiply two or more fractions together, the numera- = 12
5
tors are first multiplied to give a single number and this
becomes the new numerator of the combined fraction. 1 2 3
The denominators are then multiplied together to give Problem 13. Simplify 3 × 1 × 2
5 3 4
the new denominator of the combined fraction.
Visit https://textbookfull.com
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and enjoy exciting offers!
 Fractions 13

The mixed numbers need to be changed to improper Now try the following Practice Exercise
fractions before multiplication can be performed.
1 2 3 16 5 11 Practice Exercise 6 Multiplying and
3 ×1 ×2 = × × dividing fractions (answers on page 436)
5 3 4 5 3 4
4 1 11 Evaluate the following.
= × × by cancelling
1 3 1 2 4 4
4 × 1 × 11 44 2 1. × 2. 5 ×
= = = 14 5 7 9
1×3×1 3 3
3 8 3 5
3. × 4. ×
4 11 4 9
2.3.2 Division 17 15 3 7 2
5. × 6. × ×1
The simple rule for division is change the division 35 68 5 9 7
sign into a multiplication sign and invert the second 13 7 4 1 3 5
fraction. 7. ×4 ×3 8. × ×1
17 11 39 4 11 39
2 3 2 4 8 2 4 3 45
For example, ÷ = × = 9. ÷ 10. ÷
3 4 3 3 9 9 27 8 64
3 8 3 5 3 4
Problem 14. Simplify ÷ 11. ÷ 12. ÷1
7 21 8 32 4 5
1 2 1 5
3 8 3 21 3 3 13. 2 ×1 14. 1 ÷ 2
÷ = × = × by cancelling 4 3 3 9
7 21 7 8 1 8
4 7 3 2
3×3 9 1 15. 2 ÷ 16. 2 ÷ 3
= = =1 5 10 4 3
1×8 8 8
1 3 1 1 3 2
17. × ×1 18. 3 × 1 ÷
3 1 9 4 3 4 5 5
Problem 15. Find the value of 5 ÷ 7
5 3
1
19. A ship’s crew numbers 105, of which are
The mixed numbers must be expressed as improper 7
1
fractions. Thus, women. Of the men, are officers. How
6
many male officers are on board?
3 1 28 22 28 3 14 3 42
5 ÷7 = ÷ = × = × =
5 3 5 3 5 22 5 11 55 20. If a storage tank is holding 450 litres when
it is three-quarters full, how much will it
2 3 3 contain when it is two-thirds full?
Problem 16. Simplify 3 × 1 ÷ 2
3 4 4
21. Three people, P , Q and R, contribute to a
Mixed numbers must be expressed as improper fractions fund. P provides 3/5 of the total, Q pro-
before multiplication and division can be performed: vides 2/3 of the remainder and R provides
£8. Determine (a) the total of the fund and
2 3 3 11 7 11 11 7 4 (b) the contributions of P and Q.
3 ×1 ÷2 = × ÷ = × ×
3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 11
1×7×1 22. A tank contains 24,000 litres of oil. Initially,
= by cancelling 7 3
3×1×1 of the contents are removed, then of
10 5
7 1 the remainder is removed. How much oil is
= =2 left in the tank?
3 3
14 Basic Engineering Mathematics

2.4 Order of operation with Problem 19. Simplify

   
fractions 1 2 3 5 2
2 − + ÷ ×
2 5 4 8 3
As stated in Chapter 1, sometimes addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, powers and brackets can all be    
involved in a calculation. A definite order of precedence 1 2 3 5 2
2 − + ÷ ×
must be adhered to. The order is: 2 5 4 8 3
   
Brackets 5 2×4 3×5 5 2
= − + ÷ × (B)
Order (or pOwer) 2 5×4 4×5 8 3
   
5 8 15 5 2
Division = − + ÷ × (B)
2 20 20 8 3
Multiplication  
5 23 5 1
Addition = − ÷ × by cancelling (B)
2 20 4 3
Subtraction 5 23 5
= − ÷ (B)
This is demonstrated in the following worked problems. 2 20 12
5 23 12
= − × (D)
7 3 4 2 20 5
Problem 17. Simplify − ×
20 8 5 5 23 3
= − × by cancelling
2 5 5
7 3 4 7 3×1 5 69
− × = − by cancelling = − (M)
20 8 5 20 2 × 5 2 25
7 3 5 × 25 69 × 2
= − (M) = − (S)
20 10 2 × 25 25 × 2
7 6 125 138
= − = − (S)
20 20 50 50
1 13
= (S) =−
20 50

1 1 5 9 Problem 20. Evaluate

Problem 18. Simplify −2 × +  
4 5 8 10 1 1 3 1 4 1
of 5 − 3 +3 ÷ −
3 2 4 5 5 2
1 1 5 9 1 11 5 9
−2 × + = − × +
4 5 8 10 4 5 8 10
 
1 11 1 9 1 1 3 1 4 1
= − × + by cancelling of 5 −3 +3 ÷ −
4 1 8 10 3 2 4 5 5 2
1 11 9 1 3 1 4 1
= − + (M) = of 1 + 3 ÷ − (B)
4 8 10 3 4 5 5 2
1 × 10 11 × 5 9×4 1 7 16 4 1
= − + = × + ÷ − (O)
4 × 10 8×5 10 × 4 3 4 5 5 2
(since the LCM of 4, 8 and 10 is 40) (Note that the ‘of ’ is replaced with a
10 55 36 multiplication sign.)
= − +
40 40 40
10 − 55 + 36 1 7 16 5 1
= (A/S) = × + × − (D)
40 3 4 5 4 2
9 1 7 4 1 1
=− = × + × − by cancelling
40 3 4 1 1 2
 Fractions 15

