C19
Uploaded by
Mickael SchwedlerC19
Uploaded by
Mickael SchwedlerOBJECT-ORIENTED
PROGRAMMING USING C++
AND JAVA
Ramesh Vasappanavara
Director
Shree Ganpati Institute of Technology
Ghaziabad, Delhi (NCR)
Anand Vasappanavara
Process Control Technologist
Shell Technologies
Bintulu, Malaysia
Gautam Vasappanavara
Lead Engineer
Samsung India Ltd
Bangalore
Chennai • Delhi • Chandigarh
Brief Contents
About the Authors
Preface
How to Use This Book and Web Resources
1 Object-oriented Programming Basics
2 Object Modelling
3 Extensibility and Reusability – Inheritance at Work
4 Dynamic Modelling
5 Analysis and Design Methodologies
6 C++ Fundamentals and Basic Programming
7 C++ Programming Basics and Control Loops
8 Functions, Storage Class Preprocessor Directives, and
Arrays and Strings
9 Pointers and References
10 Classes
11 C++ Special Features: Errors and Exceptions and
Operator Overloading
12 Inheritance
13 IO Streaming
14 Generic Programming and Templates
15 Object-oriented Programming with Java
16 Java Fundamentals and Control Loops
17 Simple IO and Arrays and Strings Vectors
18 Class Objects and Methods
19 Inheritance: Packages: Interfaces
20 Errors and Exceptions in Java and Multithreaded
Programming
21 Java IO Files
22 Networking in Java
23 Graphics Using Swing Components and Applets
24 Collections and Software Development Using Java
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Contents
About the Authors
Preface
How to Use This Book and Web Resources
1 Object-oriented Programming Basics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Programming Concepts
1.3 Programming Paradigms
1.3.1 Structured Programming Paradigm
1.3.2 C: A Workhorse that Works Well
1.3.3 Where is the Problem?
1.3.4 Object-oriented Programming Paradigm
1.4 History and Development of Object-oriented
Languages
1.4.1 C++
1.4.2 Java
1.4.3 C#
1.5 Software Development Methodologies
1.6 Need for Objects
1.7 Object-oriented Language Features
1.7.1 Object-based Programming
1.7.2 Object-oriented Programming
1.8 Definition of OOP Language Classes and Objects
1.8.1 Attributes and Behaviours of Objects
1.8.2 Class
1.8.3 Encapsulation
1.8.4 Data Hiding/Data Abstraction
1.8.5 Function Overloading
1.8.6 Operator Overloading
1.9 Extendibility and Reusability of OOP Paradigms
1.10 Extending/Deriving New Classes
1.10.1 Containment: Class Within a Class – Container
Class
1.10.2 Inheritance and Class Hierarchy
1.10.3 Single and Multiple Inheritances
1.11 Virtual Functions
1.12 Run-time Polymorphism and Dynamic Data
Binding
1.13 Class as Abstract Data Type (ADT)
1.14 Standard Template Library (STL)
1.15 OOPS – Object-oriented Programming and Systems
1.16 Object-oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD)
1.17 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
2 Object Modelling
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Object Model
2.3 Object-oriented Design
2.4 Classes and Objects
2.4.1 Class
2.4.2 Notations and Meta Models
2.4.3 Mandatory Profile
2.4.4 Meta Data – Meta Class
2.4.5 Constraints
2.4.6 Object Creation
2.4.7 Garbage Collection
2.5 Object Properties
2.6 Links
2.7 Class Diagrams
2.8 Class Hierarchy
2.8.1 Associations
2.8.2 Hierarchies with Interdependent Classes
2.8.3 Hierarchies with Independent Classes
2.9 Object Diagrams
2.10 Communications and Message Passing
2.11 Polymorphism
2.12 Abstract Class
2.13 Concrete Class
2.13.1 OOPS – A Case Study in Object Modelling
2.14 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
3 Extensibility and Reusability – Inheritance at Work
3.1 Extendibility and Reusability of OOP Paradigm
3.2 Extending/Deriving New Classes
3.2.1 Containment: Class within a Class – Container
Class
3.2.2 Inheritance and Class Hierarchy
3.2.3 Generalization vs Specialization
3.3 Overriding Base Class Functions
3.4 Overloading
3.5 Single and Multiple Inheritances
3.6 Virtual Inheritance
3.7 Problems with Multiple Inheritance
3.8 Interface
3.9 Access Specifiers in Inheritance
3.10 Run-time-type Information – RTTI
3.11 Virtual Functions
3.12 Pure Virtual Functions
3.13 Run-time Polymorphism and Dynamic Data
Binding
3.14 Class as Abstract Data Type
3.15 Separation of Behaviour and Implementation
3.16 Decoupling
3.17 Standard Template Library
3.18 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
4 Dynamic Modelling
4.1 Introduction to Static and Dynamic Modelling
4.2 Lifetime of an Object
4.3 Unified Modelling Language – A Tool for OOAD
4.3.1 Overview of UML
4.3.2 Classification of UML Diagrams
4.4 User Requirements – Use Cases
4.5 Architecture and Domain: What Are They?
4.5.1 Architecture
4.5.2 Domain
4.6 Sequence Diagram
4.7 Collaboration (Communication) Diagram
4.8 Events and State
4.8.1 Activity/Action and Operations
4.8.2 Nested State Diagrams
4.9 Activity Diagram
4.10 Packages and Components – A Way to Organize
Large and Complex Projects
4.11 Component and Deployment Diagram
4.12 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
5 Analysis and Design Methodologies
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Stages and Methodologies for Systems Development
5.2.1 Methodologies for Software Development
5.2.2 Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
5.3 Structured Analysis and Design (SASD)
5.3.1 Conceptual Design – Functional Modelling and
Data Modelling
5.3.2 Modular Design
5.3.3 Analysis and Design Techniques and Tools
5.3.4 Context Diagrams
5.3.5 Event List
5.3.6 Data Flow Diagrams
5.3.7 Data Dictionary
5.3.8 Multilevel DFDs
5.3.9 Entity Relationship Diagram
5.3.10 Process Specifications
5.3.11 Specifying Constraints
5.4 Case Study on Structured Analysis and Design
5.4.1 Example of Statement of Purpose
5.4.2 Context Diagram
5.4.3 Event List
5.4.4 Data Flow Diagrams
5.4.5 Data Dictionary
5.4.6 Entity Relationship Diagrams
5.4.7 Process Specifications – SSCS
5.4.8 Structured Analysis and Design – Advantages and
Disadvantages
5.5 Object-oriented Software Analysis and Design
(OOAD)
5.5.1 Different Models for Object Analysis
5.5.2 Identifying Classes
5.5.3 Identifying Attributes
5.5.4 Specifying Operations
5.5.5 Work Out Associations
5.6 OOAD: A Case Study
5.7 Design for Reuse
5.8 Comparison of SASD and OOAD Methodologies
5.9 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
6 C++ Fundamentals and Basic Programming
6.1 Introduction
6.2 History and Development of Object-oriented
Languages like C++
6.3 Object-oriented Language Features
6.4 Welcome to C++ Language
6.4.1 Setting Path
6.4.2 C++ Program Structure
6.4.3 C++ Development Environment
6.5 Further Sample Programs of C++
6.5.1 Execution of a Program in a Loop
6.5.2 Arrays Implementation
6.5.3 Use of Structure to Implement Problem
6.5.4 Class Implementation
6.6 Console IO Operations
6.6.1 Console IO Functions – Commands getchar()
and putchar()
6.6.2 Console IO Functions – Commands gets and
puts
6.6.3 Unformatted Stream IO Functions – get(),
put(), getline() and write()
6.7 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
7 C++ Programming Basics and Control Loops
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Declaration of Variables
7.3 Data Types
7.4 Declaration and Assignment Values to Variables
7.5 Expressions
7.6 Operators
7.6.1 IO Operators << and >>, iostream objects cin
and cout
7.6.2 Unary Operators
7.6.3 Size of Operator
7.6.4 Arithmetic Operators
7.6.5 Relational and Logical Operators
7.6.6 Logical Operators
7.6.7 Conditional Expressions: Question Mark
Operator
7.6.8 Comma Operator
7.6.9 Bitwise Operators
7.7 Precedence and Association of Operators
7.8 Control Loops
7.8.1 Conditional and Branching Statements
7.8.2 Switch and Case Statements
7.8.3 While Loop
7.8.4 Do-while Loop
7.8.5 For Loop
7.8.6 When to Use For or While or Do-while
7.9 Break and Continue
7.9.1 Break
7.9.2 Continue Statement
7.9.3 Goto Statements
7.9.4 Exit Function
7.10 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
8 Functions, Storage Class Preprocessor Directives, and
Arrays and Strings
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Why Use Function Templates?
8.3 Call by Value
8.4 Call by Reference
8.5 Call by Constant Reference
8.6 Recursion
8.7 Inline Functions
8.8 Function Overloading
8.9 Default Arguments
8.10 Memory Management of C++
8.10.1 Types of Storage Classes
8.11 Header Files and Standard Libraries
8.12 C++ Preprocessor
8.12.1 Macro Expansion
8.12.2 Macro Definition with Arguments
8.12.3 File Inclusion
8.12.4 Conditional Inclusion
8.12.5 Conditional Compilation #ifdef and #ifndef
Statements
8.12.6 #undef
8.12.7 #error Macros
8.13 Arrays
8.13.1 How are Arrays Stored in the Memory?
8.13.2 Array Initialization
8.13.3 Multi-dimensional Arrays
8.13.4 Character Array – String Handling in C++
Language
8.14 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
9 Pointers and References
9.1 Introduction
9.2 What, Why and How of Pointers
9.3 Pointers Declaration and Usage
9.4 Call by Value and Call by Reference (Pointers)
9.5 Dynamic Memory New and Delete Functions
9.5.1 Memory Leak
9.5.2 Dangling Pointer
9.5.3 Pointers and Arrays
9.5.4 Pointers and Two-dimensional Arrays
9.5.5 Array Declaration on Heap Memory
9.5.6 Pointer to Pointer
9.5.7 Dynamic Memory for a Two-dimensional Array
9.5.8 Pointers and Three-dimensional Arrays
9.5.9 Array of Pointers
9.5.10 Pointers to Void
9.5.11 Pointer to a Constant vs const Pointer
9.5.12 Pointers to Function
9.6 What, Why and How of References
9.6.1 Which is Better – Pointer or Reference?
9.7 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
10 Classes
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Classes and Objects
10.2.1 How to Create an Object to a Class?
10.2.2 How to Access Member Data and Member
Functions?
10.2.3 Constructors and Destructors
10.3 Friend Function
10.4 Class Within a Class: Container Class
10.5 Objects and Data Members on Heap Memory
10.6 This Pointer
10.7 Pointers vs Objects: Use of Constant Declarations
10.8 Passing of Objects by Reference and Pointers to a
Function
10.9 Constant Pointers and Constant References
10.10 Static Member Data
10.11 Static Member Functions
10.12 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
11 C++ Special Features: Errors and Exceptions and
Operator Overloading
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Errors and Exceptions
11.3 Try and Catch Blocks
11.4 Exception Classes
11.5 Stack Data Structure
11.6 Operator Overloading
11.6.1 Overloading of + Operator and * Operator
11.6.2 Operator << Overloading
11.6.3 What We Can Overload and What We Cannot
Overload
11.6.4 Overloading Assignment Operator =
11.7 Pre- and Post-increment Operator Overloading
11.8 Overloading Operators New and Delete
11.9 Conversion (Casting) Operators
11.10 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
12 Inheritance
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Inheritance Hierarchy
12.3 Types of Inheritance
12.4 Constructors and Destructors
12.5 Base Class Function Overriding
12.6 Base Class Function Hiding
12.7 Virtual Functions
12.8 Multiple Virtual Functions
12.9 Virtual Destructors: Why and How?
12.10 Hybrid Inheritance with Multiple Inheritances
12.11 Virtual Inheritance
12.12 Run-time Polymorphism and Dynamic Binding
12.13 Abstract Data Types (ADTs)
12.14 Pure Virtual Functions
12.15 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
13 IO Streaming
13.1 Introduction
13.2 IO Streaming
13.3 IO Library Files Classification
13.3.1 Formatted IO
13.3.2 Unformatted IO
13.3.3 IO Stream State
13.3.4 IO Stream Library – Header Files
13.4 IO Manipulators
13.5 Flags
13.6 File I/O
13.6.1 File Types
13.6.2 Stream Operating Modes
13.7 Binary File
13.8 Seekg()/Seekp() and Tellg() and Tellp()
Functionality of C++
13.9 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
14 Generic Programming and Templates
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What is Generic Programming and Why Use
Templates?
14.3 Template Classes
14.4 Function Templates and Passing of Arguments to a
Function
14.5 Template Friends
14.5.1 Non-template Function
14.5.2 Template Friend Class or Function
14.5.3 Type-specific Friend Function in Class
Templates
14.6 Templates and Static Member Functions and
Member Data
14.7 Template Exceptions
14.8 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
15 Object-oriented Programming with Java
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Internet and the World Wide Web
15.3 C and C++ are Around – Then Why Java?
15.4 Java Story
15.5 Java Features
15.5.1 Portability or Platform Independent
15.5.2 Automatic Garbage Collection
15.5.3 Object-oriented Features
15.5.4 Easy to Learn and Excellent Documentation
15.5.5 Byte Code
15.5.6 Java Virtual Machine (JVM)
15.5.7 Comparison with C++
15.6 Developing First Java Application
15.6.1 Installing and Using Java Development Kit
15.6.2 Setting Path and Classpath
15.6.3 Java Program Structure
15.6.4 Java Documentation Comments
15.6.5 Java Development Environment
15.6.6 Our First Java Application
15.6.7 Application with Swing Components
15.6.8 Eclipse-integrated Development Environment
15.6.9 Command Line Arguments
15.7 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
16 Java Fundamentals and Control Loops
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Constants/Literal Constants
16.2.1 Integer Constants
16.2.2 Floating Point Constants/Real Constants
16.2.3 Character Constants
16.2.4 String Constants
16.2.5 Backlash Character Strings
16.2.6 Boolean Literals
16.2.7 Symbolic Constants
16.3 Variables and Assignment of Values to Variables
16.4 Data Types
16.4.1 Integer Data Types
16.4.2 Floating Point Data Types
16.4.3 Character Type
16.4.4 Boolean Data Type
16.5 Scope and Life Time of Variables
16.6 Arithmetic Operators
16.7 Type Conversion and Type Casting
16.7.1 Type Conversion
16.7.2 Type Cast
16.8 Unary Operators
16.8.1 Increment and Decrement Operators
16.8.2 Assignment Operator
16.8.3 Chained Assignment
16.8.4 Relational Operators
16.9 Logical Operators
16.10 Bit-wise Operators
16.11 Other Operators
16.11.1 Question Mark (?) Operator Conditional
Expressions
16.11.2 Member Operator or Dot Operator
16.11.3 Instanceof Operator
16.11.4 New Operator
16.11.5 Operator Precedence and Associativity
16.12 Conditional and Branching Statements
16.12.1 If and If-Else Statements
16.12.2 Nested If Statements
16.12.3 If-Else-If Ladder
16.12.4 Switch and Case Statements
16.13 Control Loops
16.13.1 While Loop
16.13.2 Do-while Loop
16.13.3 For Loop
16.14 Break
16.15 Continue Statement
16.16 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
17 Simple IO and Arrays and Strings Vectors
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Input from Keyboard
17.2.1 System.in, System.out and System.err
Commands
17.2.2 StringTokenizer to Receive Multiple Inputs
in a Single Line
17.2.3 Obtaining Inputs Using Java's Scanner Class
17.2.4 Using Control Formats -
System.out.printf()
17.2.5 Formatted Output with String Format
17.3 Arrays
17.3.1 Declaring and Creation of an Array
17.3.2 Initialization of Arrays
17.3.3 How Are Arrays Stored in the Memory?
17.3.4 Accessing and Modifying Array Elements
17.3.5 Passing Arrays as Arguments to Methods
17.3.6 Returning Arrays as Arguments to Methods
17.3.7 Multi-dimensional Arrays
17.3.8 Java.util. Arrays Class
17.4 String
17.4.1 Array of Strings
17.4.2 String Class Methods
17.4.3 StringBuffer Class
17.4.4 StringBuilder Class
17.5 Collection Framework
17.5.1 Vector Class
17.5.2 Vector Methods
17.6 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
18 Class Objects and Methods
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Classes and Objects
18.3 Declaring a Class and Creating of Instances of Class
Variables
18.4 Constructors
18.4.1 Default Constructor
18.4.2 Parameterized Constructor and Overloading of
Constructors
18.5 Specifying Private Access Specifiers and Use of
Public Methods
18.5.1 Private Access Specifiers
18.5.2 Methods
18.5.3 Math Class of Java
18.5.4 Call by Value and Call by Reference
18.5.5 Passing and Returning of Objects To and From
Methods
18.5.6 Method Overloading
18.6 Usage of this Keyword
18.7 Garbage Collection
18.8 Finalizer and Finalize() Methods
18.9 Final Variable
18.10 Access Control and Accessing Class Members
18.11 Static Members
18.12 Factory Methods
18.13 Nested Classes
18.14 Inner Classes
18.15 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
19 Inheritance: Packages: Interfaces
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Basic Concepts of Inheritance
19.3 Member Access Rules
19.4 Using Super Class
19.5 Methods Overriding
19.6 Multilevel Inheritance
19.7 Run-time Polymorphism
19.8 Abstract Classes
19.9 Using Final with Inheritance
19.9.1 Final Method
19.9.2 Final Classes
19.10 Object Class
19.11 Packages
19.11.1 Reusable Classes
19.12 Path and Classpath
19.13 Importing of Packages
19.14 Access Specifiers Revisited for Packages
19.15 Interfaces
19.15.1 What and Why of Interfaces
19.15.2 Defining and Implementing Interfaces
19.16 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
20 Errors and Exceptions in Java and Multithreaded
Programming
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Errors and Exceptions
20.2.1 Errors
20.2.2 Exceptions
20.3 Try and Catch Blocks
20.4 Handling of Multiple Exceptions by Try and Catch
Blocks
20.5 Using Finally Block
20.6 Throw Exceptions
20.7 Throws Exceptions
20.8 Re-throwing of an Exception
20.9 Defining Our Own Exception
20.9.1 Procedure for Throwing Our Own Exceptions
20.10 Concepts of Multithreading
20.10.1 Multithreaded Program
20.11 Process vs Threads
20.11.1 Process
20.11.2 Threads
20.12 How to Create and Run the Threads?
20.12.1 Which is Better: Extends Thread or Implements
Runnable?
20.12.2 Use of isAlive() and join() Methods
20.13 Life Cycle of Thread
20.14 Thread Priorities
20.15 Synchronization
20.16 Inter-thread Communications
20.17 Deadlock in Multithreaded Programming
20.18 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
21 Java IO Files
21.1 Introduction
21.2 IO Streaming
21.3 Java IO Stream Classes
21.3.1 Classification of ByteStream Classes
21.3.2 Classification of CharacterStream Classes or
Text Classes
21.3.3 DataInput and DataOutputStream
FileInput and FileOutputStream
21.3.4 FileReader and FileWriter
21.4 IO Errors and Exceptions
21.5 FilterInputStream and
FilterOutputStreams
21.6 Using BufferedInput and BufferedOutput
Streams
21.7 Writing Primitive Data Types to File:
DataInputStream/DataOutputStream
21.8 File Class
21.9 Random Access Files
21.10 Serialization of Objects and Object Streams
21.10.1 Serialization
21.10.2 De-serialization
21.11 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
22 Networking in Java
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Basics of Networking
22.2.1 TCP/IP
22.2.2 User Data Gram Protocol (UDP)
22.3 Internet Address
22.4 URL and URL Connection
22.4.1 URL Connection
22.5 TCP/IP Sockets
22.5.1 ServerSocket Class
22.5.2 Server and Socket for Communications: How to
Set them to Work?
22.5.3 Client and Socket for Communications: How to
Set them to Work?
22.6 Client Server Program
22.6.1 Client Server Two-way Communication Program
22.6.2 Multiple Clients and Server Programs Using
Multithreads
22.6.3 Client Server Program for File Download from
Server
22.7 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
23 Graphics Using Swing Components and Applets
23.1 Graphics Programming and Applets Introduction
23.2 Hierarchy of Graphics Software
23.3 Containers in Swing
23.3.1 JFrame Class
23.3.2 JPanel Class
23.4 Display Widgets in Swing
23.4.1 JLabel Class
23.4.2 JButton
23.4.3 JCheckBox
23.4.4 JComboBox
23.4.5 JMenu Class
23.5 Layout Managers
23.5.1 Border Layout
23.5.2 Grid Layout
23.5.3 Flow Layout
23.6 Event Types and Event Listeners
23.6.1 Action Event Listener
23.6.2 Item Event Listener
23.6.3 Keyboard Event Listener
23.6.4 Mouse Event Listener
23.7 Applets
23.7.1 Concepts of Applets
23.7.2 Life Cycle of an Applet
23.7.3 Creating an Applet - HelloWorld Applet
23.7.4 JApplets - Applets with Swing Components:
Better Look and Feel
23.7.5 Applets vs. Stand-alone Applications
23.7.6 Passing Arguments to Applets
23.8 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
24 Collections and Software Development Using Java
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Collection Framework of Java
24.3 Collection Interface
24.4 Set Interface
24.5 Iterators
24.6 List Interface
24.7 Collection Algorithms
24.8 Map Interface
24.9 Collection View of Map
24.10 JDBC Database Connectivity
24.11 Access Database Records Using MS Access
Database
24.12 Access Database Records Using MySql Open
Source Database
24.13 Access Database Records Using Oracle Database
24.14 Prepared Statement and Callable Statements
24.14.1 PreparedStatement
24.14.2 Callable Statements
24.15 Servlets
24.15.1 Servlets API and javax.servlet Package
24.15.2 HttpServletRequest
24.15.3 HttpServletResponse
24.15.4 HttpServlet Class—Get Request with Data
from Client
24.15.5 HTTP Post Requests
24.16 Java Beans
24.17 Summary
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
Short-answer Questions
Long-answer Questions
Assignment Questions
Solutions to Objective Questions
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
About the Author
Ramesh Vasappanavara obtained his
bachelor's degree from the University
College of Engineering, Andhra University
(1972–1977) and his master's degree from
the Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur (1982–1984). He obtained Ph.D.
in Computer Science and Engineering from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
Hyderabad. He has held several senior
positions in Naval R&D and was a professor
and the director of reputed engineering
institutions such as Gayatri Vidya Parishad
College of Engineering; Galgotia College of
Engineering, Delhi; Indo-German Institute
of Advanced Technology, etc. He is currently
working as Director and Professor at SGIT
Delhi, a prestigious engineering institution.
His professional interests include Grid
Computing, Algorithms, and Embedded
Systems. His passion is to develop young
minds in to original thinkers who can then
provide innovative solutions to real-world
problems. He can be reached on
[email protected].
Anand Vasappanavara obtained his
bachelor's degree from Indian Institute of
Technology Madras (1999–2003) and his
master's degree from the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore (2005–2007). He has
worked for Tata Motors, Pune, as a design
Engineer between 2003 and 2005, where he
developed a controller for a hybrid car for
Telco. Since 2007, he has been working at
Shell, as a Process Control Technologist.
His professional interests broadly include
Energy, Automobiles and Control Systems.
He envisions a world where energy and
knowledge are available in abundance,
which can result in real empowerment of the
people. He can be reached on
[email protected]
Gautam Vasappanavara obtained his
bachelor's degree from the University
College of Engineering, Andhra University
(2000–2004) and his master's degree in
embedded systems from Birla Institute of
Technology and Science, Pilani (2005–
2007) as Phillips Research Scholar. He has
worked for GE Controls, Hyderabad, and
Samsung Electronics, Bangalore, as Lead
Engineer in Wireless Technologies.
Presently, he is on a sabbatical as he is
pursuing a Management Degree from the
Indian School of Business, Hyderabad. His
passions include energy conservation, using
technology as a platform for societal
transformations and knowledge sharing. He
can be reached on
[email protected]
Web site: www.vasappanavara.org
Dedicated to
Sri. M. Venkat Ratnam and Smt. M.
Saraswati
For holding our hands and making us what
we are today!
&
Smt. V. Usha Ramesh
For your extraordinary contributions to
our family.
Preface
Welcome to the world of object-oriented
programming using C++ and Java. Get
ready for an exciting tour!
While teaching OOPs, C++ and Java to
graduate and postgraduate students and
practicing professionals from the industry
for several years, our experience shows that:
There are good programmers both in C++ and Java but
very few among them understand the underlying OOPs
concepts.
The text books available treat C++, Java and OOPs
concepts as different and separate and students get
exposed to these concepts in a compartmentalized
manner.
The study of OOPs languages, analysis and design and
software development are all treated separately thereby
sacrificing the integrated OOPs approach.
C++ is a highly evolved language and is used in systems
development with advanced features like templates and
containers. Most of the text books handle C++ as a
language and not as a tool to implement OOPs concepts.
Java is a vast and widely used network language with
diverse OOPs concepts, networking programming and
for software development using tools such as JDBC,
Servlets and Graphics Programming and Java Beans. A
majority of text books cover the core Java adequately
but they grossly fall short in providing implementation
details.
There is no single text book that covers the syllabi of all
major Indian universities concerning OOPs, C++ and
Java.
This book precisely comes to your aid in
these critical aspects.
Although knowledge of C language is
definitely a plus point, we assume no
background knowledge. You can straight
away master C++ and/or Java. The
approach adopted in this text is to make
students learn by practice and examples.
Each concept is explained with code
snippets in both C++ and Java. The
distinctive feature of these chapters is that
there are numerous running examples, more
than 600 of them, and case studies like
College Administration, Internet Banking, e-
shopping, Library Acquisition, etc. which
students can easily correlate and learn using
the underlying concept and theory. Unified
Modelling Language (UML) notation is used
throughout the book. At the end of each
chapter, we have provided objective
questions, short- and long-answer type of
questions, several exercise problems with
solutions and assignment questions.
All the programs have been tested on
Linux, VC++ and TC++ platforms. The
development platforms we have used to run
Java programs are eclipse, NetBeans and
JDK1.6. The databases used are of industry
standard, such as Oracle, MySql (Open
source) and widely available Microsoft
Access databases. The code and instructions
are elaborate and are designed to provide
solutions quickly and enhance learning
experiences.
Online Web Resources
Online Web resources are available on the
book's companion Web site
www.pearsoned.co.in/
rameshvasappanavara. They include
PowerPoint slides, video lectures, an
additional chapter, worked-out examples
and program files that include C++ and Java
codes for all examples and exercise
problems.
PowerPoint slides: All chapters have a
PowerPoint slide highlighting key concepts
discussed in that chapter.
Video lectures: Audio-visual lecture slides
help students understand the concepts
better.
An additional chapter: A chapter entitled
“Standard Template Libraries (STL) and
Containers” is available on the Web site.
Worked-out examples: Additional
problems have been solved.
Program files: C++ and Java codes for all
examples and exercise problems have been
provided.
Feedback
Utmost care has been taken in writing this
book to make it free of errors. However,
should you come across any error, please do
not hesitate to contact us. Your suggestions
and feedback are welcome.
How to Use This Book and Web
Resources
The content and the best way to use this
book are presented in the flow chart below:
1
Object-Oriented Programming
Basics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to understand
Programming concepts.
Software development paradigms.
OOP paradigms and extendibility features offered by
OOP languages.
1.1 Introduction
In order to solve a problem, you need to
know the “method/procedure” or you
need to have the “know-how”. In computer
parlance, we call this an algorithm. An
algorithm or a program is a sequence of
steps to be followed, which leads to a desired
output. The sequence of steps can be called a
procedure, and, in turn, a group of
procedures can be termed as a program. For
solving a simple problem, a sequence of
steps is sufficient, but if the problem is
complex, a programming environment that
includes well-integrated and cohesive
programming elements, constructs and data
structures is required. A paradigm can be
thought of as a style of programming, which
involves elements such as functions, data
and data structures. Several programming
paradigms have been used successfully. The
structured programming paradigm with C as
implementing language, in which the
programmer breaks down the task to be
accomplished into subtasks and specifies a
step-by-step procedure or algorithm to
achieve this task, has been very successful
and popular amongst programmers, owing
largely to its reusable components in the
form of procedural calls and its ability to
manipulate memory and thus handle
hardware integration.
Low productivity of programmers, due to
factors such as changing user needs,
complexity of projects and non-availability
of extensibility and reuse features, causes
projects never to be completed on time.
Even if they are completed and
implemented, they are of little use. A
structured programming environment with
limited reuse facility afforded by procedure
call and lack of extensibility features, i.e.
inability to derive new data types from
existing ones, is not optimally suited to
handle challenges thrown by complex
projects such as fast-paced hardware and
software changes. Object-oriented
programming (OOP) promises extensive
reusability features through inheritance,
library functions in the form of standard
template library (STL), etc. C++ is one of the
most powerful OOP languages that supports
both structured as well as OOP paradigms.
1.2 Programming Concepts
Prior to the invention of C and C++,
programming languages could be broadly
categorized as follows:
High-level languages such as FORTRAN,
Cobol and Pascal, catered to programmers
with friendly features such as English-like
coding languages. In these languages, the
code written by programmers is compiled
and converted into an object code. The
implementation and hardware details such
as addresses are hidden from the users.
Hence users can code the application
software for scientific and business
communities. Cobol is a language widely
used in the business world. FORTRAN and
Pascal, on the other hand, are languages that
are used by the scientific communities.
Low-level languages such as assemblers
require extensive knowledge of hardware,
addressing mechanisms and operating
systems. Accordingly, these types of
languages are used by experts, academicians
and system developers. Most of the
interfaces involving hardware integration
with software are written using these
languages.
Middle-level languages such as C. These
languages combine the strengths of both
high-level and low-level languages.
Code is almost English like. It is easy to understand and
write programs in this language.
It has the ability to handle hardware as many of its
commands support the direct handling of underlying
hardware such as memory and hardware devices.
Both business programming and scientific calculations
can be easily handled.
1.3 Programming Paradigms
Paradigm is a style of programming
language. It is only a style and NOT a
language. It is the manner in which
programming elements such as functions,
objects and variables are exploited to
produce the desired output.
1.3.1 Structured Programming Paradigm
Procedure-oriented programming such as C
uses procedure calls. The main task is
divided into subtasks with inputs and
functions to achieve the desired result. The
data is forwarded to procedures through
arguments. In this paradigm, the procedure
is important and the data is shared by
procedures.
Algorithm or program or procedure is a
sequence of steps to be followed, which
when followed leads to a desired output. A
group of procedures can be termed as a
program. A procedure is also known as a
routine, subroutine, function or method. A
program or a procedure under execution can
call any other procedure.
Accordingly, using the procedure-oriented
language, the programmer breaks down the
task to be accomplished into subtasks and
specifies a step-by-step procedure or
algorithm to achieve this task. A procedure-
oriented language like C provides the
statements to code the procedure specified
by the task. Procedure-oriented languages
have several advantages, as follows:
Modular: Each subtask can be developed as a module.
A module takes arguments as inputs and delivers
outputs as return values.
A module which is independent and uses standalone
codes avoids coding pitfalls such as GOTO and Jump
and thereby makes it easy to maintain the code.
Reusability is ensured. The module can be called by any
other module during execution. All reusable codes can
be maintained as libraries.
Strong modularity and reusability features afforded by C
make it the most suitable language platform to develop
complex programs and projects.
A procedure-oriented language is also
known as a “structured language”
because it allows procedure calls, which in
turn allows a programmer to break the main
task into subtasks and execute each subtask
through procedure calls.
1.3.2 C: A Workhorse that Works Well
The C language was developed by Dennis
Ritchie of Bell Laboratories in 1972 for the
UNIX operating system. It had originally
been developed as a system programming
language, but it soon caught the imagination
of application developers and became the
industry standard.
C code is compiled into a machine code
using a straightforward compiler and hence
does not need much run-time support.
Hence, C found acceptance and popularity
amongst assembler programmers for their
system programming requirements.
C is an almost machine-independent
language. A compiled code on a machine can
run on several different platforms. The
salient features of C are as follows:
All executable codes are included in functions only.
Inputs are through arguments and outputs are through
return values.
All parameters are passed either as pass by value or by
reference using pointers.
Structures allow heterogeneous data to be grouped into
one single data unit.
Memory access through pointers.
Library routines for IO, string manipulation, and
mathematical calculations.
Thus, a structured programming language
like C has been able to satisfy all
programmers, with its ease of programming,
reusable features through procedure calls
and ability to deal with hardware
integration.
Then why do we need to learn objective-
oriented programming?
1.3.3 Where is the Problem?
Problems arise due to fast-paced changes.
Changes occur at such a rapid rate that
projects and programs developed based on
inputs at a particular instance or time are no
longer valid. Thus, the project developed is
confined to the shelves of a departmental
library, never to be implemented.
This is especially true for software
projects, wherein the latest software
programming paradigms and hardware are
required.
User requirements change during the
development of project. In a complex
project, changes in user requirements imply
rework.
The US Department of Defense (DoD) has
found out that a majority of the projects are
out of date and cannot be implemented.
1.3.3.1 Complexity of Problems
Initially, computers were being exploited for
basic business computing such as for
payrolls, student or employee records, and
scientific calculations. These are all simple
algorithms involving input, process and
output and could easily be handled by
structured programming.
The complexity of problems, however, has
grown rapidly and modern-day software
projects involve multilayer inputs and
communication with local and distant
processors, networks, etc.
1.3.3.2 User's Needs
Analysis, design and development are
scheduled after a thorough study of user
requirements during the initial stages of
project implementation. It is correct to state
that requirements are specifications that
decide every stage of software design and
development. Hence they are “frozen”
before commencing the development phase.
But on the ground, it is important for
operational managers, e.g. airport
operations managers, to implement changes
to ensure the smooth functioning of day-to-
day operations at airports. Thus, it is only
natural for them to expect these latest
changes to be incorporated in the software
being developed.
There go your initial estimates!
Developers have to rework the design,
depending on the nature of changes sought.
It is estimated that rework due to changes
constitute about 40% of time and effort
estimations and have a significant effect on
project overruns.
1.3.3.3 Low Productivity
Extensibility and reuse are two features that
make a programmer productive. In C, we
have struct and unions as user-defined data
types. The facility to define new data types
based on already-defined ones is not
available.
Changes brought in result in changes in
several procedures and often result in
recompiling the source.
Extension of the data type through
inheritance is not possible. Programmers
have to be content with procedure calls.
1.3.4 Object-oriented Programming
Paradigm
Object-oriented programming such as C++
uses objects and interaction amongst them
through invoking member functions. The
features include data hiding, data
abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance and
polymorphism.
With the advent of UNIX and
communication hardware and software from
1969 onwards, the complexity of both
hardware and software increased and
software project development could not keep
pace. As a result, the quality of programs
suffered.
The developers at Bell Laboratories and
the DoD started to look at alternative
paradigms wherein reusability and
extensibility was a strong feature. Further,
the specifications laid insisted on data
primacy rather than process primacy.
The object in OOP paradigms contains
member data and all functionality within
itself to achieve the desired result. The class
and the object of the class carry their own
operators to achieve a particular
functionality. For example, an object may
carry an overloaded operator, >>, to achieve
input operations. Objects communicate with
other objects by passing messages.
Salient Features of the OOP Paradigm
Data primacy and not procedure primacy.
A task is divided into objects.
Each object is an independent machine with its own
data structure and member function in its own memory
location.
Methods and data are tied together in an object.
External functions cannot access data.
Objects can send messages to another cooperating
object.
1.4 History and Development of Object-
oriented Languages
Smalltalk was the first OOP language to be
developed. Currently C++, Java and C# are
the languages that use OOP paradigms and
are industry favourites.
1.4.1 C++
C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in
1979 at Bell Laboratories. C++ is a sequel to
the C language, with additional features.
These features include virtual functions,
function name and operator loading,
references, and free space memory along
with several features on reusability and
extendibility through inheritance, templates,
etc. Exception handling and a well-
developed standard template library are two
of the most advanced features available in
C++.
1.4.2 Java
Java was developed by James Gosling at Sun
Microsystems in 1995. It is similar to C &
C++. The main advantage of Java is that it is
hardware independent. Any code is
compiled into bytecodes. The bytecode
compiled is stored in a class file that can run
on any Java virtual machine (JVM).
JVM takes the bytecode and converts it
into an object code, which in turn is used by
a local machine to run and produce the
desired result.
Java 1.0 was released in 1995. Sun
Microsystems called it “Write Once, Run
Anywhere”. Indeed, with most of the
browsers such as IE explorer and Netscape
Navigator supporting Java 1.0, Java soon
became the industry standard. Java applets
that can run on web browsers became
popular too. In 1998, Sun Microsystems
released Java 2 with specialized
configurations to suit different types of
platforms, such as J2EE for enterprise
applications, JEME for mobile computations
and J2SE for standard editions. These have
been renamed JavaEE, JavaME and JavaSE,
respectively.
1.4.3 C#
C# was developed by Anders Hejlsberg for
Microsoft. It combines the best features of
existing OOP programming languages of
C++ and Java. It has been developed as a
powerful and versatile programming
language that is fully object oriented.
1.5 Software Development Methodologies
Software development is an engineering
activity involving initiation, analysis, design,
development, and implementation and
delivery phases. The principles and
guidelines for developing projects using
software engineering (SE) practices are
enshrined by the SE branch of engineering.
What is a methodology? A methodology
can be considered as a style of solving an SE
(project) problem from the best practices
prescribed by the SE domain. For example,
we can adopt structured analysis and design
(popularly known as SAD in earlier times),
which relies on procedure-oriented
languages such as C, Pascal, etc.
Alternatively, we can also adopt object-
oriented analysis and design (OOAD),
wherein objects comprising member data
and member function achieve the desired
output through interaction amongst them.
1.6 Need for Objects
In OOP paradigms, data structures that
manipulate data and functions that use data
are not separate. OOP combines both of
these into a single thing, also known as
object.
Objects bind the data and the functions
that operate on the data together by a
concept called encapsulation, thereby
avoiding unauthorized data access and
maintaining tighter control over data.
Object is a run-time instance and
communicates with other objects by passing
arguments and thereby achieves the result.
Indeed, objects and communication between
objects is the methodology adopted by
object-oriented programs.
1.7 Object-oriented Language Features
OOP style can be of two types, i.e. object-
based programming and object-oriented
programming. In OOP paradigms, object is
primacy.
1.7.1 Object-based Programming
To qualify as an object-based language, a
language must support the following
features:
Data encapsulation
Data hiding
Operator overloading
Initialization and automatic clearing of objects after use
1.7.2 Object-oriented Programming
In addition to the object-based features
mentioned above, OOPs must support
extensive reusability and extendibility
features such as:
Inheritance
Dynamic binding
Extensive and well-defined standard template library
In the succeeding sections, we study the
basics of OOP language features. C++ and
Java are the most powerful OOP
languages that support both structured as
well as OOP paradigms.
1.8 Definition of OOP Language Classes
and Objects
Look around. You will notice several objects
(things) such as pens, tables, laptops,
students, etc. Figure 1.1 shows objects of
students in a class. Each thing has
attributes, also called characteristics, like
colour, height, weight, age, etc. The
attributes belong to the objects. For
example, an object called student can have
attributes like name, number, marks,
grades, etc. Attributes are also called the
state of an object. Most objects have their
own behaviour. For example, an object
called student can have behaviours like,
play, sing, learn, etc.
Figure 1.1 Student objects
So when we refer to an object called
student, we refer to both attributes (state)
and behaviour. Figure 1.2 shows
attributes and behaviour. We model an
object by a rectangular box, as shown in
Figure 1.3. It contains the name at the top,
followed by a list of member functions and
member data. It is customary to show the
member data as private and functions that
manipulate these data as public. This is a
security feature, enshrined in OOP
languages such as C++ as data hiding and
encapsulation, to prevent unauthorized
access to objects’ data by external functions.
Figure 1.2 Object: member data and functions
Figure 1.3 Object model
How do we represent the object?
1.8.1 Attributes and Behaviours of Objects
There may be several instances of an object.