7 4 1
= + − (M)    
12 1 2 3 2 1 5 3
6. − − ÷ ×
7 48 6 5 3 2 6 2
= + − (A/S)
12 12 12    
1 2 7 1 2 2
49 7. of 4 − 3 + 3 ÷ −
= 2 5 10 3 3 5
12
2 2 1
1 6 ×1 −
=4 8. 3 5 3
12 3 1
6 ÷1
4 2

Now try the following Practice Exercise 1 1 2

9. 1 × 2 ÷
3 5 5
Practice Exercise 7 Order of operation with 1 2 1 2 4
10. × − ÷ +
fractions (answers on page 436) 4 5 5 3 15
Evaluate the following. 2 1 1 1
1 3 20 1 3 16 +3 ×2 +1
1. 2 − × 2. − × 11. 3 5 2 3
2 5 27 3 4 27 1 1
8 ÷3
1 3 9 1 1 2 5 1 3 3
3. + ÷ − 4. +2 ÷ −
2 5 15 3 5 3 9 4    
1 9 3 1 2 3
4 1 1 2 2 12. of 2 − 1 + 2 ÷ −
5. × − ÷ + 13 10 5 3 3 4
5 2 6 5 3

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 5 to 7 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Revision Test 1: Basic arithmetic and fractions

This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 1 and 2. The marks available are shown in brackets at the
end of each question.

1. Evaluate 13. Simplify

1009 cm − 356 cm − 742 cm + 94 cm. (3) 3 7
(a) −
2. Determine £284 × 9 (3) 4 15
5 1 5
(b) 1 − 2 + 3 (8)
3. Evaluate 8 3 6
(a) −11239 − (−4732) + 9639
14. A training college has 480 students of which 150
(b) −164 × −12
are girls. Express this as a fraction in its simplest
(c) 367 × −19 (6) form. (2)
4. Calculate (a) $153 ÷ 9 (b) 1397 g ÷ 11 (4) 7
15. A tank contains 18 000 litres of oil. Initially, of
10
5. A small component has a mass of 27 grams. 2
the contents are removed, then of the remainder
Calculate the mass, in kilograms, of 750 such 5
components. (3) is removed. How much oil is left in the tank?
(4)
16. Evaluate
6. Find (a) the highest common factor and (b) the
lowest common multiple of the following num- 7 3 3
(a) 1 × × 3
bers: 15 40 75 120 (7) 9 8 5
2 1
Evaluate the expressions in questions 7 to 12. (b) 6 ÷ 1
3 3
7. 7 + 20 ÷ (9 − 5) (3) 1 1 2
(c) 1 × 2 ÷ (10)
3 5 5
8. 147 − 21(24 ÷ 3) + 31 (3)
17. Calculate
9. 40 ÷ (1 + 4) + 7[8 + (3 × 8) − 27] (5) 1 2 1 2 4
(a) × − ÷ +
4 5 5 3 15
(7 − 3)(2 − 5)
10. (3) 2 1 1 1
3(9 − 5) ÷ (2 − 6) +3 ×2 +1
(b) 3 5 2 3 (8)
(7 + 4 × 5) ÷ 3 + 6 ÷ 2 1 1
11. (5) 8 ÷3
2 × 4 + (5 − 8) − 22 + 3 3 3
    
1 9 3 1 2 3
(42 × 5 − 8) ÷ 3 + 9 × 8 18. Simplify of 2 − 1 + 2 ÷ −
12. (5) 13 10 5 3 3 4
4 × 32 − 20 ÷ 5 (8)

For lecturers/instructors/teachers, fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Revision Test 1,
together with a full marking scheme, are available at the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Chapter 3
Decimals
Why it is important to understand: Decimals
Engineers and scientists use decimal numbers all the time in calculations. Calculators are able to handle
calculations with decimals; however, there will be times when a quick calculation involving addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of decimals is needed. Again, do not spend too much time on
this chapter because we deal with the calculator later; however, try to have some idea how to do quick
calculations involving decimal numbers in the absence of a calculator. You will feel more confident to deal
with decimal numbers in calculations if you can do this.

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• convert a decimal number to a fraction and vice versa

• understand and use significant figures and decimal places in calculations
• add and subtract decimal numbers
• multiply and divide decimal numbers

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Converting decimals to fractions

and vice versa
The decimal system of numbers is based on the digits
0 to 9.
Converting decimals to fractions and vice versa is
There are a number of everyday occurrences in which we
demonstrated below with worked examples.
use decimal numbers. For example, a radio is, say, tuned
to 107.5 MHz FM; 107.5 is an example of a decimal
number. Problem 1. Convert 0.375 to a proper fraction in
In a shop, a pair of trainers cost, say, £57.95; 57.95 is its simplest form
another example of a decimal number. 57.95 is a decimal
fraction, where a decimal point separates the integer, i.e. 0.375 × 1000
(i) 0.375 may be written as i.e.
57, from the fractional part, i.e. 0.95 1000
375
0.375 =
57.95 actually means (5 × 10) + (7 × 1) 1000
    (ii) Dividing both numerator and denominator by 5
1 1
+ 9× + 5× 375 75
10 100 gives =
1000 200

Basic Engineering Mathematics. 978-1-138-67370-0, © 2017 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
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 All Tanks of this Battalion displayed on a painted board the
colours of their own infantry, of whom one N.C.O. stayed with each
crew and rode as an observer in the Tank on the day of battle. It
may here be noted that these Australian N.C.O.’s were of the
greatest use in keeping touch with the infantry, and incidentally
returned to their units with a largely enhanced opinion of the
courage and endurance of the Tank Corps personnel.
In the second phase one Tank was of service in keeping touch
between two Companies of infantry, until a gap in the line could be
closed.
With the Canadians, the second phase was equally hot. A typical
action was fought by a machine belonging to the 14th Battalion.

73
“Second Lieutenant Gould’s Tank was pushing on
towards the Red Line, which overlooked the valley running
south. Here the enemy were found to be organising for a
counter-attack. Enemy transport with a large number of
stragglers, estimated at 1000, was in full retreat up the road,
and in the valley itself a force estimated at half a battalion
was forming up and being reinforced by other parties coming
over the hill in rear. All the time this Tank was under heavy
fire from machine-guns and snipers from the left flank and
rear. Fire was opened with 6-pounders on the transport and
direct hits observed. M.G. fire was also directed with good
effect on the excellent targets in the valley, causing confusion
and disorganisation in the enemy ranks. With the prolonged
running at high speed the interior of the Tank rapidly became
unbearable through heat and petrol fumes, and the crew
were forced to evacuate it and to take cover underneath. At
this moment two of the crew were wounded, one was sick,
one fainted and one was delirious. Fortunately, before the
enemy could take advantage of the lull, two Whippet Tanks
and a body of cavalry came up, and the enemy in the valley
began to retreat over the hill.”
 The 1st Tank Battalion, with the Canadians, suffered extremely
severely.

74
“Owing to the French having been held up, the British
were subjected to a heavy enfilade fire from the villages of
Beaucourt and Le Quesneu and nine of the eleven Tanks
belonging to ‘A’ Company received direct hits from a field
battery firing over open sights from Le Quesneu. The majority
caught fire and were burnt out, and very severe casualties
resulted, three out of the four Section Commanders being
killed and the remaining one wounded and captured. This
disaster was followed by a particularly heroic action on the
part of Second Lieutenant Cassell, who observed the
destructive fire of the battery, and, passing through the
burning victims of its shells, steered straight on to it, in an
attempt to avenge the destruction of his comrades. His
heroism was in vain, for before he had proceeded many yards
he received a shell through the front of his Tank which put it
out of action and killed Second Lieutenant Cassell and most
of his crew.”

Meanwhile, the Whippets and the cavalry had pushed forward.

They and the armoured cars were to press on beyond the limits
of the infantry and heavy Tank attack.
Generally the Whippets were to precede the cavalry, in order to
silence machine-guns, deal with wire, if any, and generally to pave
the way.
In practice, however:

75
“Difficulty was found in maintaining touch with cavalry
owing to the impossibility of keeping up with galloping
horsemen on the one hand, and to the impossibility of a
mounted advance in the face of heavy machine-gun fire on
 the other hand. Thus, two sections of ‘C’ Company, 3rd
Battalion lost touch with their cavalry in climbing a steep hill
out of Ignaucourt Valley.”

There were, in fact, innumerable instances of liaison difficulties.

“Another Company was ordered to obtain touch with 3rd

Cavalry Brigade, but on reporting to the rendezvous, no
cavalry was seen.
“Zero hour had been postponed three hours, but this was
not known till later.
“Being unable to obtain touch with the cavalry, assistance
was rendered about noon to Canadian infantry attacking
Beaufort and Warvillers. This attack was successful and
Whippets rendered great assistance.”

Far happier was the lot of certain Whippets which played an

independent part. The following is a first-hand account of the
adventures of one such machine, the ever-to-be-remembered
Whippet, “Musical Box.”
SMOKE SCREEN AND SEMAPHORE
 A TANKADROME

As the story will show, for many months no news was obtained
of the fate of the machine or of her crew of one officer, Lieutenant
C. B. Arnold, and two men, Gunner Ribbans and Driver Carney, and
it was not till January 1919 that the following amazing tale appeared
in Weekly Tank Notes:—

“On August 8, 1918, I commanded Whippet ‘Musical Box’