For example, an object called student as
shown above can have 60 instances,
implying that there are 60 students in a
class. Therefore, each instance of an object
can have its own data, such as its own
number, name, marks, attendance, etc. We
can thus say that the attributes, i.e. data, of
an object are owned by that instance of the
object. Hence, attributes are also called
states of an object.
All student objects will have the same
functionality such as Play(), Learn(),
GetData(), PrintData(), etc. Thus,
when we say object, we mean attributes and
behaviours.
1.8.2 Class
Class: A class is a collection of objects and
can also be defined as an array of instances.
Figure 1.4 shows student class with three
instances. It can also have member
functions and member data. Here unlike
arrays, a class can have different data types
as its elements.
Figure 1.4 Student class with three instances of student object
Class defines abstract, i.e. hidden,
characteristics of an object, including
attributes and behaviours. A class called
student can be viewed as a factory producing
instances of object student that have
different attributes (i.e. individual data) and
a common functionality (i.e. common
functions).
Attributes and functions provided by a
class are called member data and member
functions. In Java, member functions are
called methods.
1.8.3 Encapsulation
By now we understand that object means
attributes and functionality. Class can
contain several instances of an object.
We also understand that in object-
oriented programming, it is a data primacy
language, i.e. data is important and
functions are not important. As per memory
mapping used by C++ and other OOP
languages, data is stored in data areas such
as stack and free space, functions are stored
in code areas and there is a need to maintain
strict control over the accessing of data by
functions.
OOP languages achieve this control by
using the encapsulation feature.
Encapsulation is a binding member data
and calling function together with security
classification, so that no unauthorized
access to data takes place.
1.8.3.1 Security or Access Privileges
C++ and Java depend heavily on access
specifiers to maintain data integrity. The
security access specifiers are public, private,
and protected.
Public: Member functions and data, if any, declared as
public can be accessed outside the class member
functions.
Private: Member data declared as private can only be
accessed within the class member functions and data is
hidden from outside.
Protected: Member data and member functions
declared as protected is private to outsiders and public
to descendants of the class in inheritance relationship.
You will learn more about this in the inheritance chapter
under C++ and the Java chapter that follow.
Encapsulation can now be defined as:
Binding together the member functions
and member data with access specifiers like
private, public, and protected into objects
by the class.
A class therefore allows us to encapsulate
member functions and member data into a
single entity called an object.
1.8.4 Data Hiding / Data Abstraction
It is customary to declare all member data as
private only. But the data declared as private
is hidden and cannot be accessed by anyone.
This feature is called data hiding or data
abstraction. But how can this be achieved?
You can access this only through public
member functions. There is no other way. It
is comparable to the case where even the
chief librarian of a university cannot take
home books unless he uses the access card
supplied by the library.
1.8.5 Function Overloading
When a single function can do more than
one job, overheads of the compiler get
reduced. For example, if one wants to
compute the area of a circle, the surface area
of a football or the surface area of a cylinder,
how many functions do we have to write?
Normally, three functions. But in OOP
languages like C++, one function,
overloaded to perform all the three jobs, is
sufficient.
Overloaded functions decide which
version of the code is to be loaded into
primary memory, depending on the
argument supplied by the user.
Why is overloading important? Functions
have to be compiled and loaded into primary
memory. If a function is NOT overloaded, all
the functions have to be loaded and linked at
the time of compilation. Users may or may
not use all the functions loaded, thus
wasting the primary memory and making it
unavailable to solve complex problems
requiring more primary memory.
As an example consider the following
overloaded function:
// single argument. Same function name
void FindArea( float r ){ return (
2*3.14158*r*r ) ; }
// two argument same name. find
surface area of the cylinder
void FindArea( float r , float h ){
return ( 4*3.14158*r*h ) ; }
1.8.6 Operator Overloading
Predefined operators such as +, –/, *, etc.
are defined and provided by the compiler to
work on intrinsic data types such as int,
char, double, etc. We have also seen
while discussing the concept of function
overloading that if a function can perform
more than one task, we can call this
overloading. This is an efficient way of
utilizing the scarce resource like primary
memory. Operator overloading also
improves the efficiency and throughput of
the program by conserving the primary
memory of C++.
If we can use these predefined operators
to work on user-defined data types such as
classes, we would call it operator
overloading. For example, consider a
predefined operator + and its normal
operation
int x = 10, y = 20;
int z = x + y ; // contents of x and y
are added and placed in z
Now consider two complex numbers in
polar form of representation:
Polar v1(25.0,53.50); // magnitude and
angle theta
Polar v2(5.0, 45.00);
If we can write
Polar v3 = v2 + v1;
It means we have overloaded the +
operator.
1.9 Extendibility and Reusability of OOP
Paradigms
The extendibility and reusability of OOP
paradigms are responsible for making the
OOP languages versatile and powerful.
There are several tools provided by OOP
languages to ensure these features:
Containment
Inheritance
Virtual functions and abstract data types (ADTs)
Standard template libraries (STL)
We will briefly describe the above features in
the succeeding sections. Their
implementations will be explained in the
C++ and Java chapters in Parts 2 and 3.
1.10 Extending / Deriving New Classes
We can derive a new class based on the
existing class. This is possible through the
inheritance and containment property
afforded by OOP languages. Containment is
class within a class, i.e. containment ensures
all the member functions and member data
of a contained class to the class containing
the class. Inheritance, on the other hand,
provides access to member data and
member functions declared as protected to
the descendant class.
1.10.1 Containment: Class Within a Class –
Container Class
Container class is one of the techniques
provided by C++ to achieve reusability of the
code. Container class means a class
containing another class or more than one
class. For example, a computer has a
microprocessor in it. Further, a student class
can have a data member belonging to a
string class. We would then say that a string
class is contained in a student class. In other
words, it can also be called composition
or aggregation of a string class.
The advantage of containment is that we
can use a string class within a student class
to store the details of name, address, etc.
belonging to a string class. Similarly, if we
define a class called date with day, month
and year information, we can define the
object of date within a class called student
and define date-related data such as DOB,
DOJ, etc. Therefore, composition is a
“has” type of relation.
1.10.2 Inheritance and Class Hierarchy
Reusability of a code is one of the strong
promises made by C++ and inheritance is
the tool selected by C++ to fulfill this
promise. The concept of inheritance is not
new to us. We inherit property, goodwill and
name from our parents. Similarly, our
descendants will derive these qualities from
us. Refer to the inheritance class hierarchy
shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 Inheritance hierarchy
Humans and animals derive qualities
from living beings.
Professionals, students and athletes are
derived from humans. We say these three
categories have inherited from humans.
Class human is called base class and
students and athletes are called derived
classes. What can be inherited? Both
member functions and member data can be
inherited.
Have you noticed the direction of the
arrow to indicate the inheritance relation? It
is pointed upwards as per modelling
language specifications.
Inheritance specifies an is type of relation.
Observe that a student is a human.
Similarly, a mammal is an animal. Human is
a base class and student is a derived
class. Derivation from base class is the
technique to implement the is type of
relation. A base class can have more than
one derived class.
When do we use inheritance? You inherit
so that you can derive all the functionality
and member data from base class, and
derived class can add its own specialized or
individualistic functionality. For example,
athlete derives all functionality and
attributes of human, and, in addition, adds
sports and athletic functionality and
attributes on its own.
Inheritance is a powerful tool in the hands
of a programmer to define a new class from
existing classes.
1.10.3 Single and Multiple Inheritances
Inheritance means the ability to derive a
new descendant class from a base class, with
additional functionalities.
In Figure 1.6a, we have shown single
inheritance, wherein the derived class
person inherits from the base class human.
Figure 1.6a Single inheritance
In Figure 1.6b, multilevel inheritance
is depicted, wherein student inherits
properties from person, which in turn
inherits properties from the base class
human.
Figure 1.6b Multilevel inheritance
In Figure 1.6c, we have shown the
hierarchical inheritance involving one
base class and three derived classes.
Figure 1.6c Hierarchical inheritance
Figure 1.6d depicts multiple
inheritance. In this, the base class is called
virtual because a single base class is being
used by two derived classes, namely derived
class 1 (DC1) and derived class 2 (DC2).
Further, you can see that derived class 3
(DC3) inherits from both DC2 and DC3. This
type of inheritance is also called hybrid
inheritance as there is a single derived class
DC3 from two base classes DC1 and DC2.
Figure 1.6d Multiple/hybrid inheritance
1.11 Virtual Functions
In the inheritance relation, the derived class
gets access to protected member data
through public accessory functions, thereby
achieving an important object-oriented
programming facility called code reusability.
But what about object to base class using
the member functions belonging to a derived
class? This feature facilitates object to base
class to execute any one of the derived class
functions, depending on the users’ choice at
run time.
This means that object to base class is
provided with a bridge to the selected
derived class function and hence it can
execute the function. The bridge is made
available when we declare a virtual function
in the base class and when the derived class
overrides the base class function.
If a function is declared as a virtual
function in base class, we can execute an
overriding function with the same name in
the derived class with a pointer to base class.
A pointer to base class is provided by a
virtual function.
In summary, we can say that from base
class we can execute any function with the
same name as that of a virtual function in
the base class, depending on the users’
choice at run time.
1.12 Run-time Polymorphism and Dynamic
Data Binding
Inheritance solves the problem of
reusability, i.e. a derived class can access all
the data members and function members of
a base class that are declared as protected.
We have also learnt that a derived class
can override the functions defined in a base
class.
Further, we have seen while dealing with
virtual functions that with a pointer to base
class we can call the derived class object.
Combining the above two features of OOP
languages like C++ gives us a powerful tool,
called run-time polymorphism and dynamic
binding.
What this feature means to a programmer
is that with a pointer to base class, we can
decide at run time to call particular derived
classes overriding a function. In other
words, we can bind the overriding function
from several of the derived classes with a
pointer to base class. In the previous section,
we have seen the working of virtual
functions with which we can achieve binding
of derived class functions with a pointer to
base class.
1.13 Class as Abstract Data Type (ADT)
A class in object-oriented languages can also
be called abstract data type (ADT). The
features of OOP languages such as run-time
polymorphism and dynamic binding allow
us to define a base class with virtual
functions with no implementation (called
pure virtual functions) or with dummy
functionality just to indicate to the user that
implementation is by derived class. These
classes are called ADTs because they hide
the implementation.
Refer again to Figure 1.7. We will declare a
base class (ADT) called shape. You will
appreciate shape has no definite shape, no
definite area or perimeter, and no specific
draw routine. Shape will hence declare
virtual functions with only names and no
implementation details.
Figure 1.7 Abstract Data Type (ADT)
We will derive classes like circle and
square and provide the solid
implementation of these virtual functions.
Solid means that all virtual functions will be
implemented in each of the derived classes.
1.14 Standard Template Library (STL)
One way to describe object-oriented
programming is a programmer's ability to
use library facility through language. C++
has much developed standard library in the
form of stream IO library that provides
extensive functionality for input and output.
STL is the most significant addition to the
library provided by C++. Using the module
in STL, a programmer can write code using
data structures and algorithm
implementations provided in the STL.
Vectors, lists, queues, maps, etc. are some of
the implementations of STL. We have
presented a detailed description and
procedures to exploit templates and STL in
Chapter 16. Templates and STL are
considered to be the most significant and
important OOP features of C++. They are
indeed tools of C++ to enhance the
programmer's productivity. The basic idea is
that if you use already developed code, albeit
by a manufacturer or a third-party supplier,
you are using the reuse feature of OOP.
1.15 OOPS – Object-oriented Programming
and Systems
From our long experience of teaching
undergraduate and post-graduate students,
it has been our experience that students are
good programmers but lack adequate
exposure to become good project team
members or leads. Where does the problem
lie?
Students need to be taught to think
object-oriented programming and systems
(OOPS) skills right from step 1. In this
section, we explain the terms and
terminologies connected to analysis and
design using object-oriented technologies
and the use of UML (Unified Modelling
Language).
We have already discussed objects in
detail. Objects are things you see everywhere
around you, like pens, students, etc. There
are living objects and inanimate objects. We
have also understood that objects have
attributes, also called member data, and
behaviour, also called member functions.
In an object-oriented design (OOD)
model, objects have a class relationship, i.e.
objects having the same functionality
characteristics are grouped into a class. A
class allows us to encapsulate
member functions and member data
into a single entity called an object.
Objects communicate with other objects
by invoking functions and passing
arguments to the functions.
Classes have relationships with other
classes. These relationships are called
associations.
There are also inheritance relationships,
using which we can define new classes from
existing classes. There are also multiple
inheritance relationships.
We have also learnt that virtual functions
coupled with inheritance gives us a powerful
tool like a run-time polymorphism and
allows us to define ADTs and interfaces.
Thus, we can decouple interface and
implementation.
Programming in C language revolves
around functions. Invoke functions and get
the desired results. In OOP methodology,
the desired result is achieved by passing
messages between objects, i.e. the objects
communicate by invoking functions and
passing arguments amongst themselves.
We can define all classes required to
execute a large project into a single working
space. This space can be called a package.
Once included in the package, we can use all
declarations of classes into other programs
and projects, thus ensuring reusability of the
code.
1.16 Object-oriented Analysis and Design
(OOAD)
In order to prepare a solution, we must first
understand the system. To understand the
system we need to model the system. Only
then can we can ensure programs and
projects run as desired. So whenever a
problem is non-trivial and difficult to
understand, we model the system to study
the system behaviour.
In order to understand the system, user
specifications are prepared by users and
experts. The specifications are simple
statements of problems in English. We need
to analyse the specifications and follow
object-oriented analysis and design
principles. The best way to analyse and
design non-trivial and complex systems is
through modelling by using UML.
UML is a graphical and pictorial language
used for analysis and design methodologies.
It is called unified because it unifies all
earlier object-oriented methodologies
enunciated by three of the founding fathers
of object-oriented technologies, Grady
Booch, James Rambaugh and Ivar Jacobson.
UML was founded by a consortium of
industries such as HP, IBM, Oracle, etc.
under the aegis of a controlling group called
Object Management Group (OMG). We will
introduce all these concepts in the
succeeding chapters under OOPS.
In the next chapter, we will deal with
concepts involved in object modelling and
UML.
1.17 Summary
1. Structured programming involves invoking functions
and thereby solving the problem.
2. A class allows us to encapsulate member functions and
member data into a single entity called an object.
3. Classes have relationships with other classes. These
relationships are called associations.
4. The main advantage of Java is that it is hardware
independent. Any code is compiled into bytecodes.
The bytecode compiled is stored in a class file
that can run on any JVM.
5. JVM takes the bytecode and converts it into an object
code, which in turn is used by a local machine to run and
produce the desired result.
6. OOP styles can be of two types, i.e. object-based
programming and object-oriented programming. In
OOP paradigms, object is primacy.
7. To qualify as an object-based language, a language must
support the following features: data encapsulation, data
hiding, operator overloading, and initialization and
automatic clearing of objects after use.
8. OOP must support the extensive reusability and
extendibility features such as all object-based properties,
inheritance, dynamic binding, and extensive and well-
defined STL.
9. Each object has attributes (states) and behaviours.
Attributes are also called the states of an object.
10. Class: A collection of objects. A class defines the
abstract, i.e. hidden, characteristics of an object
including attributes and behaviours.
11. Encapsulation is a binding member data and calling
function together with security classification to ensure
that no unauthorized access to data takes place.
12. A class allows us to encapsulate member functions and
member data into a single entity called an object.
13. Function overloading is the same function name but
with different numbers or with different types of
arguments.
14. A container class means a class containing another class
or more than one class. In other words, it can also be
called composition or aggregation.
15. In an inheritance type of relationship, we can derive a
new class from existing classes.
16. Inheritance means the ability to derive a new
descendant class from a base class, with additional
functionalities.
17. If a function is declared as a virtual function in a base
class, we can execute an overriding function with the
same name in the derived class with a pointer to base
class. A pointer to base class is provided by a virtual
function.
18. A class in object-oriented languages can also be called an
ADT.
19. The features of OOP languages such as run-time
polymorphism and dynamic binding will allow us to
define a base class with virtual functions with no
implementation (called pure virtual functions) or with
dummy functionality just to indicate to the user that
implementation is by a derived class. These classes are
called ADTs because they hide the implementation.
20. Encapsulation means binding data and code. When run-
time polymorphism is being used, it is best to
polymorphically decouple the encapsulation to prevent
discrete code modules from interacting with each other.
21. A base class overridden function is automatically hidden
and can be called explicitly by referring to the base class
function.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. C++ supports
1. Structured programming
2. Object-oriented programming
3. Both A and B
4. None of these
2. C++ has been developed by
1. Gosling
2. Bjarne Stroustrup
3. Rambaugh
4. Grady Booch
3. Java has been developed by
1. Gosling
2. Bjarne Stroustrup
3. Rambaugh
4. Grady Booch
4. Java is
1. Hardware independent
2. Software independent
3. Language independent
4. Firmware independent
5. Java virtual machine (JVM)
1. Converts source code to object code
2. Converts source code to bytecode
3. Converts bytecode to object code
4. None of these
6. C# has been developed by
1. Anders Hejlsberg
2. Bjarne Stroustrup
3. Rambaugh
4. Grady Booch
7. In OOP paradigms, a task is
1. Divided into functions
2. Divided into objects
3. Divided into subtasks
4. Divided into classes
8. OOP paradigm is
1. Data primacy
2. Procedure primacy
3. Task primacy
4. Object primacy
9. The following is not part of an object-based
programming paradigm
1. Data encapsulation
2. Data hiding
3. Operator overloading
4. Inheritance
10. Member data declared as private
1. Can be accessed by an outside class
2. Can be accessed only by inside class member functions
3. Can be accessed by descendant class members
4. None of these
11. Member data declared as protected
1. Can be accessed by an outside class
2. Can be accessed only by inside class member functions
3. Can be accessed by descendant class member functions
4. None of these
1. i
2. i and ii
3. ii and iii
4. i, ii and iii
12. Containment is a(n)
1. Has type of relation
2. Is type of relation
3. Has-is type of relation
4. None of these
13. Containment is also called
1. Inheritance
2. Aggregation
3. Composition
4. Class within a class
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i and ii
4. ii, iii and iv
14. Inheritance is a(n)
1. Has type of relation
2. Is type of relation
3. Has-is type of relation
4. None of these
15. Object-oriented programming achieves results by
1. Invoking functions
2. Objects invoking functions and passing messages between objects
3. Functions invoking objects
4. None of these
16. Classes having relationship with other classes are called
1. Inheritance
2. Association
3. Link
4. Mapping
17. UML stands for
1. United Modelling Language
2. Unified Modelling Language
3. US Modelling Language
4. None of these
18. UML unifies the approach
1. Structured analysis and design and OOAD
2. Models of Jacobson and Rambaugh
3. Models of Rambaugh, Jacobson and Grady Booch
4. a and c
Short-answer Questions
19. What is structured programming?
20. What is object oriented programming?
21. What is object-based programming?
22. Distinguish between object and class.
23. What is encapsulation?
24. Explain data hiding.
25. Why are classes called abstract data type?
26. What is message passing in OOP paradigms?
27. Explain containment.
28. Distinguish between function overloading and operator
overloading.
29. Explain the features of run-time polymorphism and
dynamic binding.
30. What are virtual functions?
31. What is UML?
32. What does the term unified in UML mean to you?
Long-answer Questions
33. What are the salient features of OOP paradigms?
34. Distinguish between object-based programming and
object-oriented programming. (OOP style can be of two
types, i.e. object-based programming and object-
oriented programming. In OOP paradigms, object is
primacy.)
35. Explain inheritance and class hierarchy.
36. Distinguish between different types of inheritance.
37. Why are virtual functions useful?
38. Explain STL in C++.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. c
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. a
9. d
10. b
11. c
12. a
13. d
14. b
15. b
16. b
17. b
18. c
2
Object Modelling
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to
Understand object modelling.
Use notations of UML to specify objects and classes,
their notations, meta models and concepts like
mandatory profiles, meta data, meta classes, etc.
Learn to use class diagrams and object diagrams of
UML.
Understand the concept of links and hierarchy,
polymorphism and abstract classes in OOPS
language.
2.1 Introduction
Object modelling encompasses all the
elements that we studied in Chapter 1
regarding objectoriented (OO) methodology.
The principles of object modelling are
abstraction, encapsulation, modularity,
hierarchy, typing, concurrency and
persistence.
In conventional programming styles, we
conceive the problem and subdivide the
main task into subtasks and develop
functions or methods to solve these
subtasks. We call this paradigm procedure-
oriented programming style. In this
paradigm procedure is primacy and data
that is acted on is stored at a different
location in computer memory called the
code area. In object modelling, the object
embodies data and the functions that act on
the data as a single entity. To meet users’
requirements, the specifications are
prepared by experts as simple statements of
problems in English. In order to analyse
these specifications, we need to study the
vocabulary of the problem statements in
terms of objects (nouns) and classes, and
relationships between classes appearing in
the problem domain.
2.2 Object Model
The basic building block in an OO language
is a module. What is a module? Modules can
be defined as logical collections of classes
and objects. If functions are verbs, then
objects are nouns. Objects encompass the
functions and member data. The building
block in an OO methodology is shown in
Figure 2.1, where each module comprises a
logical collection of classes which in turn
contain objects. Objects call member
functions from other objects, a
phenomenon, we called it as message
passing and thereby achieve the result.
Figure 2.1 Object-oriented programming methodology –
Module
We observe that our building blocks are
not a function or a procedure or an
algorithm, but rather the classes and objects
and messages passing between them.
Observe from the above diagram that
individual objects are responsible for their
own member data and a set of functionality.
Thus objects store data and also functions
necessary to update the data and do the
necessary computations on the stored data.
In addition, cooperating objects
communicate with each other by invoking
functions and passing information amongst
them.
Object modelling is not only about mere
object and contained data. Many a times, the
system requires that links between data
belonging to different objects be defined to
achieve some global functionality. The object
model must contain the relationship
between the classes and data belonging to
objects belonging to different classes. This
will be decided by inheritance relationship
between the classes.
The links between objects are message
calls. They are requests sent to receiving
objects to execute the function belonging to
it with the parameters sent by requesting
objects.
We are now ready for the definition of OO
programming as a collection of
cooperating objects which are in turn
instances of a class. The cooperating
classes have a hierarchy of
relationships defined by inheritance
relationship.
Notice that OOP language is about
cooperating objects and not procedures and
functions. Further notice that objects are
instances of classes. Classes themselves are
linked to other classes via the inheritance
relationship. Therefore, we can say that OOP
language means: objects, classes,
inheritance.
2.3 Object-oriented Design
At the end of analysis and design, we
ultimately develop the code. The code has a
structure comprising of objects, classes,
messages and links between objects, and
associations and relationships between
classes.
Now wouldn't it be better if our design
model were to consist of diagrams that had
the same structure as that of the code?
Better still, is there a graphical and
diagrammatic language that can convert our
structure into code? The answer is UML.
There are two types of diagrams supported
by UML. One set of diagrams depicts the
structure, i.e. the interconnections and
resulting topology. This set is also called
static diagrams. The other set of diagrams,
called dynamic diagrams, depicts the
messages that are passed between objects.
Example 2.1: College
Administration Example – A Case
Study
In this section, we use the college
administration system to explain the
concepts in object modelling and its
implementation in UML. College academic
administration revolves around students,
teachers and courses. Colleges have
departments, and departments offer
courses. Students register for the courses
offered by a teacher.
We explain object modelling with object
models that pertain to college
administration and include actors like
students, teachers, HODs, courses,
departments, etc. We use this as a running
example to learn about OOPS concepts and
also while dealing with specifics of C++ and
Java in subsequent chapters. Basic to our
model is a class called student. It contains
information such as roll number, name, etc.
We use a class called student and store
information about students in a database
called StudentMaster. Course files will have
the details of students registered for a
particular course. All such courses will be a
part of a department. Colleges running
courses such as BTech, MBA and MCA
would in turn be a part of a campus.
2.4 Classes and Objects
The object is an entity that contains data and
functionality. The college administration has
data about students, teachers, and courses
on offer. The decision we have to take in
OOP design is how to divide data and
functionality into meaningful objects that
interact amongst them and produce the
result the college administration expects.
The first thing that comes to mind is an
object called student. In a college there are
several students, but all have the same
functionality and individual attributes.
Hence, these objects can be grouped into a
class called student.
A class is a collection of a set of objects
that share a common behaviour and
attributes. Class definition describes
attributes as well as functions that
implement the behaviour.
An object is an entity that contains
attributes and member functions and an
identity. Objects of common attributes and
functionality are grouped together in a
class.
2.4.1 Class
A class is a description or specification for
the object, whereas the object is an instance
of the class that is created at run-time.
There can be one or several instances of the
class. In Example 2.2, we show the
representation of a student class in C++,
Java, and UML.
Example 2.2: Representation of
Class Student in C++
class Student
{ // constructors and member functions
public:
Student(){rollNo=0,name=”No
Name”;}
Student(int n, char *p)
{rollNo=n,name=p;}
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
name;}
void SetName( char *p) { name=p;}
private: int rollNo; char *name; //
member data & pointer to
name
};
Example 2.3: Representation of
Class Student in Java
public class Student
{private String name;
private long rollNo;
public Student( String n , long r )
{rollNo=r; name=n; }
public String GetName() { return
name;}
public long GetRollNo() { return
rollNo;}
}// end of class
Example 2.4: Representation of
Class Student in UML
Figure 2.2 Student class representation in UML
2.4.2 Notations and Meta Models
UML employs notations and meta models. A
notation is a graphical representation and
syntax of the modelling language. A meta
model, on the other hand, is a class diagram
that is used to define the rigor and
intricacies of the language. In the following
example, you will see that we will use
notations of UML, as well as meta models
involving class diagrams, to explain the
intricacies of generalization, specialization,
etc. Fortunately, we can use the same
representations in C++ and UML. A
rectangle box represents a class of objects.
The name of the class is at the top. In the
next part of the box, list the data that each
object contains. In the third part of the class
box, list the operations (functions) that an
object can carry out.
2.4.3 Mandatory Profile
It defines minimum services, i.e.
functionality to be provided by a class.
Therefore, it is essential that class definition
contain a constructor for the proper
initialization of objects. This initialization is
achieved through parameterized
constructors with default arguments to take
care of the correct and required initialization
of class attributes and the creation of objects
with minimum mandatory services.
Consider the example shown below:
class Student
{// constructors and member functions
public:
Student(){rollNo=0,name=”No
Name”;}
Student(int n, char *p)
{rollNo=n,name=p;}
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
name;}
void SetName( char *p) {
name=p;}
private: int rollNo; char *name; //
member data& pointer to name
};
If no parameters are provided at the time of
the creation of an object, then default values
specified by the default constructor are used
in initializing the object. The default
constructor requires an appropriate
behaviour for this class. Hence, we have
provided “no name“: for the name and 0
for the roll number. Later in the program we
can use the SetRollNo() and
GetRollNo() functions to modify the
initial values:
Student std; // object created
std.SetRollNo(6060);
std.SetName(“Gautam”);
In the above declaration, it can be seen that
we need to provide two parameters, namely
student's number and student's age.
Creating objects without proper
initialization often leads to many
programming faults and problems. Hence, it
should be a good programming practice to
define a default constructor as part of a
mandatory profile that is put to work by the
compiler if the user does not define a
suitable constructor. Indeed C++ and Java
support the concept of a default constructor
as part of a mandatory profile.
2.4.4 Meta Data – Meta Class
2.4.4.1 Meta Class
In object-oriented programming, meta class
is a class created by language and all other
user-defined classes are instances of this
meta class. Meta class defines the behaviour
of user-defined classes and their instances.
Meta class implementation is individual to
languages like C++ and Java, and there is no
uniform protocol to implement meta class.
When you create an instance of class and
class methods to your class, they are actually
added to meta class instance. It means that
you are able to change the behaviour of
instance that you have created to suit your
requirements. In Java, classes you create are
instances of java.lang.Class. However,
Java does not support meta classes directly,
but here too there is exactly one instance of
class of java.lang. We can use the
methods defined in java.lang.Class:
getName() or newInstance() or
getMethod(), getConstructor(),
isArray(), getInterfaces(). For
example, we can get the class description for
an object's class by calling getClass() on
the object.
2.4.4.2 Meta Data
Meta classes in addition hold meta data,
called attributes, i.e. data belonging to meta
classes. Meta classes allow meta data to be
accessed by classes or packages. The
attributes are specified in an object-oriented
language as markup script, which meta class
is capable of reading and loading at run-
time, so that meta data is made available to
the programmer.
2.4.5 Constraints
Constraints will help the designer to develop
the system as per specifications by ensuring
one-to-one mapping of operations.
Specifying operations are usually carried out
in graphical modelling so that they define
underlying constraints with precision. The
net result is a better designed system.
Performance: Performance criteria are defined at the
class definition level. Performance dictates the
operations. Operations, in turn, decide the
responsibilities of the class.
Reliability: Reliability of a class depends on the way
the reliability aspect is distributed among the other
classes and the way one class interacts with other
classes. There should be a match between user
operational profiles and functional profiles.
Security: Security issues crop up because the user at
operational level is able to exploit some operations that
are not part of original the specification. This loophole
might have been created inadvertently at operations of
other classes’ levels. The criteria to be considered to plug
these loopholes are described below.
Access Control: Subdivision of functionality must
ensure that only certain classes or users are able to
initiate and use the functionality with authorization
codes.
Integrity of Data: The data is primacy and no
unauthorized access can be allowed at submodules.
Suitable encryption techniques can solve the problems.
Control of User Behaviour: The normal behaviour
of user of a class must be specified and any deviations
from this normal and designed process must be
recognised by the module, and further exploitation of
unintended operations must be denied.
2.4.6 Object Creation
Once a class is defined at run-time we can go
ahead and create an instance of the class, i.e.
object. Remember that an object is a
variable of a class. Therefore, you can define
the object just like you define the variable of
a data type. In the example that follows, we
create an ordinary object called std and 50
instances of class student, and also a pointer
that creates an instance of student on the
heap memory.
Example 2.5: Creation of an Object
of a Class in C++
Student Std; // Std is an object of
class Student
Student Std[50]; // There are 50
instances created for Student class
Std.SetRollNo(8345); // Sets roll no to
8345
Example 2.6: Creation of an Object
of a Class Student in Java and
Assigning Initial Values
Student Std = new Student(757,“Anand”)//
std is an object of class Student
757 is rollNo and Anand is name
allocated to this instance of object.
Std is name of the object.
Example 2.7: Creation of an Object
of a Class Student in UML and
Assigning Initial Values
2.4.7 Garbage Collection
Garbage collection is the automatic
detection and freeing of memory that is no
longer in use. An object becomes available
for garbage collection when it is no longer
referred to by any other object. Java uses
garbage collection rather than explicit
destructors found in other OO languages
such as C++.
2.5 Object Properties
Object is an entity that has its own data
structures and functionality to implement
the behaviour. What are the essential
properties that an object should possess?
State: An instance of an object is an object,
created at run-time with initial values set by
a default constructor. The values are
particular to that instance and can be
changed at any time during the life of an
object by accessory functions defined within
the objects (see Figure 2.3). The values of
757 and Anand are true only at that instance
and hence they represent the state of the
object.
Figure 2.3 An instance of object represented in UML
Behaviour: An object's behaviour is
decided by functionality defined by the class
definition. However, though there can be
several instances of the class, i.e. several
objects belonging to the same class, all of
these instances will have the same behaviour
defined by the class. Hence, we have not
shown behaviour, i.e. functions separately in
Figure 2.3. The behaviour can be in terms of
functions and methods that update and
modify member data or general functions
that serve as interfaces to implement some
global functionality. These functions are
invoked by other objects and receive the
arguments and provide service to other
objects.
Object name: When an object is created, it
bears a name. For example, Std is the name
of the instance of the class called student.
This is the identity of the object.
Student Std; // C++ Std is an object
of class Student
Student Std = new
Student(757,“Anand”)// Java
Object's identity: Each instance of the
object is different from the other instances
of the object, even though they contain the
same data values. When an object is created,
memory resources are allocated. Therefore,
unique id is the memory address of the
object.
Encapsulation: Objects’ member data are
declared private and hence the details are
hidden and are not available to the outside
world. In OO languages like C++ and Java,
the definitions for attributes and methods
are placed inside a class definition and
hence are not available to the outside world,
thus hiding internal details from the outside
world. This is known as encapsulation.
2.6 Links
We have learnt that object modelling is not
simply a collection of isolated objects. As
shown in Figure 2.4, the system requires
that links between data belonging to
different objects need to be defined to
achieve some global functionality. There are
three distinct objects belonging to three
different classes: batch, student and
Registration. The class called batch will
have instances of students registered for all
courses for that batch, say mechanical third
semester. Here, only the student's number is
held and in order to get full details of the
student, we need to refer to another object
called Registration. This means that for
each student object, we need to maintain a
link to Registration object so that we can
refer to it for full details of the student.
Similarly, we need to maintain a link class
called batch so that we can get batch details
of the student.
We will show the implementation of link
in C++ and Java and UML as usual.
However, as a cautionary note, the examples
in C++ and Java require understanding of
the rudiments of programming skills in
these languages. Hence, first-time readers
can skip examples in C++ and Java and
concentrate only on UML; they can then
revisit these topics after acquiring the
necessary C++ or Java skills.
Example 2.8: Links in C++
class StudentMaster
{ public: StudentMaster(char *p, int n)
{name=p, rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
name;}
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
private: int rollNo; char *name; //
pointer to name}; // end of
class
class Student
{ public: Student(StudentMaster *std
){ sm=std;}
char *GetName() const { return Sm-
>GetName();}
private: StudentMaster *sm; };
void main()
{StudentMaster *sm = new StudentMaster (
“Anand”,757);
Student * S1 = new Student(sm);
cout<<s1->GetName();}
Example 2.9: Links in Java
public class StudentMaster
{ private String name;
private long rollNo;
public StudentMaster ( String n
, long r)
{name=n; rollNo=r; }
public String GetName() { return
name;}
public long GetRollNo() { return
rollNo;}
}// end of class
public class Student
{ private StudentMaster sm;
public Student( StudentMaster
std)
{ sm= std; }
}// end of Student class
From the above, you can clearly see that
whenever an object of student, i.e. sm, is
created, we also create a reference to it in
StudentMaster. We will show you how these
links are created:
StudentMaster sm = new
StudentMaster(“Anand”,757);
Student S1 = new Student(sm);
Student S2 = new Student(sm);
……………………………………………… and so on for
five subjects
Student S5 = new Student(sm);
Example 2.10: Links in UML
A link is shown in UML by an arrow
pointing to the object:
Figure 2.5 Links in UML
2.7 Class Diagrams
Class diagrams provide system overview.
They show classes and their relationships
with other classes. They are static diagrams.
This means that they tell us about the
interactions amongst classes, but they do
not tell us the response to these interactions.
We will explain the class diagrams and
various terms involved with the modelling of
library book ordering systems. Class
diagrams show a librarian making a
purchase from a supplier by raising an order
and afterwards making a payment. Payment
can be either by cash, cheque or credit.
Order, on the other hand, contains book
details (see Figure 2.6). A detailed
explanation of the above class diagrams and
concepts are explained in the succeeding
sections.
Figure 2.6 Class diagram for library procurement system in a
college
2.8 Class Hierarchy
In order to bring out relationships and
dependencies amongst classes, we need to
arrange classes into hierarchies.
2.8.1 Associations
Associations are a type of hierarchy
that show relationships between classes
that are independent and are of equal
standing. These relationships are shown by
lines between classes; they are usually
labelled with the name of the association.
Classes in an association usually occupy
equal places within a hierarchy. For
example, in Figure 2.6, librarian and order
are independent classes.
Multiplicity: 0..* at order class means
that librarian can place an unlimited
number of orders, i.e. from 0 to unspecified
number of orders. 0…1 means 0 to 1.
Similarly, we can also state the maximum
number of books that can be borrowed by a
student as 0…4, as shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.7 Association between classes. Association is named
: ordering
Figure 2.8 Association 0…1
A student can borrow 0 to many books.
A book can be borrowed by at most 1
student (see Figure 2.6). The navigability
shown above implies the direction of the
association and who owns the association's
implementation. The navigability tells us
that we can find out details of books by
querying DeptOrder. Also make a note that
DeptOrder is the owner of the association.
2.8.2 Hierarchies with Interdependent
Classes
There are two types of hierarchies:
Whole/part of hierarchy. In this type of hierarchy,
one class is included in the other class. This relationship
is called has a relationship. Further, there are two
subtypes in a whole/part hierarchy. They are as follows:
Aggregation. In this type, objects are not fixed. They
can be included or removed. For example, consider the
example in Figure 2.9. A department has some classes
that have some students. Aggregation means “part of”
relation.
Figure 2.9 Aggregation relationship. Student is a part of class,
i.e. part of a department
In a class hierarchy involving whole/part,
parts are essential, like in the case of a book.
A book cannot exist without pages, a
passenger train cannot exist without
compartments, etc. In Figure 2.9, a class
cannot exist without students. Hence, it is
shown as a black diamond. A class contains 1
to many students, whereas a department can
have no class, i.e. empty department. Hence,
it is shown as a white diamond.
Composition. This is another type of whole/part type
of hierarchy. In this type, the object is a whole or
integral part of the whole. Examples are human has a
heart; a computer has a microprocessor in it.
Composition means “has a” relationship, i.e. the whole
object contains a part.
Aggregation is shown by a line with a
hollow diamond pointing to the whole
class, while composition uses a solid
diamond instead. One way to implement
the whole/part hierarchy is to simply declare
an instance of the aggregate object as an
attribute, while defining the container class:
Example 2.11: Example of
Container Class in C++ and Java
class Date
{public:
Date ( int d=0, int m=0,int y=0)
:dd(d),mm(m),yy(y) { } //
constructor
void SetDate( int d, int m, int y){
dd=d,mm=m,yy=y;}
int GetDD() const { return dd;};
int GetMM() const { return
mm;};
int GetYY() const { return yy;};
private: int dd; int mm; int yy;
};
class Student
{ public:
Student();
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) { rollNo=n;}
Date GetDOB() const { return
dateDOB;}
Date GetDOJ() const { return
dateDOJ;}
void SetDOB( Date dtb) {
dateDOB=dtb;}
void SetDOJ( Date dtj) {
dateDOJ=dtj;}
private: int rollNo; Date dateDOB;
Date dateDOJ; };
In the above example, observe that we
have defined a class called date, with its own
data members and member functions. The
date class has dd, mm, yy as private
attributes. Now a class called student has
declared instances of date for date of birth
and date of joining as dateDOB and
dateDOJ.
2.8.3 Hierarchies with Independent Classes
The classes under this category have an is a
relationship and are also referred to as
generalization/specialization. In OOPS
programming language, the implementing
mechanism for this feature is called
inheritance. For example, we have modelled
Human Beings hierarchy in Figure 1.5. UML
uses open arrow head to show
inheritance relationship.
We have shown an inheritance
relationship in Figure 2.10 where in Four
wheeler and two wheeler inherit from an
Automobile. A base class is known as Super
class in the literature. We will use base class
in C++ and Super while dealing with java &
UML. The derived class can extend the
Super by adding new properties, and by
selectively overriding existing properties
of the super class. For example
Father(Super) Moves from place A to B
by Road, while the Son( sub class)
Moves from place A to B by Air.
Figure 2.10 Inheritance hierarchy
Figure 2.11 Multiple inheritance – more than one super class
If a class derives from more than one
superclass, it is called multiple inheritance.
Java does not support multiple inheritances,
while C++ supports it. There can be
confusion and ambiguity regarding
inheriting attributes and qualities from
more than one parent class. Java solves this
problem of ambiguity by introducing a
concept called interface and C++ by
resorting to explicit function calls. In Java's
interface, class will use a Java's specification
called implements that will allow
implementing class to implement the code
required by an interface. You will learn more
about this aspect in language specifics.
Example 2.12: Example of Multiple
Inheritance in C++
class Student
{ public:
……….. class declaration here………..
private:
};
class Athlet
{ public:
…….. class declaration here.: };
class Professional : public Student,
public Athlet
{ public:
…….. class declaration here.
……………..
private:
};
2.9 Object Diagrams
Object diagrams show instances of class
diagrams. For this example consider the
college department organization. A class can
have several departments under it. A
department in an engineering college can
have many departments under it. Figure
2.12a shows a class diagram called
department. A department can also contain
many subdepartments. For example, a
department like electrical engineering can
have subdepartments like electronics
department and communications
department. We can say that a department is
a collection of subdepartments. This in UML
is a representation of aggregation and is
symbolized by placing a diamond.
Figure 2.12a Department contains 0 to many sub
departments – Aggregation
The self-loop shown in Figure 2.12a
depicts aggregation. It denotes that
department can contain 0 to * , means 0 to
many subdepartments. These departments
are contained in 1 instance of the
department. Hence, observe the diamond
shown to indicate aggregation. The object
diagram shown in Figure 2.12b instantiates
the class diagram, replacing it by a concrete
example.
Figure 2.12b Object diagram showing department containing
several subdepartments
2.10 Communications and Message Passing
Executing a program in today's technology is
no more the execution of a sequence of
logical programming steps. Most of the GUI
programs have to respond to signals from
external units such as mouse, sensors, etc.
But the question is who will monitor trigger
from external units? Is it the program
written by the user or the operating system?
The answer is an OS monitors the signals
from external units and sends a signal to our
program. Our program will have an interface
to receive and interpret and take necessary
actions on the signals sent by the OS. Indeed
entire Windows and other modern operating
systems achieve their tasks through this
message passing mechanism.
There are also other sets of
communications by cooperating objects.
Objects send and receive messages. Sending
a message is accomplished by invoking a
function belonging to another object and
passing parameters. Receiving a message
would imply that a function belonging to the
current object has been invoked by another
object. Objects can thus respond to
messages sent by OS as well as other objects.
2.11 Polymorphism
We have understood that in inheritance
relationship subclass derives from
superclass both methods and attributes. In
inheritance, the subclass can extend and
simply use the functionality of the base class
or use its own functionality with totally
different implementations of the same
function. We have called this feature
overriding base class functions.
We have shown in Figure 2.13 a human
hierarchy. All humans have to work, so the
human class defines a function called
Work(). All Humans Work(), but a
specialized class like student, which is a
subclass of human, must work in a college
and in libraries and laboratories. Hence, you
will see that student has overridden the base
class function called Work() with its own
specialized Work() method. Also observe
that CSESTUDENT would like use (inherit)
the same Work() as that of its base class
student. Hence, he has not defined its own
version and hence base class function
Work() is available to it. On the other hand,
ECESTUDENT probably has to work in
hardware laboratories and hence has
overridden base class Students Work()
with its own implementation.
Figure 2.13 Polymorphism at work: ECE students has own
work(): CSE student works with Student Work() because
CSESTUDENT has not overridden.
When there are several subclasses
implementing a function, it is critical that
the correct function of the correct derived
class be invoked. That is, at run-time, the
correct function has to be invoked through a
function call. The feature that ensures this
correct run-time binding of function is
called dynamic binding. Polymorphism
means to ensure that objects of base class
behave correctly and as planned. For
example, CSESTUDENT must use
Students Work() and ECESTUDENT
must use its own Work() and so on.
2.12 Abstract Class
While designing an OO system, we may need
a base class with no function
implementation at all. The base class will
have only the names of the functions and no
implementation of these functions.
However, the derived classes from this base
class will override the base class function in
which each of the overridden function will
have its own implementation.
Polymorphism and the feature of dynamic
binding would ensure that depending on the
user's requirement, the correct method
belonging to the appropriate object would be
linked to a function's call. The interface
feature of Java is an abstract class. In C++, a
base class with pure virtual functions can be
considered as an abstract class. An abstract
class, since it has no implemented functions,
cannot have an object instantiated.
2.13 Concrete Class
As opposed to abstract classes, the concrete
class implements all the functions and
methods declared in it. Hence, a concrete
class is a class that can have an object or
instance of object instantiated. In Figure
2.13, the student class is a concrete class.
2.13.1 OOPS – A Case Study in Object
Modelling
We will carry out a detailed modelling
exercise to fortify what we have learnt about
relationships. We will study the college
administration system as it pertains to
college, departments, and students and
relationships, as shown in Figure 2.14. There
are two main classes: Person and Dept.
These two are superclasses (base classes)
and hold attributes common to all persons
and departments such as the name of a
person or department, college code, and all
other relevant common data. Student and
staff are subclasses derived from super
person and is a special kind of person. It
contains specialized attributes such as
identification number, address, dept code
and other relevant data. This relationship is
inheritance and is shown with the symbol.
Figure 2.14 Relationships between college and students
Aggregation is shown by a line with a
hollow diamond pointing to the whole
class. A department has some classes that
have some students. Aggregation means
“part of” relation and is shown as .
Composition uses a solid diamond
instead. In this type, object is a whole or
integral part of the whole. Composition
means “has a” relationship, i.e. the whole
object contains a part and is shown in UML
as In Figure 2.14, the class has 0…60
students. The class is composed of students.
Any method a class needs to manipulate
students will be implemented in class, and
these methods are available to any derived
class(sub class) of a class.
You can observe that EngineeringDept
is derived from Super Dept and is a
specialized department. It will have
additional information peculiar to an
engineering department such as
specialization, resource persons, and link to
students belonging to the department. Look
at the CourseOffering class. It
implements the course offering relationship
that exists between a student and an
EngineeringDept. Also observe that
CourseOffering is also a part of college
which is a list of all engineering departments
offering courses. A college needs some other
objects to keep track of courses that have
been offered. Further class called
CourseOffering can have additional
functionality such as tracking which course a
student has been offered. The class
CourseOffering can also track courses
that are currently running and/or courses
that have concluded. Make a note that we
have defined a class called
CourseOffering to manage the
association relationship between
EngineeringDept and student. The
dashed line ------------ in UML indicates the
relation just described. The above
association shown in Figure 2.14 means that
a student can be offered 1…6 courses by an
EngineeringDept and these courses are
tracked and monitored by
CourseOffering class. The relationship
between college and EngineeringDept is
aggregation. We can say that
EngineeringDept is part of college.
2.14 Summary
1. Module: The basic building block in an OO language is a
module. Modules can be defined as logical collections of
classes and objects. A module is not a function or a
procedure or an algorithm, but rather the classes and
objects and messages passing between them.
2. Object orientation is a technique of modelling a real-
world system in software based on objects.
3. OO programming is a collection of cooperating objects
which are in turn instances of a class. The cooperating
classes have a hierarchy of relationships defined by
inheritance relationship.
4. OOP language means: objects, classes,
inheritance.
5. Class: A class is a collection of a set of objects that share
a common behaviour and attributes. Class definition
describes attributes as well as functions that implement
the behaviour.
6. Mandatory profile: This defines minimum services, i.e.
functionality to be provided by a class.
7. Object is an entity that contains attributes and member
functions and an identity. Objects of common attributes
and functionality are grouped together in a class. An
object's behaviour is decided by functionality defined by
the class definition.
8. The unique identification for an object is the memory
address of that object.
9. Encapsulation is the process of hiding all the internal
details of an object from the outside world through
access specifiers such as private and protected.
10. Link connects data belonging to different objects to
achieve some global functionality. A link is shown in
UML by an arrow pointing to the object. A link is also an
instance of an association.
11. Class diagrams provide system overview. They show
classes and their relationships with other classes. They
are static diagrams. This means that they tell us about
the interactions amongst classes, but they do not tell us
the responses to these interactions.
12. Hierarchy: An ordering of classes. The most common
OO hierarchies are inheritance and aggregation.
13. Association is a type of hierarchy that shows
relationships between classes that are independent and
are of equal standing. An association is a relationship
between two or more classes.
14. Multiplicity: An attribute that quantifies an association
between objects.
15. Whole/part of hierarchy: In this type of hierarchy one
class is included in the other classes. This relationship is
called has a relationship.
16. Aggregation means “part of” relation. An aggregate
object has other objects. Other objects are part of
aggregate objects. Aggregation is shown by a line with a
hollow diamond pointing to the whole class .
17. Composition: This is a special case of aggregation where
whole cannot exist without parts. Composition uses a
solid diamond .
18. Hierarchies with independent classes: The classes under
this category have an is a relationship and are also
referred to as generalization/specialization.
19. Inheritance specifies is type of relation. A base class is
known as superclass. A derived class is also known as
a subclass. Inheritance is shown in UML with the
symbol .
20. Derived subclass not only inherits the properties of the
superclass, but it can also extend and modify its
behaviours and attributes.
21. Object diagram shows instances of class diagrams.
22. Dynamic binding: When there are several subclasses
implementing a function, it is critical that the correct
function of the correct derived class be invoked. That is,
at run-time, the correct function has to be invoked
through a function call. The feature that ensures this
correct run-time binding of function is called dynamic
binding.
23. Polymorphism means to ensure that objects of a base
class behave correctly and as planned.
24. Abstract class: This is a base class with no function
implementation at all. However, the derived classes
from this base class will override the base class function
in which each of the overridden functions will have its
own implementations. The interface feature of Java is an
abstract class. In C++, a base class with pure virtual
functions can be considered as an abstract class.
25. An abstract class, since it has no implemented functions,
cannot have an object instantiated.
26. Concrete class is a class that can have an object or
instance of object instantiated.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are true regarding OO
language?
1. OO language comprises objects, classes and inheritance.
2. Modules are logical collections of classes and objects.
3. Modules are a collection of functions.
4. Class definition describes attributes as well as functions.
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
2. Which of the following statements are true regarding
objects and classes?
1. Objects contain member functions and attributes.
2. Objects contain member functions and attributes and an identity.
3. The unique identification for an object is the memory address of
the object.
4. Mandatory profiles define maximum service provided by the class.
1. i
2. i and ii
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
3. Which of the following statements are true regarding
class diagrams?
1. Class diagrams provide system overview.
2. Class diagrams indicate the interactions amongst classes.
3. Class diagrams indicate the responses to interactions.
4. Class diagrams show classes and their relationships with other
classes.
1. i
2. i and ii
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
4. Which of the following statements are true regarding
object methodology?
1. A link connects data belonging to different objects.
2. A link is shown in UML by an arrow to a class.
3. A link is also an instance of an association.
4. Association shows relationships between classes that are
independent and are of equal standing.
1. i, iii and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
5. Which of the following statements are true regarding
association?
1. An association is a relationship between two or more classes.
2. Multiplicity is an attribute that quantifies an association between
objects.
3. Whole/part of hierarchy means “is” type of hierarchy.
4. Aggregation means “part of” relation.
1. i, iii and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
6. Which of the following statements are true regarding
aggregation?
1. Aggregation means “whole of” relation.
2. Other objects are part of aggregate objects.
3. Aggregation is shown by a line with a hollow diamond pointing to
the whole class.
4. Aggregation means “is” relation.
1. i, iii and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii and iii
4. i, ii and iv
7. Which of the following statements are true regarding
composition?
1. Composition means whole cannot exist without parts.
2. Composition uses a solid diamond.
3. Composition is shown by a line with a hollow diamond pointing to
the whole class.
4. Composition means “is” relation.
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii and iii
4. i, ii and iv
8. Which of the following statements are true regarding
inheritance?
1. Inheritance means “is” type of relationship.
2. Inheritance means a hierarchy with an independent class.
3. A base class is known asasuperclass.
4. Inheritance is shown in UML with symbol
1. i and ii
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. ii and iii
4. i, ii and iv
9. Which of the following statements are true regarding
object-oriented methodology?
1. Dynamic binding ensures correct run-time binding of classes.
2. Dynamic binding ensures correct run-time binding of functions.
3. Polymorphism ensures correct behaviour of base classes.
4. Polymorphism ensures correct behaviour of derived classes.
1. i and ii
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
10. Which of the following statements are true regarding
object-oriented methodology?
1. An abstract class can have an object instantiated.
2. Concrete class is a class that can have an object or instance of
object instantiated.
3. An abstract class is a base class with no function implementation at
all.
4. In C++, a base class with pure virtual functions can be considered
as an abstract class.
1. i and ii
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
Short-answer Questions
11. Define object-oriented programming.
12. Define class and object.
13. What is garbage collection as it applies to object-
oriented methodology?
14. What is an abstract class?
15. What is a concrete class?
16. Explain aggregation.
17. Explain composition.
18. Explain multiplicity of an association with examples.
19. Distinguish class diagrams and object diagrams.
Long-answer Questions
20. Explain object modelling.
21. What are mandatory profile, meta model and meta data?
22. Why are specifying constraints important?
23. How are objects created in C++ and Java? State the
properties of objects.
24. What are links in object modelling? Give examples of
link implementations in Java, C++, and UML.
25. Explain the class diagram with an example and explain
the various features involved.
26. Explain the object diagram with an example and explain
the various features involved.
27. Explain class hierarchies with examples.
28. Explain the polymorphism with an example and explain
the various features involved.
Assignment Questions
29. Develop a class diagram for the inventory control
department of an industry.
30. Develop a class diagram catalogue display for a large
departmental store wherein customers look into models
available and place orders online using credit cards.
31. Carry out object modelling for an automatic teller
machine of a bank.
32. Draw a class diagram for a fire alarm system. Assume
that the central monitor monitors fire alarms and when
fire incidents occur, informs the fire station.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. d
2. c
3. d
4. a
5. d
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. c
3
Extensibility and Reusability –
Inheritance at Work
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to understand the concepts of OOP
paradigm regarding
Extending and deriving of new classes from existing
classes.
Concepts of containment and inheritances.
Overloading and overriding base class functions.
Single and multiple inheritances.
Virtual functions.
Interfaces provided by Java language.
Run-time polymorphism and data binding and class
as ADT.
OOP concepts like RTTI, decoupling and STL.
3.1 Extendibility and Reusability of OOP
Paradigm
Classes have relationships amongst them
which are responsible for making the OOP
languages versatile and powerful. There are
several tools and features provided by OOP
languages to ensure reusability and
extendibility, as follows: composition /
containment, generalization / specialization
in inheritance, virtual functions and abstract
data types (ADTs), and standard template
libraries (STL).
3.2 Extending / Deriving New Classes
We can derive a new class based on an
existing class. This is possible through the
inheritance and containment property
afforded by OOP languages. Containment is
class within a class, i.e. containment ensures
all the member functions and member data
of a contained class to the class containing
the class.
Inheritance, on the other hand, is a
technique to create a new class from an
existing class by adding additional and many
a times specialized functionality to it.
Inheritance provides access to all non-
private (public and protected) member data
and member functions to the descendant
class.
3.2.1 Containment: Class within a Class –
Container Class
Container class is one of the techniques
provided by OOP languages to achieve
reusability of the code. Container class
means a class containing another class or
more than one class. For example, a
computer has a microprocessor in it. In
other words, it can also be called
composition or aggregation.
In composition, one class (let us say Host)
stores an instance of another class (let us
call it Guest class) in an instance property.
The Host class delegates work to the Guest
class by invoking methods on that instance.
As an example, a Student class can have a
data member belonging to a string class.
Then we would say that the string class is
contained in the Student class. The
advantage of containment is that we can use
a string class within a Student class to store
details such as name and address belonging
to a string class. Similarly, if we define a
class called Date with day, month and year
information, we can define the object of
Date within a class called Student and define
Date-related data such as DOB, DOJ, etc.
Composition is a “has” type of
relation.
Example 3.1: Composition /
Containment of C++
Composition means that the object
comprises of several subobjects. For
example, BankAccount has CurrentAccount
and SavingsAccount. The containment
relationship by drawing a line with a black
diamond from the containing object to the
contained object is shown in Figure 3.1, as
per UML specifications.
Figure 3.1 Containment – composition
Implementation in C++
class BankAccount { … };
class SavingAccount
{private: BankAccount Account;
};
Implementation in Java
Not supported in Java. The lifetime of a
composite object depends completely on the
garbage collector.
3.2.2 Inheritance and Class Hierarchy
Reusability of code is one of the strong
promises made by OOP languages like C++
and Java, and inheritance is the tool selected
to fulfill this promise. The concept of
inheritance is not new to us. We inherit
property, goodwill and name from our
parents. Similarly, our descendants will
derive these qualities from us. Study the
inheritance class hierarchy shown in Figure
3.2. Humans and Animals derive qualities
from living beings. Professionals, Students
and Athletes are derived from Humans. We
say these three categories have inherited
from Human. Class Human is called a base
class and Student and Athlete are called
derived class or subclass. In Java
language, base class is referred to as
superclass. What can be inherited? Both
member functions and member data can be
inherited. Note that the direction of the
arrow to indicate the inheritance relation is
pointed upwards as per modelling language
specifications.
Figure 3.2 Inheritance hierarchy
Inheritance specifies is type of relation.
Observe that a student is a human.
Similarly, a mammal is an animal. Human is
a base class / superclass and Student is a
derived class / subclass. Derivation from
base class is the technique to implement is
type of relation. A base class can have more
than one derived class.
When do we use inheritance? You inherit
so that you can derive all the functionality
and member data from base class, and
derived class can add its own specialized or
individualistic functionality. We can
therefore say that subclasses are more
specialized versions of their base class or
superclass. They can derive all the
functionality of superclass and also
introduce its own specialized behaviour.
For example, Athlete derives all
functionality and attributes of Human and
in addition adds sports and athletic
functionality and attributes on its own. Let
us say that base class Human as defined a
method called Work() and an attribute like
hoursAtWork to indicate the number of
hours Human spend at work. All the three
subclasses of Human, namely, Person,
Student and Athlete, will derive the
functionality and attribute defined by the
superclass. Thus, the code need not be
written three times – writing it once is
sufficient. In the example that follows we
will show you sample statements for
inheritance and other related topics in C++
and Java. However, the user is advised to
refer to relevant chapters for detailed
treatment of the topics.
Example 3.2: Inheritance and
Derivation in C++
class Human
{public:
protected: // variables declared as
protected are public to
derived classes
// protected variables
};
// Student inherited from Human,
inheritance type is public
class Student : public Human
{public:
private:
};
Note that members declared as private are
not available to derived class. If you declare
these member data as public then security is
compromised. So what is the way out?
Declare the member data as protected as
shown above. If a public member function
has the object, i.e. the object has invoked the
member function, then that function can
access
All the public member functions and public member
data.
Public functions of a class can access all the private
member data and member functions of its own class and
protected member data and member functions of their
base classes.
So, if you want the member data to be
passed to derived class in inheritance,
declare them as protected.
Example 3.3: Inheritance and
Derivation in Java
In Java, inheritance is achieved by
extension. Suppose that we have a base class
called Human with attributes and methods.
Then the derived class, called subclass, is
created by using the key word extends.
This is shown in the example below:
Class Human
{// member data & methods}
class Student extends Human {
// new fields and methods defining a
Student would go here}
This gives Student all the same fields and
methods as Human, yet allows its code to
focus exclusively on the features that make it
unique.
3.2.3 Generalization vs Specialization
Generalization describes the relationship
whereas inheritance is a tool or method of
OOPS languages to implement
generalization. We can say that
generalization is a generic name for
inheritance. Figure 3.3 shows an example.
Figure 3.3 Generalization – generic name for inheritance
Generalization means that the derived
subclass is a subtype of base object. For
example, CurrentAccount is a
BankAccount. Therefore, we can say that
BankAccount generalizes the common
behaviour and attributes of
CurrentAccount and SavingsAccount.
Common functionality be provided only in
base class. That is, base class is
generalization and derived class or subclass
is specialization.
Example 3.4: Generalization
Implementation in C++ and Java
Implementation in C++
class BankAccount { … };
class SavingAccount : public BankAccount
{ … };
Implementation in Java
public class BankAccount { … }
public class SavingAccount extends
BankAccount { … }
Now let us discuss the specifics of
inheritance. Consider the base class called
Father and derived class called Son, as
shown in Figure 3.4. As a descendant you
are privileged to inherit all non-private
member data and member functions.
Figure 3.4 Inheritance at work
3.3 Overriding Base Class Functions
Suppose your father has a car. You can
inherit and use the car for your mobility or
you can buy a scooter and use the scooter
instead. That is, you have overridden your
father's method of Move() with your own
functionality. So when you call Move()
method, it calls your own move method and
you will have to move on a scooter. If you
want to use the car, you should call for
Move() function defined by Father class
explicitly like Father:Move().
Suppose base class (super) defines
attributes such as age and weight, you can
add additional attributes like height. Let us
also suppose that super defines functionality
such as Move() and Work(). Suppose you
need a functionality to move by air, which
your parent did not define, you can define
your own function MoveByAir().
3.4 Overloading
A class can declare several variations in a
function with the same name but with
different implementations. This is termed as
overloading. We show below base class
overloading its Move() method:
Move() { cout<<”move by car”):
Move(int m) { cout<<” move by Bus”); //
m =1
MoveFamily(int m , int n ) { cout<<”move
with family”); // n=number
Now if derived class Son decides to
override only on of the Move() function with
its own implementation like: Move() {
cout<<”Move by scooter”).
Then, balance two overloaded functions of
base class shown below will be truncated
and will not be available to derived class,
namely:
Move(int m) { cout<<” move by Bus”); //
m =1
MoveFamily(int m , int n ) { cout<<”move
with family”); // n=number
However, subclass can call these functions
by explicit mention of base class like
Father:Move(int m).
3.5 Single and Multiple Inheritances
Inheritance means the ability to derive a
new descendant class with additional
functionality from base class. Inheritance is
a powerful tool in the hand of programmer
to define a new class from existing classes.
There are different types of inheritances
supported by OOPS languages.
In Figure 1.6a, we have shown single
inheritance, wherein the derived class
Person inherits from base class Human .In
Figure 1.6b, multilevel inheritance is
depicted, wherein Student inherits
properties from Person, which in turn
inherits from base class Human. In Figure
1.6c, we have shown hierarchical
inheritance involving one base class and
three derived classes.
Figure 1.6d depicts multiple
inheritance, where base class is called
virtual because single base class is being
used by two derived classes, namely, derived
class 1 (DC1) and derived class 2 (DC2).
Further, you can see that derived class 3
(DC3) inherits from both DC1 and DC2. This
type of inheritance is also called hybrid
inheritance as there is a single derived class
DC3 from two base classes DC1 and DC2.
3.6 Virtual Inheritance
Look at Figure 3.5. There is only one base
class for both DC1, student, and DC2,
athlete. The base class is called virtual base
class and inheritance is termed as virtual
inheritance. Virtual inheritance ensures that
ambiguity that otherwise exists in case of
more than one base class, does not exist.
Figure 3.5 Hybrid inheritance and virtual Inheritance
In some situations, single inheritance is
not sufficient and multiple inheritance leads
to ambiguity. Consider the example
presented in Figure 3.5.
A Student works at college laboratories
and an Athlete works out at the gym after
college hours. But let us say that recruiting
companies need a Professional who works at
college laboratories and also takes keen
interest in gym and sports. We need a
professional who inherits Work() of
Students and also Work() of Athletes on
requirement. In addition, the Professional
must retain all the basic qualities of Human
(shown as dotted arrow). Hence the
relationship can be termed as hybrid
inheritance.
Multiple Inheritance is Deriving a
Class from More Than One Base Class
Also notice in Figure 3.5 that both Student
and Athlete have the same base class,
Human. This type of base class is called
virtual base class because, though there is
only one base class common to both derived
classes, each of the derived class feels it has
its own base class. In order to facilitate
inheritance of properties, functions and
member data selectively from Student and
Athlete, we need to declare these two classes
as virtual inheritance from the base
class. The relationship is called virtual
inheritance because, though there are base
classes called Student and Athlete for
derived class Professional, they act as if they
do not exist and they are there only to pass
whatever functions are demanded by
derived class Professional.
We would declare virtual inheritance as
shown below:
class Student:virtual public Humans
class Athlet:virtual public Humans
Professional class is declared as shown
below
class Professional : public Student,
public Athlet
3.7 Problems with Multiple Inheritance
C++ no doubt provides a powerful feature
such as multiple inheritance. However, this
feature leads to ambiguity as regards
deriving from more than one base class. In
the example shown in Figure 3.6,
professional inherits both from Student and
Athlete. Imagine a case where both Student
and Athlete classes define a function called
Work(). Which function will professional
then inherit? Surely ambiguity exists here.
Figure 3.6 Multiple inheritance – UML diagram
Example 3.5: Example for Multiple
Inheritance in UML/C++
We know multiple inheritance means
deriving from more than one base class. For
example, refer to Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 Java's solution for ambiguity problems of C++
multiple inheritance
Implementation in C++
class Student { … };
class Athlete { … };
class Professional : public Student,
public Athlete { … };
Implementation in Java: NOT supported
3.8 Interface
As shown above, Java language has solved
the problem ambiguity in multiple
inheritance by simply not allowing multiple
inheritance feature at all. Instead, it solves
this problem by allowing only one
inheritance, i.e. single base class and
multiple interfaces. An interface provides
names of the functions it provides service
and a class can implement an interface
which in turn has functions implemented in
one of the derived classes of the interface.
Example 3.6: Example for
Interface in Java
Objects need to interact with users and the
outside world. Java's interface is used by
object to interact with the outside world. An
interface simply will have names of all the
functions for which the object provides
functionality. Only names but no
implementation. Therefore, we can say that
interface is function names with empty
bodies. For example, a Student objects
interface is shown below:
interface Student
{ void GetData();void
ComputeResult();void Displayresult();}
Suppose name of our class is
UGStudent, then we can use the interface
Student, as shown below:
class UGStudent implements Student
{ // class definition here}
We can say that interface is a contract
between the class and outside world
regarding providing certain functionality.
3.9 Access Specifiers in Inheritance
Inheritance allows one data type to acquire
the properties of another data type. But this
facility largely depends on access specifiers
used while inheriting. The access specifiers
are public, private and protected.
Public Inheritance: Out of the three specifiers, public
is most widely used. Indeed, when we say inheritance,
we mean public inheritance. In public inheritance, all
non-private members, i.e. public and protected
members, are available to descendant classes.
Private Inheritance: This is less frequently used.
Here only functionality is available to descendant classes
but not attributes. For example, it is possible to fly like a
bird by acquiring function Fly() through private
inheritance, but one cannot become a bird by acquiring
the attributes like colour, beak, wings, etc.
Protected Inheritance: This feature is least used
since protected means public to descendant classes and
private to others.
When access specifier is omitted, a class
inherits privately, since only public
accessory functions defined in the class
become available to the descendant and not
attributes, thus satisfying the definition of
private inheritance. User-defined data type
struct has no security access specifiers.
Therefore, struct inherits publicly by default.
3.10 Run-time-type Information – RTTI
Dynamic_cast operator, which allows
the program to safely attempt conversion of
an object into an object of a more specific
object type. This feature relies on run-time-
type information (RTTI).
Static_cast operator: Objects known
to be of a certain specific type can also be
cast to that type with static_cast, a
purely compile-time construct.
When base class function is overridden,
exactly which of the base class function to
call depends on the type of object. It is NOT
possible to determine the type of the object
at compile time. Hence, a pointer to base
class, depending on the type of object that
will be known only at run-time, dispatches
the correct method. This feature is called
dynamic method dispatch in Java or
virtual function methods in C++.
3.11 Virtual Functions
In inheritance relation, the derived class gets
access to protected member data through
public accessory functions thereby achieving
an important objective-oriented
programming facility called code reusability.
But what about object to base class using
the member functions belonging to derived
class? This feature facilitates object to base
class to execute any one of the derived class
functions, depending on the user's choice at
run-time.
This means that object to base class is
provided with a bridge to selected derived
class function and hence it can execute the
function. The bridge is made available when
we declare a virtual function in the base
class and derived class overrides base class
function.
If function is declared as virtual function
in base class, we can execute an overriding
function with the same name in the derived
class with a pointer to base class. Pointer to
base class is provided by virtual function. In
summary, we can say that from base class
we can execute any function with the same
name as that of the virtual function in the
base class, depending on the user's choice at
run-time.
The above feature has been facilitated by
C++ by providing variable pointers to a base
class. These variable pointers can refer to
objects of any derived classes of that type in
addition to objects exactly matching the
variable type. This allows arrays and other
kinds of containers to hold pointers to
objects of differing types. Because
assignment of values to variables usually
occurs at run-time, this is necessarily a run-
time phenomenon. This feature facilitates
run-time polymorphism and dynamic data
binding explained in the next section. As the
type of an object at its creation is known at
compile time, constructors, and by extension
copy constructors, cannot be virtual. If any
functions in the class are virtual, the
destructor should also be defined as virtual.
3.12 Pure Virtual Functions
C++ supports another variation of virtual
functions like pure virtual functions. Virtual
function can be converted by writing = 0 at
the end of the function declaration:
virtual void FindArea() = 0;
Note that objects cannot be created for a
class with pure virtual functions and such
classes are called abstract data type (ADT).
A member function can also be made “pure
virtual” by appending it with = 0 after the
closing parenthesis and before the
semicolon. Objects cannot be created of a
class with a pure virtual function and are
called ADTs. Any derived class inherits the
virtual function as pure and must provide a
non-pure definition of it (and all other pure
virtual functions) before objects of the
derived class can be created. An attempt to
create an object from a class with a pure
virtual function or inherited pure virtual
function will be flagged as a compile-time
error.
3.13 Run-time Polymorphism and Dynamic
Data Binding
Inheritance solves the problem of
reusability. That is, derived class can access
all the data members and function members
of base class that are declared as protected.
We have also learnt that derived class can
override the functions defined in base class.
Further, we have seen while dealing with
virtual functions that with a pointer to base
class we can call the derived class object.
Combining the above two features of OOP
language gives us a powerful tool, called
run-time polymorphism and dynamic
binding.
Refer to Figure 3.8 which shows
hierarchical inheritance with virtual
functions defined in base class and each of
the derived class overriding the base class
virtual function with its own
implementation.
Figure 3.8 Hierarchical inheritance
What this feature means to the
programmer is that with a pointer to base
class, we can decide at run-time to call
particular derived classes overriding
function. In other words, we can bind the
overriding function from several of the
derived classes with a pointer to base class.
In the previous section we have seen the
working of virtual functions with which we
can achieve binding of derived class
functions with a pointer to base class.
3.14 Class as Abstract Data Type
A class in object-oriented languages can also
be called ADT.
The features of OOP language such as run-
time polymorphism and dynamic binding
will allow us to define a base class with
virtual functions with no implementation
(called pure virtual functions) or with
dummy functionality just to indicate to the
user that implementation is by derived class.
These classes are called ADTs because they
hide the implementation.
Refer again to Figure 3.8. We will declare
a base class (ADT) called Shape. You will
appreciate Shape has no definite shape, no
definite area or perimeter or specific draw
routine. Shape will hence declare virtual
functions with only names and no
implementation details. We will derive
classes like Circle and Square and provide
the solid implementation of these virtual
functions. Solid means, all virtual functions
will be implemented in each of the derived
classes.
3.15 Separation of Behaviour and
Implementation
ADT or base class with virtual function with
no implementations is also called interfaces
in some OOP languages. The base class will
simply work as interface, informing the user
about the functionality available, through
definition of virtual functions and depending
on the user's choice, the particular
implementation from any one of the derived
class is executed. The user is hidden from
the details of implementation. The code of
actual implementing function is linked to
calling function only at run-time.
3.16 Decoupling
In inheritance, we have reusable code.
Encapsulation means binding data and code.
When run-time polymorphism is being used,
it is best to polymorphically decouple the
encapsulation to prevent discrete code
modules from interacting with each other. In
practice, you will notice that base class
overridden function is automatically hidden
and can be called explicitly by referring to
the base class function.
3.17 Standard Template Library
One of the true definitions of objective-
oriented programming is the ability of the
programmer, through language, to use
library facility. C++ has much developed
Standard library in the form of stream IO
library that provides extensive functionality
for input and output. Standard template
library (STL) is the most significant addition
to library provided by C++. Using the
module in STL, a programmer can write
code using data structures and algorithm
implementation for data structures like
vectors, lists, queues, maps, etc.
3.18 Summary
1. Extensibility and reusability of OOP languages have
been realized with language features like inheritance,
virtual inheritance, standard templates, etc.
2. Containment represents a has type of relation.
Supported by C++ but not supported by Java. A class
contains an instance of another class.
3. Containment is also called composition and aggregation
in the literature.
4. Base class is called superclass in Java. Derived class is
termed as subclass. In inheritance, all non-private
members are available to descendants. That is, base
class is generalization and derived class or subclass is
specialization.
5. In inheritance, subclass functions can override base
class overloaded functions. If subclass function
overrides only one of the overloaded functions of base
class, then balance overloaded functions will be
truncated and will not be available to base class.
6. Inheritance types supported by C++ are
Single- and Multilevel inheritances
Hierarchical inheritance
Multiple and hybrid inheritance (not supported by
Java)
7. Multiple inheritance is deriving a class from more than
one base class.
8. Base class and derived class are called superclass and
subclass in Java.
9. Subclass methods can override base class functions. If
such overriding takes place of overloaded base class
functions, then balance of overloaded functions are
truncated and they are not available to subclasses.
10. If more than one subclass is derived from the same base
class, then the base class is called a virtual base class.
11. If a subclass derives from more than one base class, then
to resolve the ambiguity arising out of the multiple
inheritance relation, both the base classes must be
declared as virtual. Inheritance is called virtual
inheritance.
12. Java solves the problems of ambiguity due to multiple
inheritance type of relations by allowing only single
inheritance but several interfaces. The interfaces contain
only names of the functions and hide implementation of
these functions. Implementation of an interface is
also called realization.
13. Dynamic_cast operator, which allows the program
to safely attempt conversion of an object into an object
of a more specific object type. This feature relies on
RTTI.
14. Run-time polymorphism means that with a pointer
to base class, we can decide at run-time to call particular
derived classes overriding function. In other words, we
can bind the overriding function from several of the
derived classes with a pointer to base class.
15. Virtual Function: If function is declared as virtual
function in base class, then we can execute an overriding
function with the same name in the derived class with a
pointer to base class. Pointer to base class is provided by
virtual function.
16. Pure Virtual Function in C++: Pure virtual
functions are virtual functions with “=0” attached at the
end. No object can be created for a class with pure
virtual functions defined in it.
17. Java supports interfaces to implement the concept of
pure virtual functions of C++.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. A subclass can have access to private data members of
superclass – TRUE / FALSE
2. Generalization means inheritance – TRUE / FALSE
3. Specialization refers to
1. Base class
2. Subclass
3. Superclass
4. None
4. Which of the following refer to containment:
1. Composition
2. Aggregation
3. Has a
4. Is a
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iii
3. i, ii and iii
4. i, ii and iv
5. Multiple and hybrid inheritance
1. Supported by C++
2. Supported by C++ and Java
3. Supported by Java
4. Supported by none
6. If a subclass is derived from more than one base class,
then the inheritance type is
1. Multiple inheritance
2. Virtual inheritance
3. Virtual base class
4. Multilevel inheritance
7. Realization can be achieved by
1. Extending a base class
2. Implementing an interface
3. Virtual functions
4. None of these
8. When a subclass redefines a base class function using
the same name and signature, it is called
1. Base class overloading
2. Base class function override
3. Base class function hiding
4. None of these
9. Composition is implemented using
1. Has a
2. Is a
3. Interface
4. Virtual function
Short-answer Questions
10. Explain composition / containment features of OOP
languages.
11. Generalization / specialization means inheritance. Do
you agree?
12. Distinguish between composition and inheritance.
13. Why does Java not support containment?
14. What are the types of inheritance supported by Java?
15. What is the alternate provided by Java to multiple
inheritance of C++?
16. What is the difference between a class and an interface
in Java?
17. Can constructors be declared as virtual? Why or why
not?
18. Can destructors be declared as virtual? Why or why not?
19. Distinguish overloading and overriding in inheritance
relationship.
20. What is an interface in Java?
21. Explain access specifiers and their relevance in
inheritance relation.
22. Explain RTTI and dynamic cast operator.
23. What are virtual functions? How are they useful?
24. What are pure virtual functions? Why can objects not be
instantiated to class with pure virtual functions defined
inside?
Long-answer Questions
25. What are the various types of inheritance supported by
OOP language?
26. What are run-time polymorphism and run-time data
binding?
27. ADT / interface are supporting the concept of separation
of behaviour and implementation. Do you agree?
28. What is a virtual function? Why do we need virtual
functions? What are the rules for virtual function
implementation?
29. What is an abstract class? Why do we need abstract
classes? What are the rules governing virtual base class?
Assignment Questions
30. Write inheritance hierarchy for the animal kingdom.
31. Explain polymorphism with a suitable example.
32. Explain generalization and specialization with suitable
examples.
33. Explain the terms aggregation and separation with
suitable examples.
34. Explain various types of inheritances.
35. When do you use inheritance and on what occasions do
you use interface?
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. False
2. True
3. b
4. c
5. a
6. a
7. b
8. b
9. a
4
Dynamic Modelling
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
familiar with concepts and usage of
Static characteristics of a system. Use of UML static
diagrams such as class, object and package diagrams.
Events and States in a system and their role in
depicting dynamic behaviour.
Use UML diagram to design the system using OOPS
concepts.
4.1 Introduction to Static and Dynamic
Modelling
While modelling an object, we are interested
in two aspects. The first is the structure.
When we say structure, we mean it is
defined at compile time. We can also call
this a static characteristic. For example,
when we define a class, it includes
attributes, behaviour in terms of attributes,
links and associations, and some complex
structures such as class within a class
definition. We use class diagrams, object
diagrams and package diagrams to describe
the static characteristics of a system model.
Objects are instances of classes. Classes
have attributes and behaviour. We are aware
that instances are created at run-time, and
these objects have a specific lifetime. They
also undergo changes based on messages
received during an object's lifetime.
Methods or functions, as they are otherwise
called, are responsible for an object's
behaviour. Attributes hold values that can be
changed during the lifetime of an object.
State of an object is defined as current
values held by the attributes of an object. It
is the result of behavioural changes of an
object till that particular instance.
In this chapter, we would concentrate on
static and dynamic modelling of object.
Firstly we provide over view of UML, a
language used for describing the behaviour
of objects. We have used class diagrams,
object diagrams, package diagrams to
describe the static characteristics of a system
modelling. We will also introduce dynamic
modelling through study of collaboration
diagrams, sequence diagrams, activity
diagrams, and state transition diagrams etc.
4.2 Lifetime of an Object
Objects are dynamic entities. They are
created at run-time as per the need of the
program when the program is under
execution. We say an object is instantiated.
Constructor does this job of instantiation
and also allocates initial values to the
attributes of an instance of a class. Objects
have attributes and behaviour. An object can
communicate with other objects by passing
messages. An object passes information
about its state to others through get and set
functions that are defined in a class. Get
functions that return a value of attributes
are also called assessors. Set functions that
allow attributes to be modified are also
called mutators.
Objects in Java use references to uniquely
identify the instance of an object, whereas
C++ uses pointers and references.
Once the object completes the role
assigned to it, it has to be deleted from the
memory so that the freed memory can be
dynamically allocated to other objects. This
is done through garbage collector in Java.
Garbage collector is a program initiated by
the Java run-time system to remove objects
that are no longer required. In C++,
programmers can explicitly remove an
object through the use of delete function.
4.3 Unified Modelling Language – A Tool for
OOAD
4.3.1 Overview of UML
The Unified Modelling Language (UML), is
used as a graphical tool in object-oriented
analysis and design (OOAD) methodology to
model a software-based system under
development.
When do we resort to modelling?
When we would like to model the system and study its
behaviour.
When we further wish to simulate the system and study
its performance and operations.
When the system under development is complex and not
a trivia.
When the cost of development of a software system is
prohibitive.
What do we look in a modelling system?
It should closely follow the development model we
choose, for example, the Waterfall model.
It should be graphical in nature.
It should model all facets of Software Development Life
Cycle.
It should accommodate all popular and well-accepted
theories of object-oriented technologies such as those of
Grady Booch, James Rambaugh and Ivar Jacobson.
The UML, founded by a consortium of
industries such as Hewlett-Packard (HP),
International Business Machines (IBM),
Oracle, etc., under the aegis of a controlling
group called Object Management Group
(OMG), satisfies all the aforementioned
criteria and is indeed an industry standard
for software development. The UML can be
effectively used to conceptualise, modify,
construct and deliver an object-oriented
software system, including full-fledged
documentation.
The term “Unified” in UML implies
that UML unifies the theories of three
leading scientists at a software company
called Rational Software, Grady Booch
(Booch methodology), James Rumbaugh
(object-modelling technique [OMT]) and
Ivar Jacobson (use cases and objectory), into
a rational unified process (RUP). Later, RUP
was merged with development
methodologies such as Booch methodology,
OMT and object-oriented software
engineering (OOSE).