in ‘B’ Company, 6th Battalion. We left the lying-up point at
zero (4.20 p.m.) and proceeded across country to the south
side of the railway at Villers-Bretonneux. We crossed the
railway, in column of sections, by the bridge on the eastern
outskirts of the town. I reached the British front line and
passed through the Australian infantry and some of our heavy
Tanks (Mark V.), in company with the remainder of the
Whippets of ‘B’ Company. Four sections of ‘B’ Company
proceeded parallel with the railway (Amiens-Ham) across
country due east. After proceeding about 2000 yards in this
direction I found myself to be the leading machine, owing to
the others having become ditched, etc. To my immediate
front I could see more Mark V. Tanks being followed very
closely by Australian infantry. About this time we came under
direct shell-fire from a 4-gun field battery, of which I could
see the flashes, between Abancourt and Bayonvillers. Two
Mark V. Tanks, on my right, were knocked out. I saw clouds
of smoke coming out of these machines and the crews
evacuate them. The infantry following the heavy machines
were suffering casualties from this battery. I turned half-left
and ran diagonally across the front of the battery, at a
distance of about 600 yards. Both my guns were able to fire
on the battery, in spite of which they got off about eight
rounds at me without damage, but sufficiently close to be
audible inside the cab, and I could see the flash of each gun
as it fired. By this time I had passed behind a belt of trees
running along a roadside. I ran along this belt until level with
the battery, when I turned full-right and engaged the battery
in rear. On observing our appearance from the belt of trees,
the gunners, some thirty in number, abandoned their guns
and tried to get away. Gunner Ribbans and I accounted for
the whole lot. I cruised forward, making a detour to the left,
and shot a number of the enemy, who appeared to be
demoralised, and were moving about the country in all
directions. This detour brought me back to the railway siding
N.N.W. of Guillaucourt. I could now see other Whippets
coming up and a few Mark V.’s also. The Australian infantry,
who followed magnificently, had now passed through the
battery position which we had accounted for and were lying
in a sunken road about 400 yards past the battery and slightly
to the left of it. I got out of my machine and went to an
Australian full Lieutenant and asked if he wanted any help.
Whilst talking to him, he received a bullet which struck the
metal shoulder title, a piece of the bullet-casing entering his
shoulder. While he was being dressed, Major Rycroft (horse)
and Lieutenant Waterhouse (Tanks) and Captain Strachan of
‘B’ Company, 6th Battalion, arrived and received confirmation
from the Australian officer of our having knocked out the field
battery. I told Major Rycroft what we had done, and then
moved off again at once, as it appeared to be unwise for four
machines (Lieutenant Watkins had also arrived) to remain
stationary at one spot. I proceeded parallel with the railway
embankment in an easterly direction, passing through two
cavalry patrols of about twelve men each. The first patrol was
receiving casualties from a party of enemy in a field of corn. I
dealt with this, killing three or four, the remainder escaping
out of sight into the corn. Proceeding further east, I saw the
second patrol pursuing six enemy. The leading horse was so
tired that he was not gaining appreciably on the rearmost
Hun. Some of the leading fugitives turned about and fired at
the cavalryman when his sword was stretched out and
practically touching the back of the last Hun. Horse and rider
were brought down on the left of the road. The remainder of
the cavalrymen deployed to right, coming in close under the
railway embankment, where they dismounted and came
under fire from the enemy, who had now taken up a position
on the railway bridge, and were firing over the parapet,
inflicting one or two casualties. I ran the machine up until we
had a clear view of the bridge, and killed four of the enemy
with one long burst, the other two running across the bridge
and on down the opposite slope out of sight. On our left I
could see, about three-quarters of a mile away, a train on fire
being towed by an engine. I proceeded further east, still
parallel to the railway, and approached carefully a small valley
marked on my map as containing Boche hutments. As I
entered the valley (between Bayonvillers and Harbonnières)
at right angles, many enemy were visible packing kits and
others retiring. On our opening fire on the nearest, many
others appeared from huts, making for the end of the valley,
their object being to get over the embankment and so out of
our sight. We accounted for many of these. I cruised round,
Ribbans went into one of the huts and returned, and we
counted about sixty dead and wounded. There were
evidences of shell-fire amongst the huts, but we certainly
accounted for most of the casualties counted there. I turned
left from the railway and cruised across country, as lines of
enemy infantry could be seen retiring. We fired at these many
times at ranges of 200 yards to 600 yards. These targets
were fleeting, owing to the enemy getting down into the corn
when fired on. In spite of this, many casualties must have
been inflicted, as we cruised up and down for at least an
hour. I did not see any more of our troops or machines after
leaving the cavalry patrols already referred to. During the
cruising, being the only machine to get through, we invariably
received intense rifle and machine-gun fire. I would here beg
to suggest that no petrol be carried on the outside of the
machine, as under orders we were carrying nine tins of petrol
on the roof, for refilling purposes when well into the enemy
lines (should opportunity occur). The perforated tins allowed
the petrol to run all over the cab. These fumes, combined
with the intense bullet splash and the great heat after being
in action (by this time) nine to ten hours, made it necessary
at this point to breathe through the mouth-piece of the box
respirator, without actually wearing the mask.
MOVING UP. BATTLE OF AMIENS
 THE ARMOURED CARS GOING UP

“At 2 p.m. or thereabouts I again proceeded east, parallel

to the railway and about 100 yards north of it. I could see a
large aerodrome and also an observation balloon at a height
of about 200 ft. I could also see great quantities of motor and
horse transport moving in all directions. Over the top of
another ridge on my left I could see the cover of a lorry
coming in my direction; I moved up out of sight and waited
until he topped the bridge, when I shot the driver. The lorry
ran into a right-hand ditch. The railway had now come out of
the cutting in which it had rested all the while, and I could
see both sides of it. I could see a long line of men retiring on
both sides of the railway, and fired at these at ranges of 400
to 500 yards, inflicting heavy casualties. I passed through
these and also accounted for one horse and the driver of a
two-horse canvas-covered wagon on the far side of the
railway. We now crossed a small road which crossed the main
railway, and came in view of large horse and wagon lines—
which ran across the railway and close to it. Gunner Ribbans
(R.H. gun) here had a view of south side of railway and fired
continuously into motor and horse transport moving on three
roads (one north and south, one almost parallel to the
railway, and one diagonally between these two). I fired many
bursts at 600 to 800 yards at transport blocking roads on my
left, causing great confusion. Rifle and machine-gun fire was
not heavy at this time, owing to our sudden appearance, as
the roads were all banked up in order to cross the railway.
There were about twelve men in the middle aisle of these
lines. I fired a long burst at these. Some went down and
others got in amongst the wheels and undergrowth. I turned
quarter-left towards a small copse, where there were more
horses and men, about 200 yards away. On the way across
we met the most intense rifle and machine-gun fire
imaginable from all sides. When at all possible, we returned
the fire, until the L.H. revolver port cover was shot away. I
withdrew the forward gun, locked the mounting and held the
body of the gun against the hole. Petrol was still running
down the inside of the back door. Fumes and heat combined
were very bad. We were still moving forward and I was
shouting to Driver Carney to turn about, as it was impossible
to continue the action, when two heavy concussions closely
followed one another and the cab burst into flames. Carney
and Ribbans got to the door and collapsed. I was almost
overcome, but managed to get the door open and fell out on
to the ground, and was able to drag out the other two men.
Burning petrol was running on to the ground where we were
lying. The fresh air revived us, and we all got up and made a
short rush to get away from the burning petrol. We were all
on fire. In this rush Carney was shot in the stomach and
killed. We rolled over and over to try to extinguish the fumes.
I saw numbers of the enemy approaching from all round. The
first arrival came for me with a rifle and bayonet. I got hold of
this, and the point of the bayonet entered my right forearm.
The second man struck at my head with the butt end of his
rifle, hit my shoulder and neck, and knocked me down. When
I came to, there were dozens all round me, and any one who
could reach me did so and I was well kicked. They were
furious. Ribbans and I were taken away and stood by
ourselves about twenty yards clear of the crowd. An
argument ensued, and we were eventually marched to a dug-
out where paper bandages were put on our hands. Our faces
were left as they were. We were then marched down the road
to the main railway. There we joined a party of about eight
enemy, and marched past a field kitchen, where I made signs
for food. We had had nothing since 8.30 p.m. on the night
previous to the action, and it was 3.30 p.m. when we were
set on fire. We went on to a village where, on my intelligence
map, a Divisional Headquarters had been marked. An elderly
stout officer interrogated me, asking if I was an officer. I said
‘Yes.’ He then asked various other questions, to which I
replied, ‘I do not know.’ He said, ‘Do you mean you do not
know or you will not tell me?’ I said, ‘You can take it
whichever way you wish.’ He then struck me in the face, and
went away. We went on to Chaulone to a canvas hospital, on
the right side of the railway, where I was injected with anti-
tetanus. Later I was again interrogated, with the same result
as above, except that instead of being struck, I received five
days’ solitary confinement in a room with no window, and
only a small piece of bread and a bowl of soup each day. On
the fifth day I was again interrogated, and said the same as
before. I said that he had no right to give me solitary
confinement, and that unless I were released, I should, at
first opportunity, report him to the highest possible authority.
The next day I was sent away, and eventually reached the
camp at Freiburg, when I found my brother, Captain A. E.
Arnold, M.C., Tank Corps. The conduct of Gunner Ribbans and
Driver Carney was beyond all praise throughout. Driver
Carney drove from Villers-Bretonneux onwards.
 “(Signed) C. B. Arnold, Lieut.,
“6th Tank Battalion.
“January 1, 1919.”