4.3.1.1 Modelling
The UML is a graphical representation of a
system under development. In addition, it
also contains documentation such as use
cases that are used for developing the
system. The UML has two different views as
described below:
Static view: It provides the structure of the system
under development in terms of objects, attributes and
operations. These aspects are depicted by class diagrams
and object diagrams.
Dynamic view: It depicts the behaviour of the system.
It includes collaboration diagrams, sequence diagrams,
activity diagrams and state transition diagrams.
The UML Version 2.2 has 14 diagrams,
seven static diagrams and seven behavioural
diagrams. Behavioural diagrams include
four interaction diagrams.
4.3.1.1.1 Structure Diagrams
Structure means the essential things that
must be present so that the system can
function as per specification. For example,
the backbone and jaw are essential in human
body to maintain the erect posture and to
chew the food. Structure diagrams, as they
depict the elements that are present in the
system, represent the architecture of the
system as shown below:
Class diagram: It describes classes, their attributes
and relationships among the classes.
Component diagram: It shows the decomposition of
software into components and the interdependencies
between these components.
Composite structure diagram: It describes the
internal structure of a class and the collaborations that
this structure enables.
Deployment diagram: It describes the hardware used
in system implementations, execution environments and
artefacts deployed on the hardware.
Object diagram: It is an instance of a class diagram at
a particular instant of time.
Package diagram: It describes how a system is split
into logical groupings by showing the dependencies
among these groupings.
Profile diagram: It shows stereotypes as classes with
<<stereotype>> and packages as <<profile>>
stereotype. The symbol is and indicates that the
meta model is extended by a stereotype.
4.3.1.1.2 Behaviour Diagrams
Behavioural diagrams depict the
functionality of the system. The different
types of behaviour diagrams are shown:
Activity diagram: It shows the overall flow of control.
UML state machine diagram: It depicts the states
and state transitions of the system.
Use case diagram: It describes the functionality
provided by a system in terms of actors.
4.3.2 Classification of UML Diagrams
The classification adopted by UML is shown
in Figure 4.1. Class, object and package
diagrams depict the structure and static
characteristics. Use case diagrams,
interaction diagrams, state diagrams and
activity diagrams, on the other hand, depict
behavioural modelling. In Chapter 2, we
have dealt in detail with structure. In the
following sections, we discuss dynamic
behaviour.
Figure 4.1 Classification of UML diagrams
4.4 User Requirements – Use Cases
We want to produce a system that the user
wants. Once the system is produced, users
interact with it to produce the desired result.
So we need some description on how to go
about it. Use cases typically provide such
description. Use cases describe what the
system does from the point of view of an
external user. They provide a sequence of
steps describing the interaction between
the system and the user. This sequence of
steps is called a scenario.
For example, for an automated library information system
in a college, a scenario could be as follows (Fig. 4.2): A
student browses online the catalogue of books available in
the library and selects the accession number of the book he
or she wishes to borrow from the library. The issue
subsection of the automated system checks the entitlement
of the student and confirms the issue of the book to the
student. The system issues an authorization slip to the
issue gate by email. The student carries the book to the
issue gate, where the in-charge affixes the authorization
slip on the inside-cover page.
Figure 4.2 Use cases in an issue section of a library system
A second scenario can be that
authorization fails because the student has
exceeded the limit of borrowing.
A third scenario could be that a student
has failed the identification checks.
There are three scenarios described for
borrowing a book from the library; but the
goal of the student in all three scenarios is
the same, i.e. borrowing a book. So, we can
now say that a use case is a collection of
different scenarios but with a common goal.
In a use case, we call users as actors. An
actor can be a human being, a device, or a
software module. For example, banking
software system manager, customer, smoke
sensor and software agent working in the
background are all actors. A use case can
have several actors and conversely one actor
can use several use cases. An actor is shown
as a stick and a use case as an oval. The UML
has a use case diagram that shows how use
cases are related to each other.
As a second example consider the case of a
student enrolling for a third semester
course.
The actors and use cases involved in this
example are shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Use cases in a student registration process
Use cases explain functional requirements
of a system under study. Each use case is
required to be described in detail before
implementing. A scenario explaining the
step-by-step procedure of how the user gets
what he or she wants out of a system is
given below:
Example 4.1: Scenario from the
use case of a student registration
process
Gautam enrols for third semester course. A
step-by-step procedure in shown below:
1. Gautam goes to the registration window and enters his
identification details.
2. Computer gives a list of things Gautam can do.
3. Gautam selects registration for third semester courses.
4. The screen shows the list of courses and open electives.
5. Gautam selects courses and open electives.
6. The system confirms Gautam's registration for third
semester.
7. Gautam logs out.
Each use case will have a primary actor
that calls on the use case to deliver the
functionality expected. A use case can have
another use case defined inside. Each step in
a use case is an interaction between the
actor and the system. In addition, each use
case can have preconditions, a
guaranteed result, and also a trigger
that sets the use case into action.
4.5 Architecture and Domain: What Are
They?
In any real-world problem, we have users
and their wants and needs. Accordingly, we
define objects and their interactions, i.e. we
decide architecture. Users’ world is called
Domain.
4.5.1 Architecture
We have users of the system and use cases.
We have classes in the software we are
developing. Classes are a reflection of the
real-world client (users) and what they want
(use cases). Based on clients and their real-
world interactions, we define interaction
between objects and classes as links and
associations to deliver functionality. This
arrangement is termed as architecture.
We can define architecture as a depiction
of objects and their attributes together with
the operations these objects perform to meet
user specifications or needs.
4.5.2 Domain
The clients and their interactions exist in the
real world. Class is a conceptual model that
maps real-world problems to software. The
users’ world is called domain.
We will show the users domain and our
architecture as a collection of square boxes
that contain names of the objects (Fig. 4.4).
We will also show their links and
associations by drawing interconnecting
lines. As we have studied in Chapter 2, we
can also amplify by specifying role names
and multiplicities. In Example 4.2, we
consider domain and architecture of a
college.
Figure 4.4 Domain and architecture diagram for a college
The square boxes you see are called
entities. For a complex project, attributes of
each entity is maintained in a table. This
table is called a data dictionary. Before
the advent of the objectoriented
programming paradigm, these diagrams
were also called entity-relation
diagrams.
Example 4.2: Domain and
architecture of a college
In order to get an insight into which object
does what, it is advisable to list out the
sequence of steps for the entire process. Let
us revisit the overall sequence of operations
for the registration process we have
discussed in Example 4.1, with amplification
shown to registration process as shown
below:
1. Gautam goes to the registration window and enters his
identification details.
2. Computer gives a list of things Gautam can do.
3. Gautam selects registration for third semester courses.
3.1 Add a course.
3.2 Delete the course already added (update).
4. The screen shows the list of courses and open electives.
5. Gautam selects courses and open electives. He has the
option of adding a course or dropping a course as update
feature.
6. The system confirms Gautam's registration for third
semester.
7. Gautam logs out.
Then for each step in this sequence of steps,
we can prepare a sequence diagram or a
communication diagram and/or timing
diagram. What each object does is an
important issue for the user. UML provides
sequence diagram and communication
diagrams to solve this issue. Timing diagram
is a variation of the sequence diagram that
specifies against time base.
4.6 Sequence Diagram
Users are represented by stick figure. Each
object is represented by a square box (object
representation). A vertical line is drawn
from each object to represent the activity
base line. Arrows emanating from each
vertical line show the object sending a
message or calling a function belonging to
some other object.
In Figure 4.5, we show the sequence
diagram. The actor understudy is a third-
year student. The course coordinator would
like to drop or delete Gautam's name from
section K. The sequence of activities is as
follows:
Figure 4.5 Sequence diagram for deleting a name from
registration process
4.7 Collaboration (Communication) Diagram
Earlier, communication diagrams were
known as collaboration diagrams. These are
essentially the same as sequence diagrams
except in the case of communication
diagrams. The time of occurence of
messager, called time ordering, is shown
explicitly by numbering the messages as
shown in Figure 4.6. Each message in a
collaboration diagram has a sequence
number. The top-level message is
numbered 1. Messages at the same level
(sent during the same call) have the same
decimal prefix but different suffixes of 1, 2,
etc., according to when they occur.
Figure 4.6 Communication diagram for registration of a
student
The key elements of a communication
diagram are
Objects as classifier: They are shown as rectangular
boxes. The object-role rectangles are labelled with either
class or object names (or both). Class names and object
names are separated by colons (:).
Connector: This is a line indicating a message.
Named arrow: This represents the sender, receiver.
In order to read the collaboration
diagram, simply start at the message
numbered as 1 and follow numbers. In
Figure 4.6, we have used a simple
numbering scheme. However, UML uses a
nested numbering system such as
Simple numbering scheme: 1, 2, 3, 4, …
Nested UML numbering: 1, 1.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.2,
…
Collaboration diagrams convey the same
information as sequence diagrams; but they
focus on object roles instead of the times
that messages are sent.
4.8 Events and State
Class diagrams are static in nature and
depict the links and associations between
classes. They cannot be used to depict the
behaviour of objects during objects’ lifetime.
Objects have behaviour and state. The
state of an object is defined by current
values of attributes. We have further learnt
that access specifiers like getters and setters
can change the values of attributes. We can
say that some events trigger the process of
changing the values of attributes and
thereby change the state of an object.
Note that a state diagram describes
behaviour of class objects. Therefore, all
objects share a single state diagram. But the
path object follows in the state diagram is
specific to an instance of the object.
The state chart notation has been
developed in computer science as part of
theory of automatic machines called the
automata theory. This science has been
adopted by UML to depict the way in which
an object changes. Each change in behaviour
is modelled as a change in state.
A state diagram represents events and
states. When an event occurs, transition to
the next state depends on current state and
event. The state diagram shows these
changes in states and allows changes that
cause the change of state. As an example let
us see how a student enrols in a college. The
state diagram is shown in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7a State diagram for student pursuing a professional
course
Figure 4.7b Student undergoing UG/PG courses
In a state diagram, observe that start and
stop are shown as black blobs. Each state is
shown as a rectangle with rounded corners.
Change in state means that the object has
changed its behaviour. For example, a
student when he or she undergoes the
undergraduate (UG) course, i.e., first- to
fourth-year courses, and qualifies, then he or
she becomes a UG. A student can enrol
either for UG course or directly for an
integrated postgraduate (PG) course. Each
arrow represents a change.
We can add a lot of additional information
on the state chart diagram:
It can be labelled with the name of the function that
causes the change.
Add operations or events or conditions that trigger
changes in the object's state.
Add operations to be executed while entering and
leaving the state.
Example 4.3: State chart diagram
for online Internet banking
We are now ready to define a dynamic
model as a collection of all state diagrams
that interact with each other with interacting
events.
In online banking, there are the following
distinct states:
Logging into the system by entering username and
password
Validating username and password
Getting username and transaction password
Validating username and transaction password
From each state, transactions emerge.
Transactions are shown as arrows going
from one state to another state. Events that
trigger transition from one state to another
are shown next to the arrows. In Figure 4.8,
in our system we have two self-transitions
that occur when the user enters invalid
username or password. Till user does not
enter tab key or enter key the cursor remains
and dot is displayed to maintain secrecy of
data being entered.
Figure 4.8 State diagram for Internet banking
The Internet banking system obtains user
id and Internet password and validates
them. If they are found to be correct, user
can enter transaction details. The system, as
a double safety measure, asks for user id and
transaction password. These entries are also
subjected to validation. If they are found to
be correct, final state is reached wherein
user can attend to his or her transaction or it
is rejected.
The start and stop are shown as black
circles and are dummy states. Each state can
have an action. The object performs the
action, and as a result of this action the
object can change its state.
4.8.1 Activity/Action and Operations
States perform activities. It can be a single
activity or a sequence of activities. The
notation used is “Do X1”. If a state has “Do
X1” mentioned in rectangular box, it means
that on entry it will do activity X1.
On the other hand, an action signifies
immediate operation. Operations are
indicated with a “/”. For example, we have
shown / Display Dot as operation in the
Internet banking example in Figure 4.8.
Action can also be used to generate other
events. For example, from an idle state, by
right clicking the mouse button, we can
generate a help menu. On release, the help
menu can be removed. The state diagram is
shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 Example of internal actions
4.8.2 Nested State Diagrams
We have learnt that states perform activities.
Activities can be broken down into
subactivities. Now, if each subactivity
represents a state, we can say state is a
collection of substates and we can call the
structure as a nested state diagram.
As an example, consider the cool-drink
vending machine installed at your campus.
The main activities involved in obtaining a
cool drink from the machine are as follows:
User enters token.
Validate token.
User selects brand of cool drink.
Dispense the drink.
The vending machine model is presented in
Figure 4.10. The main states shown are as
follows:
Figure 4.10 Soft-drink vending machine model
Collect token from the user.
Check availability.
Dispense item.
The state diagram contains an activity called
dispense item and an event called select cool
drink. We will expand and show these two
through nested state diagrams. Figures 4.11a
and 4.11b show nested state diagrams.
Figure 4.11a Expanded state diagram for the event select item
Figure 4.11b Expanded state diagram for dispense item
For selecting an item from an available list
of cool drinks, user has to enter the
identification number for the cool drink
selected. He or she will have the option of
cancelling the entry and re-entering the
number. On pressing ENTER, the item gets
selected and is registered for dispensing.
4.9 Activity Diagram
A state chart diagram tells us about an
object undergoing a process. An activity
diagram shows the flow of activities in a
single process. It shows the way in which
each activity is dependent on other
activities. Therefore, we can define activity
as a diagram showing the flow of activities
and their interdependence on one another.
For explaining the concept of activity
diagram, we choose the same example of
interbank money transfer through the
Internet as in Example 4.3.
The classes involved in the case of
interbank money transfer through the
Internet are user, client computer
system and bank. The activities
concerning each class are shown as rounded
rectangles in a separate column called swim
lane. The salient features of an activity
diagram are as follows:
Swim lane identifies the object responsible for carrying
out a particular activity.
Each activity gives rise to a single transition, and each
transition connects to the next activity.
A transition, sometimes based on decision box, may
branch into two or more transitions.
Each transition coming out is indicated using a guard
expression ([]).
A branch and a subsequent merge are indicated using a
shallow diamond.
Sometimes, a transition may fork into parallel activities
and later merge. These are shown as solid bars in Figure
4.11.
Example 4.4: Activity diagram for
online Internet banking
In money transfer using online banking, the
activities involved are shown below:
User logs into the system by entering username and
password.
Bank server (bank) validates username and password.
User enters amount and transaction password (IPIN)
and transfer details.
Bank validates transaction password.
On successful validation of IPIN, bank checks
availability of funds.
Bank transfers the amount to destination account.
On confirmation from destination bank's server, bank
debits the account.
The transaction details and fund balance are displayed.
User logs out.
The activity diagram in Figure 4.12 is self-
explanatory and follows the list of activities
described above. There are two lanes, one
for bank server and another for client
machine.
Figure 4.12 Activity diagram for online Internet banking
White diamond is used to indicate
branching, and guard expressions are
enclosed in [].
A thick line is used to indicate fork, i.e.,
to initiate more than one activity such as
debit account as well as transfer amount.
Same symbol is used for join activity also.
4.10 Packages and Components – A Way to
Organize Large and Complex Projects
You are familiar with files and folders. In
order to organize your work, you open
folders and within folders you store files.
Package is like a folder. We can store all our
classes in this folder called package directly.
If the number of classes is very large, then
classes can be grouped into components and
components into packages (Fig. 4.13).
Figure 4.13 Notation for packages
Components contain classes. They provide
pluggable interfaces to users. We will use
plug and socket concept to denote an
interface. For example, in Figure 4.14,
Application module provides interface to
students’ module.
Figure 4.14 Notation for components
If we code the classes in components, then
these coded classes are called artefacts.
Artefacts is the name given by UML to files.
There can be several file types. For example,
source code, library file called .h file in C++
notation, executable file. Figure 4.15 makes
the concept clear. Here, we show a source
called Student.cpp and a library called
Student.h and corresponding object
modules with extension .obj. The
standard artefacts used are the following:
<<executable>>, <<document>>,
<<file>>, <<library>>,
<<script>> and <<source>>.
Figure 4.15 Components (artefacts) in a project
In Figure 4.16, we show how packages are
interconnected with dependencies. Dotted
arrows show dependencies of a package on
other packages.
Figure 4.16 Packages in a project
4.11 Component and Deployment Diagram
Deployment diagrams depict the
physical configuration of software and
hardware. We are aware that in object-
oriented technology, class diagrams depict
the structure of the application and
interactions among them through various
relationships such as inheritance.
We are further aware that class contains
member functions that contain all the code
modules required to achieve functionality.
A component is defined as code module.
An application such as online shopping
contains several components. An application
will have a user interface.
Hardware is a collection of nodes.
Components reside on the nodes.
Remote nodes are interconnected using
networking hardware such as transmission
control protocol (TCP)/Internet protocol
(IP).
Thus, there is a need to group all the
above in a single diagram, which is called a
component and deployment diagram, which
is shown in Figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17 Component and deployment diagram for online
4.12 Summary
1. Modelling consists of structural modelling and
behavioural modelling. Structural modelling is also
called static modelling. Behavioural modelling is also
called dynamic modelling.
2. Class diagrams, object diagrams and package diagrams
describe the static characteristics of a system modelling.
3. State of an object is defined in terms of current values
held by attributes of an object. It is the result of
behavioural changes of the object till that particular
instance.
4. The UML is used as a graphical tool in OOAD
methodology to model a software-based system under
development. It accommodates all the popular and well-
accepted theories of object-oriented technologies such as
those of Grady Booch, James Rambaugh and Ivar
Jacobson.
5. Use cases provide a sequence of steps describing the
interaction between a system and user. This sequence of
steps is called a scenario. Use cases explain the
functional requirements of the system under study.
6. Sequence of steps can be represented in a sequence
diagram.
7. Sequence diagram with time ordering of
events/activities is called timing diagram or
communication diagram.
8. We can define architecture as the depiction of objects
and their attributes together with the operations
performed by these objects to meet user specifications or
needs.
9. Communication diagrams were earlier known as
collaboration diagrams. These are essentially same as
sequence diagrams; but in the case of communication
diagrams, time ordering is shown explicitly by
numbering the messages.
10. Dynamic model is the collection of all state diagrams
that interact with each other with interacting events.
11. States perform activities. An action is immediate
operation. An action can also be used to generate other
events.
12. Activity diagram shows the flow of activities and their
interdependence on one another. The activities
concerning each class are shown as rounded rectangles
in a separate column called swim lane.
13. White diamond is used to indicate branching, and
guard expressions are enclosed in [].
14. A thick line is used to indicate fork, i.e., to initiate
more than one activity.
15. Package is like a folder. We can store all our classes in
this folder directly. If the number of classes is very large,
then classes can be grouped into components and
components, in turn, into packages.
16. Deployment diagrams depict the physical configuration
of software and hardware.
17. A component is defined as a code module. Hardware is a
collection of nodes. Components reside on the nodes.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. State diagram specifies
1. State of the object during its lifetime
2. State of the object at current state
3. State of the object in current use case
4. State of the object across all use cases
1. i and iii
2. i and ii
3. i and iii
4. i, ii and iv
2. State of the object is defined by
1. Current attributes
2. Result of all transitions till current state
3. Behaviour of the object
4. Methods
1. i and iii
2. i and ii
3. i and iii
4. i, ii and iv
3. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
state diagram?
1. State diagram depicts events
2. State diagram depicts state
3. The transition to next state depends on current state
4. Change in state means change in behaviour
1. i and iii
2. i, ii and iv
3. i and iii
4. i, ii and iv
4. Dynamic model means collection of all state diagrams
TRUE/FALSE
5. The UML
1. Unifies the theories of Booch, Rumbagh and Ivar Jacobson
2. Unifies development methodologies such as OOSE, OMT and
Booch
3. Unifies SASD and OOAD
4. Unifies RUP and development methodologies
1. i and iii
2. i and ii
3. i and iii
4. i, ii and iv
6. UML 2.2 has ------------ number of diagrams
1. 12
2. 13
3. 14
4. 15
7. UML 2.2 static view has ------------ number of diagrams
1. 6
2. 7
3. 8
4. 9
8. UML 2.2 dynamic view has ------------ number of
interaction diagrams
1. 4
2. 7
3. 5
4. 3
9. The following is not part of static diagram
1. Class diagram
2. Use case diagram
3. Object diagram
4. Package diagram
1. i
2. ii
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii and iii
10. In use cases, which of the following statements are true?
1. Users are called actors
2. Use cases are sequence of steps
3. Use case contains scenarios
4. Use case means architecture
1. i
2. ii
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
11. Which of the following is true in respect of sequence
diagram?
1. Actor is represented by a stick figure
2. Objects are represented by oval
3. Vertical line represents activity
4. Horizontal arrow represents messages
1. i and ii
2. ii
3. i, iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
12. Which of the following is true in respect of
communication diagram?
1. They are also called collaboration diagrams.
2. They are same as sequence diagrams.
3. They are sequence diagrams with time ordering of activities.
4. They concentrate on object role rather than on time at which
communication is sent.
1. i and ii
2. ii
3. i, iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
13. Which of the following is true in respect of activity
diagram?
1. Activity diagram depicts object undergoing a process.
2. Activity diagram is flow of activities in a single process.
3. It is flow of activities and their interdependence on one another.
4. They concentrate on object role rather than on the time when
communication is sent.
1. i and ii
2. ii
3. i, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iii
14. Which of the following is true in respect of activity
diagram?
1. White diamond means branching
2. Thick line indicates fork
3. Fork means initiation of one activity
4. [] are for guard expression
1. i, ii and iv
2. ii
3. i, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iii
15. Which of the following is true in respect of packages and
components?
1. Packages contain components
2. Components contain classes
3. Files in UML are called artefacts
4. Files, library and script are part of artefacts
1. i, ii and iv
2. ii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iii
16. Deployment diagram includes configuration
1. Software
2. Software and hardware
3. Hardware
4. Server details
Short-answer Questions
17. Explain the term “Unified” in Unified Modelling
Language.
18. Define architecture and domain.
19. List the names of diagrams that are part of static view of
UML.
20. List the names of diagrams that are part of dynamic view
of UML
21. Explain composite structure diagram and profile
diagram of UML.
22. Distinguish sequence and communication diagrams.
23. Explain the terms event and state.
24. Explain the terms activity, action and operations.
25. Explain nested state diagrams.
26. What is dynamic modelling?
27. Explain the terms packages and components.
Long-answer Questions
28. Explain in brief UML static and dynamic diagrams.
29. Explain use cases with an example.
30. Explain the terms architecture and domain
31. What are sequence diagrams? Explain the concept with
an example.
32. What are communication diagrams? Explain the concept
with an example.
33. Explain event and state.
34. Explain nested state diagrams with an example.
35. What are the various artefacts in a project?
Assignment Questions
36. Write history and background for the development of
UML as an OOAD tool.
37. Explain dynamic modelling. What aspects of a project
can be understood better with this model?
38. Use case represents architecture. Justify the statement.
39. Develop use case diagram for ATM banking operation.
40. Develop a state chart diagram for online Internet
shopping.
41. Draw a state diagram for online checking of the results
declared by university.
42. Develop the activity and deployment diagram for the
Problem 6.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. a
2. b
3. b
4. True
5. d
6. c
7. b
8. a
9. c
10. d
11. c
12. c
13. d
14. a
15. c
16. b
5
Analysis and Design
Methodologies
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to understand and use techniques
and methods regarding
Various methodologies of system development.
Complete life cycle development phases in a software
development project.
Structured analysis and design, including function
modelling and data modelling.
Data flow diagrams and data dictionaries and entity
relation.
5.1 Introduction
Detailed and in-depth analysis of issues
involved in a system under development or
an existing system would lead to better
understanding and thus better designed
systems meeting user requirements in letter
and spirit. If we can model analysis and
design phases using the latest tools like
UML, software development will be in
consonance with pacifications and thus
greatly enhance the productivity of
developers and designers.
In this chapter, we cover details like
software development life cycle and design
methodologies that include in-depth
coverage of structured analysis and design
as well as object-oriented analysis and
design. We present theoretical foundation as
well as case studies so that you can grasp the
concepts. We have also included elaborative
examples and assignments at the end of the
chapter. There are programmers and
programmers. But there are only a handful
of competent designers. Thus, this chapter is
important for budding analysts and
engineers.
5.2 Stages and Methodologies for Systems
Development
A complex project involves clearly two major
stages: analysis and design phases. The
project development team goes through the
following stages in project implementation
spread over analysis and design phases:
Inception: This initial stage is used to elicit
information from the users regarding the problem and
estimation of project costs and the formation of a senior
project team.
Elaboration: This is under the analysis phase and is
used to elaborate the analysis carried out during the
initial stages. Estimations and conceptual
understanding of the project is undertaken. Tools like
UML and CASE are employed at this stage.
Construction: This stage falls under the design stage
wherein design methodologies like structured design
(SD) or object-oriented design (OOD) are resorted. This
section also includes coding the system as per design.
Coding: This stage is about translating the design into
coding using a structural language like C or object-
oriented language like C++ or Java based on the
methodology of development.
Testing and Delivery and Deployment: The project
developed undergoes elaborate testing to check if the
requirements are met. The testing is also carried out
after delivery of the project at the users’ site. Testing
methods depend on the methodology chosen like
structural analysis and design (SASD) or object-oriented
analysis and design (OOAD).
5.2.1 Methodologies for Software
Development
There are many methodologies for the
development of information systems:
systems development life cycle (SDLC) and
OOD are widely used and popular design
methodologies.
5.2.2 Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)
SDLC is closely linked to structured system
analysis and design (SASD). SDLC is also
referred to as waterfall model.
It is called waterfall model because it
looks like one. It is a model that describes
the steps taken in the development of
information systems. This concept has been
introduced by Mr Horner in 1993.
Figure 5.1 Stages in project
Figure 5.2a SDLC – waterfall model
Figure 5.2b Structured analysis and design – main elements
The series of action and steps to be taken
and deliverables at each step are shown
below:
Problem definition: The user would have prepared a
problem narrative. On receiving a request from the user
for systems development, an investigation is conducted
to state the problem to be solved. Deliverables:
Problem statement.
Feasibility study: To define the scope and objective of
software project study and also establish alternative
solutions available. Deliverables: Feasibility report.
Systems analysis phase: Analysis of existing system.
How and what it does. Deliverables: Specifications of
the present system.
Systems design phase: Study of specifications and
preparation of a specifications document showing what
else needs to be done to obviate the shortcomings of the
existing system. Deliverables: Specifications of the
proposed system.
Systems design: Development of code, user manuals.
Deliverables: Programs, their documentation and user
manuals.
System testing and evaluation: Testing, verification
and validation of the system against specifications.
Deliverables: Test and evaluation results, and the
system ready to be delivered to the user/client.
The advantages of the waterfall model are as
follows:
Clearly defined deliverables at the end of each phase, so
that the client can take decisions on continuing the
project.
Resources can be committed incrementally and not all at
once.
Problems can be detected early in the developmental
stage.
Detailed stagewise documentation.
The disadvantages of the waterfall model are
as follows:
The project needs to be committed. It is not an
incremental model.
Problems have to be detected early. Later stage
detection means huge costs.
5.3 Structured Analysis and Design (SASD)
SASD is a methodology adopted to analyse
the business model and convert it into
specifications, which in turn will be modified
into computer programs, hardware and/or
manual procedures. SASD as a methodology
was developed in the late 1970s by DeMarco,
Yourdon and Constantine after the
emergence of structured programming. The
purpose of SASD is to develop a useful, high-
quality information system that will meet
the needs of the end user. CASE tools are
graphical tools to implement SASD
techniques and have now become industry
standard for developing SASD models.
Elements of Structural Analysis and
Design:
The steps involved in SASD are as follows:
STEP 0: Statement of Purpose
This is a clear and concise statement
highlighting the purpose of the system. It is
meant for higher management as a concept
document and cannot be used for
development of the system.
Example of statement of purpose – The
purpose of the “Agri Card System” is to
provide a methodology for the bank to
extend credit to the farmer. The system will
handle details of credit application, loan
management, billing, recovery and
management reporting. The steps involved
are:
STEP 1: Draw the context diagram to
define the scope of the project. This diagram
is like a block diagram, showing the system
as a whole with set of inputs and outputs
and a transformation system. The objective
of a system context diagram is to focus
attention on external factors and events that
should be considered in developing a
complete set of system requirements and
constraints. In Figure 5.7, we have provided
a context diagram for Student Smart Card
Application.
Figure 5.7 ERD for credit card system
STEP 2: This is documentation showing
how the existing system works. It is
accomplished by drawing the physical data
flow diagrams (DFDs) of the existing system
that specify its current implementation. The
key questions raised are:
Who performs what tasks?
How and when are they performed and what is their
frequency of performance?
How and where is the data stored?
STEP 3: This stage is for documentation of
the proposed system. It is about what the
proposed system will achieve. The system
designer will study the lacunae of existing
system and propose the modified system in
the form of logical DFDs.
STEP 4: At this stage, logical DFDs at STEP
3 are converted to physical DFDs by
examining which implementation meets the
criteria. Who will perform the various tasks?
Who performs what tasks?
How and when are they performed and what is their
frequency of performance?
How and where is the data stored?
5.3.1 Conceptual Design – Functional
Modelling and Data Modelling
Conceptual design consists of data
modelling and functional Modelling. Data
modelling is a technique to organize the data
and functional modelling (also called
process modelling) is a technique to
document systems process, inputs and
outputs. Conceptual design phase throws up
answers to questions such as
What are the processes making up the proposed system?
What data is used in each process?
What are the inputs?
What are the outputs?
5.3.2 Modular Design
The proposed system is broken into small
independent subsystems called modules.
These modules are designed and coded
separately and are later combined with other
modules to provide complete functionality of
the proposed system. We will adopt a top-
down hierarchical model in which higher-
level modules will have larger scope and
lower-level modules will have smaller scope.
The design considerations for breaking in to
modules are:
Figure 5.3 DFDs of existing and proposed system
The size of the module as indicated by lines of code
should be small.
The modules must be sharable so as to avoid
duplication.
5.3.3 Analysis and Design Techniques and
Tools
The analysis part will involve converting
business model into data flow and control
flow. This is achieved through the use of
DFDs. Data dictionaries are essential to
describe the data and control flows. DFDs
are graphical representations of the
functional decomposition of the main
process involved. Process specifications and
specifying operations are helpful in
decomposing into cohesive submodules with
coupling between functions leading to
structured data. These subdivided systems
in turn retain constraints and specification
of originally designed system. SASD
technique attempts to solve the complex
problem by dividing large, complex
problems into smaller, more easily handled
ones. The technique can be called the “divide
and conquer method.” The approach
adopted can also be called the “top-down
approach.” The functional decomposition of
the structured method describes the process
without delineating system behaviour and
dictates system structure in the form of
required functions. The method identifies
inputs and outputs as related to the
activities. The result of structured analysis is
a set of related graphical diagrams, process
descriptions and data definitions. They
describe the transformations that need to
take place and the data required to meet a
system's functional requirements.
5.3.4 Context Diagrams
This diagram is like a block diagram,
showing the system as a whole with a set of
inputs and outputs and a transformation
system. The objective of a system context
diagram is to focus attention on external
factors and events that should be considered
in developing a complete set of system
requirements and constraints. We have
provided an example of context diagram
along with a case study in Figure 5.7.
Purpose
Highlights the boundary between the system and the
outside world
Highlights the people, organizations and outside
systems that interact with the system under
development
Special case of the data flow diagram
Context Diagram – Notation
Process – Represents the proposed
system Flow. Data in/out
Terminator – Represents the external
entities
5.3.5 Event List
The purpose of event list is to prepare a list
of external events/activities to which system
under design should respond. This is similar
to use cases of OOAD methodology. The
events can be classified as
Event triggered by incoming data
Internally generated event
External unpredictable event
The examples for event list are:
Student completes registration process
Customer pays credit card bill
5.3.6 Data Flow Diagrams
Data flow diagrams (DFDs) also called data
flow graphs are used in the analysis phase as
they are useful in understanding a system
and can be effectively used during analysis.
A DFD views function as data flows through
the system. DFDs highlight the data
transformation from input stage to output
stage through various processes.
Example 5.1: DFD for Issue of
Grade Card for Student
We will show the DFD for preparing
students’ grade sheet. We will call this
system as GradePrep system, as shown in
Figure 5.5. In GradePrep, inputs and outputs
are:
Figure 5.4 Symbols in DFD
Figure 5.5 DFD for issue of grade sheet to a student
Students personal data base which stores basic
information about student such as name, roll number,
marks obtained in subjects and attendance details.
Grade Rule database would store information about
criteria for calculating grades and Attendance Rule
database contains rules regarding mandatory
attendance required to declare the result, etc.
Students’ grade sheet is output.
5.3.7 Data Dictionary
A data dictionary or database dictionary
is a file that defines the database. A database
dictionary contains
List of all files and tables in the database.
The number of records in each file.
Names and types of each data field.
Data dictionary only maintains information
to manage data but holds no actual data.
Database management system cannot
function without data dictionary. We can
call it meta data about data but not actual
data. In the DFD shown above, we have used
terms like student database, attendance
rules, grade rule, etc. But what exactly is the
structure of data in these storage spaces.
Data dictionary defines data structure in
these storage spaces:
• Student Record = roll number + Name
+ course + Semester + marks1 + marks2 +
marks3 + marks 4 + marks 5 + Attendance
percentage
• Attendance rule: if (attendance >
75) eligible = 1 else eligible = 0
• Marks Sheet: roll number + Name +
course + Semester + marks1 + marks2 +
marks3 + marks 4 + marks 5 + Total Marks
+ Grade
• Roll Number: digit + digit + digit +
digit + digit (As many digits as there
are in roll number)
• Grade: String “A” or “B” or “C” or
“D,” etc.
5.3.8 Multilevel DFDs
The DFD and data dictionary for the DFD
are ready; we can expand the DFD into
second and subsequent levels to understand
the process involved better. For this study,
let us consider the library information
system (LIS) of a university or a college.
Student selects a book for issue based on
availability status checked online. The
library staff has to process the request for
issue, verify and validate the request, and
process the request. Finally, the student is
issued the book with issue authorization
note and his account modified accordingly.
Note that we have selected LIS for this case
study because you are familiar with the
workings of a library. We can easily replace
the model with any other model like
purchase–order system, etc. In Figure 5.6a,
b, c, we have shown how a DFD can be
expanded to gain insight into how an issue
section of a library works. First, incoming
issue requests are checked for correct book
titles, authors’ names and other information.
Student's entitlement is also checked at this
stage by checking the students’ database.
This process is elaborated at DFD level 2.
Finally, the process of issue is elaborated at
DFD level 3. We show the set of DFDs drawn
for issue section of LIS in Figure 5.6a, b, c.
Figure 5.6a First-level DFD for issue of a book
Figure 5.6b Second-level DFD – issue request verification
Figure 5.6c Issue request processing system
Example 5.2: Multilevel DFD for
Issue – Return System of Library
Information System
Level 1: General overall concept
diagram
Level 2: Expand the process of level 1. At
this level, we will check the request for issue
and verify if the student is entitled to draw
the book and further if the book can be
issued.
Level 3: Expanding issue request
processing system
5.3.9 Entity Relationship Diagram
Entity is like an object. It is a thing present
in the system under development. It is a
graphical representation of the data layout
of a system. It defines data elements and
their interrelationships in the system.
Entity Relationship Diagram — Notation
Let us study the ERD for the credit card
system of a bank. The entities in this system
are payments, bills, transactions, accounts,
transaction elements. Relationships are:
User pays for a transaction using card
Accounts section hold card information
Accounts generate bills
Bills contain transactions
Accounts receive payments
5.3.10 Process Specifications
Shows process details, which are not shown
in a DFD. Input, output and algorithm of a
module in the DFD are included in process
specifications. Observe at each operation
and define the transformation of inputs to
outputs in the system functional model and
the functional model. We desire to define
the transformation in terms of computation,
algorithms and formulas. Specifying
operations is like specifying the attributes.
Constraints will help the designer to develop
the system as per specifications by ensuring
one-to-one mapping of functionality, i.e.
operations. Specifying operations is usually
carried out in graphical modelling so that
they define underlying constraints with
precision. The net result is better designed
systems. So when we intend to specify the
operation, what are the areas we need to
specify? They are:
Figure 5.8 System view – inputs – system – output
1. Internal behaviour: This can be specified both by
algorithmic and non-algorithmic methods. The non-
algorithmic approach refers to using decision tables and
setting up of pre- and post-operation values. A
transformation could be described as follows:
1. A table showing the mapping from one object value to another
2. A formula or equations showing the relationship between an input
object value and an output object value
3. A text description of the transformation
2. Interface with external entities: Interfaces specify
the inputs to the system. Specifications can be used as a
means to check if functionality is meeting the
requirements. In Figure 4.21, we presented the
functional model as a system view with inputs, outputs
and system transformations.
Operations can be classified as system operations and
functional operations. System operations are those that
affect the whole system. For example, withdrawal of
cash from ATM would affect the entire system.
Functional operations are local in nature and affect the
attributes called by that particular module.
3. Procedure for Specifying the System Operations
and Function Operations.
1. Identify all system/function operations
2. For each system operation, state the system operation name, input
objects (parameters), transformation and output objects (return
values). In addition, state the system operation preconditions,
post-conditions and exceptions.
3. Prepare a system/function operation table, as shown below:
5.3.11 Specifying Constraints
Functional model can best be described by a
graphical representation. Graphical
representation is nothing but functional
decomposition described in earlier sections,
wherein two distinct paths, namely, control
path and data path, flow from top to bottom
covering all decomposed modules.
Therefore, all functionality constraints
applied at the topmost level must also be
applied to decomposed lower levels. For
example, if reliability is a constraint of the
topmost module, then it must also
necessarily be a constraint in succeeding
modules. Constraints and their implications
are discussed next.
Performance: Performance criteria are defined at the
topmost layers. Performance dictates the operations.
Operations, in turn, decide the functionality of the
module. So when a top module is decomposed, care
must be taken to ensure that operations at each
submodule are as per specifications.
Reliability: In software, reliability of function modules
depend on the way the reliability aspect is distributed
among the subdivided function modules and the way
user interacts with these modules. There should be
match between user operational profile and functional
profile.
Security: Security issues crop up because the user at
operational level is able to exploit some functionality
that is not part of the original top-level specification.
This loophole might have been created
inadvertently at lower functional level. The
criteria to be considered to plug these
loopholes are described below:
Access Control: Subdivision of functionality must
ensure that only certain classes or users are able to
initiate and use the functionality with authorization
codes.
Integrity of Data: The data is primacy and no
unauthorized access can be allowed at submodules. A
suitable encryption technique can solve these problems.
Control of User Behaviour: Normal behaviour of a
user of a function module must be specified and any
deviations form this normal and designed process must
be recognized by the module and further exploitation of
function module must be denied.
Availability: We are aware that user operations are
distributed over submodules and users must be
guaranteed that they will be able to operate these
modules with reliability and with intended specifications
at all times. We call this aspect availability of function
modules. Availability means that we must be able to
monitor the working of functionality as per
specifications and it should be measurable.
Maintainability: The success of designed systems
depends on the ability of modules to offer operations as
per specifications. This means the mapping between
functionality and operations must be verifiable and
assured. We term this aspect as maintainability of the
system.
Vital or Non-vital Functionality: It is advisable to
divide the functionality to vital or otherwise and
concentrate on vital functionalities so that operations
and functionality can be mapped and specifications can
be ensured.
Compatible with hardware and other functional
module: Decomposition of modules must ensure that
operation at each level is compatible with hardware
specifications and other function modules.
5.4 Case Study on Structured Analysis and
Design
5.4.1 Example of Statement of Purpose
The purpose of the student smart card
system (SSCS) is to provide a means for the
college administration to extend all due
facilities to students. The system will handle
details of fees paid, details of loan
applications, issue of library books and
payment of fines if any, attendance
recording and management reporting.
Information about transactions should be
available to the corporate accounting system
and also to the academic administration of
the college.
Figure 5.9 Context diagram for student smart card system
5.4.2 Context Diagram
Context diagrams depict the boundary
between the system and the outside world,
and highlights the people, organizations,
and outside systems that interact with the
system under development. The context
diagram is presented in Figure 5.7.
5.4.3 Event List
Student applies for a smart card
SSCS informs student his dues
Student pays his dues
Student makes a transaction with coop stores
Student is offered a loan
Student has been given a credit
5.4.4 Data Flow Diagrams
Student requests for registration. The SSCS
system checks status of tuition fees paid
from accounts section and also obtains
students’ records from students’ database
and processes the request. If found eligible,
the system issues authorization for
registration process.
Figure 5.10a DFD for registration process – SSCS system
Figure 5.10b DFD for registration request verification
Figure 5.10c Issue request processing system
5.4.5 Data Dictionary
Data dictionary only maintains information
to manage data but holds no actual data.
Database management system cannot
function without data dictionary. We can
call it meta data about data but not actual
data. In the DFD shown above, we have used
terms like student database, promotion
rules, account database, etc. But what
exactly is the structure of data in these
storage spaces. Data dictionary defines data
structure in these storage spaces:
Student Record = roll number + Name +
course + Semester + No of Back lag
papers weightage
Promotion rule: if (backlog paper
weightage < 25) eligible = 1 else
eligible = 0
Reg. Authorization Sheet: roll number
+ Name + Semester + courses registered
Roll Number: digit + digit + digit +
digit + digit (As many digits as there
are in roll number)
Student Smart Card: Card Number =
Uniquely identifies a card
Format = digit + digit + digit +
digit + digit + Hyphen + alphabet
Range = 50595 0000 0000 0000 to 50595
9999 9999 9999
Figure 5.11 ERD diagram for smart card payment system
5.4.6 Entity Relationship Diagrams
Entities in the SSCS for transactions and
payments by a student are: payments, bills,
transactions and accounts. Relationships
are:
Student pays for a transaction using smart card
Accounts section hold smart card information
Accounts generate bills
Bills contain transactions
Accounts receive payments
5.4.7 Process Specifications – SSCS
For payments, entity process specifications are:
Read account
Read amount
Add amount to account's credit
Add amount to account's balance
Update payment as applied
We leave writing specifications for balance
entities for transactions, card, accounts, etc.
as an exercise for the reader.
5.4.8 Structured Analysis and Design –
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
It has clearly distinguishable phases, hence amenable to
project management.
DFDs, ERDs, etc., are easy to understand graphical
tools.
Widely used in industry and mature technique.
Function/process oriented. It follows natural thinking
process.
Modular and hence flexible.
Disadvantages
Only functional requirements are met. Ignores non-
functional requirements.
User–analyst interactions cannot be automated. It is
manual and non-iterative.
Communications with user after requirement analysis is
non-existent.
Hard to decide when to stop decomposing.
Where to use structure analysis and
design
SASD is best suited for very well-known and standard
domains.
Areas where SRS is specified.
In transaction processing systems.
When good amount of development time is available.
5.5 Object-oriented Software Analysis and
Design (OOAD)
OOAD as it is popularly called is structural
analysis and design and certain object-
oriented features built over it. Accordingly,
we start with user specifications and add the
following object-oriented features:
List of objects drawn out of grammatical parsing of
narrative statement. Data content of nouns or entities
from DFDs are of interest to us.
List the system behaviour from verbs.
Service provided by the object to other objects.
Expand the objects and the relationships with other
objects.
5.5.1 Different Models for Object Analysis
In OOAD methodology, interaction with
user is very heavy. It does not end with
drawl of specifications and user signs off the
document. OOAD methodologies depend on
various methodologies propounded by
Rumbaugh, Grady Booch, Coad–Yourdon
and Shlaer–Mellor. We will review these
systems in the next section. The
requirements keep changing during the
development period of a complex project
and there is a requirement to effect these
changes and many a times this aspect causes
design changes from step 1. OOAD works
with the assumption that specifications will
change and hence follows an iterative
development pattern. Each iterative step
either adds a new step or modifies the
existing step.
5.5.1.1 The Rumbaugh Method
Rumbaugh is associated with the
development of OOAD methodology that has
a well-defined analysis as well as a design
model. The analysis wing of the Rumbaugh
model deals with object modelling technique
(OMT). It further includes a model to study
the dynamic behaviour of the system under
development. The Rumbaugh model also
includes functional modelling. Rumbaugh's
model is similar to the SASD techniques
discussed so far, with the additions for the
object model, including definitions of classes
along with their member data and functions
and their interactions with other classes.
Dynamic modelling includes state transition
diagrams that show how an object changes
from one state to another as an event occurs.
Functional specifications are taken care by
DFDs.
5.5.1.2 The Booch Method
Booch's methodology includes requirement
analysis phase that is similar to the SASD
practice. In addition, Booch's methodology
includes domain analysis phase as part of
the analysis phase. Booch's methodology
enjoys strong design techniques and is
divided into four parts:
Part 1: Logical structure design where the class
hierarchies are defined
Part 2: Physical structure describing objects methods
Part 3: Dynamic modelling showing state transitions
and analysis of object transitions
Part 4: Functional specifications
5.5.1.3 The Coad–Yourdon Method
Analysis phase is called SOSAS, meaning
five steps in analysis and design phases:
S stands for subject. It means DFDs.
O for objects. Identify objects and class hierarchies.
S for structure. It is divided into inheritance structures
and composition structures. The classification is based
on which of the two methods of extending the class, i.e.
inheritance or composition is used in design.
Attributes.
Services offered by this class to others.
Design phase: It consists of four parts:
Problem domain. Contains classes that belong to the
problem domain.
Human–computer interaction.
Function management. Systemwide classes responsible
for functions and management are identified.
Data management: attributes of the system.
5.5.1.4 The Shlaer–Mellor Method
The model has three parts in system analysis
and design:
Information model comprises objects, member data, its
relations with other objects.
State model comprises different states of the objects and
changes that can occur as objects do a transition.
Process model takes care of functional specification.
In our book, we follow the best of all
methodologies suggested above.
The first activity to be performed in
OOAD is requirement gathering. A series of
meetings with users gives us a narrative of
the problem involved. Users based on the
experience gained in operation of a manual
system of shortcomings in an existing
system would have prepared problem
statements or using the tools available may
have use cases. Object-oriented classes
support the object-oriented principles of
abstraction, encapsulation, polymorphism
and reusability. Classes are
specifications for objects. Derived from
the use cases or problem statement or
narrative, classes provide an abstraction of
the requirements and provide the internal
view of the application. The steps we would
follow in OOAD are as follows.
5.5.2 Identifying Classes
Identifying classes can be challenging.
Poorly chosen classes can complicate the
applications logical structure, reduce
reusability and hinder maintenance.
Once narrative is available, we do a grammatical parsing
to identify nouns, verbs, etc. Make an initial list of
nouns. We call this list as candidate classes.
Candidate Classes: Initial set of classes from which
the actual set will emerge. Candidate classes can be
identified by several methods. Two of the methods are
shown below:
Grammatical parsing of narrative or use cases or problem
description: Identify the nouns and noun phrases, verbs and
adjectives.
Class responsibility collaboration (CRC) cards. These are a
collection of cards, wherein class name, its responsibilities
(functionality) and collaborations (service to other classes) are
listed.
Analyse the candidate classes. Look for collaborating
classes. How does one class relate to another class? If it
is collaborating, then retain the class else discard it.
Follow the principle of selection of final classes
suggested by Coad and Youdron to select a final list of
classes. We call this set as design classes.
1. Does the class have retained information?
2. Is the service provided by the class needed by other classes?
3. Does the class have multiple attributes?
4. Does the class have common attributes that are useful to others?
5. Does the class have common operations that are useful to others?
6. Does the class come under essential category and is required by
other classes?
5.5.3 Identifying Attributes
Attributes define the characteristics of the
class. When looking for attributes in the
design model, look for these types:
1. Look for descriptive attributes.
2. What characteristics distinguish this class from other
classes?
3. Names are used to uniquely identify the objects. What
characteristics uniquely identify this object?
4. How is a particular object linked to other objects?
5.5.4 Specifying Operations
For specifying the class operations, identify
the operations each class performs. This list
stems from the responsibility of the class.
Operations specify the behaviour of the
class. The operations can be classified as
Modifier operations. These operations modify the
attributes.
Checks status of operations through checking a few
attributes’ values.
Transformation operation runs an algorithm or formula.
Operation to check occurrence of an event.
Once operations and attributes are decided,
we can finalize the definition of class. Let us
use the college administration system for
demonstration of OOAD principles. The
design classes identified from the narrative
are: professor, student, course, etc.
5.5.5 Work Out Associations
Associations are the key to identifying
cohesive classes. Classes are associated with,
or related to, other classes. Relations
between classes occur when a class has some
service to offer to other classes or uses
services offered by other classes. A
relationship is an association between
classes.
How to identify the relationships?
Start with a core class that interacts with many other
classes.
Ask questions like: Who is interested in this class? Why
is this class required?
Who uses services provided by this class?
5.5.5.1 Start with Main Associations
In our case, we will start with professor and
student. Association, as we have learnt
earlier, is a solid line that connects two
classes.
Figure 5.12a Professor is associated with student
5.5.5.2 Many a Times Naming the Association Clarifies the
Relationship
Figure 5.12b Naming the association
5.5.5.3 Highlight the Roles of the Classes in the
Association
Giving a role is optional. But when given, it
must a noun for a class. For example, we
give a role of teacher to a professor and
learner to a student.
Figure 5.12c Roles in an association
5.5.5.4 Introduce Multiplicity Factor
A role can have multiplicity relationship.
Multiplicity indicators can be conditional or
unconditional. For example:
Figure 5.12d A professor can teach 0 to many students
Figure 5.12e A student can teach 0 to 1 student
Figure 5.12f A professor can have 0 to many students. But a
student must have at least one professor
5.5.5.5 Association Class
Association classes are required to be
created, when there is a set of data that does
not belong strictly to any one of the
participating classes. For example, if there
are two classes like student and course, then
to which class do grade and attendance
belong? There are several different grades
gained by student and different attendance
scoresone for each course. Where do we
store this kind of data? Where to place the
GRADE? If we place it in student, the
student will get the same grade for all
courses. On the other hand, if we place the
grade in course file, then all students taking
the same course will get the same grade.
Figure 5.13a A student can undertake 0 to many courses
The solution is creating an Association class.
An Association class will have its own
attributes and methods, pointers and
references to both of the participating
classes.
Figure 5.13b An association class
5.5.5.6 Composition
A class can contain other classes. For
example, Student class can contain Date
class. This can be viewed as whole–part
relation. The life cycle of part is dependent
on the life cycle of whole. It also means that
when the whole is deleted, the part also gets
deleted. To decide about composition, the
questions that are to be asked are:
Is this class part of some other class?
Is this class destroyed when some other class gets
destroyed?
5.5.5.7 Aggregation
Here, the part is not destroyed when the
whole is destroyed. This is equivalent of a
“has” type of relation. For example, a
computer has a microprocessor. When the
computer is destroyed, the microprocessor
may not be destroyed. Another example of
aggregation is: an automobile has an engine,
wheels, etc. The critical question to be asked
is: Is this class part of another class and is it
independent of the other class?
5.5.5.8 Generalization/Specialization
The generalization and specialization stems
from inheritance relationship. Base class can
be considered as a generalized class whereas
a class extended from the base class is a
specialized derived class. This association is
commonly referred to as inheritance because
the derived classes inherit the functionality
of their base classes to provide specialized
behaviour. Inheritance provides the
mechanism for new classes to be formed
from the attributes and behaviour of existing
classes. This is a “is” kind of relationship.
The key question to be asked to identify
inheritance relationships are: Is this class a
specialization of a more general class?
5.5.5.9 Interface
An interface provides a common
specification for behaviour, but, unlike an
inherited class, an interface cannot be
created or instantiated. An interface simply
specifies common behaviour that other
classes inherit. This means that interface has
only method names and no
implementations. Implementation is left to
inherited classes from the interface which
implement these methods differently. This
means that unrelated classes can provide
independent implementations. This is
termed as run-time polymorphism.
5.6 OOAD: A Case Study
The first activity to be performed is
requirement gathering. A series of meetings
with users gives us a narrative of the
problem involved. We are here to solve by
designing an automated grievance redressal
mechanism for a college. We would call this
system as GRC System (GRCSYS). Once
the narrative is available, we do a
grammatical parsing to identify nouns,
verbs, etc. We have shown nouns and verbs
in the narrative below. Nouns, we have
shown in bold and underlined while verbs
are in italics and bold.
Grievance Redressal Committee (GRC) of
a university, headed by Chairman Grievance
Redressal Committee (CGRC) inquires into
grievance of students regarding girl-related
matters, ragging, academic matters, and
campus infrastructure-related aspects, and
hostel and mess. A Student can log on to
GRC System (GRCSYS) web site available
both on College Intranet and
InternerWebsite (GRCSITE) and report the
grievance, indicating grievance details
(GRCDET) such as roll Number, class,
course, type of grievance (TGRC), and date
of occurrence (DOC) of grievance. They are
allocated a token number (TNO) of the
grievance. For operating web account, each
student is provided with a password.
When a complaint is received on the web,
CGRC calls for GRC. GRC in turn looks into
the grievance and in consultation with
concerned faculty and or Department
organizes events such as organizing extra
coaching or special training, taking action
on defaulting students and other necessary
actions.
Action initiated report (AIR) and action
taken report (ATR) are initiated and
informed to Student via web site. A suitable
interface is provided for displaying on the
web site to Students and Parents to get the
reports of AIR and ATR, called AirReport
and AtrReport with in a minimum time
prescribed (TimePeriod).
Develop object-oriented analysis model
for the above narration.
Step 1: Identifying Object-oriented
Candidate Classes
Parsing of narrative presented above, we can
identify the following Candidate classes:
Grievance Redressal Committee System
(GRC) (GRCSYS)
CollegeIntranet GRCSITE
Chairman Grievance Redressal Student
Committee (CGRC)
Grievance Class
Course DOC
GRCDET password.
TGRC AIR
Token Number (TNO) time period
(PERIOD)
Faculty Department
Event AIR
ATR
Once the list is made, analyse the candidate
classes. Look for collaborating classes. How
does one class relate to another class? If it is
collaborating then retain the class else
discard it. Coad and Yourdon in their study
suggested the following criteria to convert
candidate classes into design classes:
1. Does the class have retained information?
2. Is the service provided by the class needed by other
classes?
3. Does the class have multiple attributes?
4. Does the class have common attributes that are useful to
others?
5. Does the class have common operations that are useful
to others?
6. Does the class come under essential category and is
required by other classes?
Step 2: Let Us Apply the Above
Criteria to Our Candidate Classes
System (GRCSYS) : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
CollegeIntranet : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
Grievance Redressal : Reject: Rules 1 and
Committee (GRC) 2 not applicable
Chairman Grievance : Reject: Rules 1 and
Redressal Committee 2 not applicable
(CGRC)
GRCSITE : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
Student : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
Grievance : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
Class : Reject: Rules 1 and
2 not applicable
Course : Reject: Rules 1 and
2 not applicable
DOC : Reject: Rule 3.
Single attribute
GRCDET : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
password : Reject: Rule 3.
Single attribute
TGRC : Reject: Rule 3.
Single attribute
AIR : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
ATR : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
Token Number (TNO) : Reject: Rule 3.
Single attribute
time period (PERIOD) : Reject: Rule 3.
Single attribute
Faculty : Reject: Rules 1 and
2 not applicable
Department : Reject: Rules 1 and
2 not applicable
Event : Accept: Rules 1 to 6
apply
Step 3: Make a List of Design
Classes
System (GRCSYS) CollegeIntranet
GRCSITE Student
Grievance GRCDET
AIR AIR
Event
Let us consider System (GRCSYS) to
work out further OOAD processes. We leave
specifying operations and attributes as an
exercise to readers.
Step 4: Specify Attributes
For specifying the class attributes
1. Look for descriptive attributes.
2. What characteristics distinguish this class from other
classes?
3. Names are used to uniquely identify the objects. What
characteristics uniquely identify this object?
4. How is a particular object linked to other objects?
roll Number, class, course, type of
grievance (TGRC), date of occurrence
(DOC) of grievance. token number (TNO),
password, AirReport and AtrReport
From the above list identify the
attributes that belong to System
(GRCSYS)
roll Number, class, type of grievance
(TGRC), token number (TNO), password,
AirReport and AtrReport
Step 5: Specify Operations
For specifying the class operations, identify
the operations each class performs. This list
stems from the responsibility of the class.
Operations specify the behaviour of the
class. The operations can be classified as
Modifier operations – These operations modify the
attributes.
Checks status of operations through checking a few
attributes value.
Transformation operation runs an algorithm or formula.
Operation to check occurrence of an event.
ToInquire() ToLogOn() Toreport()
ToAllocate() ToOperate() ToProvide()
ToCallGRC() ToOrganize() ToConsult()
ToInitiate() ToInform() ToDisplay()
From the above list we can identify the
operations of System (GRCSYS):
ToInquire() ToAllocate()
ToProvide() ToCallGRC()
ToCallGRC() ToOrganize()
ToConsult() ToInitiate()
ToInform() ToDisplay()
Now we can complete the class diagram for
System (GRCSYS) class
5.7 Design for Reuse
Designing software project using OOAD
principles is a complex process and design
OOAD project with reusability features is
even more difficult. But because of the
enhancement of productivity, we need to use
reusability features. The reusability features
concentrates on two major aspects:
Reusability of code: This is a built-in language
feature and uses extendibility features of object-oriented
language features such as composition, aggregation,
inheritance, interface, etc.
Reusability of design: This aspect concentrates on
building software domain architecture as a framework
for reuse activities. It is much more than mere code
reuse. It is a domain engineering practice.
The idea behind reusability plank is not to
try to derive and design from the first
principles. Rather use the tried and tested
classes that have gone through refinements.
These classes form a “design pattern.”
So what is a design pattern? First of all, the
problem should have occurred repeatedly
and there should be a recognizable pattern,
so that under similar situations, the design
pattern could be made use of for elegant
solutions. In other words, design pattern
allows us to choose from design alternatives
and make the system reusable. Design
patterns have the following characteristics.
Pattern Name: Identifies the design pattern for reuse.
Pattern name describes a design problem, its solutions,
its consequences a word or two.
Problem: Describes the problem and when to apply a
particular design pattern. For example, problem
describes specific design problems of representing
algorithm as object, etc. The problem may include
conditions that must be met before we apply the design
pattern.
Solution: Elements of design, their relationships,
responsibilities and collaborations. Solution cannot be
an exact solution since design pattern is like a template
which has to be fitted for a particular problem. The
design pattern provides an abstract description of a
design problem and arrangement of classes and objects
to solve the problem.
Consequences: There are consequences of applying a
design pattern to a problem. Listing of these
consequences help a designer to choose from the
alternatives.
How can design pattern help a designer?
To identify less obvious objects such as a process or an
algorithm.
To decide what should be an object – in other words,
object granularity.
To specify object interfaces.
To specify object implementations.
Principles of Reusable Object-
oriented Design
Inheritance extends a class functionality and one can get
a new class merely by extending an existing class.
Due to polymorphic property, all derived classes share
the same interface. The users of interface are governed
only by interface and are generally unaware of
implementation by derived class. This a great feature of
reuse. We can program to an interface rather to an
implementation.
Inheritance by extending functionality can be seen as
breaking encapsulation whereas composition has well-
defined interfaces for the objects being composed and
hence implementation is hidden because of interface.
Hence composition is a better reusability feature than an
inheritance.
Generic programming using templates is a third method
for reusability feature, in addition to inheritance and
composition. Parameterized templates allow us to define
a type without specifying all other types. The type can
then be passed at run-time as an argument. For
example, we can pass “integer” as a type to list
parameterized type.
5.8 Comparison of SASD and OOAD
Methodologies
Step-by-step stagewise development and
documentation.
Both techniques use graphical design and graphical tools
such as CASE and UML to analyse and model the
requirements.
Differences
SASD is process-oriented.
OOAD is data-oriented.
OOAD encapsulates Data and Process.
Heavy reliance of OOAD on reusable components.
In SASD, the user requirements are collected and
specifications are drawn based on requirements, and
users are then asked to sign off on the specifications.
In OOAD, the requirements and specifications are
matched repeatedly over the entire development period
and users are involved at each stage.
5.9 Summary
1. There are four phases in project management, namely:
inception, elaboration, construction and delivery.
2. Waterfall model of software development life cycle
closely follows structural analysis and design
methodology and is widely used in industry.
3. Structured analysis and design (SASD) methodology is
used to convert business model into specifications that
can be used to develop computer-based programs.
4. SASD technique attempts to solve the complex problem
by dividing large, complex problems into smaller, more
easily handled ones. The technique can be called the
divide and conquer method. The approach adopted can
also be called the top-down approach.
5. SASD comprises data modelling and functional
modelling. Data flow and control are depicted using
DFDs.
6. The main elements of SASD are: (1) statement of
purpose, (2) context diagram, (3) event list, (4) DFDs,
(5) data dictionary, (6) entity relation diagrams, etc.
7. Context diagram of SASD is a set of inputs and outputs
and a transformation system.
8. The purpose of event list is to prepare a list of external
events/activities to which system under design should
respond.
9. Data flow diagrams (DFDs), also called data flow graphs,
are used in the analysis phase. A DFD views function as
data flows through the system. DFD highlights the data
transformation from input stage to output stage through
various processes.
10. A data dictionary or database dictionary is a file that
defines the database. Data dictionary only maintains
information to manage data but holds no actual data.
We can call it meta data about data but not actual data.
11. Entity relationship diagram (ERD) is a graphical
representation of the data layout of a system at a high
level of abstraction. It defines data elements and their
inter-relationships in the system.
12. Process specifications show process details, which are
not shown in a DFD. Input, output and algorithm of a
module in the DFD are included in process
specifications.
13. Functional Decomposition: In order to be effective, we
need to specify constraints and operations so that
original specifications and requirements are not
compromised because of functional decomposition.
14. Object-oriented classes support the object-oriented
principles of abstraction, encapsulation, polymorphism
and reusability. Classes are specifications for objects.
15. Classes arederived from the use cases or problem
statement or narrative; classes provide an abstraction of
the requirements and provide an internal view of the
application.
16. The stages in OOAD are: (1) identifying classes, (2)
identifying attributes, (3) specifying operations and (4)
work out associations and relationships.
17. A relationship is an association between classes.
Relations between classes occur when a class has some
service to offer to other classes or uses services offered
by other classes.
18. Association classes are required to be created, when
there is a set of data that does not belong strictly to any
one of the participating classes.
19. In composition, a class can contain other classes. For
example, Student class can contain Date class. This can
be viewed as a whole–part relation. It also means that
when the whole is deleted, the part also gets deleted.
20. In aggregation, the part is not destroyed when the whole
is destroyed. This is equivalent of a “has” type of
relation.
21. The generalization and specialization stems from
inheritance relationship. Base class can be considered as
a generalized class whereas a class extended from the
base class is a specialized derived class.
22. An interface provides a common specification for
behaviour, but, unlike an inherited class, an interface
cannot be created or instantiated. An interface simply
specifies common behaviour that other classes inherit.
23. Reusability revolves about reusability of code and
reusability afforded through the use of design pattern.
24. A design pattern is a pattern formed when a problem
occurs repeatedly and there is a recognizable pattern, so
that under similar situations, the design pattern could
be made use of for elegant solutions. In other words,
design pattern allows us to choose from design
alternatives and make the system reusable.
25. Inheritance, composition and parameterized templates
are the tools provided by objectoriented languages to
ensure reusability features.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Specifications are deliverables for
1. feasibility study
2. analysis phase
3. design phase
4. problem definition.
2. Which of the following statements are NOT true in case
of the waterfall model?
1. Resources can be committed incrementally and not all at once.
2. Stagewise documentation is available.
3. It follows SASD design methodology.
4. It is an incremental model.
3. Which of the following statements are true?
1. OOAD is process oriented
2. SASD is process oriented
3. OOAD encapsulates data and process
4. SASD models requirements
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
4. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to SASD?
1. Developed in the late 1970s by DeMarco, Yourdon and Constantine
2. SASD is process oriented
3. SASD models requirements
4. SASD takes care of both functional and non-functional
requirements
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
5. Scope of the project is defined by
1. Statement of purpose
2. Context diagram
3. Narrative
4. Event list
6. Which of the following is false with respect to context
diagram?
1. Context diagram defines the purpose of the project.
2. Interaction of external elements with system under development.
3. Shows inputs, outputs and transformation functions.
4. Context diagram and data flow diagram are one and the same.
1. i and iv
2. i and iii
3. i, ii and iii
4. None
7. Which of the following are true?
1. DFDs are functional decomposition of the main process.
2. DFDs are graphical representations of the decomposition process.
3. DFDs describe the data required to meet functional specifications.
4. DFDs depict data flow but do not show control flow.
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
8. Which of the following are true?
1. DFDs are useful in the analysis phase.
2. DFDs are useful in the design phase.
3. DFDs describe functions as data flows.
4. DFDs describe data transformation.
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
9. Which of the following are false regarding data
dictionary?
1. Data dictionary is a list of files and databases.
2. Data dictionary holds actual data.
3. Defining data dictionary is optional.
4. Data dictionary describes data transformation.
1. i
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
10. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to ERDs?
1. ERD is a graphical representation.
2. ERD is a data layout and their inter-relations between data
elements.
3. ERD symbol. represents relationship.
4. symbol represents data element.
1. i
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
11. Which of the following statements are true regarding
OOAD?
1. Classes are specifications for objects.
2. CRC cards can be used to decide the classes in OOAD.
3. A relationship is an association between classes.
4. Association can both not have multiplicity of roles
1. i
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
12. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to OO language?
1. Association class is created when there is data that does not belong
strictly to a single class.
2. Composition depicts a whole–part relationship.
3. A composition depicts a “has” type of relationship.
4. In aggregation, part is destroyed when the whole is destroyed.
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iii
3. iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
13. Which of the statements are false with respect to
inheritance relationship?
1. Inheritance depicts a “has” type of relationship.
2. Inheritance depicts an “is” type of relationship.
3. Generalization refers to derived class in inheritance relationship.
4. Specialization refers to derived class in inheritance relationship.
1. i and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
14. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to reusability in OOAD?
1. Reusability uses design patterns.
2. Reusability means both reusability of code and reusability of
design.
3. Inheritance is better for reusability feature than composition.
4. Interface is a feature that helps greatly in achieving reusability.
1. i and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii, iii and iv
15. Which of the following features aid reusability features
of OO language?
1. Parameterized templates
2. Composition
3. Inheritance
4. Interface
1. i, ii and iii
2. i, ii and iv
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
Short-answer Questions
16. What are the stages in project management?
17. What are the main elements of SASD?
18. Explain the purpose of context diagram in SASD.
Explain the notations used in context diagram?
19. What is a data dictionary and why is it required?
20. What is statement of purpose? Is it a clear and concise
statement highlighting the purpose of the system?
21. What are the elements of SASD?
22. What are the elements of data dictionary?
23. What is ERD?
24. What are the symbols used in ERDs?
25. Why are specifying process and constraints important in
SASD?
26. Explain Composition, Aggregation and Association
class.
27. Explain the terms generalization, specialization,
interface and design pattern.
Long-answer Questions
28. Explain the waterfall model of the software development
life cycle. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
29. Explain functional decomposition in SASD. What is the
role of DFD in functional decomposition and analysis?
30. Explain the role and usefulness of ERDs in SASD.
31. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SASD?
32. When do you use SASD?
33. When do you use OOAD?
34. Distinguish between SASD and OOAD techniques.
35. What is an association in OOAD? Explain with
examples.
36. Distinguish between composition and aggregation.
37. Distinguish between inheritance and interface. What are
generalization and specialization? How are they related
to inheritance?
38. What are design patterns? Explain their contribution to
reusability features of a modern object-oriented
language like Java or C++.
39. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
SASD methodology? Explain the areas SASD
methodology is efficient.
Assignment Questions
40. Write a narrative for students admission process in a
professional college and do grammatical parsing to
identify classes and their associations.
41. Write a narrative for college academic administration of
a professional college. Include areas like departments
offering courses, students registering for a course,
professor handling courses, students’ performance in
the form of grades, etc. Draw class diagram, depicting
associations and relationships.
42. Write a narrative for book ordering system of a library.
Identify the objects using grammatical parsing
techniques.
43. Carry out object-oriented analysis and design for online
purchase of items from an Internet-based E-Shop.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. b
2. d
3. d
4. c
5. b
6. a
7. c
8. d
9. c
10. d
11. b
12. c
13. a
14. b
15. c
6
C++ Fundamentals and Basic
Programming
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to understand and put to use
Development of C++ and OOPS as applied to C++
language.
C++ programming environment and programming
structure.
Curtain raise programs in C++ using control loop,
arrays, structure and classes. These programs are
designed to give you a taste of things to come and
also to make you productive from day one.
Console IO operations and unformatted functions
used in input and output operations.
6.1 Introduction
In order to solve a problem, you need know
the “method/procedure” or have the
“know-how.” In computer parlance, this
can be called an algorithm. An algorithm or
program is a sequence of steps to be
followed, which, when followed, leads to a
desired output. The sequence of steps can be
called a procedure. A group of procedures
can be termed as a program.
For solving a complex problem, we need a
programming environment that includes
wellintegrated and cohesive programming
elements, constructs and data structures.
The structured programming paradigm with
C as implementing language, in which the
programmer breaks down the task to be
accomplished into smaller tasks and
specifies step-by-step procedures or
algorithms to achieve the task at hand, has
been very successful and popular.
Low productivity of programmers due to
factors such as changing user needs,
complexity of projects and non-availability
of extensibility and reuse features is the
main factor for projects not being completed
on time. Object-oriented programming
(OOP) promises extensive reusability
features through inheritance, library
functions in the form of standard template
library (STL), etc. C++ is one of the most
powerful OOP languages that supports both
structured as well as OOP paradigms.
6.2 History and Development of Object-
oriented Languages Like C++
With the advent of UNIX and
communication hardware and software from
1969 onwards, the complexity of both
hardware and software kept on increasing
and software project development could not
keep pace. As a result, the quality of
programs suffered. The developers at Bell
Laboratories and the Department of
Defense, US, started to look at alternative
paradigms wherein reusability and
extensibility were strong features. Further,
the specifications laid insisted on data
primacy rather than process primacy.
C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
in 1979 at Bell Laboratories. C++ is a sequel
to the C language, with additional
enhancement features, including virtual
functions, function name and operator
overloading, references, free space memory,
and several features on reusability and
extendibility through inheritance, templates,
etc. Exception handling and a welldeveloped
STL are two of the advanced features
available in C++.
6.3 Object-oriented Language Features
OOP style can be of two types, i.e. object-
based programming and object-oriented
programming. In OOP paradigm, object is
primacy. Object-oriented programming,
such as C++, uses objects and interactions
amongst them through invoking member
functions. Figure 6.1 shows object holding
data and member functions. The features
include data hiding, data abstraction,
encapsulation, inheritance and
polymorphism.
Figure 6.1 Data and methods in OOP paradigm
Salient Features of the OOP Paradigm
Data encapsulation
Data hiding
Operator overloading
Initialization and automatic clearing of objects after use
Dynamic binding
Extensive and well-defined standard template library
6.4 Welcome to C++ Language
We want to make you reasonably
comfortable with C++ language. The idea is
that you should be productive from day 1.
Get ready for an exciting tour of C++ in the
introductory chapter itself. We will
introduce C++ through simple programs
after highlighting a few essential features
you should know before you write your first
C++ program.
6.4.1 Setting Path
After installation of Turbo C++ or Micro Soft
Visual C++ or GNU C++ Compiler for Linux
platforms, the relevant files will normally get
loaded into C:\Program Files\TC or
C:\Program Files\ Microsoft
Visual Studio\VC98 unless otherwise
chosen by you. After downloading, the
directory will look as in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 Directory structure after installing TC or VC++
Let us say that we want to use folder called
“oopsc++” in D directory and within the
folder we have created a separate folder
called “c++chap1”. In this folder, we will
create all our source code files and also store
all object files and other related project files
created by VC++.
Therefore, the path for storing all class files
and source programs developed by us would
be
• D:\oopsc++\
We also need to link up bin and lib
directories of TC\VC++. Their paths would
be
• C:\Program Files\ Microsoft Visual
Studio\VC98 \bin // contains all company
//supplied programs
• C:\Program Files\ Microsoft Visual
Studio\VC98\include; // win32 & header
files
• C:\Program Files\ Microsoft Visual
Studio\VC98\lib // libraries
Or
• C:\Program Files\ TC\bin
• C:\Program Files\ TC\include;
C:\Program Files\ TC\lib
Example 6.1: How to Set Path for
Windows Platforms
Permanent setting of path variable:
• Go to settings->control panel-
>system -> advanced-> set environment
variable.
• Select path->edit : copy & paste
path -> ok
Example 6.2: How to Set Path for
Linux Platforms
Let us suppose that TC or VC++ has been
installed in directory /usr/local/
Linux :
For C shell (csh), edit the startup file
(~/.cshrc):
set path=(/usr/local/TC/bin )
For bash, edit the startup file
(~/.bashrc):
PATH=/usr/local/TC/bin:
export PATH
For ksh, the startup file is named by
the environment variable, ENV.
To set the path:
PATH=/usr/local/TC/bin:
export PATH
For sh, edit the profile file
(~/.profile):
PATH=/usr/local/TC/bin:
export PATH
6.4.2 C++ Program Structure
Any C++ program contains sections shown
in Figure 6.3. Global section, also called
external section, contains subsections which
are available and visible to all parts and
functions and sections of the program.
Preprocessor directives are instructions to
compilers to perform certain tasks before
actual compilation of source code takes
place.
Figure 6.3 Structure of a C++ program
Global/External Section: For example,
#include<stdio.h> statement gets the
file from include section of the library
created by compiler and attaches it with
your code, and then the source code is
compiled. Declarations of user-defined data
types such as class and structures are
included. Member functions and
macrofunctions are declared and defined in
this section. They are available to the entire
program.
Function main() is mainly used to
create required objects and variables and as
interface with the user. It is used to obtain
input data and displaying the final results.
Objects created interact with other objects
by invoking functions and passing
arguments and achieve the desired result.
6.4.3 C++ Development Environment
Before we execute our program there is a
need to understand the C++ development
environment. Refer to Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4 C++ development environment
Step 1: Edit
Edit the source program using any of the
editors notepad. For example, our program
will have a main class “HelloWorld”.
Hence, our Java program also to be named
as HelloWorld.cpp Move to directory
d:\oopsc++\c++chap1 and create the
required source file. Use any text editor like
notepad, vi editor, etc., and enter
your code and save it as HelloWorld.cpp.
d:\oopsc++\c++chap1> edit
HelloWorld.cpp
1. /* HelloWorld.cpp. This is our
first program to introduce you
2. to some basic io statements like
cin and cout & multi line comment*/
3. #include<iostream> //iostream, a
library file contains cin , cout
programs
4. using namespace std;
5. void main( ) // start of maim
programme
6. {
7. char name[20]; // name is a data
type of char of c++ length 20
8. cout<<”\n Please enter your name :
“; //cout is an object of iostream
9. cin>>name; // cin is an object of
iostream cout<<”\n Hello “<<name<<endl;
//\n means goto new line
10. cout<<”\n Welcome to Objective
Oriented Programming in C++”<<endl; //
endl means goto new line
11. cout<<”\n Best Wishes from
authors. Have a good day!”<<endl;
12. }// end of main
Lines No. 1 and 2: C++ provides two types of comment
statements. Comments are included to enhance the
readability of the program. C++ allows both single-line
comment statements and also multiline comment
statements.
Single-line comments: These comment lines start
with double slash : //
Ex ://Circle.cpp, a C++ cprogram to print
a line of text
Multiline comments: These comment lines are used
when comments extend beyond a single line. They start
with /* and end with */
Ex: /* Inheritance.cpp :The programme
introduces concepts of
Inheritance and other related reusability
features of C++ */
Global Declarations and Definitions.
All statements included before main()
function. All include sections, define
statements, function prototype declarations,
and structure definitions are global
declarations. Hence they are available to all
functions also.
L include<……> statements are preprocessor
i directives. iostream is included, so that
n all functionality provided by iostream, i.e. input
e and output stream like cin and cout are
N available to us. If you are using Turbo C++
o compiler you will use
. #include<iostream.h>.
3
:
L Using name space std; is a statement used to
i resolve conflicts arising due to the same names
n being used in different programs. Here we are
e instructing the compiler to use standard library
N supplied by compiler. For Turbo C++ users,
o using name space std; statement is not
. required.
4
:
L void main() is start of main function and
i program. Void is a data type that a function
n returns after executing the function. Observe
e that start of main is indicated by an opening
N brace bracket and closing brace at line no 12.
o
.
5
:
L Name has been declared as data type char of
i length 20. We can hold name in this field.
n
e
N
o
.
7
:
L Cin and cout are objects of iostream used to
i input and output data using iostream.. \n
n means printing starts in new line. What has
e been written with in “ “ is printed as it is on to
s output console. >> & << are extraction
N operators in iostream. They are used to stream
o data in and out with cin and cout, respectively .
. <<endl is a command directing compiler to go
8
to new line.
–
1
1
:
Step 2: Compile
We need to store all our compiled code in
d:\oopsc++\c++chap1. Therefore, from
the directory d:\oopsc++\c++chap1.
Compile the source file
Compile it using #gcc
HelloWorld.cpp Output using # a.out
for Linux based system
Run ----- Compile -----
Execute for Turbo C
If you are using vc++ platform, the job of
compilation and link load and run are fairly
simple. On the task bar choose: compile,
build and run buttons.
If you are using Linux environment:
1. Switch on the computer.
2. Select the Red hat Linux environment.
3. Right click on the desktop. Select ‘New Terminal’.
4. After getting the $ symbol, type ‘vi filename.cpp’ and
press Enter.
5. Press Esc+I to enter into Insert mode and then type
your program there.
The other modes are Append and Command modes.
6. After completion of entering program, press (Esc +
Shift + :). This is to save your program in the editor.
7. Then the cursor moves to the end of the page.
Type ‘wq’ and press Enter.
(wq=write and quit)
8. On $ prompt type, c++ filename.cpp and press Enter.
9. If there are any errors, go back to your program and
correct them.
Save and compile the program again after corrections.
10. If there are no errors, run the program by typing
./a.out and press Enter.
11. To come out of the terminal, at the dollar prompt, type
‘exit’ and press Enter.
/* Out put
Please enter your name: Ramesh
Hello Ramesh
Welcome to Objective Oriented Programming in C++
Best Wishes from authors. Have a good day! */
6.5 Further Sample Programs of C++
6.5.1 Execution of a Program in a Loop
The second problem is finding surface area
of a. We would like to compute the surface
area of a football that is spherical in shape,
given its radius, given by the formula 4 *
PI * r * r. In this section, we will use a
while loop to run the program. The code for
the above problem is given below:
Example 6.3: SurfaceArea.cpp. to
Compute Surface Area of a Football
//Example 6.3 SurfaceArea.cpp
Program to calculate surface area of a
ball
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. /* Declare function prototype that
will compute the surface area given the
radius of float (real number) data type
and returns area again of float data
type
4. float FindArea(float radius , const
double PI);
5. void main( )
6. { // You will need float (real
numbers) data types for holding radius
and area
7. float radius, area;
8. const double PI=3.1415926; // PI
value is constant and does not change
9. // Obtain radius from the user.
User can enter 0 to stop the programme*/
10. cout<<”\n Enter radius of the
ball. To stop enter 0 for the radius
\n”;
11. cout<<”\n Radius = ? “;
12. cin>>radius; // user enters value
for radius
13. /* We would like to compute
surface areas of different balls. So
user enters various radii. User can stop
by entering 0 for the radius. We will
use while statement.*/
14. while (radius != 0) // i.e. till
user does not enter 0
15. {
16. if (radius < 0) area = 0; // if
radius is negative area =0
17. else area = FindArea(radius,PI);
// calling out function. Radius & PI are
arguments // We store the result
returned by FindArea() at area.
18. // print out put
19. cout<<”\n Surface area of football
:”<<area<<endl; //
20. /* what is in quotes appears as it
is in the output. \n means leave a line
after print
21. We are inside while statement. We
have just completed printing of area.
22. What should we do next? Ask the
user for next problem i.e. next radius.