The Tank was found close to the small railway on the eastern
side of the Harbonnières-Rosières Road.

VI
The final stage of the day’s battle had been reached by early
afternoon.
The armoured cars, moving rapidly east along the main roads,
did much to complete the demoralisation of the enemy.

76
“The enemy, once in retreat, became completely
demoralised. One heard from the commanders of the
armoured cars which were returning on the main Villers-
Bretonneux road, how they chased excited German Staff cars
and officers through the ruined village of Faucourt, and
eventually had been held up, because the enemy’s traffic was
so congested on the roads behind his lines that they could
penetrate no further. The Air Force were then reported to
have completed this confusion, by obtaining some excellent
results in flying low over these roads....
“The cars which had turned northwards entered Proyart
and Chuignolles, two moving up to the river Somme. At
Proyart the cars found the German troops at dinner; these
they shot down and scattered in all directions, and then
moving westwards met masses of the enemy driven from
their trenches by the Australians. In order to surprise these
men who were moving eastwards, the cars hid in the
outskirts of Proyart and only advanced when the enemy was
between fifty and one hundred yards distant, when they
 moved forward, rapidly shooting down great numbers.
Scattering from before the cars at Proyart, the enemy made
across country towards Chuignolles, only to be met by the
cars which had proceeded to this village, and they were once
again fired on and dispersed. Near Chuignolles one armoured
car obtained ‘running practice’ with its machine-guns at a
lorry full of troops, and kept up fire until the lorry ran into the
ditch. There were also several cases of armoured cars
following German transport vehicles, without anything
unusual being suspected, until fire was opened at point-blank
range.
“Although more than half the cars were out of action by
the evening of the 8th, there were no casualties amongst
their personnel sufficiently serious to require evacuation.”

The Mark V. star Tanks successfully reached the day’s final

objective and delivered their infantry machine-gunners on the line
which was to be the limit of our advance.
That they were duly “delivered” is, however, about as much as
can be said of many of these unfortunates.
The motion, the heat, and the fumes of the inside of a Tank
closed for action, almost invariably proved too much for all but the
Tank’s own well-salted crew.
Consequently where little fire had been met with, the machine-
gunners had come up either riding or walking behind it.
Where the fire had been heavy and they had been sternly
ordered in and the Tank closed up, they had been delivered flushed,
feverish, and either vomiting or extremely faint and quite unfit for
duty until they had been given at least a couple of hours’ rest.
The Australian Corps and their Tanks had alone taken about
7900 prisoners, and our total captures amounted to over 13,000
prisoners, and more than 300 guns, besides all kinds of stores and
ammunition. Along the eleven miles of attack we had advanced to a
depth of nearly seven miles, and (except Le Quesnoy, which we
captured before dawn on the 9th) the whole of the outer defences of
Amiens had been taken. The armoured cars and some of the cavalry
had, as we have seen, been in action far beyond. It was north of the
Somme that our advance had been most hotly contested, but even
here we had pushed forward considerably and the enemy’s
casualties had been particularly heavy.
The Paris-Amiens railway was completely disengaged, and the
Despatch characterises the first day’s fighting as a “sweeping
success.”

VII
All night, to the east beyond the limit of our advance, we could
hear the enemy blowing up his ammunition dumps.
All night his transport and limbers streamed eastwards, and all
night our airmen hung upon his retreating columns.
Next morning we attacked again along the whole line, no less
than 155 Tanks being actually engaged.
The Australians advanced upon Lihons, Framerville and
Vauxvillers, while on their right the Canadians continued the attack
south of the Amiens-Chaulnes railway.
In the attack on Framerville, out of thirteen Tanks engaged, only
one was hit.
This fact was attributable to the admirable co-operation between
the infantry and Tanks.

77
“Riflemen working hand in hand with the machines
picking off the enemy’s field gunners, as soon as the Tanks
came into observation. At Vauxvillers, seven Tanks went into
action just before noon, unaccompanied by infantry and
 without artillery support. After the Tanks had gone forward a
little way, the 5th Australian Division followed up and not only
captured the high ground, but the village itself, which was not
included in their original objective.”

Near Rosières the opposition stiffened, and here no less than

eight Tanks were knocked out by a German battery which came into
action near Lihons. It was not until 5 p.m. that this battery was
silenced, and we did not reach Lihons that night.

78
“The day’s operations were especially interesting
through the rapidity with which the enemy got his field
batteries into action from commanding positions against
Tanks advancing in broad daylight. He also employed a
number of low-flying aeroplanes against the infantry, but as
these did not carry bombs their fire had no effect upon the
Tanks. The resistance put up by his riflemen and machine-
gunners was feeble, and showed clearly the moral effect of
the victorious advance of the previous day.”

With the Canadians as many Tanks as possible were rallied and

about fifty-five went into action. They went forward, as before, in
waves, the same Tank Battalions working with the same Infantry
Divisions as on the previous day.
North of the Somme, with the 3rd Corps (which included the
33rd American Division) the 10th Tank Battalion put sixteen Tanks
into action.
They had a hard task round Chipilly, where the enemy had a
large number of machine-guns cleverly concealed in woods and
gullies. By the early evening, however, all the objectives were taken,
and our positions advanced in line with those which we held south of
the river, an advance achieved at a cost of five casualties to the
sixteen machines engaged.
 The Whippets’ action, in as far as they were billed to act with the
cavalry, was disappointing. By some fault of liaison they were kept
too long at Brigade Headquarters.
At Beaufort and Warvillers, however, they were able to give
great help to the infantry by chasing hostile machine-gunners out of
the standing corn and shooting them down as they fled.
On the whole August 9th was a successful day, for we continued
to push forward steadily all along our line.

VIII
We had, in fact, pushed forward so far that all along the line
during the next day’s fighting we reached the old trench systems of
the First Battle of the Somme. And it was this fact, combined with
the usual and inevitable petering out of all attacks which are not
supported by immense reserves, that now slowed our rate of
advance down to nothing. Two days later we left off hammering.
The 10th proved an unfortunate day for the Tanks, for though
we advanced, the eighty-five Tanks engaged suffered heavily in
every sector.
With the Canadians, owing to orders having been issued late,
the hour of attack had to be altered, and it finally took place in
daylight without smoke.
A stubborn resistance was encountered, and of the forty-three
Tanks engaged no less than twenty-three received direct hits.
Before Warvillers the cavalry and Whippets had a particularly
poor time of it, the old trench systems and the old shelled area, of
which the enemy had taken ingenious and thorough advantage,
proving too much for both arms.
With the Australians a rather remarkable night attack was
arranged.
 During the three previous days’ fighting it had been found very
inconvenient to have the Somme Valley as an inter-corps boundary,
and General Monash was allowed to extend his territory northward
in such a way that the Australians should hold both sides of the
valley.
An encircling movement was, therefore, undertaken, of which
Captain Denny, M.C., M.P., gives the following account in his article
on the work of the Australians which appeared in the Daily Telegraph
of April 1919:

“The 3rd and 4th Australian Divisions were ordered to

carry out an encircling operation on the night of August 10–
11 in order to cut off the Etinehem spur north of the Somme
and the ridge east of Proyart, south of the Somme. The
general lines of the operation both to the north and the south
of the river were similar. Columns were to move along defined
roads leaving the objectives well to the flanks, and then
encircle the enemy positions. Each column was accompanied
by Tanks, and was to move in an easterly direction, and then
to wheel inwards towards the Somme. It was recognised that
this action involved certain risks, as Tanks had never been
tried by night in this way, but in view of the condition of the
enemy’s moral at this stage it was considered that the effect
of the advance of the Tanks and infantry would lead
immediately to the collapse of the defence.
“The action north of the river was entirely successful.
South of the river the enemy bombed the forward area
heavily early in the night, causing considerable delay in the
preparations for the attack. Progress was at first slow owing
to heavy enemy artillery and machine-gun fire and the
disorganisation caused by the bombing. Two of the Tanks
allotted for the operations were destroyed or put out of action
very soon after zero hour.”
 Almost from the outset of the attack heavy enemy machine-gun
fire was encountered from the large enemy dump by the side of the
main road. Tanks were unable in the dark to locate these machine-
guns, and could not do much to assist the infantry. It was therefore
decided to abandon the operation and withdraw the infantry under
cover of unaimed fire from the Tanks, who were themselves recalled
when the infantry had got clear away.
It was not till the evening of August 12 that Tanks and infantry
were able to advance in this sector, and that we gained the positions
east of Proyart.
By August 11 the Tank Corps reserves were used up, and the
Tanks and their crews were almost fought to a standstill. They had
had three days of continuous fighting and marching, and of the
thirty-eight Tanks which went into action on the 11th there was not
one but badly needed overhauling. The crews were completely
exhausted. We have already described the conditions under which
the men fought in the Mark V. Tank, and how after an average of
three hours in a closed Tank whose guns are in action, all men begin
to suffer from severe headache and giddiness, and most from
sickness, a high temperature and heart disturbance.
After the Battle of Amiens the crews of most of the surviving
Tanks had fought for three days, not three hours, and 50 per cent.
of them were on the verge of collapse. However, as we have said,
thirty-eight machines and crews were scraped together, and on
August 11 ten Tanks of the 2nd Battalion helped in the taking of
Lihons by the Australians. These Tanks had an approach march of
eight miles before they reached their jumping-off places.
With the Canadians, Tanks attacked Domeny and twice entered
the village, but the 4th Canadian Division could not get forward to
consolidate, owing to lack of support on the right.
On the 12th, while six Tanks were still thrashing out the Proyart
affair north of the Somme, the 4th and 5th Brigades were
withdrawn, to be followed next day by the remainder of the Tanks.
 IX
We called a halt, and the Battle of Amiens was at an end, for it
was again at last the Allies who chose the time and the place where
they would offer battle.
Commanders who had the bitter taste of the forced actions of
the March retreat in their mouths, must have savoured this easy
choice extraordinarily. There is something thrilling in the assured
words of the Despatch. We did not care for the new battle site! We
would change it and fight elsewhere!