Ask it.*/
23. cout<<”\n Enter radius of the
ball. To stop enter 0 for the radius
\n”;
24. cout<<”\n Radius = ? “;
25. cin>>radius;
26. }// end of while
27. }// end of main
28. // function definition. Here we
will tell what FindArea function does
29. float FindArea (float radius,const
double PI)
30. { float answer; // we will store
the area
31. answer = 4* PI * radius * radius;
32. return answer;
33. } // end of function definition
/* OUTPUT : Enter radius of the
ball. To stop enter 0 for the radius
Radius = ? 2.0
Surface area of football :50.2655
Enter radius of the ball. To stop
enter 0 for the radius
Radius = ? 3.0
Surface area of football :113.097
Enter radius of the ball. To stop
enter 0 for the radius
Radius = ? 0
Press any key to continue*/
L Function Prototype like float FindArea
i (float radius,const double PI); tells
n the compiler that function definition is after
e main( ) but its usage will be in the main( ).
It is like advance information to the compiler to
N accept usage prior to definition. We could also
o define the above function as:
. float FindArea(float radius ,
4
const double PI)
:
{return 4*PI*radius*radius;}
We will be using this second and short form
for convenience throughout the book.
Function definition has been provided at Line
No 28.
L We have declared PI as constant and of data type
i double. Double means it is double precision data
n type.
e
N
o
.
8
:
6.5.2 Arrays Implementation
In this example, we will show the use of
arrays. Array is a data structure comprising
of contiguous memory location. It will store
the same data type in all locations. In
Example 6.5.1, we have taken in the radius
and immediately declared the result and
continued the process till user entered 0 to
exit. In this example, we will take all the
radii and heights of several sizes of cones
(ice cream?) together and store them in
memory location, compute corresponding
volumes of these cones and store them as
well and declare the results in the end. Array
comes to our rescue here. Array is used to
hold the same data type in contiguous
memory locations. We will define three
arrays named radius, height, and volume,
each with a dimension of 10 elements as
shown is Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 Arrays for radius heights and volume
In C++ language, it is customary to
number the cells of the array starting with 0.
Accordingly, radius[0] holds a value 2.0
and radius[9] holds a value of 11.0.
height[0] holds a value of 5.0 and
height[9] holds a value of 14.0. The
formula for volume of cone is
4*PI*radius*radius. We will store the
values of cones in an array called volume.
With this knowledge, let us attempt array
implementation of cones.
Example 6.4: volume.cpp. to
Compute Volumes of Ice Cream
Cones
/*Example 6.5.2 volume.cpp. a program to
compute volumes of cone using arrays. We
will store all the radii and heights and
compute the volume and store them in an
array called volume. When user terminates
the program by entering 0 for radius, we will
declare all the results.*/
1. #include<iostream> // for using
cin and cout from library.
2. using namespace std; // to resolve
naming conflicts. Use from standard
library.
3. // Declare Function Prototype
4. float FindVolume(float radius,
float height, const double PI);
5. void main( )
6. { int n, i =0; // i we will use as
array index, n for keeping count
7. const double PI=3.1415296;
8. float radius[50]; // Array of
radius, numbering max of 50
9. float height[50]; // Array of
heights, numbering max of 50
10. float volume[50]; // Array of
volume, numbering max of 50
11. cout<<”\n Enter radius & height of
a cone <To stop enter 0 for the radius>
“<<endl;
12. cout<<” Radius & Height : ? “;
13. cin>>radius[i]>>height[i]; //Store
at address of radius[i]& height[i]
14. while (radius[i] != 0)
15. { if (radius[i] < 0)
volume[i] = 0;
else
volume[i]=
FindVolume(radius[i],height[i],PI);//
result in array volume
16. // get the next set of data. we
have to increment i prior to getting
17. // new set of data else old data
will be overwritten and hence lost.
18. i++;
19. cout<<”\n Enter radius & height of
cone <To stop enter 0 for the
radius>”<<endl;
20. cout<<” Radius & Height : ? “;
21. cin>>radius[i]>>height[i];
22. }// end of while
23. n = -- i; // This is because you
have increased the count for i for
// radius = 0 case also.
We will use n in for loop.
24. // display array elements
25. cout<<”\n Volume of Ice cream
Cones\n”;
26. // You have n cones (i.e. 0 to n-1
as per C++ convention).
27. //Therefore print i <=n using a
for loop
28. for (i=0; i<= n; i++)
29. cout<<”
radius[“<<i<<”]=”<<radius[i]<<”
height[“<<i<<”] =”<<height[i]<<” :
volume[“<<i<<”]=”<<volume[i]<<endl;
30. }// end of main
31. // function definition
32. float FindVolume(float
radius,float height, const double PI )
33. {return (4*PI * radius *
radius*height);}
/*Output :Enter radius & height of
a cone <To stop enter 0 for the radius>
Radius & Height : ? 2.0 3.0
Enter radius & height of cone <To
stop enter 0 for the radius>
Radius & Height : ? 4.0 5.0
Enter radius & height of cone <To
stop enter 0 for the radius>
Radius & Height : ? 0 0
Volume of Ice cream Cones
radius[0]=2 height[0]=3 :
volume[0]=150.793
radius[1]=4 height[1]=5 :
volume[1]=1005.29*/
Li A function prototype takes radius, height and
n PI as input and returnsvolume.
e
N
o.
4:
Li Declare arrays of maximum length <=50.
n
e
N
o.
8
–
10
:
Li cin>>radius[i]>>height[i] ; inputs
n values for radius and height. Data values need
e to be separated by space while entering the
N data.
o.
13
:
Li for (i=0; i<= n; i++) It is a header
n statement of for loop. Initial condition is i=0;
e Final condition for loop to terminate is i<=
N n; The loop will be executed in Steps of 1.
o.
Hence i++)
2
8:
Li Displays Radius, height and volume. It is body
n of loop. Body of the loop is a single line.
e
N
o.
2
9:
Li Function definition to return volume.
n
e
N
o.
3
2:
6.5.3 Use of Structure to Implement Problem
While arrays store the same type of data in
contiguous locations, structure can be used
to store different types of data, bundled
together as an instance of structure. C++, in
addition to object-oriented features,
supports all features of C such as structures
and unions. These find extensive use in data
structures and other C-based software
implemented in C++ environment. We can
define structure in C++ language for records
shown in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6 Student record for three students
struct Student
{
char name[20];
int rollNo;
float totalmarks;
char grade;
};
students
// Stud typecasted to Student structure
typedef struct Student
Stud; We can refer to items inside the
structure using
std[i].name, std[i].rollNo,
std[i].totalMarks std[i].grade
We have used typedef statement so that
we can use Stud in lieu of lengthy struct
Student every time we refer to Student
structure. User enters name and total marks.
If total marks are more than 80% declare as
A grade, 60–79 % declare as B grade and
below 60% declare as C grade.
Example 6.5: StudStru.cpp. to
Compute Grades of Students Using
Structures
1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. // declare function prototypes
4. char FindGrade(float totalMarks);
5. // declare a structure
6. struct Student
7. {
8. char name[20];
9. int rollNo;
10. float totalMarks;
11. char grade;
12. };
13. // Stud typecasted to Student
structure
14. typedef struct Student Stud;
15. void main( )
16. { Stud std[3]; //maximum of 3
Students
17. int n, i=0; // i we will use as
structure index, n for keeping count
18. cout<<”\n Enter Roll Number <0 to
STOP> :”;
19. cin>>std[i].rollNo;
20. while ( std[i].rollNo!=0) //
variable declared in std are referred
with dot(.)
21. { cout<<”\n Enter name & roll
number & total Marks< 200 to 600”<<endl;
22.
cin>>std[i].name>>std[i].totalMarks;
23. std[i].grade=
FindGrade(std[i].totalMarks);
24. ++ i;
25. cout<<”\n Enter Roll Number <0 to
STOP> :”;
26. cin>>std[i].rollNo;
27. }// end of while
28. n = -- i; // because you have
increased the count for i for name =STOP
case also.
29. // display structure elements
30. cout<<”\n Students Grades\n”;
31. for(i=0;i<= n; i++)
32. { cout<<”\n name
:”<<std[i].name<<” “<<”Roll No
:”<<std[i].rollNo;
33. cout<<” Total
Marks”<<std[i].totalMarks<<” “
34. <<”Grade : “<<std[i].grade<<endl;
35. }// end of for loop
36. }// end of main
37. // function definition
38. char FindGrade(float totalMarks)
39. {char grade;
40. if ( totalMarks>=480)
41. grade=’A’;
42. else
43. if ( totalMarks>=360)
44. grade=’B’;
45. else
46. grade=’C’;
47. return grade;
48. } // end of function definition
/*Output : Enter Roll Number <0 to
STOP> :50595
Enter name & roll number & total
Marks<between 200 to 600
Ramesh 358
Enter Roll Number <0 to STOP>
:60695
Enter name & roll number & total
Marks<between 200 to 600
Gautam 540
Enter Roll Number <0 to STOP>
:75775
Enter name & roll number & total
Marks<between 200 to 600
Anand 540
Enter Roll Number <0 to STOP> :0
Students Grades
name :Ramesh Roll No :50595 Total
Marks358 Grade : C
name :Gautam Roll No :60695 Total
Marks540 Grade : A
name :Anand Roll No :75775 Total
Marks540 Grade : A */
Lin Structure declaration. Observe structure
es declaration ends with };
No.
6–
13:
Lin Type casting of Stud to structure. Hence we
e can use Stud instead of struct Stud as in
No. statement 16, which declares three instances
14: of structure stud.
Lin Variables of structure are always referred
e with dot(.) operator.
No.
19:
6.5.4 Class Implementation
In this section, we will introduce the
concepts of class and objects. What is an
object? An object is an entity that you can
feel. For example, pen, student and football
are all objects. Consider a class in which, let
us say, there are 60 students who are
interested in studying for C++ course. Then
we can group all 60 students into a class,
just like your college administration groups
all its B.Tech computer science students into
a class. In C++, we would declare a class. A
class will have member data and member
functions. We call this as attributes and
behaviour. Once a class is created, we will
create an instance of class called object.
Objects invoke functions and interact
amongst themselves to achieve the desired
result.
In Example 6.5, we will compute the total
and grade of a student. A class called
Student will have name and roll number,
subject marks, total and average as private
member data. As a policy of C++, all data is
declared as private. When you declare a data
as private, access is permitted only for
members of the class. We will access these
private data through public functions.
Example 6.6: stud1.cpp to
Compute Total and Average and
Display Result
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. //declare a class called Student
4. class Student
5. {
6. private:
7. int rollNo;
8. char name[30];
9. double marks[5];// set of five
subject marks
10. double tot;
11. double avg;
12.public:
13. void GetData(int n);
14. void ComputeAvg(int n);
15. void DispData(int n);
16.};
17.// Define member functions
18.void Student::GetData(int n)
19.{ cout<<“\n Enter Students Details
”<<endl;
20. cout<<“ Enter Roll No <space>
name : ”;
21. cin >>rollNo>>name;
22.cout<<“ Enter marks in ”<<n<<“
subjects separated by spaces :”;
23.for ( int i=0;i<n;i++)
24.cin>>marks[i];
25.}
26.void Student::DispData(int n)
27.{ cout<<rollNo<<“ ”<<name<<“ ”;
28.for ( int i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<marks[i]<<“ ”;
29.cout<<“ ”<<tot<<“ ”<<avg<<endl;
30.}
31.void Student::ComputeAvg(int n)
32.{ tot=0;
33.for ( int i=0;i<n;i++)
34.tot +=marks[i];
35.avg=tot/n;
36.}
37.void main()
38.{
39.Student std[60];//std object of
class Student with maximum of 60
students
40.int n; //no of student
41.// Get the number of students in
the class
42.cout<<“ Enter number of Students in
the class : ”;
43.cin>>n;
44.// get the data for n number of
students
45.for ( int i=0;i<n;i++)
46.std[i].GetData(n);
47.// Compute Average
48.for (i=0;i<n;i++)
49.std[i].ComputeAvg(n);
50.// Print the details of the student
51.cout<<“Roll No”<<“ Name”<<“
Marks”<<“ Total”<<“ Avg”<<endl;
52.for ( i=0;i<n;i++)
53.std[i].DispData(n);
54.}
/* Output :Enter number of Students
in the class : 2
Enter Students Details
Enter Roll No <space> name : 50595
Ramesh
Enter marks in 2 subjects separated
by spaces :87 89
Enter Students Details
Enter Roll No <space> name : 60695
Gautam
Enter marks in 2 subjects separated
by spaces :99 98
oll No Name Marks Total Avg
0595 Ramesh 87 89 176 88
0695 Gautam 99 98 197 98.5
*/
Li class declaration. Terminated by ;
ne
s
No
.
4–
16:
Li Member data is declared as private. Name is
ne an array of 20 characters and other variables
s are double data type.
No
.
6–
11:
Li In void Student::GetData(int n) the
ne symbol :: is called scope resolution operator.
No It tells the compiler to look beyond the
. controlling braces for the definition in class at
18 line no 13.
:
Li The member function is defined with scope
ne resolution operator
s
No
.
17
–
25
:
Li Student std[60];// declares 60 objects
ne identified by std[i] of class
No
.
39
:
Li std[i].GetData(n); Member functions
ne are always invoked by object using a dot
No operator
.
46
:
6.6 Console IO Operations
Console IO means get input from standard
input device, i.e. keyboard and output to
standard IO device, i.e. screen or monitor.
6.6.1 Console IO Functions – Commands
getchar() and putchar()
Can be used to input single character at a
time from keyboard. Consider the following
program, wherein we will read characters
into an array and output the array in
uppercase.
Example 6.7: getchar.cpp to
Demonstrate Usage of getchar() and
putchar()
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{ char city[80]; // declare an array
of 80 characters length
char c; // we will use it to store
the character input
int i=0,j=0; // i & j we will use
them as counters
while ( (c=getchar())!=’\n’) /*
read in line .’\n’ is an end of line
recognized when ‘enter’ is pressed*/
city[i++]=c;
//use i as counter once again.
j=i; // store the value in j. This
is because we will
i=0; //store it in city[i] and
then post increment i.
while ( i<j) // output the
character in uppercase
putchar(toupper(city[i++])); //
post increment i
} // end of main.
/* OUTPUT: : Hi Anand! Welcome to India
HI ANAND! WELCOME TO INDIA */
Observe that in using while loops we have
used brace brackets only for clarity. These
while loops have only one line in the body;
hence could have been written without brace
brackets as
while ( c!=’\n’)
city[i++]=c;
6.6.2 Console IO Functions – Commands
gets and puts
These commands are used to input and
output strings.
Example 6.8: getsputs.cpp to
Demonstrate Usage of gets() and
puts()
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<stdio.h> // for gets()
and puts
3. #include<string> // for finding
string length using strlen() function
4. using namespace std;
5. void main()
6. { int len;
7. char line[80]; // declare an array
of 80 characters length
8. cout<<”\nEnter any line: “;
9. gets(line); // read a line till
‘enter’(new line character is pressed )
10. len = strlen(line);
11. puts(line); // output a line
12. cout<<”\nLength of given string =
“<<len<<endl;
13. }
/*OutputEnter any line: Hello
World
Hello World
Length of given string = 11*/
L includes stdio.h for using gets() and puts()
i from stdio header file. These are imported from
n C language library. Note that C++ supports all
e features of C language.
N
o
.
2
:
L #include<string> gets all the functions for
i handling strings from a library called string.
n len = strlen(line); at ine No 10
e
N computes length of the string using string
o library.
.
3
:
6.6.3 Unformatted Stream IO Functions –
get(), put(), getline() and write()
Get() and put() are single character
input and output functions. They can be
used with iostream objects of cin and cout.
For example:
char ch ;
cin.get(ch); // fetches a single
character from keyboard and stores it in
ch.
cout.put(toupper(ch)); // converts ch to
upper case and displays on screen
cout.put(‘z’); // displays z on the
screen
In the next example, we will use get() and
put commands. The program will accept
lowercase sentence from the user one
character at a time till it encounters a full
stop. It will convert each input character
into uppercase and displays on the screen.
Example 6.9: getput.cpp to
Demonstrate Usage of get() and
put()
1. /* Example 6.10 getput.cpp to
demonstrate the working of get & put.*/
2. #include<iostream>
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. { int count=1;
6. char ch;
7. cout<<”\nEnter a character<. to
stop>”;
8. cin.get(ch);
9. while( ch!=’.’)
10. { cout.put(toupper(ch));
11. cin.get(ch);
12. count++;
13. }
14. --count; // This is because we
have added for (.) case also
15. cout<<”\n No of characters entered
= “<<count<<endl;
16. cout<<”\nEnd of Programme”<<endl;
17. }
/*Output :Enter a character<. to
stop>abcd. ABCD
No of characters entered = 4
End of Programme*/
Line toupper() function converts to
No. uppercase, tolower() converts string to
9: lowercase
Getline() and write() are line
oriented functions. Usage is shown below:
char text[80];
cin.getline(text,80);// will read white
spaces and \n character.
cout.write(text,80); // out puts the
line of text
It may be noted that cout>>text will not
print white spaces. Similarly cin>> text
will not read white spaces like tab, space,
etc.
Example 6.10: getlinewrite.cpp
to Demonstrate the Working of
getline & write & write.*/
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<string>
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. { int len1,len2;
6. char text[20], stg[20];
7. //char line[20];
8. cout<<”\nEnter a line of Text”;
9. cin.getline(text,20);
10. len1=strlen(text);
11. cout.write(text, len1);
12. // cout<<”\nNow input put usiing
cin>>”;
13. // cout<<”\nObserve that cin>> can
not read white spaces like space”<<endl;
14. // cin>>line;
15. // cout<<line;
16. cout<<”\noutput second string
using cin.getline()”<<endl;
17. cin.getline(stg,20);
18. len2=strlen(stg);
19.
cout.write(stg,len2).write(text,len1);
20. cout<<“\nEnd of Programme“<<endl;
21. }
/*Output: Enter a line of TextI
Love India!
I Love India!
output second string using
cin.getline()
I Love Delhi
I Love DelhiI Love India!
End of Programme*/
Lines show how to use getline() and
No. 9–11: write() commands with cin &
cout.
Lines are commented out. You can include
No. 7 the when you want to check the
and property of >> operator that it cannot
Lines read white space.
No. 12–
15:
Line No. concatenates stg and text.
19:
6.7 Summary
1. C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 at Bell
Laboratories.
2. These additional features include virtual functions,
function name and operator overloading, references,
free space memory and several features on reusability
and extendibility features through inheritance,
templates, etc.
3. Exception handling and a well-developed standard
template library are two of the advanced features
available in C++.
4. C++ allows both single-line comment statements as well
as multiline comment statements.
5. Using name space std; is a statement used to resolve
conflicts arising due to the same names used in different
programs.
6. >> & << are extraction operators in iostream. They are
used to stream data in and out with cin and cout,
respectively.
7. <<endl is a command directing compiler to go to a new
line.
8. Array is derived data type storing the same data type in
different contiguous locations in memory.
9. Structure can be used to store different types of data,
bundled together as an instance of structure.
10. A class will have member data and member functions.
We call this as attributes and behaviour. Once class is
created, we will create an instance of class called object.
11. Objects invoke functions and interact amongst
themselves to achieve the desired result.
12. Console IO means get input from standard input device,
i.e. keyboard and output to standard IO device, i.e.
screen or monitor.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following are true with respect to C++:
1. Data primacy
2. Process primacy
3. Objective based
4. Object oriented
1. i and iv
2. i, ii and iv
3. i, ii and iii
4. ii and iv
2. void main() returns
1. integer
2. 0
3. null
4. void
3. To go to new line the escape sequence required is
1. ‘\a’
2. ‘\new’
3. ‘\t’
4. ‘\n’
4. Function prototype statement will have a
semicolon True/False
5. Function definition statement will have a
semicolon True/False
6. Global declarations and definitions are available to all
functions True/False
7. Type defining a structure would allow shorter names in
lieu of key word struct and structure name True/False.
8. Which of the following are true in respect of C++
declarations?
1. Arrays hold different data types.
2. Array data is stored in continuous memory locations.
3. Structure hold different data types.
4. Class hold data as well as functions.
1. i and ii
2. ii, iii and iv
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i and iv
9. Namespace std; in C++ is used for
1. For cin and cout functions
2. For console standard functions
3. For resolving naming conflicts
4. To import standard functions
10. In C++ to declare a variable that does not change its
value during program runs, use
1. const declaration before variable declaration
2. global
3. static
4. structure
11. Scope resolution operator is
1. ;
2. :
3. ::
4. (.)
12. Class declaration is terminated always by
1. ;
2. :
3. ::
4. (.)
13. Member functions are invoked by objects using the
following operator:
1. ;
2. :
3. ::
4. .
14. The operator >> can read white spaces like blan
TRUE/ FALSE
15. The cin.getline(string,length) can read white
space TRUE/FALSE
16. The cin.get() cannot read white
spaces TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
17. What are global declarations?
18. What does <iostream> or iostream.h>contain?
19. Why are function prototypes declared before main( )
function?
20. Declare an array of integers X to hold 25 values. Draw
pictorially and put a value of 25 in X[10].
21. Distinguish structure and arrays in C++.
22. Distinguish get() and gets() commands.
23. Distinguish getchar() and get().
24. Declare a structure called BankCustomer. Show the
fields name, acctno, balance. Type define
structure as customer and creates an array of customers
called cust to hold 25 customers of type
BankCustomer.
25. Use class declaration for problem at 5. Add functions
line FindBalance() and Transact() to the class
declaration.
26. What are console IO operations?
Long-answer Questions
27. Explain C++ program structure and development
environment.
28. What are the salient features of the OOP paradigm?
29. What are the special OOP-related features of C++?
30. Explain console IO operations and commands with
examples.
Assignment Questions
31. Write the various steps involved in executing a c
program and illustrate this with the help of a flowchart.
32. Write a function program to convert Fahrenheit to
centigrade using the formula: Celsius = 5*
(fahrenheit – 32)/9.
33. Write a c module to compute simple and compound
interest using the formula: SI = P*N*R/100 and CI
= P*(1+R/100)^N
34. Write a program to prepare name, address and
telephone number of five of your friends. Use the
structure called friend.
35. Write a program to store number, age and weight in
three separate arrays for 10 students. At the end of data
entry, print what has been entered.
36. Using the formula A = Squareroot(s*(s-a)*(s-
b)*(s-c)), compute the area of the triangle. S =
(a+b+c)/2, and a, b and c are sides of the triangle.
37. Write a cpp to check if two strings have the same
number of characters. Use getline().
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. a
2. d
3. d
4. True
5. False
6. True
7. True
8. b
9. c
10. a
11. c
12. a
13. d
14. False
15. True
16. False
7
C++ Programming Basics and
Control Loops
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to
Write C++ programs with good grasp and
understanding.
Understand data types and their usage.
Understand operators and their precedence and
association rules.
Understand and use control loops.
7.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we introduce you to rich
C++. We analyse the data types permitted by
C++ language, together with various
operators like logical operators and
arithmetic operators. In Chapter 1, you have
of course used these features, but in this
chapter we will provide you with the
underlying syntax and grammar of C++. We
have shown the workings of various types of
operators such as binary operators and
unary operators and bitwise operators with
sample programs. The precedence and
association of operators are also presented.
7.2 Declaration of Variables
In C++ language, all variables must be
declared before they are used. However,
C++ gives a luxury of declaring just before
you use them. A variable can consist of
alphabets and digits. Either upper- and
lowercase or mixtures of both cases are
allowed. A variable cannot start with a digit.
It can start with an _. The allowable
characters in C++ language are alphabets A
to Z, a to z, numbers 0–9 and the following
special characters:
Tokens: A token is an atomic word that is
recognized by the compiler and that cannot
be broken further. It can be a single
character or a group of characters that can
be recognized by a C++ compiler.
Examples: Key words, Identifiers, Literals,
Punctuations and Operators.
Keywords: Reserved and have special
meaning in C++ language. A few of the
important and commonly used keywords
are:
Identifiers: Identifiers are names given to variables,
function names, structure names, and so on. The valid
variables are: basic_pay, hra, FindArea( ),
d2000k, _std. The invalid variables and the reasons
are:
2found cannot start with a digit
basic-pay illegal character
My.pay illegal character
Your Age blank space
Literals: They are also called literal constants. They do
not change their value during running of the C++
program. C++ allows following literal constants. Integer
constants, floating point constants, character constants,
string literals, enumeration constants, and symbolic
constants.
a) Integer Constants:
They can be subdivided into
Decimal integer constants: 0 10 −745
999
Unsigned integer constants can be specified by
appending the letter U at the end. For example, 55556U
or 55556u.
Long integer constants can be specified by appending
the letter l s at the end. For example, 789654234L or
7896s.
Octal integer constants:
Only digits between 0 and 7 are allowed. All Octal
numbers must start with 0 digit to identify as octal
number.
Allowed octal constants: 0777, 001, 0117, 07565L (octal
long)
Illegal octal constants are: 089 – 8 is illegal, 777 – does
not start with 0
: −0675.76 −. is illegal
Hexadecimal constants:
A hexadecimal number must start with 0x or 0X
followed by digits 0 to 9 or alphabets a to f; both
uppercase or lowercase are allowed.
Allowed hexadecimal constants are: 0xffff, 0xa11f,
0x65000UL.
Illegal hexadecimal constants are: 0x14.55, illegal
character “.”
b) Floating point constants:
They are base −10 number that can be
represented either in exponent form or
decimal point representation.
Valid floating point constants are:
−0.01, 789.89765, 5E−5, 1.768E+9
Invalid floating point declarations are:
– 6 invalid . must contain exponent or
float point.
– 5E+12.5 Invalid as exponent cannot be
float.
– 6,789.00 Invalid character “,”
c) Character constants:
Character constants can be declared based
on the character set followed in a computer.
ANSI has standardized these values as
shown below:
A character constant contains a single character enclosed
within a pair of single quote marks. Examples of character
constants are:
‘5’ ‘X’ ‘;’ ‘ ‘
Note that the character constant ‘5’ is not the same as the
number 5. The last constant is a blank space. Character
constants have integer values known as ASCII values. For
example, the statement: cout<<’a’; would print number
97, the ASCII value of letter a. Since each character
constant represents an integer value, it is also possible to
perform arithmetic operations on character constants.
Special characters that cannot be printed normally,
double quote (“) apostrophe (‘), question mark (?),
backslash (\), etc. can be represented by using escape
sequences. An escape sequence always starts
with \ followed by special character stated
above. Table 7.1 provides details of escape sequences and
special effects.
Table 7.1 Escape sequences and its special effects
Special Character Escape Sequence
Bell \a
Back space \b
Horizontal tab \t
Vertical tab \v
Form Feed \f
New line \n
Carriage return \r
Double Quote \”
Apostrophe/Single Quote \’
Backslash \\
Null \0
Octal number \On
Hexadecimal number \cHn
d) String constants:
String constants can contain any number
of characters in sequence, but enclosed in
double quotation marks.
“new delhi”, “14 Nov 1954”, an empty
string is “”.
Please note that NULL character \0 indicates NULL
character and is used by C++ language to indicate the end
of a string.
e) Enumeration constants:
Enumeration is a user-defined data type
and its members are constants. It can be
used effectively to associate integer values to
variables. The syntax and example are
shown below:
Syntax storage class enum variable { var1, var2, var3
……..};
Examples are: enum bool { FALSE,TRUE};
enum colors { RED,BLUE,GREEN};
enum waitque { P0 ,
P1,P2=5,P6};
Then integer values assigned with above enum
declarations are
FALSE=0 TRUE=1
RED=0, BLUE=1, GREEN=2
PO=0,P1=1,P2=5,P6=6 and so
on
We can create instances of enum variable and assign data
as shown below:
color color1,color2;
color1=2; // means color1 will
be GREEN
In C++ language, enumeration is a list of constant integer
values. This enumeration type of declaration is useful
when we want to assign constant integer values to names,
for example, 0 and 1 to a variable. Consider the example
shown below:
enum bool { no, yes} ; no has a value
0 and yes has a value=1
enum month {jan, feb, mar, apr};
enum color { red , yellow=3 , green };
// red=0 , yellow=3 and green=4
f) Symbolic Constants:
A symbolic name substitutes a sequence of
characters or numerical value that follows it:
# define PI 3.14159
# define MAX 50
# define NAME thunder
Note that there is no semicolon at the end of the
statement.
7.3 Data Types
What is a data type? Simply put, it defines a
range of permitted values and operations
that can be performed on the data type. Data
types, also called intrinsic data types,
supported by C++ language are shown in
Figure 7.1. The ranges allowed for a 32 bit
IBM PC and memory requirements are
highlighted in Table 7.2.
Figure 7.1 Data type supported by C++ language
Table 7.2 Ranges allowed for various data types for a PC
Data types can also be distinguished as
1. Intrinsic or basic data types like int, char, float, double,
etc. Intrinsic or basic data types are those that do not
contain any other data type.
2. Derived data types: array, pointer, etc.
3. User-defined data types: Structure, Unions, etc.
Derived data types are: Arrays,
functions, pointers, reference and constant.
User-defined data types are: Class,
structure, union and enumeration.
The smallest, individually addressable
memory unit is byte. A byte is 8 bits. From
Table 2.1, observe that both short int and int
have the same memory requirements of 2
bytes. Similarly, an unsigned int will have
the same requirements of int. For an
ordinary int, leftmost bit is reserved for sign
bit. Therefore, balance bits are only 15 and
hence range is only 2 ^ 15, i.e. 32767.
Whereas unsigned int complete 16 bits ( 2
bytes ), i.e. a range of 2 ^ 16 = 65,535 are
possible. Hence, unsigned int will have
double the range of ordinary int.
A word about data type called void. It
must be clearly understood that void is a
data type. It is not “nothing” or NIL or
NULL or 0. We can draw an analogy here for
better understanding the concept of void.
When dealing with gravitational force, g =
9.8 mt/sec 2 is a state. Similarly, g = 0 or –9
is also a state. Void is a data type which does
not belong to any other data types, but is a
data type of type void.
7.4 Declaration and Assignment Values to
Variables
Declaration means mapping the association
between the variables and data types.
Following are valid declarations:
int x , y , z;
float radius=2.56 . //This is
declaration and also assignment of value
to the variable. We can also call this
activity as definition.
float radius[25] ; // declaration of
array of data type float with size 25
double root1=0.3123e-10; // we have
used exponent form. 0.3123*10^10
short x , y=0 , z; // you can declare
variables as short or short int
short int x , y=0 ,z; // Similarly
long int can be declared as long int or
long
char text[] = “New Delhi”; // The
string contains 9 characters. It will be
stored
in an array as shown below. Note that
we have left blank for size of the
array.
You could also declare specifying the size,
but size to be correctly specified,
taking care of null character as char
text[10] = “New Delhi”
name of the array : text : N e w D e l
h i \0
Subscript value : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
text[0] contains character N
text[9] contains null character(\0)
7.5 Expressions
An expression can comprise any one of the
following:
1. A single character or a number.
2. A single constant or a variable.
3. A combination of variables or constants, interconnected
by operators.
4. A logical condition that is true (value 1) and false (value
0).
Examples of expressions are:
root1=(-b+sqrt(d))/(2*a); x=y; ++i;
x==y; x=oyez;
7.6 Operators
7.6.1 IO Operators << and >> , iostream
objects cin and cout
Output operator << directs output stream to
standard output device, i.e. display. It is tied
to iostream object called cout. Similarly,
input operator >> gets input from standard
input device, i.e. keyboard and tied to
iostream object called cin.
Ex: cout<<”\n Enter values of num1 and
num2 :”;
cin>>num1>>num2;
cout<<”\n The sum of two numbers =
“<<num1+num2<<endl;
Output : The sum of two numbers = sum
of num1 and num2
7.6.2 Unary Operators
In unary operator, operator precedes a
single operand. Unary operators are: - ,
++ , -- . sizeof. Examples are :
- 4.0 , -5*(A+B)
++ i , i++ , --i , i−
++, -- operators are called increment and
decrement operators. If they precede the
operand, then first the variable is
incremented, then the operation is
performed. If they follow the operand, then
the operation is performed first, and the
variable is incremented.
Example 7.1: Operator1.cpp to
Demonstrate Pre- and
Postincrement Operators
int count = 1;
cout<<count; // output will be 1
cout<<++count;
/* count will be incremented by one and
then operation of
print is performed. Output will be 2.
Now, if you use*/
cout<<count++;
/* count will be printed first. Output
is 2. Then count will
be incremented by 1 to 3.*/
cout<<count; // output will be 3.
7.6.3 Size of Operator
Will be useful for determining the size
allocated for a data type by the computer.
char city[]=”New Delhi”;
Example 7.2: Operator1.cpp to
Demonstrate Sizeof Operators
cout<<”\nSize of integer: ”<<
sizeof(int));
cout<<”\nSize of float :” <<
sizeof(float));
cout<<”\nNumber of characters in String
constant city :” << sizeof city ;
Output of above statements would be
Size of integer : 2
Size of float : 4
Number of characters in String constant
city:9
Example 7.3: quadroots.cpp to
Obtain Roots of Quadratic
Expression
/*Example 7.3 quadroots.cpp A program to
compute roots of a quadratic equation.
In this example observe, declaration,
assignment, expressions, math function
This program finds the roots of a
quadratic equation. Formula to compute
the roots are (-b+sqrt(b*b-4*a*c))/(2*a)
and (-b-sqrt(b*b-4*a*c))/(2*a)*/
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. #include<math.h> // for square root
function. h stands for header file
4. // function prototype
5. void FindRoot(float a , float b ,
float c);
6. void main()
7. { // declare three variables as
double precision numbers
8. double a,b,c;
9. // obtain the coefficients
10. cout<<”\nenter coefficiants of x^2
, x , and constant:”;
11. cin>>a>>b>>c;
12. // Call FindRoot function. We are
sending a , b , c values as arguments
13. FindRoot(a,b,c);
14. }// end of main
15. // function definition
16. void FindRoot(float a,float
b,float c)
17. { double d,root1,root2;
18. d = ((b*b)-(4*a*c));
19. if(d>=0)
20. { cout<<”\n roots are
real\n”;
21. root1=(-b+sqrt(d))/(2*a);
22. root2=(-b-sqrt(d))/(2*a);
23. cout<<”\n
root1=”<<root1<<endl;
24. cout<<”\n
root2=”<<root2<<endl;
25. }
26. else
27. { cout<<”\n roots are
imaginary\n”;
28. cout<<”\nroot1=”<<-b/(2*a)
<<sqrt(-d)/(2*a)<<endl;
29. cout<<”\nroot2=”<<-b/(2*a)
<<sqrt(-d)/(2*a)<<endl;
30. }
31. }// end of function call
/*Output:
Enter coefficiants of x^2 , x ,
and constant:1 -3 2
roots are real
root1=2
root2=1 */
7.6.4 Arithmetic Operators
The basic (also known as intrinsic) operators
are
+ addition − subtraction *
multiplication
/ division % modulus (
remainder after division).
It may be noted that C++ language does not
support exponentiation. Although we will
use ^ symbol to denote exponentiation in
expression, we have to use a library function
call pow to calculate the exponentiation.
Type conversion: If the variable involved
in an operation are of different type, then
type conversion is carried out before the
operation.
If the operation is between a float and
double, the float will be converted to double
and the result will result in double.
If the operation is between a float or
double or long double and a char or int, then
char or int will be converted to float or
double or long double and the result will
result in float or double or long double.
If the operation is between a int and long
int, the int will be converted to long int and
the result will result in long int.
If the operands are not float or long int,
they will be converted to int.
Type Cast: Suppose, we want to declare
the result in particular data type, we can
type cast as shown below:
int a , b;
float x;
x=(float)a/b; // a/b is integer
division and the result is converted to
float.
7.6.5 Relational and Logical Operators
The relational operators are: > >=< and <=.
These four relational operators have the
same precedence. However, they have lower
priority than arithmetic operators. The two
more operators, known as equality operators
= = and ! = have priority just below
relational operators.
7.6.6 Logical Operators
These are && and ||. Evaluation of
expressions connected by logical operators
are done from left to right and evaluation
stops when either truth or false hood is
established. In the statement shown below:
while ( (iflag==0) && ( text[i]!=’E’)
)
first iflag == 0 is evaluated, if it is
true, then only the second expression
text[i]=!E is evaluated. In other words,
evaluation stops as soon as truth or false is
established.
7.6.7 Conditional Expressions: Question
Mark Operator
Suppose you want to allot 10 additional
bonus marks to students who put in 100
percent attendance and all others an
additional 2 marks. This would result in
statements like
If ( attendance > 100)
marks += 10; // this is a compound
statement. It means
Marks=Marks +10
Else
marks +=2;
C++ language gives you facility of
conditional operator, using which the above
4 lines can be coded as a single line:
marks = (attendance > 100) ? marks +
10 : marks + 2;
The syntax is : z=exp1 ? expr 2 :
exp3. Exp1 is evaluated first. If it is true, z
is equated to the result of exp2 . Else z is
equated to exp3.
Example 7.4: Largest.pp to Find
Greatest Number Using Conditional
Operator
/*Example 7.4 Largest.pp to find largest
of three numbers using ternery
operator*/
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. void main()
4. { int n1,n2,n3,max;
5. cout<<”Enter three
numbers:”<<endl;
6. cin>>n1>>n2>>n3;
7. max=n1>n2?(n1>n3?n1:n3):(n2>n3?
n2:n3);
8. cout<<”Greatest number is “<<max;
9. }
/* Output: Enter three numbers:
67 54 98
Greatest number is 98*/
Line No. 7:
max=n1>n2?(n1>n3?n1:n3):(n2>n3?
n2:n3);
Firstly n1>n2 is evaluated.
If n1>n2
max=(n1>n3?n1:n3). If n1>n3
returns n1 else n3
Else
max=(n2>n3?n2:n3); If n2>n3
returns n2 else n3
7.6.8 Comma Operator
This operator is used to string together
several expressions. For example, consider
an expression x = ( y = 5 , y+1). The
expression is evaluated from left to right.
Firstly, y=5 hence x=5, then x=y+1,
i.e. 6.
For loop for ( int i=0, int z=1;
i<=100; i++ ), two statements are
initialized.
7.6.9 Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators available in C language are
& Bitwise AND . Used for masking
operation. For example, if you want to
mask the first four bits of a number
‘n’, then we will mask n with a number
whose last four bits are 1s, i.e.
0001111. In Octal representation, it is
017. (Remember an octal number starts
with 0 and a hexa number starts with
0x.)
n= 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
& 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 = 017(octal)
result n = 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Note that the last four bits are 0101
and are unaffected, i.e. they are just
reproduced in the result, whereas the
left four bits are all 0s, i.e. they are
masked.
Bitwise OR. This operator is used when
you want to set a bit. For example, we
want to set 0th and 2nd bit to 1 for n =
144, then we will use | operator with n
and as shown below:
n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
144(decimal)
| = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 =
005(octal)
result n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
^ Bitwise Exclusive OR. Exclusive OR
also known as odd function, produces
output 1, when both bits are not the
same (odd) and produces a 0 when both
bits are the same.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
^ = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 =
005(octal)
result n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
149(decimal)
<< Left Shift. Shifting left by one
position, bits of a binary number is
equal to multiplying the number with 2.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
144(decimal)
n<<1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 =
288(decimal)
n<<2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 576
>> Right Shift. Shifting right by one
position, bits of a binary number is
equal to division of the given number
with 2.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
144(decimal)
n>> 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 =
72(decimal)
n>>2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 =
36(decimal)
~ Tilde operator. one's complement
operator. This is a unary operator, used
to find one's complement of a given
number.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
~n = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 = bitwise
complement
Example 7.5: bitwise.cpp to
Demonstrate the Working of
Bitwise Operators
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. { int n = 149;
5. int res;
6. res = n & 0017;
7. cout<<”The resultant of Bitwise
AND operator is “<<res<<endl;;
8. res = n | 0017;
9. cout<<”The resultant of Bitwise OR
operator is “<<res<<endl;;
10. res = n && 0017; // this is
logical AND. Truth or false will be
output
11. cout<<”The resultant of Logical
AND operator is “<<res<<endl; ;
12. res = n || 0017; // this is
logical OR . Truth or false will be
output
13. cout<<”The resultant of Logical OR
operator is “<<res<<endl;;
14. res = n ^ 0017;
15. cout<<”The resultant of Exclusive
operator is “<<res<<endl;;
16. res = n <<2;
17. cout<<”The resultant of shift left
( by 2 bits) operator is “<<res<<endl;;
18. res = n >>2;
19. cout<<”The resultant of shift
right ( by 2 bits) operator is
“<<res<<endl;;
20. res = ~n;
21. cout<<”The resultant of NOT
operator is “<<res<<endl;
22. return 0;
23. }
/*Output : The resultant of
Bitwise AND operator is 5
The resultant of Bitwise OR
operator is 159
The resultant of Logical AND
operator is 1
The resultant of Logical OR
operator is 1
The resultant of Exclusive
operator is 154
The resultant of shift left (by 2
bits) operator is 596
The resultant of shift right (by 2
bits) operator is 37
The resultant of NOT operator is –
150*/
7.7 Precedence and Association of
Operators
The precedence and association of operators
are shown in Table 7.3. The operators at the
top have priority more than those that
appear later in the table, i.e. operators’
priority is highest at the top of the table and
lowest at the bottom of the table. Operators
on the same line have the same priority.