“The derelict battle area which now lay before our troops,
seared by old trench lines, pitted with shell-holes, and
crossed in all directions with tangled belts of wire, the whole
covered by the wild vegetation of two years, presented
unrivalled opportunities for stubborn machine-gun
defences....
“I therefore determined to break off the battle on this
front, and transferred the front of attack from the 4th Army to
the sector north of the Somme, where an attack seemed
unexpected by the enemy. My intention was for the 3rd Army
to operate in the direction of Bapaume so as to turn the line
of the old Somme defences from the north.”

We struck at once. Only four days were given to the Tanks for
overhauling machines and patching up the crews, for on August 21
we opened the new battle.
Meanwhile it was hard to realise how great was the moral and
physical blow which we had dealt the Germans. The July attacks had
been tentative, but the Battle of Amiens was the decisive victory, the
sure proof that the Germans had lost all hope of winning the War by
force of arms.
 But at the time we could not read the thundering sign of our
deliverance with certainty. We could see only what were the more
immediate results of the battle.

79
“Within the space of five days the town of Amiens and
the railway centring upon it had been disengaged. Twenty
German Divisions had been heavily defeated by thirteen
British Infantry Divisions and three Cavalry Divisions, assisted
by a regiment of the 33rd American Division and supported
by some 400 Tanks. Nearly 22,000 prisoners and over 400
guns had been taken by us, and our line had been pushed
forward to a depth of some twelve miles in a vital sector.
Further, our deep advance, combined with the attacks of the
French Armies on our right, had compelled the enemy to
evacuate hurriedly a wide extent of territory to the south of
us.
“The effect of this victory—following so closely after the
Allied victory on the Marne—upon the moral both of the
German and British troops was very great. Buoyed up by the
hope of immediate and decisive victory, to be followed by an
early and favourable peace, constantly assured that the Allied
reserves were exhausted, the German soldiery suddenly
found themselves attacked on two fronts and thrown back
with heavy losses from large and important portions of their
earlier gains. The reaction was inevitable and of a deep and
lasting character.
“On the other hand, our own troops felt that at last their
opportunity had come, and that, supported by a superior
artillery and numerous Tanks they could now press forward
resolutely to reap the reward of their patient, dauntless, and
successful defence in March and April.”

We knew, however, that we had still hard fighting before us, and
we were careful to analyse every phase of the action to see if we
could not learn some practical lesson from it that should help us in
the coming months.
The Tank Command noted several points “for reference.” In the
first place, the battle would have been ended the quicker if the
Tanks had had a larger general reserve.
Then neither the Mark V. nor the Whippet was fast enough for
open warfare.
80
Had we then possessed machines such as we have now, of
double the speed of the Mark V., and having a radius of action of 100
miles and more, we should, at a modest estimate, have finished the
battle on the first day.
Last, we had not used our Whippets to the best advantage.
The 3rd (Light) Brigade Commander, Brig.-General Hardress-
Lloyd, thus admirably summarised the lessons of the battle, and laid
down alternative principles upon which the light machines might be
used:

“I do not think it advisable to attempt to use the present

Whippet in conjunction with cavalry. Better results would have
been obtained during these operations if Whippets had been
working in close liaison with Mark V. Tanks and infantry.
“The Whippet is not fast enough to conform to cavalry
tactics in the early stages of a battle.
“The Whippets’ rôle should be to push on amongst the
retreating enemy and prevent him from reorganising, engage
reinforcements coming up, eventually enabling the infantry to
make a further advance, capture prisoners, guns, etc.
“... They must move forward in close touch with the
heavy Tanks so as to be near enough up to go though when
required. If kept back with the cavalry the speed of the
Whippet is not sufficient to enable the machine to be in the
 forward position at the required moment, and its offensive
power will be seriously diminished.”

But it was not for us that the battle of August 8 had its chief
lessons.
The German High Command waxed eloquent with indignant
exhortation, and demanded passionately that the experiences of the
German Army should be utilised, and that such things as had
occurred on the 8th should never happen again.
On August 11 General Ludendorff issued a secret Order:

“Troops allowed themselves to be surprised by a mass

attack of Tanks, and lost all cohesion when the Tanks
suddenly appeared behind them, having broken through
under cover of a mist, natural and artificial. The defensive
organisation, both of the first line and in the rear, was
insufficient to permit of a systematic defence.... As a weapon
against Tanks, the prepared defence of the ground must play
a larger part than ever, and the aversion of the men to the
pick and shovel must be overcome at all hazards.... Especially
there must be defences against Tanks. It was absolutely
inadmissible that the Tanks, having penetrated into our
advance line without meeting with obstacles or anything,
should be able to push on along the roads or beside them for
miles.... The principle that a body of troops even when
surrounded must defend their ground, unless otherwise
ordered, to the last man and the last cartridge, seems to have
fallen into oblivion ... a large proportion of our ranks fight
unskilfully against Tanks. A Tank is an easy prey for artillery of
all calibres....”

An account follows of measures for the proper disposition of

artillery against Tanks, and the rest of the Order is occupied with
directions to the infantry concerning the question at what range the
anti-Tank rifle and gun are most effective. The consideration of these
points is long and exhaustive. Ludendorff further hopes much from
“the active and inventive genius of the lower ranks of the non-
commissioned officers to arrange Tank traps, and demands that
every encouragement should be shown to those who show any
inventive talent.”
These were but peddling remedies. When, as at Amiens, the
understanding between infantry and Tanks is almost perfect, and
when the magnificent élan of an assault by Australians and
Canadians is supported by the weight of 400 Tanks, not even the
troops of what was the best-trained Army in the world can stand the
concerted shock of their attack.
A Special Order was issued on August 16 by General Sir Henry
Rawlinson, the 4th Army Commander:

“Tank Corps.—The success of the operations of August 8

and succeeding days was largely due to the conspicuous part
played by the 3rd, 4th and 5th Brigades of the Tank Corps,
and I desire to place on record my sincere appreciation of the
invaluable services rendered both by the Mark V. and the
Mark V. star and the Whippets.
“The task of secretly assembling so large a number of
Tanks entailed very hard and continuous work by all
concerned for four or five nights previous to the battle.
“The tactical handling of the Tanks in action made calls on
the skill and physical endurance of the detachments which
were met with a gallantry and devotion beyond all praise.
“I desire to place on record my appreciation of the
splendid success that they achieved, and to heartily
congratulate the Tank Corps as a whole on the completeness
of their arrangements and the admirable prowess exhibited
by all ranks actually engaged on this occasion. There are
many vitally important lessons to be learned from their
 experiences. These will, I trust, be taken to heart by all
concerned and made full use of when next the Tank Corps is
called upon to go into battle.
“The part played by the Tanks and Whippets in the battle
on August 8 was in all respects a very fine performance.
“(Signed) H. Rawlinson, General,
“Commanding 4th Army.
“Headquarters, 4th Army,
“August 16, 1918.”

Nor were the Australians less generous.

The following message is typical of many. It was sent to Brig.-
General Courage (commanding 5th Tank Brigade) by the 4th
Australian Divisional Commander:

“G.O.C. 5th Tank Brigade.

“I wish to express to you and the command associated
with us on August 8 and following days, on behalf of the 4th
Australian Division, our deep appreciation of the most gallant
service rendered during our offensive operations by the Tank
Corps. The consistent skill and gallantry with which the Tanks,
individually and collectively, were handled during the battle,
was the admiration of all ranks of the infantry with whom
they were so intimately associated, and our success was due
in a very large measure to your efforts.
“We hope sincerely, that in future offensive operations in
which we may take part, we shall have the honour to be
associated with the same units of the Tank Corps as during
the operations on August 8 and following days.
“(Signed) E. G. Sinclair McLagan,
“Major-General,
“Commanding 4th Australian Division.”
 Finally, in a congratulatory telegram after the battle, the
Commander-in-Chief paid a high tribute to the skill and bravery
displayed by the Tank Corps in the gaining of this signal victory.
 CHAPTER XVIII
THE GERMAN ATTITUDE—“MAN-TRAPS AND
GINS”—THE BATTLE OF BAPAUME

I
We had, as we have said, called a halt to the Battle of Amiens.
But the pause was to be only one of a few days.
The new battle was to be fought in the area which lay between
the rivers Somme and Scarpe, and for his selection of this particular
place Sir Douglas Haig in his Despatch gives two reasons.

“The enemy did not seem prepared to meet an attack in

this direction, and, owing to the success of the Fourth Army,
he occupied a salient, the left flank of which was already
threatened from the south. A further reason for my decision
was that the ground north of the Ancre River was not greatly
damaged by shell-fire, and was suitable for the use of Tanks.
A successful attack between Albert and Arras in a south-
easterly direction would turn the line of the Somme south of
Péronne, and gave every promise of producing far-reaching
results. It would be a step forward towards the strategic
objective St. Quentin-Cambrai.”

It is interesting to see how high a place Tanks now held in the

estimation of the General Staff, and how carefully their peculiarities
were considered.
 But it was not only the British High Command which had begun
to busy itself with the natural history of the Tank.
Since the lesser battles of July and the greater battle of August
8, the attitude of the German G.H.Q. had entirely changed.
When we first began to use Tanks it will be remembered that the
Germans, though perfunctorily alluding to them as “cruel and
detestable,” had in effect sneered at them as makeshifts by which
we hoped to supplement our scanty supply of more legitimate
munitions of war.
Besides, their contempt for all we did being sincere, the Tanks’
British parentage damned them without further investigation.
“Search and see, for out of Galilee cometh no good thing.”
The Germans themselves made their attitude perfectly clear.

“The use of 300 British Tanks at Cambrai (1917) was a

‘battle of material,’ and the German Higher Command decided
from the very outset not to fight a ‘battle of material.’”

Their policy was masses of men rather than mechanism,

quantity rather than quality.
The best men went to machine-gun units and to assault troops.
In many cases the remainder of the infantry were of little fighting
value, though many of the men might have been otherwise usefully
employed in a war which, if not one of material, was at least one in
which economic factors played a large part.
The German Higher Command was able, however, to look at an
order of battle, showing some 250 Divisions on paper.
But the Germans were thus naturally not in a position to find the
labour for the construction of additional material, such as Tanks;
they were, besides, concentrating any labour and any suitable
material they possessed upon the work of submarine making.
 It seems clear that the whole policy, at least as far as Tanks was
concerned, was regretted before the end of the War.
The following now well known extracts from German documents
indicate the effect of our Tanks on the German Army:
“Staff officers sent from G.H.Q. report that the reasons for the
81
defeat of the Second Army are as follows:
“1. The fact that the troops were surprised by the massed attack
of Tanks, and lost their heads when the Tanks suddenly appeared
behind them, having broken through under cover of natural and
artificial fog.
“2. Lack of organised defences.
“3. The fact that the artillery allotted to reserve infantry units at
the disposal of the Higher Command was wholly insufficient to
establish fresh resistance with artillery support against the enemy
who had broken through and against his Tanks.
“Ludendorff, 11. 8. 18.”

“Crown Prince’s Group of Armies.

“12. 8. 18.
“G.H.Q. reports that during the recent fighting on the
fronts of the 2nd and 18th Armies, large numbers of Tanks
broke through on narrow fronts and pushing straight forward,
rapidly attacked battery positions and the headquarters of
divisions.
“In many cases no defence could be made in time against
the Tanks, which attacked them from all sides.
“Anti-Tank defence must now be developed to deal with
such situations.”

Signal Communication—