Table 7.3 Precedence and association rules for the operators
Operator Association
Function call ( ) , [ ] ,-> . Left to right
! ~ ++ -- + - * & sizeof Right to left
* / % Left to right
+ - Left to right
<< >> Left to right
< <= > >= Left to right
= = != Left to right
& Left to right
^ Left to right
| Left to right
&& Left to right
|| Left to right
?: Right to left
= += -= *= /= %= ^= != <<= >>= Right to left
, Left to right
* / and % have all the same priority
Unary operators like +, – and * have more
priority than binary operators
7.8 Control Loops
An algorithm or a procedure is a sequence of
logical steps. Control statements change the
sequence of execution of statements as per
the requirement of logic. We have already
used while for loop and if statements. We
will now formalize and consolidate our
understanding of control loops.
C++ is a block-oriented language. The
program consists of statements. Statements
are logically grouped into blocks. Blocks are
enclosed in brace brackets. { and } are
used to denote start and end of the block in
C++. All variables declared inside the
controlling braces are called local to the
block. This means the value the variable
holds is available only inside the block.
Statements inside the block are also called
compound statements.
Note that there will be no semicolon after
the closing brace bracket. For example, in
function definition we have enclosed all the
statements in brace brackets.
7.8.1 Conditional and Branching Statements
7.8.1.1 If Statement
The syntax is simple and straightforward
if (expression)
statement;
7.8.1.2 If–Else Statement
The syntax is
if (expression)
{
statements;
}
else
{
statements;
}
Else statement is optional. But if used
it will be associated with the nearest
if statement. In the example shown, else
is attached to innermost if.
if ( totalMarks > 60)
if ( total Marks > 70)
cout<<“passed with
distinction”<<endl;
else
cout<<“passed with first
class”<<endl;
Use of brace brackets dictate the
association rule for else statements.
Else in the following code is linked up
with first if statement:
if ( totalMarks > 60)
{ if ( total Marks > 70)
{ cout<<“passed with
distinction”<<endl;
}
Figure 7.2 Control flow in if statement
Figure 7.3 Flow in if–else statement
else // associated with
inner if
{ cout<<“passed with first
class”<<endl;
}
}
else // associated with outer if
{ …else block……….}
Example 7.6: FindMax.cpp to Find
the Maximum of Two Numbers
// Example 7.6: Findmax.cpp to find
maximum of two numbers
1. #include <iostream>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. using namespace std;
4. long int FindMax (long int a, long
int b);
5. void main ()
6. { long int int i=150, j=170, k;
7. long int x=715000, y=918000, z;
8. k=FindMax(i,j);
9. z=FindMax(x,y);
10. cout << “\n Larger of the two
integers : “<<i<<” & “<<j<<” : “<< k <<
endl;
11. cout << “\n Larger of the two
long integers : “<<x<<” & “<<y<<” : “<<
z << endl;
12. getch();
13. }
14. //fn definition
15. long int FindMax (long int a,
long int b)
16. {
17. long int max;
18. //max = (a>b)? a : b;
19. if ( a>b)
20. max=a;
21. else
22. max=b;
23. //max = (a>b)? a : b;
24. return (max);
25. }
/*Output: Larger of the two
integers : 150 & 170 : 170
Larger of the two long integers :
715000 & 918000 : 918000*/
Li are for function definition. Lines No. 19–20
n depict usage of if. Lines No. 21–22 show else
es statement. Line No. 23 is commented out and
N uses question mark operator to achieve the
o. same result but with elegance.
14
–
2
4
Note that we have included conio.h for
console in and out library. This would
facilitate the use of console functions like
clear screen (clrscr()) and getch() for
get character operation. Use of getchar()
would make computer wait for input
through console. It will proceed further only
when it receives the input. This feature can
be used to observe the result on console.
Linux-based compilers like gnu C++ do not
support conio.h.
7.8.1.3 Nested if
When an if statement has another if
statement in its body or in the body os else
statement we would call it as nested if
statement.
Example 7.7: calcif.cpp to
Simulate Simple Calculator with +,
-, *, / Operators Using Nested Ifs
/* Example 7.7 program to simulate the
calculator using if-else ladder?*/
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. { char ch; // to store operator
6. float a,b,result;
7. cout<<”Enter any two numbers : “;
8. cin>>a>>b;
9. cout<<”\nEnter the operation( + ,
- , * , / ) :”;
10. cin>>ch;
11. cout<<endl;
12. if(ch==’+’)
13. result=a+b;
14. else
15. if(ch==’-’)
16. result=a-b;
17. else
18. if(ch==’*’)
19. result=a*b;
20. else
21. if(ch==’/’)
22. result=a/b;
23. else
24. cout<<endl<<”wrong operator”;
25. cout<<”\nThe result of “ << a <<
ch << b <<” = “<<result;
26. }
/*Output: Enter any two numbers :
21 18
Enter the operation( + , - , * , /
) :/
The result of 21/18 = 1.16667*/
Figure 7.4 Types of nested if statement
7.8.1.4 If–Else–If Ladder
Lines No. 12 to 24 depict the if–else–if
ladder. It is called ladder because it looks
like a ladder. Observe the indentation. Its
deep indent and costs in terms of space.
Hence the if–else–if ladder can be replaced
by the if–else–if, as shown below:
if(ch==’+’)
result=a+b;
else if(ch==’-’)
result=a-b;
else if(ch==’*’)
result=a*b;
else if(ch==’/’)
result=a/b;
else
cout<<endl<<”wrong operator”;
cout<<”\nThe result of “ << a << ch <<
b <<” = “<<result;
}
7.8.2 Switch and Case Statements
Switch statement evaluates an expression
and depending on the numerical value of the
evaluation control is branched to
corresponding block of statements. The
syntax and example problems are shown
below:
switch ( expression)
case constantexpression1 :
statements1
case constantexpression2 ;
staements2
default statements
Example 7.8: calcswitch.cpp to
Simulate Simple Calculator with +,
-, *, / Operators Using Switch
// Example 7.8 program to show the usage
of switch and case
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. {int choice;
6. int num1,num2;
7. cout<<“1.Addition”<<endl;
8. cout<<“2.Substraction”<<endl;
9. cout<<“3.Multiplication”<<endl;
10. cout<<“4.Division”<<endl;
11. cout<<“5.Quit”<<endl;
12. do
13. { cout<<“\nEnter your choice: ”;
14. cin>>choice;
15. switch(choice)
16. {
17. case 1:cout<<“\nEnter <num 1&
num2>: ”;
18. cin>>num1>>num2;
19.
cout<<“num1+num2=”<<num1+num2<<endl;
20. break;
21. case 2:cout<<“\nEnter <num 1&
num2>: ”;
22. cin>>num1>>num2;
23. cout<<“num1-num2=”<<num1-
num2<<endl;
24. break;
25. case 3:cout<<“\nEnter <num 1&
num2>: ”;
26. cin>>num1>>num2;
27.
cout<<“num1*num2=”<<num1*num2<<endl;
28. break;
29. case 4:cout<<“\nEnter <num 1&
num2>: ”;
30. cin>>num1>>num2;
31.
cout<<”num1/num2=”<<(float)num1/num2<<en
dl;
32. break;
33. case 5:cout<<“exiting from
program“<<endl;
34. exit(0);
35. default: cout<<“Invalid
choice<enter no between 1 and 5
only>“<<endl;
36. } // end of switch
37. }while(choice!=5);
38. }//end of main
/*Output
1.Addition
2.Subtraction
3.Multiplication
4.Division
5.Quit
Enter your choice: 3
Enter <num 1& num2>: 65 2
num1*num2=130
Enter your choice: 1
Enter <num 1& num2>: 65 2
num1+num2=67
Enter your choice: 2
Enter <num 1& num2>: 65 2
num1-num2=63
Enter your choice: 4
Enter <num 1& num2>: 65 2
num1/num2=32.5
Enter your choice: 5
exiting from program*/
Note that switch statement directs flow to
the block of statements depending on the
integer constant choice. Further it is
necessary to separate blocks in a switch
statement through break statement. A
break statement, simply put, breaks the
nearest brace bracket block, in this case
being switch block brace brackets. Also note
that the while loop continues till you enter
choice of 5. It exits the program through
exit(0) statement.
7.8.3 While Loop
The while loop is written by a programmer if
he is not sure if the while block will be
executed. A condition is checked first. If it is
true, the while block is executed. Control
flow for the while loop in shown in Figure
7.5. The syntax of the while statement is
Figure 7.5 Control flow for while and for ops
While (expression)//body of while
contains a single line no brace brackets
required Statement;
While(expression)
{ statement1;
statement2;
}
while(1) // expression is always true
{ block of statements;
} // the loop is called forever while
loop
Example 7.9: heater.cpp to Use
While Loop to Turn off the Heater if
Upper Cutoff Temperature has
Reached
The algorithm is: Read the temperature.
While temperature < upper cut off Switch
on the heater Else Switch off the heater
//Heater.cpp
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<conio.h> // console input
/output for getch() and clrscr()
3. using namespace std;
4. const int MAX=60;
5. void main()
6. { float temp ;
7. cout<<”Enter <temperature of the
heater> :”;
8. cin>>temp;
9. while (temp<MAX)
10. cout<<”\n Temperature is
lukewarm. Switch on heater”<<endl;
11. cout<<”\nWater is hot. Switch off
the heater” <<endl;
12. } // end of main
/*Output :Enter <temperature of the
heater> :67
Water is hot. Switch off the heater
*//*
Line declares Max as integer data type and it
No. does not change its value during its run-
4: time.
Example 7.10: sumwhile.cpp
//Program to Find Sum of n
Numbers and their Average Using
// Example 7.10 sumwhile.cpp.
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<conio.h>// console input
/output for getch() and clrscr()
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. { int n;
6. int num ,sum = 0, avg=0,count =1;
7. // input N
8. cout<<”\n Enter value of <N>:”;
9. cin>>n;
10. // control loop
11. while (count <= n )
12. { cout<<”\n Enter value of
“<<count<<”number”;
13. cin>>num;
14. sum+=num;
15. count++;
16. }//end of
17. avg=sum/n;
18. cout<<”\n Sum of” <<n<<”numbers
=”<<sum<<endl;
19. cout<<”\n Average of”<<n<<”numbers
=”<<avg<<endl;
20. getch();
21. } // end of main
/*Output: Enter value of <N>:3
Enter value of 1number34
Enter value of 2number56
Enter value of 3number87
Sum of 3numbers =177
Average of 3numbers =59*/
7.8.4 Do-while Loop
The syntax is
Do
{
block of statements
} while (expression);
The block is executed first and the condition
is checked. If true, the loop is executed till
the condition becomes true. We will use do-
while loop when we know that the loop
needs to be executed at least once, whereas
while loop is used when we are not aware if
loop needs to be executed or not. The
control flow is shown in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 Control flow for do-while loop
Example 7.11: sumwhile.cpp
//Program to Find Sum of n
Numbers and their Average Using
Do-while Loop
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<conio.h>// console
input/output for getch() and clrscr()
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. { int n;
6. int num ,sum = 0, avg=0,count =1;
7. // input N
8. cout<<”\n Enter value of <N>:”;
9. cin>>n;
10. // control loop
11. do
12. { cout<<”\n Enter value of
“<<count<<”number”;
13. cin>>num;
14. sum+=num;
15. count++;
16. }while (count <= n ); //end of do
while. Observe semicolon
17. avg=sum/n;
18. cout<<”\n Sum of” <<n<<”numbers
=”<<sum<<endl;
19. cout<<”\n Average
of”<<n<<”numbers =”<<avg<<endl;
20.} // end of main
/*output: Enter value of <N>:3
Enter value of 1number45
Enter value of 2number76
Enter value of 3number78
Sum of 3numbers =199
Average of 3numbers =66*/
7.8.5 For Loop
For loop, as control loop is used, when we
know the exact number of times the loop
needs to be executed. The syntax of for loop
is
for ( exp1 ; exp2 ; exp3)
{
block of statements
}
where exp1 is initialization block
exp2 is condition test block
exp3 is alter initial value assigned
to exp1
Forever for loop is shown below:
for ( ; ; )
{
statement;
}
for loops can be nested. This means that we
can write for loop within a for loop. In
nested for loop, the inner loop is executed
for each value of the outer loop. For
example, inner loop is executed for i=0 and
the value of j is varied from 0 final
condition. Outer loop is executed for values
of i varying from 0 to n – 1.
The syntax is
for ( int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for (int j=0;j<n;j++)
{
statement
}
}
Example 7.12: sumfor.cpp
//Program to Find Sum of n
Numbers and their Average Using
for Loop
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>// console input
/output for getch() and clrscr()
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int n;
int num ,sum = 0, avg=0,count;
// input N
cout<<”\n Enter value of <N>:”;
cin>>n;
// control loop
for(count=1; count<=n ; count++)
{cout<<”\n Enter value of
“<<count<<”number”;
cin>>num;
sum+=num;
avg=sum/n;
cout<<”\n Sum of” <<n<<”numbers
=”<<sum<<endl;
cout<<”\n Average of”<<n<<”numbers
=”<<avg<<endl;
getch();
} // end of main
/*Output: Enter value of <N>:3
Enter value of 1number67
Enter value of 2number76
Enter value of 3number87
Sum of 3numbers =230
Average of 3numbers =76*/
Example 7.13: nestedfor.cpp A
Program to Demonstrate Nested for
Loop
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>// console input
/output for getch() and clrscr()
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int i , j ; // counters for outer and
inner for loop
for (i=15; i<16; i++) // outer loop
{
cout<<”\n Multiplication table for
“<< i<<” X “<<20<<endl;
for (j=15; j<20 ; j++) // inner loop
{
cout<<endl<<i<<” X “<<j<<” =
“<< i*j;
} // end of inner for loop
} // end of outer for loop
} // end of main
/*Output : Multiplication table for 15 X
20
15 X 15 = 225
15 X 16 = 240
15 X 17 = 255
15 X 18 = 270
15 X 19 = 285 */
7.8.6 When to Use For or While or Do-while
For loop is best suited when programmers
have exact knowledge of initialization and
final conditions to be met.
for ( exp1 ; exp2 ; exp3)
{
block of statements
}
where exp1 is initialization block
exp2 is condition test block
exp3 is alter initial value assigned
to exp1
The above for loop is equivalent to the
following while loop. While loop is used
when the programmer does not know if at all
the while block will be executed. In other
words, in a situation where we have to check
a condition and then only execute block, we
will use while loop.
exp1;
while(exp2)
{ statement;
exp2;
}
Do-while loop, on the other hand, is
used when we know that the block is to be
executed at least once. In other words, we
have to execute the block and then check for
a condition.
7.9 Break and Continue
7.9.1 Break
Break statement is used to exit from the
switch control or control loop. We can use
break statement to exit from for, while and
do-while, and switch control statements.
You have already seen the use of break
statements in Switch statement. Observe
how break is used to come out of if
statement below:
Example 7.14: break.cpp Program
that Demonstrates Break Statement
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>// console input
/output for getch() and clrscr()
using namespace std;
void main()
{
int count=0;
int sum,num;
for ( ;;) // for ever for loop
{ if(count == 5)
{ cout<<”\n reached upper limit of 5:
breaking the for loop”;
break;
}
else
{
cout<<”\n Enter value of “
<<count+1<< “ number :”;
cin>>num;
sum+=num;
count++;
}
} // end of for
} // end of main
/*Output
Enter value of 1 number :89
Enter value of 2 number :90
Enter value of 3 number :91
Enter value of 4 number :92
Enter value of 5 number :93
reached upper limit of 5: breaking the
for loop*/
7.9.2 Continue Statement
Continue is used when we want to stop
further processing of loop statements and
start at the beginning of the control loop. In
the example shown below, we would like to
add 10 points to all odd numbers between 0
to 10 and skip adding to even numbers.
Example 7.15: continue.c.cpp
Program that Demonstrates
Continue Statement
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>// console input
/output for getch() and clrscr()
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int count;
for ( count=0;count<=10;count++)
{ if( (count %2)== 0) // the number is
even.
{ cout<<”\n even number: continue at
the beginning if for loop:
“<<count<<endl;
continue; //control goes to beginning
of for loop
}//end of if
else
{
cout<<”\n odd number : “<<count<<endl;
}
} // end of for
} // end of main
/*output even number: continue at the
beginning if for loop: 0
odd number : 1
even number: continue at the beginning
if for loop: 2
odd number : 3
even number: continue at the beginning
if for loop: 4
odd number : 5
even number: continue at the beginning
if for loop: 6
odd number : 7
even number: continue at the beginning
if for loop: 8
odd number : 9
even number: continue at the beginning
if for loop: 10*/
7.9.3 Goto Statements
Goto statements are rarely used due to fears
that they would lead to unstructured
programs. Goto statements can be
conditional and unconditional. The syntax is
goto label //
unconditional branch
Example 7.16: goto.cpp to
Demonstrate goto Statement
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>// console input
/output for getch() and clrscr()
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int num ,sum=0,count=0;
start: cout<<”\n Enter value of
<number> number :”;
cin>>num;
sum+=num;
count++;
cout<<”\n number: “<<num<<endl;
if ( count > 3)
goto stop1;
else
goto start;
stop1: cout<<”\n exiting the main
program”<<endl;
} // end of main
/*Output
Enter value of <number> number :55
number: 55
Enter value of <number> number :67
number: 67
Enter value of <number> number :54
number: 54
Enter value of <number> number :65
number: 65
exiting the main program*//*
We do not recommend using goto at all. It is
always better to get used to while, do-while
and for loops for achieving the same result.
7.9.4 Exit Function
You can force a program to stop whatever it
is doing and return the control to operating
system by using exit() function. For this
function you have to include stdlib.h in
the include section.
exit(0); // return after successful
completion to operating system(os)
exit(1); // return to os on being
unsuccessful
7.10 Summary
1. A token is a smallest individual unit in a program.
2. C++ has three types of integer constants, namely,
decimal octal and hexadecimal constants.
3. Character constants must be enclosed in single quotes.
Non-printable character constants are represented by a
backslash followed by a character.
4. String constants. String constants can contain any
number of characters in sequence, but enclosed in
double quotation marks.
5. Enumeration is a user-defined data type and its
members are constants. It can be used effectively to
associate integer values to variables.
6. Intrinsic or basic data types like int, char, float, double,
etc. Intrinsic or basic data types are those that do not
contain any other data type.
7. Derived data types are: Arrays, functions, pointers,
references and constants.
8. User-defined data types are: class, structure, union and
enumeration.
9. Output operator << directs output stream to standard
output device, i.e. display. It is tied to iostream object
called cout. Similarly, input operator >> gets input from
standard input device, i.e. keyboard and tied to
iostream object called cin.
10. Unary operators: In unary operators, operators precede
a single operand. Unary operators are: –, ++, --.
sizeof.
11. sizeof operator will be useful for determining the
size allocated for a data type by the computer.
12. Arithmetic operators. The basic (also known as
intrinsic) operators are +, –, *, /, %. C++ language does
not support exponentiation.
13. Type conversion: If the variable involved in an
operation are of different types, then type conversion is
carried out before the operation.
14. Type cast: When we want to declare the result in a
particular data type, we can type cast.
15. The relational operators are: > >= < and <= . they
have lower priority than arithmetic operators. equality
operators = = and ! = have priority just below relational
operators.
16. Logical operators: These are && and ||. Evaluation
of expressions connected by logical operators are done
from left to right and evaluation stops when either truth
or falsehood is established.
17. Conditional expressions: Question mark operator. The
syntax is: z = exp1 ? expr 2 : exp3. Exp1 is
evaluated first. If it is true, z is equated to the result of
exp2. Else z is equated to exp3.
18. Comma operator: This operator is used to string
together several expressions.
19. Loop is executed once first and the condition is checked.
Use do-while loop, when we know that the loop needs to
be executed at least once.
20. For loop, as control loop is used, when we know the
exact number of times the loop needs to be executed.
21. Break. Break statement is used to exit from the switch
control or control loop. We can use break statement to
exit from for, while and do-while, and switch control
statements.
22. Continue is used when we want to stop further
processing of loop statements and start at the beginning
of the control loop.
23. Exit function. You can force a program to stop
whatever it is doing and return the control to operating
system by using exit() function.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are true about
variables of C++
1. 0–9 are allowable characters
2. Variable can start with digit
3. Variable can start with underscore
4. ~ tilde is allowable character
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, iii and iv
2. Which of the following statements are invalid variables
of C++?
1. My.pay
2. your city
3. basic-pay
4. 2times
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i, iii and iv
3. Which of the following statements are true about data
types of C++?
1. Literals change their values
2. Identifier can start with underscore
3. Void is a data type
4. In C++ 1 means true and 0 means false
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i and iv
4. Which of the following are legal and allowed in respect
integer constants?
1. Octal constants:089
2. 0xa22f
3. 0x14.55
4. 5E+12.5
1. i and ii
2. i, iii and iii
3. i, ii and iv
4. i and iv
5. For modulus operator both operands must be
1. Float and integer
2. Float and double
3. Integers
4. int & double
6. What is the output of the following code: int a, b=3; a =
b; a+=2; // equivalent to a=a+2
1. 4
2. 5
3. 6
4. 3
7. What is the output of following code?
int a,b,c; a=2; b=7; c = (a>b) ? a
: b;
1. 4
2. 5
3. 6
4. 7
8. Which of the following are true with respect to IO
operators?
1. >> is called extraction operator
2. << is tied to cout
3. cin and cout are objects of iostream
4. >> can read white spaces
1. i, ii and iii
2. i, iii and iv
3. i, ii and iv
4. i and iv
9. Which of the following are true with respect to
precedence and association of operators?
1. + − have left to right association
2. * / and % have all the same priority
3. * / % association is from right to left
4. Unary operators have less priority than binary operators
1. i and ii
2. i, iii and iv
3. i, ii and iv
4. i and iv
10. The following control loop is preferred when loop needs
to be executed at least once:
1. While
2. Do-while
3. For loop
4. Switch
11. The following control loop is preferred when not sure
about loop execution:
1. While
2. Do-while
3. For loop
4. Switch
12. The following control loop is preferred when initial and
final conditions are known:
1. While
2. Do-while
3. For loop
4. Switch
13. Break statement takes the control to
1. Goes out of the innermost loop that contains the break statement
2. To the beginning of the program
3. To the end of the program
4. Goes out from all the nested loop
14. Continue statement takes the control to
1. To the bottom of the loop
2. To the beginning of the loop
3. To the next statement
4. To the end of the program
15. exit() function returns control to operating
system. TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
16. What are the basic data (fundamental, intrinsic) types of
C++?
17. What are the derived data types supported by C++?
18. What are the user-defined data types supported by C++?
19. How are enumeration data types useful?
20. Explain sizeof() operator.
21. Distinguish & operator and && operator.
22. Give the syntax of ? operator.
23. How is comma operator used?
Long-answer Questions
24. What are the data types allowed by C++? Explain with
examples.
25. What are IO operators? Explain with examples.
26. Explain type conversion and type casting of operators.
27. Explain bitwise operators with examples.
28. Explain precedence and association of operators.
29. Distinguish the switch and if else statements.
30. When do you use for statement and while statements?
State the situation when for statements are better than
while statements.
Assignment Questions
31. Candidates have to score 90 or above in the IQ test to be
considered eligible for taking further tests. All the
candidates who do not clear the IQ test are sent reject
letters and others are sent call letters for further tests.
Represent the logic for automating this task.
32. Write C++ code for following series:
1. 1+3+5+7 + …………………..+n
2 4 6
2. 1+x +x +x +…………….. n terms
n 2 2
3. (1-x) = 1 + nx + ((n(n+1)x )/ 1.2 ) ((n(n+1)(n+2)x )/ 1.2.3 )
33. Write a C++ program to display the ascii table.
34. Write a program to read a line from the keyboard and
print the line using a suitable encryption. Simple
encryption can be a substitution with next character A
with B, a with b, and z with a and so on. De-crypt and
display the original message.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. d
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. d
8. a
9. a
10. b
11. a
12. c
13. a
14. b
15. True
8
Functions, Storage Class
Preprocessor Directives, and
Arrays and Strings
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to
Understand functions and function templates and
how C++ handles function execution.
Understand the memory mapping adopted by C++
and storage classes.
Program C++ with the help of macros and
preprocessor directives.
Understand the concepts and use array and string
data structure.
8.1 Introduction
It is common knowledge that experts who
are dedicated to a particular job will perform
the job better and faster. We approach
architects for making functional and
aesthetic housing. Similarly, we hand over
control to doctors to take care of our health.
In C++ language, we hand over jobs to
functions specially written for the purpose.
Similarly, if we can make a function perform
more than one task depending on the
requirements of the user, then such
programs are not only efficient but are also
versatile. We can use function templates, so
that a single function can handle all types of
data.
This chapter also introduces you to the
C++ way of handling storage and memory.
The variables are stored based on the
storage specifiers we use while declaring the
variable. These are called storage classes.
The storage in turn decides the access times.
Preprocessor directives are directives issued
to compilers for efficient execution of
programs. This chapter introduces the
reader to concepts involved in these
directives. Arrays and strings are derived
data types and most widely used features of
C++. Several problems are included in
examples and exercise problems to fortify
the concepts involved. From now on, we
print line numbers only when we have
something new to tell you.
8.2 Why Use Function Templates?
The idea is to divide the main problem into
smaller modules and write functions to
implement the modules. The main function
in C++ language is called: main().
Interestingly, it is also a function, albeit a
main function. Main() function calls other
functions. Calling function is one
which calls a called function. The
function prototype is declared before, void
main(), in the global area, so that it is
accessible by all other functions. The syntax
is:
void main () calls the function
FindMax() by supplying the arguments and
receives the result through return type.
ans = FindMax ( a, b ) ; // a,b,
and ans are all integer data types
Function Definition is given after main
program as
int FindMax ( int a , int b , int
c) // note the absence of semicolon
{// Function Code here}
Functions handle data. There are several
intrinsic data types supported by C++ like
int, float, double, etc. Suppose we need a
function to sort the given data. The data
could be data of integers or data of floats or
data of double. Do we write a separate
function for each of the data types or is there
a tool or method wherein one function takes
care of all data types. Function template is
the solution provided by C++. The format
for declaring function templates with type
parameters is:
template <class identifier>
function_declaration;
template <typename identifier>
function_declaration;
For example, we could declare a function
template for finding a maximum of two
numbers as
Template<class
T>
T FindMax( T a
, T b);
Below the main function, we could define
the template function as
Template <class T>
T FindMax(T a , T b) { return ( (a>b)
? a : b ) ; }
While at the time of declaration or
definition, we do not know the data type of
T, we can use it as data type T and forward
data type as parameter. We would call the
function as follows:
function_name <type> (parameters);
FindMax <int> (x,y); // x & y are
data type integers
Example 8.1: A Template Function
Based cpp for Computing the
Maximum of Two Numbers.
Function Template: FindMax.cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
//fn template definition
template <class T>
T FindMax (T a, T b);
void main ()
{ int i=50, j=70, k;
long int x=75000, y=98000, z;
k=FindMax<int>(i,j);
z=FindMax<long int>(x,y);
cout << «\n Larger of the two integers
: «<<i<<» & «<<j<<» : «<< k << endl;
cout << «\n Larger of the two long
integers : «<<x<<» & «<<y<<» : «<< z <<
endl;
}
//fn template definition
template <class T>
T FindMax (T a, T b)
{T max;
max = (a>b)? a : b;
return (max);
}
//Output :Larger of the two integers :
50 & 70 : 70
Larger of the two long integers: 75000 &
98000 : 98000*/
A function template can accept two
parameters of different types and return
value of any one of the parameters. Consider
the declaration
long int a ; int b;
template< class S , class T>
T FindMax( S a , T b) { return ( (
a>b)?a:b );} . The compiler will do
necessary type conversions and return
data type of T
8.3 Call by Value
Mode of data transfer between calling
function and called function, by copying
variables listed as arguments into called
function stack area and, subsequently,
returning the value by called function to
calling function by copying the result into
stack area of the main function is
called Call by value. Note that as
copying of the variables, both for forward
transfer and return transactions, are
involved, it is efficient only if values to be
transferred are small in number and of basic
data type.
Example 8.2: swap.cpp. A
Program to Demonstrate Concepts
of Functions So Far Discussed and
also Bring Out Concept of Pass by
Value
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// function prototype declarations
template<class T>
void Swap ( T x , T y); // to
interchange values
void main() //Calling Function
{ float x=100.00; // x & y are local
to main()
float y=1000.00;
int a=5 , b=10;
cout<<”\n Before calling Swap function
<x and y >”<< x<<”\t”<<y<<endl;
cout<<”\n Before calling Swap function
<a and b >”<< a<<”\t”<<b<<endl;
// call the function and pass
arguments x & y
Swap(x,y); //Called Function
Swap(a,b); //Called Function
cout<<”\n After return from Swap <x
and y >”<<x<<”\t”<<y<<endl;
cout<<”\n After return Swap function
<a and b >”<< a<<”\t”<<b<<endl;
}//end of main
// function definition
template<class T>
void Swap ( T x , T y)
{ float temp ; // temp is local to
Swap function
temp = x; // store x in temp
x=y; // store y in x
y=temp; // store temp in y
cout<<”\n Inside Swap <x and y
>”<<x<<”\t”<<y<<endl;
} // end of Swap//
//output :Before calling Swap function
<x and y >100 1000
Before calling Swap function <a and b
>5 10
Inside Swap <x and y >1000 100
Inside Swap <x and y >10 5
After return from Swap <x and y >100
1000
After return Swap function <a and b >5
10*/
There are two important lessons to be
learnt here. Firstly, notice that function
template for Swap function has handled
for two sets of data, i.e. x and y of float
data type and a and b of integer data
type. That is the power and utility of
function template. Secondly, observe the
output. While the function Swap has done
its job of interchanging the values of x and y,
as shown by cout statement inside Swap in
the main program, the values did not
interchange. What does this mean? The
answer lies in the fact that variable values
and operations you do on them are local to
block, i.e. local to function Swap. It has no
connection with variables x and y belonging
to the main() function.
Indeed, main() function passes
arguments by copying these values into
stack area of the function Swap. It is like
passing a xeroxed document and retaining
the original. Obviously, the changes you
make on the xerox copy will not be reflected
on the original.
8.4 Call by Reference
For large data items occupying large
memory space like arrays, structures and
unions, overheads like memory and access
times become very high. Hence, we do not
pass values as in call by value; instead, we
pass the address to the function. Note that
once function receives a data item by
reference, it acts on data item and the
changes made to the data item also reflect
on the calling function. This is like passing
address of original document and not a
xerox copy. Therefore, changes made on the
original document applies to the owner of
the document as well. Let us see how our
Swap program behaves when we pass the
variable by reference, i.e. by passing address
of variable, as we intended by reflecting the
changes made in the function in the calling
function as well.
Example 8.3: RefSwap.cpp to
Demonstrate the Concept of Passing
of Variable by Reference
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// function prototype declarations
template<class T>
void Swap ( T & x , T & y); // to
interchange values by reference
void main() //Calling Function
{ float x=100.00; // x & y are local
to main()
float y=1000.00;
int a=5 , b=10;
cout<<”\n Before calling Swap function
<x and y >”<< x<<”\t”<<y<<endl;
cout<<”\n Before calling Swap function
<a and b >”<< a<<”\t”<<b<<endl;
// call the function and pass
arguments x & y
Swap(x,y); //Called Function
Swap(a,b); //Called Function
cout<<”\n After return from Swap <x
and y >”<<x<<”\t”<<y<<endl;
cout<<”\n After return Swap function
<a and b >”<< a<<”\t”<<b<<endl;
}//end of main
// function definition
template<class T>
void Swap ( T &x , T &y)
{ float temp ; // temp is local to
Swap function
temp = x; // store x in temp
x=y; // store y in x
y=temp; // store temp in y
cout<<”\n Inside Swap <x and y
>”<<x<<”\t”<<y<<endl;
} // end of Swap//
//output : Before calling Swap function
<x and y >100 1000
Before calling Swap function <a and b
>5 10
Inside Swap <x and y >1000 100
Inside Swap <x and y >10 5
After return from Swap <x and y >1000
100
After return Swap function <a and b
>10 5*/
For group and user-defined data
structures, like structures and unions, call by
value method is inefficient. Instead, we will
employ call by reference method to move
large data items. Study the following
example. Sort.cpp. A program to
demonstrate passing of array by reference.
In this example, we will pass the array of
integers by reference to a function called
intsort, which sorts the array in the
ascending order.
Example 8.4: Sort.cpp. A
Program to Demonstrate Passing of
Array by Reference
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// function prototype declarations
template<class T>
void Sort( int n , T a[]); // receives
number of items & array
void main()
{ int i,n=10;// number of items
int a[] ={
67,87,56,23,100,19,789,117,6,1}; //
array with 10 elements
double b[] = {
18.0,87.9,92.1,1.0,5.0,8.7,78.99,34.0,21
.5,10.0};// array of double
cout<< “\n Given integer array”<<endl;
for (i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<” “<<a[i];
// we are passing array a. Note that
array name is ‘a’ . Name is address.
Sort(n,a);
cout<<”\n Sorted integer array \n”;
for (i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<” “<<a[i];
cout<< “\n Given double array”<<endl;
for (i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<” “<<b[i];
// we are passing array b. Note that
array name is ‘b’ . Name is address.
Sort(n,b);
cout<<”\n Sorted double array \n”;
for (i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<” “<<b[i];
}//end of main
// function definition
template<class T>
void Sort(int n , T a[])
{ for ( int i=0; i< n-1; i++) // last
value need not be sorted
{ T temp;
// find the smallest of remaining
numbers and exchange it with for ( int
j=i+1; j< n; j++)
{ if (a[j] < a[i])
{ // swap
temp=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=temp;
}
}
}
}
//Output : Given integer array
67 87 56 23 100 19 789 117 6 1
Sorted integer array
1 6 19 23 56 67 87 100 117 789
Given double array
18 87.9 92.1 1 5 8.7 78.99 34 21.5 10
Sorted double array
1 5 8.7 10 18 21.5 34 78.99 87.9
92.1*/
As array is a data structure comprising
several data types, compiler passes it as
reference. Note that we have called
Sort(n,a); 'a' means name of the
array. Name means the address of the array.
In effect, we have given the address of the
array to Sort function. The algorithm we
have used for sorting integers is simple,
though not very efficient. We will learn more
about call by reference through usage of
pointers.
8.5 Call by Constant Reference
When you pass a variable by reference,
because of its large size, there is a danger
that receiving function can alter the value. If
you want to prevent the function from
changing the value, there is a provision to
pass by constant reference.
Example 8.5:
callbyconstref.cpp: Passing
Constant Reference to a Function
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// function prototype declarations
void PrintNetPay(const float & BP ,
float & cr , float db); void main()
{ float bp=2000.00, cr = 0.60*bp, db =
.25*bp;
// we are passing variables by value ,
by reference and by constant reference
PrintNetPay(bp,cr,db);
}//end of main
// function definition
void PrintNetPay(const float &bp, float
& cr , float db)
{ float total = bp+cr-db;
//bp+=1000.00; // error . l-value
specifies const object. constant
reference .
//Hence cannot be altered. Hence
commented out
cout<<”\n Total Net Pay = “<<
total<<endl;
}
//Output :Total Net Pay = 2700 */
8.6 Recursion
Recursion is an advanced feature supported
by C++ language. Recursion means a
function calling itself. Consider the problem
of finding a factorial of a number. In the
example, we can clearly see that Fact(5) is
calling Fact(4) and so on.
Fact(5) = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
= 5 x Fact(4)
= 5 x 4 x Fact(3)
= 5 x 4 x 3x Fact(2)
= 5 x 4 x 3x 2 x Fact(1)
= 5 x 4 x 3x 2 x 1 x Fact(0)
= 5 x 4 x 3x 2 x 1 ( Fact(0) =1)
Example 8.6: factrecur.cpp A
Program for Finding Factorial of a
Number Using Recursion
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// function prototype
int fact(int a);
void main()
{ int x,ans;
cout<<»enter a number:»;
cin>>x; //input from the user*/
ans=fact(x); //function call*/
cout<<»\nfactorial=»<<ans<<endl;
} //end of main*/
int fact(int a) //function definition*/
{ int ans;
if(a<=0)
return(1); // fact(0) = 1 by
definition
else
ans =a*fact(a-1); //function call
with recursion*/
return(ans); //returns the value of
fact to main*/
} //end of function fact*/
// Output: enter a number:7
factorial=5040*/
8.7 Inline Functions
Each time a function is called there are some
overheads like saving the current address,
branching off to code area where function
code area, passing arguments and returning
to main function on completion of execution
of function. For large functions, this process
is justifiable, but for one or two line body
functions, this lengthy and resource-
consuming process is not justifiable. Hence,
C++ has provided inline function.
template<class T>
inline void FindMax( T & a , T & b ){
return ( (a > b) ? a : b ) ; }
When compiler sees the keyword inline, it
places the entire code for FindMax rather
than resorting to its usual function-handling
technique, thus saving the overheads
associated with C++ way of handling
functions. Caution: Using inline functions
for large functions can be counterproductive
as entire functions are reproduced for each
call of the function. Therefore, use inline
functions for one or two line functions with
short codes. Functions declared and defined
inside the class definition are inline
functions automatically, though you might
not have used the keyword inline.
8.8 Function Overloading
When a single function can do more than
one job, then again overheads of the
compiler get reduced. For example, if one
wants to compute the area of a circle, the
surface area of a football as well as the
surface area of a cylinder. How many
functions does one have to write? Normally,
three functions. But in C++ one function
overloaded to perform all the three jobs is
sufficient. Overloaded functions decide
which version of the code is to be loaded into
primary memory depending on the
argument supplied by the user. Why is
overloading important? Functions have to
be compiled and loaded into primary
memory. If a function is NOT overloaded, all
the functions have to be loaded and linked at
compile time itself. The user may or may not
use all the functions loaded, thus wasting
primary memory and making it unavailable
to solve complex problems requiring more
primary memory
// one argument area of circle
template<class T>
inline void FindArea( T & r ){ return (
2*3.14158*r*r ) ; }
// two argument surface area of the
cylinder
template<class T>
inline void FindArea( T & r , T &h ){
return ( 4*3.14158*r*h ) ;
}
8.9 Default Arguments
Functions accept arguments and perform
their job. But what happens if you do not
supply the values for the arguments? There
is a provision in C++ to specify the default
option. If you supply the arguments, the
function would adopt them; if you do not
supply the values for the arguments the
function will assume default options. You
can specify the default option for all or only
for part of the arguments, but specifying
default options must commence from left to
right. It is illegal (compiler error) to specify
default values for right edge arguments.
float FindVolume( float l=10.0, float
b=20.0 , float h=30.0); //
default for all . O.K.
float FindVolume( float l=10.0, float
b=20.0 , float h); // default
only for l & b. O.K.
float FindVolume( T l=10.0, T b , T h);
// default only for l . O.K.
float FindVolume( float l, float b ,
float h=30.0); // default only
for h . Not O.K.
We must supply default arguments from
left to right. You cannot specify default value
for h without specifying values for l and b. In
the example program that follows, we will
show the working of inline functions,
function overloading and default functions.
The problem is to find the area of different
objects like circle, cylinder, etc. The
function, FindArea() will be overloaded to
achieve area of square or area of rectangle,
depending on whether the user supplies one
argument or two arguments. Of course, we
will use inline function templates as usual
for practice:
Example 8.7: fnoverload.cpp A
Program to Show fn Overloading
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// function prototype declarations
template<class T>
inline T FindArea( T r ){ return (
r*r ) ; }
// two argument surface area of the
cylinder
template<class T>
inline T FindArea( T r, T h ){ return
( r*h ) ; }
inline int FindSum( int a=10 , int
b=20 , int c=30) { return a+b+c ;}
void main() //Calling Function
{cout<<”\n Function overloading for
Different Number and Different Types of
Arguments”<<endl;
cout<<”\n calling FindArea(r) function <
r >-integer argument:”<<FindArea(10)
<<endl;
cout<<”\n calling FindArea( r , h )
function - float 2 arguments
:”<<FindArea(10.5,20.5)<<endl;
cout<<”\n calling FindArea( r , h )
function - integers 2 arguments
:”<<FindArea(10,20)<<endl;
cout<<”\n***********************”<<endl;
cout<<”\n a and b and c values set as
default values are
:”<<10<<”\t”<<20<<”\t”<<30<<endl;
cout<<”\n FindSum with no arguments
supplied “ <<FindSum()<<endl;
cout<<”\n FindSum with : a (one )
arguments supplied
“<<100<<”\t”<<FindSum(100)<<endl;
cout<<”\n FindSum with : a and b (two )
arguments
supplied”<<100<<”\t”<<200<<”\t”
<<FindSum(100,200)<<endl;
cout<<”\n FindSum with : a and b (two )
arguments
supplied”<<100<<”\t”<<200<<”\t”<<300<<”\
t”<<FindSum(100,200,300)<<endl;
}
//Output: Function over loading for
Different Number and Different Types of
Arguments
calling FindArea(r) function < r >-
integer argument:100
calling FindArea( r , h ) function -
float 2 arguments :215.25
calling FindArea( r , h ) function -
integers 2 arguments :200
a and b and c values set as default
values are :10 20 30
FindSum with no arguments supplied 60
FindSum with : a (one ) arguments
supplied 100 150
FindSum with : a and b (two ) arguments
supplied100 200 330
FindSum with : a and b (two ) arguments
supplied 100 200 300 600*/
8.10 Memory Management of C++
The following table gives details of memory
management of C++. It is important that
you clearly understand the concept.
Memory can be broadly divided into data
area or code area also called data segment
and code segment. Based on the
requirements of access times, scope and life
of variables, the memory is divided into
global, heap, code area, stack and static area,
as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Memory organization of C++ language
Global: Include section, All declarations and
function declarations, structures definitions are accessible
and global variables to all the functions.
Heap Memory: Access to Memory remaining after
heap memory is only through allocating space to
pointers i.e. through New and global, code and
delete functions stack/static variables
Code Area: The C++ code, Code for all functions is
Functions etc. are stored in this stored here
section
Stack Variables: All variables Life of variable is till life
you declare are stores on Stack. of function in which it is
Also called Stack variables declared, called local
variables
Static Variables: Life of static variable is
till of main ().
Accessible to all
Functions
Global Variables: These are
declarations such as include sections, define
statements, function prototype declaration,
and declarations of structures and unions,
which have scope that extends to all
functions. It means that any variable
declared in global section can be accessed by
all functions. This section appears before the
main () function.
Code Area: All the functions and their
codes are stored here.
Stack Area: All the variables declared in
a function are automatically allocated space
in the stack area of the memory. The scope
of the variable is local. This means that a
variable declared in a function is accessible
only within the function. Further, the life of
variables declared within the function is life
of the function itself, i.e. within the brace
brackets of the function. Hence, these
variables are called local variables or
automatic or autovariables. Consider the
example given in Table 8.2 for local or
autovariables.
Table 8.2 Storage classes with their location, scope and life
span
Static Variables: In several situations,
you will need accessibility of variables
declared in a function for all function; we
will declare such variables as static. For
example,
Variables declared as static are stored in
contiguous memory locations. The syntax is
shown in Figure 8.1. The only special feature
of static area is that the variables in this
static area are not erased, even if function
terminates. For example, we have declared
times as static int to keep track of the
number of times FindArea is called by
main() function. We have also initialized
times = 0. It is incremented when the first
time function is called. Next time, when
FindArea() is called it is incremented by 1
to 2.
Figure 8.1 Syntax for static variables
Heap Memory or Free Space: After
allocating mandatory spaces for all the
above storage classes, the memory still free
is called heap memory or free space. This is
dynamic memory available to the
programmer for requirements of memory at
run-time. But access to this space is
available only through pointers.
8.10.1 Types of Storage Classes
Storage classes supported by C language are
shown in Table 8.2.
Note that while static global and external
declarations have reach to all functions,
there is one vital difference. Static global
declarations and definitions are available
only through a single main() function,
whereas declarations and definitions using
extern are available even to programs
written separately with different file names
but compiled and linked with the main()
program. An example will make the
concepts clear:
Example 8.8: stackstatic.cpp A
Program to Demonstrate Usage of
Static and Stack(auto) Variable
#include<iostream>
Using namespace std;
#include<conio.h>
float FindArea ( float x , float y); //
function prototype declarations
void main()
{ int i;
float x=200, y=100, area=0,ans;
for (i=0;i<10;i++) // call function
FindArea 10 times
{ ans = FindArea(x++,y++);cout<<”\n
area = “ << ans;}
cout<<»\n Address of variable ans in
the main function : “<<ans;
}// end of main
// function definition
float FindArea(float x, float y)
{ static int times=0; // static variable
to keep track of number of times
// function is called.
float ans;
ans=x*y;
times++;
cout<<”\n number of times we have
called findArea function = “<<times;
if (times ==10)
cout<<»\n Address of variable ans in
the FindArea function : “<<ans;
return ans;
}// end of FindArea
/*Output : number of times we have
called findArea function = 1
area =20000.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 2
area =20301.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 3
area =20604.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 4
area =20909.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 5
area =21216.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 6
area =21525.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 7
area =21836.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 8
area =22149.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 9
area =22464.00
number of times we have called findArea
function = 10
Address of variable ans in the FindArea
function : 12ff04
area =22781.00
Address of variable ans in the main
function : 12ff6c*/
Example 8.9: reg.cpp. A Program
to Demonstrate Usage of Register
Storage Class usage.Stack(auto)
Variable
Note that registers of CPU reside on the
processor chip; the exact number depends
on the hardware of the processor and is
considered the primary memory and hence
enjoy fastest access times. However, having
limited memory, they have to be used
sparingly. For example, variables which are
most frequently used by CPU can be
declared as register variables thus saving
access times. In the following example, we
would use register memory to store counter
of control loop, square and square root of a
number.
#include<iostrem>
using namespace std;
void main()
{register counter,square,sqroot;
for(counter=1;counter <=10; counter ++)
{ square= counter* counter;
cout<<”\nnumber :”<<counter<< “ square
: “<< square <<endl;
}
}
/*Output: number : 1 : square : 1
number : 2 : square : 4
number : 3 : square : 9
number : 4 : square : 16
number : 5 : square : 25
number : 6 : square : 36
number : 7 : square : 49
number : 8 : square : 64
number : 9 : square : 81
number : 10 : square : 100*/
Example 8.10: extern.cpp A
Program to Demonstrate Usage of
Extern Variable
usage.usage.stack(auto) Variable
Variable declared out side void main()
function comes under external storage
class.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#include<conio.h>
// external function
void FindArea();
float x=10;float y=10;float area;
void main()
{ extern float area; extern float x;
extern float y;
area=0;
cout<<”\n area before calling
FindArea : “<<area<<endl;
FindArea ();
cout<<”\n area after calling FindArea
: “<<area<<endl;
getch();
}// end of main
void FindArea()// fn declaration
{extern float x; extern float y;extern
float area;
area = x*y;
cout<<”\n area inside FindArea :
“<<area<<endl;}
/*Output:area before calling FindArea
0.000000
area inside FindArea 100.000000
area after return from FindArea
100.000000*/
Note that although FindArea did not return
the value of the area, the main program has
shown the correct value of area. Thus, we
can use external declaration for avoiding
passing of variable to and from functions.
We can also use extern declarations and
definitions to link variables declared in two
different files. We will attempt to
demonstrate the concept through our next
example:
Example 8.11: externfile.cpp A
Program to Demonstrate Usage of
External Program
usage.usage.stack(auto) Variable
External file is stored in another file. Write
C++ code for void FindArea() and save it
as findarea.h in the current directory.
#include<stdio.h>
void FindArea()
{ extern float x; extern float y;extern
float area;
area = x*y;
cout<<“\n area inside FindArea
:”<<area;
}
Write C++ code for void main () and
include it along with other include
statements as shown below:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#include<conio.h>
#include”findarea.h” // findarea.h is
stored in the current working directory
void FindArea(); // external function
float x=10;float y=10;float area;
void main()
{ extern float area; extern float x;
extern float y;
area=0;
cout<<”\n area before calling FindArea
: “<<area<<endl;
FindArea ();
cout<<”\n area after calling FindArea :
“<<area<<endl;
getch();
}// end of main
Note that you can use
#include<findarea.h> if you copy the
findarea.h
into directory c:\tc\include/*
Output: area before calling FindArea
0.000000
area inside FindArea 100.000000
area after return from FindArea
100.000000
8.11 Header Files and Standard Libraries
C++ language does not contain any built-in
function. But it contains standard library
provided by C++ supplier. The files stored in
these library files, also called header files,
contain all useful functions, their
definitions, declaration of data types and
constants. We have already used several of
them like iostream and conio.h. A few of
them are provided here:
iostream.h : contains basic stream IO
files for c++
stdio.h : facilitates input output
statements.
iomanip.h : Contains IO manipulators
conio.h : contains functions used in
calling IO routines
math.h : Contains library functions.
Note that x can be float or double. C
language does not support expression of
type x ^a. We need to use pow(x,a).
sqrt(x) : determines square root of
x
pow(,x,a) : computes x^a
exp(x) : computes e^x
sin(x) and cos(x): computes sin and
cosine
log(x) : computes natural log
log10(x) : computes log to base 10
stdlib.h : Contains standard library
like search and sort routines, etc.
abs(x) : computes absolute value of
integer x
atof(s) : converts a string s to a
double
atoi(s) : converts to integer
malloc() : allocates memory and
returns a pointer to the location.
calloc() : same as malloc() but
initializes the memory with 0s.
free(x) : frees heap memory space
pointed by x
rand() : generates a random number.
string.h : Contains string-related
functions such as
strlen() : length of the char array
strcpy() : copies a string to
another
strcat() : concatenates two strings
strcmp() : compares two strings .
strlwr() : converts from uppercase
to lowercase
struper() : converts from uppercase
to lowercase
strrev() : reverses a string
8.12 C++ Preprocessor
The preprocessor does some housekeeping
function before submitting the source code
to the C compiler. The jobs it performs are:
1. Inclusion of all include section files. For example, it
fetches and appends stdio.h from tc\include directory
and includes in source file.
2. Macro expansion. Actually preprocessor carries out
substitution for declarations given in Macro statement.
For example, in the statement
#define PI 3.14159, preprocessor searches for
occurrence of symbol PI and replaces it with 3.141519.
3. Conditional inclusion. To prevent inclusion second and
multiple number of times, we can employ conditional
inclusion.
4. String replacements.
The standard directives available in C++ language are:
#include include text from the
specified file
#define define a macro
#undefine indefine a macro
#if test if a condition holds at
compile time
#endif end of if (conditional
preprocessor)
#elif if–else–if for multiple
paths at compilation time
#line provides line number
8.12.1 Macro Expansion
Example 8.12: macro1.cpp A
Program to Show Macro Expansion.
A Program to Show fn Overloading
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
using namespace std;
#define GETDATA cout << “Enter the
value: “ <<endl
void main()
{int x , y;
GETDATA;
cin >> x ;
GETDATA;
cin >> y;
cout << endl << «values entered are «
<<x << « « << y;
getch();
}
// Output: Enter the value: 35
Enter the value: 45
values entered are 35 45*/
Preprocessor directive like #define
GETDATA cout << «Enter the value: «
<<endl will simply substitutes all the
occurrences of GETDATA with cout <<
«Enter the value: « <<endl
8.12.2 Macro Definition with Arguments
The general syntax of macro with arguments
is #define macro-name (arg1,arg2,
arg3,………..argn). Examples are shown
below:
Example 8.13: macro2.cpp. A
Program to Demonstrate the Usage
of Preprocessor Directives. A
Program to Show fn Overloading
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
using namespace std;
// substitution & macro definition
macros
#define GETDATA cout << “Enter the
value: “ <<endl
#define WRITEDATA(ans) cout << ans
#define SUM(a,b) ((a)+(b))
#define PRODUCT(a,b) ((a)*(b))
#define MIN(a,b) ((a)>(b)?(a): (b))
void main()
{ int x , y , ans;
GETDATA;
cin >> x;
GETDATA;
cin >> y;
ans=PRODUCT(x,y);
cout <<endl << «product of numbers is:
«;
WRITEDATA(ans);
ans=SUM(x,y);
cout << endl << «sum of numbers is: «;
WRITEDATA(ans);
getch();
}
// OUTPUT: Enter the value: 7
Enter the value: 5
product of numbers is: 35
sum of numbers is: 12*/
8.12.3 File Inclusion
All include files are placed at directory
c:\tc\include for turbo C++ compiler or
in c:\program files\ [Microsoft Visual
Studio folder]\VC\include for Microsoft
VC++ compiler. Hence, if you copy any
heard file written by you into this directory,
you can include this file as #include
<findarea.h>. If you have placed the file
in the current directory, you can include
such a file with preprocessor directive #
include “findarea.h”.
8.12.4 Conditional Inclusion
Conditional Inclusion of some parts of
source code is done using conditional
inclusion macros. The syntax is
#if constant expression
statement sequence
#endif
or
#if constant expression
statement sequence
#else
statement sequence
#endif
Example 8.14: elseifmacro.cpp A
Program to Demonstrate the Usage
#if, #else and #Endif
Preprocessor Directive. A Program
to Show fn Overloading
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
using namespace std;
#define UPPER 5000
#define BONUS1 1000
#define BONUS2 500
#define bp 1000
void main()
{ int netpay;
cout << ”The basic pay is: ” << bp ;
#if bp < UPPER
netpay=bp + BONUS1;
#else
netpay=bp+BONUS2;
#endif
cout <<endl << ”netpay = ” << netpay;
getch();
} // end of main
//Output: Enter the basic pay 1000
netpay = 2000*/
8.12.5 Conditional Compilation #ifdef and
#ifndef Statements
In order to prevent inclusion of macros
more than once and leading to multiple
declarations, we can use macro #ifdef and
#ifndef to indicate if defined and if not
defined. The general syntax is:
#ifdef macroname #ifndef
Statements or statements
#endif #endif
8.12.6 #undef
A macro must be undefined before it is
redefined. Consider the macro definitions.
In this module, we will also use conditional
inclusion like #ifdef
Example 8.15: undef.cpp A
Program to Show the Usage of
Undefine
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
using namespace std;
#define UPPER 100
#define LOWER 10
#define WRITEDATA cout << “answer = “ <<
ans << endl ;
void main()
{ int temp= 70,ans=10;
if (temp<UPPER && temp>LOWER)
WRITEDATA;
#ifdef UPPER
#undef UPPER
#endif
#ifdef LOWER
#undef LOWER
#endif
// now we can set new limits for UPPER
& LOWER
#define UPPER 60
#define LOWER 50
if (temp<UPPER && temp > LOWER)
WRITEDATA;
getch();
}// end of main
//Output: Answer=10(printed from the 1st
if statement, the second WRITEDATA is
not executed as the 2nd if loop returns
a false.)*/
8.12.7 #error Macros
#error macro usage is shown below. When
#error macro is encountered, the compiler
displays the error message. Note that error
message is not in double quotes
#ifdef UPPER
#include<upper.h>
#elifdef // this macro is similar to if–
else–if
#include<lower.h>
#else
#error Incorrect inclusion of Header
files
#endif
8.13 Arrays
In day-to-day life, there are several
occasions wherein we have to store data of
the same type in contiguous locations, like
marks obtained by a student in six different
subjects are shown in an array named
marks in Figure 8.2. Elements of the
array are referenced by array name followed
by subscript. We have shown an array
named marks; six subject marks scored by
the student can be represented by
marks[0]=80.0, marks[5]=70.0, etc.
Figure 8.2 Representation of an array
General syntax of array is: storage
class data type array [expression]
Note that storage class is optional. Data
type is data type of the array. Array is name
and expression is a positive integer.
Examples of valid declarations of array are:
float marks[6] = { 60.0 , 66.0, 70.0 ,
80.0 , 90.0, 100};
float marks[] = { 60.0 , 66.0, 70.0 ,
80.0 , 90.0, 100.0};// no need to
declare dimension
char stg[]={ ‘g’,’o’,’o’,’d’};
8.13.1 How are Arrays Stored in the
Memory?
Consider an array named x, declared as int
x[]= {80,90,100,50,65,70};
The addresses shown above are dummy
addresses. Using of size of operators would
tell us the memory requirement of data type
int on your hardware. Assuming that it is 2
bytes, the memory of the array element is
shown in Figure 8.2.
8.13.2 Array Initialization
Refer to Figure 8.3 and the values stored in
the array: int x[6]. We can initialize and
allocate the values shown above with the
statement
Figure 8.3 Representation arrays with memory locations
shown
int x[] = { 80,90,100,50,65,70;}
Alternatively, we can use cin and cout to
obtain the values for array x as shown below:
cout<<”\n Enter Number of Terms in the
array :”;
cin>>n;
Example 8.16: array.cpp Write a
Program to Display the Array
Elements Along with their Address.
Sizeof Operator Provide Size of Data
Type in Bytes.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int i,n; //number of elements of array
x
int x[]={80,90,100,50,65,70};
n= sizeof(x)/sizeof(int);
cout<<”\n size of data type <int>:”<<
sizeof(int)<<endl;
cout<<”\n Memory space allocated to
x[6]:”<<sizeof(x)<<endl;
cout<<”\n no of elements in array x =
“<<n<<endl;
cout<<”\n array elements\taddress in
hexa “;
for (i=0;i<n; i++)
cout<<”\n”<<x[i]<<”\t\t”<<&x[i]<<endl;
cout<<”\n”;
}
//Output :size of data type <int>:4
Memory space allocated to x[6]:24
no of elements in array x = 6
array elements address in hexa
80 0012FF60
90 0012FF64
100 0012FF68
50 0012FF6
65 0012FF70
70 0012FF74*/
If your program exceeds at run time the
space originally allocated when the array
was declared, then array out of bounds error
results .We can use cin to read into an array.
In the following example, we will show use
of cin.get() function when we reverse
the string.
Example 8.17: revstg.cpp//
revstg.cpp A Program to Read the
Input String Character by Character
from Keyboard and Reverse the
String
// #include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// function prototype declarations
void main()
{ int count=0,i;
int len; // length of the string
char c;
char x[20]; // array of characters .
string
cout<<”\n Enter a word and press
<enter> :”;
c=cin.get(); // // get a character
while ( c!=’\n’) // ‘\n’ is end of
line character, i.e. pressing
enter key
{x[count]=c;
count++;
c=cin.get();
}
// we have reached end of line. Append
‘\0’ to the string
x[count]= ‘\0’;
len = count;
// Now display the string you have just
read
cout<<”\n String inputted : “<<x;
cout<<”\n space allocated to single
char(byte) :”<<sizeof(char) <<endl;
cout<<”\n Memory space allocated to
string x[] :”<< sizeof(x) <<endl;
cout<<”\n No of characters in the string
x [] : “<<len<<endl;
// now reverse the string
cout<<”\n string X reversed : “;
for ( i=len-1;i>=0;i--)
cout<<x[i];
}//Output :Enter a word and press
<enter> :HELLO
String inputted : HELLO
space allocated to single char(byte) :1
Memory space allocated to string x[] :20
No of characters in the string x [] : 5
string X reversed : OLLEH */
8.13.3 Multi-dimensional Arrays
Arrays can have more than one-dimension.
For example, a matrix is a two-dimensional
array with a number of rows and a number
of columns is shown in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4 A two-dimensional matrix
Example 8.18: transpose.cpp. A
Program to Find the Transpose of a
Matrix
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// functional prototype declarations
void Transpose( int A[10][10], int n
);// n is the order of square matrix
void ReadMatrix( int A[10][10], int n );
void PrintMatrix( int A[10][10], int n
);
void main()
{ int n,A[10][10];
cout<<”Enter the order of square
matrix <n>”;
cin>>n;
ReadMatrix(A,n);
cout<<”The elements of the Matrix
are:”<<endl;
PrintMatrix(A,n);
cout<<”The elements of the Transpose
Matrix are:\n”<<endl;
Transpose(A,n); //function call. A is
name of matrix. Name is address is
} //end of main
void Transpose(int A[10][10],int n)
//function definition*/
{ for(int i=0;i<n;i++) //loop1. i=1
because you don’t have to touch
x[0][0]
{ int t;
for(int j=0;j<i;j++) //loop2
{t=A[i][j];
A[i][j]=A[j][i]; //swapping
A[j][i]=t;
} //end of loop2
}
PrintMatrix(A,n); // output the matrix
} //end of function transpose
void ReadMatrix( int A[10][10], int n)
{cout<<”Enter the elements :”<<endl;
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
cin>>A[i][j]; //input elements*/
}
}//end of ReadMatrix
void PrintMatrix( int A[10][10], int n)
{for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{ for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
{ cout<<”\t”<<A[i][j]; }
cout<<”\n”<<endl;
}
}//end of ReadMatrix
//output : Enter the order of square
matrix <n>2
Enter the elements
1 2 3 4
The elements of the Matrix are:
1 2
3 4
The elements of the Transpose Matrix
are:
1 3
2 4 */
8.13.4 Character Array – String Handling in
C++ Language
An array of characters is called a string
variable. A string variable will always be
automatically terminated with ‘\0’ (NULL)
character. C++ compiler treats occurrence of
NULL character to mean the end of string.
In the following program, we would check
for occurrence of ‘\0’ to indicate the end of
strings. Consider string declaration shown
below and decide which type of declaration
is best for C++ language.
char city[6] =”Mumbai”; // incorrect as
no space for adding ‘\0’ (NULL)
character.
char city[7] =”Mumbai”; // correct .
‘\0’ (NULL) character is added
automatically.
char city[] =”Mumbai”; // correct .
‘\0’ (NULL) character is added
automatically.
// This is the
preferred mode and we will be using this
mode.
Example 8.19: concat.cpp A
Program to Concatenate Two
Strings
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// Fn Prototypes
void Concat ( char x[],char y[]);
void main()
{ char x[20],y[20]; // x & y are two
strings
cout<<»enter any 2 strings\n»;
cin>>x>>y; //input 2 strings from the
user*/
Concat(x,y); //function call*/
}//end of main*/
void Concat(char a[],char b[])
//function definition*/
{ for(int i=0;a[i]!=’\0’;i++) // check
for ‘\0’ occurrence
cout<<a[i];
cout<<» «;
for(i=0;b[i]!=’\0’;i++)
cout<<b[i];
} //end of function concat*/
// output :enter any 2 strings HELLO
BROTHER : HELLO BROTHER*/
The best way to learn programming is to
write programs. Let us write our own code
for achieving the above functionality. The
problems and solutions are in the worked
example section at the end of this chapter.
8.14 Summary
1. Functions help the main task to be decomposed into
smaller modules. Calling function is one which calls a
called function.
2. The function prototype is declared before, void main
(), in the global area, so that it is accessible by all other
functions.
3. Function takes care of all data types. One function
executes for all data types depending on the arguments
supplied at run time.
4. Mode of data transfer between calling function and
called function, by copying variables listed as arguments
into called function stack area and, subsequently,
returning the value by called function to calling function
by copying the result into stack area of the main
function is called call by value.
5. In call by reference, we pass the address to the function.
Once the function receives a data item by reference, it
acts on the data item and the changes made to the data
item also reflect on the calling function.
6. Call by constant reference is used when we want to
prevent values being changed by the receiving function.
7. Recursion means a function calling itself.
8. Inline functions mean C++ replaces the entire function
code rather than resorts to the usual function-handling
mechanisms.
9. Function overloading means one function performing
more than one task depending on the arguments
supplied at run time.
10. If values for the arguments function are not supplied,
then function will assume default options. We must
supply default arguments from left to right.
11. Variables declared as static are stored in contiguous
memory locations. The only special feature of static area
is that the variables in this static area are not erased,
even if the function terminates.
12. After allocating mandatory spaces for all the above
storage classes, the memory still free, is called heap
memory or free space. But access to this space is
available only through pointers.
13. Declarations and definitions using extern are available
even to programs written separately with different file
names but compiled and linked with the main()
program.
14. The preprocessor does some housekeeping function
before submitting the source code to the C compiler like
inclusion of all include section files, macro expansion,
conditional inclusion and string replacements.
15. Arrays store data of the same type in contiguous
locations.
16. An array of characters is called a string variable. A string
variable will always be automatically terminated with
‘\0’ (NULL) character.
17. C++ has implemented all the functionality of C language
string-based functions, compiler provides a full-fledged
class called string. You can use #include <string>
to realize the functionality.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. What is the value of y = floor(35.5 )?
1. 35
2. 35.5
3. 36
4. 35.0
2. What is the value of y = ceil(35.5 )?
1. 35
2. 35.5
3. 36
4. 35.0
3. sizeof() operator in C++ is a Library
function TRUE/FALSE
4. getch() and getche() perform the same
operation TRUE/FALSE
5. In #include<iostream.h> statement ,
stdio.h, under turbo C++, is available at
1. current directory
2. tc\include
3. tc\bin
4. none
6. In #include “circle.h” statement, circle.h is available
at
1. current directory
2. tc\include
3. tc\bin
4. none
7. What will be output for cout<< 65?
1. a
2. A
3. 10
4. B
8. When two strings are equal strcmp(stg1,stg2)
returns
1. −1
2. 0
3. 1
4. true
9. Call by reference is a default mode of transferring values
to a function TRUE/FALSE
10. For recursive procedures, we can use the following
storage allocations:
1. static
2. heap
3. stack
4. global
11. The following copies the value of an argument into the
formal parameters of the subroutine:
1. call by value
2. call by reference
3. call by name
4. none
12. The following copies the value of an argument into the
formal parameters of the subroutine:
1. call by value
2. call by reference
3. call by name
4. none
13. Character array must be terminated with
1. \0
2. \n
3. \a
4. \t
14. An array without initial values contains
1. all zeros
2. all 1s
3. garbage value
4. none of the above
15. Array can be initialized at the time of declaration itself
using
1. [ ]
2. { }
3. ( and )
4. single quotes
16. The number in a square bracket of an array is called
1. superscript
2. subscript
3. dimension
4. range
17. Array declared as array A[m] the elements are
subscripted between
1. 0….m
2. 0….m+1
3. 1……m
4. 0…..m−1
18. An array is always passed
1. using pass by value to a function
2. using pass by reference to a function
3. left to programs
4. pass by name
19. If int A[6] is a one-dimensional array of integers, which
of the following refers to the value of the fourth element
in the array:
1. A[4]
2. A[2]
3. A[3]
4. none
Short-answer Questions
20. Distinguish the switch and if–else statements.
21. When do you use for statement and while statements?
State the situation when for statement is better than
while statement.
22. Explain the differences of do-while and while
statements.
23. Why is goto statement not preferred?
24. Explain the continue and break statements with
examples.
25. Explain call by reference call by value.
26. Explain the need to declare function prototype before
main() function.
27. What are the storage classes?
28. Explain the difference between static and stack storage.
29. Distinguish global and external declarations.
30. What is the role of preprocessors?
31. What are macros? Explain the #ifdef and #ifndef
statements with examples.
32. What is a function template?
33. Distinguish call by value and call by reference.
34. What is call by constant reference?
35. What is function overloading?
36. What hat are preprocessor directives?
37. Why are inclusion directives important?
38. List a few important functions contained in String
header file.
Long-answer Questions
39. Write in detail about one-dimensional and multi-
dimensional arrays. Also write about how initial values
can be specified for each type of array.
1. In what way is array different from ordinary variable?
2. What conditions must be satisfied by all the elements of any given
array?
3. What are subscripts? How are they written? What restrictions
apply to the values that can be assigned to subscripts?
4. What are the advantages in defining an array size in terms of a
symbolic constant rather than a fixed integer quantity?
40. How are multi-dimensional arrays defined? Compare
with the manner in which one-dimensional arrays are
defined.
41. Explain memory mapping of C++ language.
42. What are storage classes? Explain with suitable
examples.
43. What are macros and preprocessor directives? Explain
with suitable examples.
Assignment Questions
44. Write a function template that returns position of a
given value in an array.
45. Write a function template program to find sum of n
natural numbers using recursion.
46. Write a macros in C++ for displaying error message
using #error directive. Also program using macros to
find the largest of the two numbers.
47. Write a function template to sort an array. Test your
code for array of strings also by including string header
in your program.
48. Write a function template to merge two sorted arrays.
49. Write a program to print the ASCII table for range 30 to
122.
50. Write a file named mystring.h, comprising all the above
function modules at problem 12. Include the header file
in your driver program and test all the modules.
51. Write a program to find the largest element in an array.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. a
2. c
3. True
4. False
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. b
9. False
10. c
11. a
12. b
13. a
14. c
15. b
16. b
17. d
18. b
19. c
9
Pointers and References
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, you should be
able to understand and use
Pointers and references, and know when to use
what?
Objects and pointers.
Objects and references.
Dangling pointers and memory leaks.
Constant pointers, constant objects and references.
9.1 Introduction
In our experience of teaching C++, we found
that learners are pretty confused about
pointers and references and related memory
management. This is mainly because they
would have probably picked up the “what”
of pointers and references and not the
“why” of pointers and references. In this
chapter, we would like to bring out special
characteristics of pointers and references
like
Pointers are just like any other variables.
Pointers have an address like a variable.
Pointers point to a variable or a structure like array or
an object.
If you want a value of the object pointed by pointer just
dereference the pointer.
Operator new allocates memory for the pointer and
delete frees the memory.
The best part of pointers is that they can be reassigned.
References are another name for the object.
References always refer to the object.
References cannot be reassigned.
In this chapter, starting from basics we
would teach you how to handle pointers and
references for C++ paradigm, without
pitfalls such as dangling pointers and
memory leaks.
9.2 What, Why and How of Pointers
In C++, we would like to use pointers
because they point to location in memory
and are very efficient to move multiple data
items between the main program and
function as function arguments. In addition,
you can have pointers to a function and
execute different functions just by
reassigning the pointer based on the user's
choice. Pointers would facilitate
reassignment just like you can point at any
person with your index finger.
How does Arjuna, the famous archer in
Mahabharata, use his arrows? Firstly, he
removed an arrow from his storage.
Secondly, he gave a name (mantra like Nag
Astra as shown in Figure 9.1). Then he
points it toward the ground while thinking
or getting address from his guide (Lord
Krishna). He then pointed it to the ground
so that the arrow did not take off
accidentally and hit passers by or
unintended targets. Lastly, he aimed at the
target at the address given before letting it
go! We will also do the same in the case of
pointers.
Figure 9.1 A pointer example with terms
int *ptr=0; // you have created a
pointer of type int
// Note ptr is the pointer
// Pointer is the address
// *ptr is the value
// you have now pointed to NULL
(0 is treated as NULL)
When * precedes a variable in declaration
statement, it means that the variable is a
pointer variable. For example, ptr in int
*ptr=0; is a pointer variable. It is a good
safe programming practice to initialize the
pointer as soon as it is created.
9.3 Pointers Declaration and Usage
Let us say that at address 2513 we have
stored an integer variable called age as
shown in Figure 9.2. At address 2613 we
have integer variable age2.
Figure 9.2 Pointer in a memory
Example 9.1: Pointers Declaration
and Usage
int age=50;
int age2=18;
//we want pointer ptr to point to age;
ptr = & age; // you have assigned ptr
to age. & is called address operator
cout<< age; // displays 50
cout<<*ptr; // displays 50 . *ptr which
is value stored location, i.e. 50
//Once created you can reassign
pointers
ptr=& age2;
cout<<*ptr; // displays 18 . *ptr which
is value stored location, i.e. 18
Dereference or indirection operator (
*) is used to obtain the value pointed
by the pointer. For example,
cout<<*ptr; // displays 50
Example 9.2: ptr1.cpp Pointers
Usage
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int age1=50;
int age2=18;
//create a pointer
int * ptr=0;
// assign it to age1
ptr = & age1; // & is address of
operator
cout<<”\n age1 “<< age1<<endl; //
displays 50
cout<<”\n age1 with *ptr “<<
*ptr<<endl; // displays 50 .*ptr is
value.
cout<<”\n address using (&age1) and
ptr : “<<&age1<<”\t”<<ptr<<endl;
// ptr is address of age1, so is
&age1. Hence both must be same
// now we will reassign the same
pointer to age2
ptr = & age2;
cout<<”\n your age (*ptr) : “<<”\t”<<
*ptr; // displays 18 .*ptr is value
stored location
cout<<”\n address of (&age2) and ptr :
“<<& age2<<”\t”<<ptr<<endl;
// ptr is address of age2 so is &age2.
Hence both must be same.
cout<<”\n address of(&ptr) :”<<”\t”<<
& ptr<<endl; // prints out address of
variable
// ptr. We are not interested in this
address. It is just another address.
}//end of main
/*Output:
age1 50
age1 with *ptr 50
address using (&age1) and ptr : 0012FF7C
0012FF7C
your age (*ptr) : 18
address of (&age2) and ptr : 0012FF78
0012FF78
address of(&ptr) : 0012FF74
A note about address scheme of Intel
processors is appropriate: When you ask for
a display of address, the system would
display a 32-bit address like fffffff4 in
hexadecimal notation, which means
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0100
in binary.
9.4 Call by Value and Call by Reference
(Pointers)
What are they? You can pass variables to a
function by either of:
1. Call by Value: The value of arguments is copied on to
formal arguments whenever a function is called. Thus,
there is an overhead of copying. As only copy reaches the
function, the changes made in the local function are not
reflected onto the original variable in the calling
function. Further, if the data to be copied is large, ex.
structure, the method is inefficient. It is hence used only
for small data.
2. Call by reference: Actual arguments are not copied
but only addresses (pointers) are forwarded. The
functions get these addresses as arguments and works
on the variables located at the addresses forwarded.
Hence, changes made to the variables are reflected on to
variables from calling function. We are forwarding only
addresses – there are no copying overheads as in call by
value. Call by reference is of two types:
1. Call by reference using pointers
2. Call by reference using reference
Both types are effective. We will use pointers
if reassigning is required, whereas if you use
reference, its fixed memory location and
reassignment to new location is NOT
feasible.
Example 9.3: valptrref. Program
to Highlight Call by Value and Call
by Reference Using Pointers
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// declaration of function prototypes
void Swap( int a , int b); // call by
value
void PtrSwap ( int *a , int * b); //
Call by Ref. a & b are pointers by def
void main()
{ int x=5;
int y=10;
// call by value
Swap( x,y);
cout<<"\nafter call by value :"<<endl;
cout<<"x value after swap:"<<x<<endl;
cout<<"y value after swap:"<<y<<endl;
// call by reference using pointers.
Note that we have to send pointers
//i.e. addresses of x & y . Hence we
will pass &x , and & y.
PtrSwap(&x,&y);
cout<<"\nafter call by ref using
pointers :"<<endl;
cout<<"x value after Ptrswap:"
<<x<<endl;
cout<<"y value after Ptrswap:"
<<y<<endl;
}//end of main
// Function definitions
void Swap ( int a, int b)
{ int temp ; // two local variables
temp=a;
a=b;
b=temp;
cout<<"\ninside Swap using pointers
:"<<endl;
cout<<"x value inside Swap:"
<<a<<endl;
cout<<"y value inside Swap:"
<<b<<endl;
}
void PtrSwap ( int *a, int *b)
{ // a & b are pointers . Hence we
need a pointer called temp
int temp;
temp=*a;
*a=*b;
*b=temp;
cout<<"\ninside PtrSwap using
pointers :"<<endl;
cout<<"x value inside Ptrswap:"
<<*a<<endl;
cout<<"y value inside Ptrswap:"
<<*b<<endl;
}
/*Output :inside Swap using pointers :
x value inside Swap:10
y value inside Swap:5
after call by value :
x value after swap:5
y value after swap:10
inside PtrSwap using pointers :
x value inside Ptrswap:10
y value inside Ptrswap:5
after call by ref using pointers :
x value after Ptrswap:10
y value after Ptrswap:5 */
In Example 9.3, a few interesting results
are given. Though inside Swap function
values actually were interchanged, they were
not reflected in the main program as
discussed. Whereas in the case of PtrSwap,
wherein we have passed pointers, the result
of PtrSwap was reflected to main programs.
This is in consonance with what we have
learnt.
9.5 Dynamic Memory New and Delete
Functions
We have learnt the memory management
and mapping of C++ language in Chapter 3.
In this section, we will learn tools and
techniques to use heap memory, also called
free space or dynamic memory, by pointers
and references by using operators such as
new and delete.
Dynamic memory, or heap memory as it is
known, affords very large programs to be
run on limited primary memory resource.
For example, the real memory requirement
is known only at run-time from the user,
whereas the memory allocation normally
takes place at compile time. Further, to
execute several of the overloaded functions,
the system compiles, loads and then runs. So
if the user chooses at run time only one of
the several functions loaded on to primary
memory, the balance memory is wasted and
hence we cannot solve problems requiring
large memories. Dynamic memory solves
this problem with new and delete operators.
Allocate the heap memory with new
operators and immediately after use, release
the memory with delete operator. Thus,
precious and limited memory is available for
allocation and thus we can solve larger
problems demanding larger memory. We
can declare a heap variable using new
operator.
int *x = new int; // creation and
allocation of heap memory
*x=25; // assign value
Alternately, we can use a single
statement
int *x = new int(12); allocate value 12
to pointer variable on heap memory.
Once allocated, you can use the dynamic
memory pointer like an ordinary pointer.
Remember that you have to release the
memory after use so that the released
memory can be used for other heap memory
requirements. In this way, we can solve
more complex problems because compiler
loads a heap variable and allocates the exact
memory requirements indicated by the user
as well as frees the memory after use. It is
good practice to delete the dynamic memory
allocated using delete operator. In fact, the
number of new declarations must match the
number of deletes, though the system
automatically releases the memory once the
program ends.
int *x = new int(12); // created a
pointer x on heap and allocated a value
=12
*q *=*q ; // find the square of value,
i.e. 144
cout<<*q;
……………
delete q; // q pointer has been deleted
9.5.1 Memory Leak
If you reallocate the dynamic pointer to a
new variable without deleting the existing
assignment, the originally assigned variable
and heap memory allocated is permanently
lost and not available to program. This is
called memory leak.
Example 9.4: Memory Leak
int *x = new int(12);
*q *=*q ; // find the square of value
i.e. 144
cout<<*q;
int *x = new int(75); // Error since
reassigned to new without deleting
delete q; // q pointer has been
deleted.
9.5.2 Dangling Pointer
In this, the user tries to use the pointer after
it has been deleted
Example 9.5: Dangling Pointer: An
Example
int *x = new int(12);
*q *=*q ; // find the square of value
i.e. 144
delete q; // q pointer has been
deleted.
cout<<*q; // Error. q has become
dangling pointer
9.5.3 Pointers and Arrays
Let us understand the connection between
pointers and arrays:
Note that ‘x’ is the name of the array. ‘x’
is also the address of the array and as well as
the address of the first element of the array.
Hence, we can call ‘x’ as the pointer to the
array too.
Suppose you want to print the 4th
element, i.e. 40; as per C++ convention, you
would write cout<<x[3]. Now as the
element, we are interested in is at position 4
(3 in case we are counting from 0), i.e. at
address x+3, we have learnt that if we
want value from address we have to de-
reference the address by using *.
Ex cout<< *(x+3);
Figure 9.3 shows array elements together
with their addresses.
Figure 9.3 Array with addresses (pointers)
9.5.4 Pointers and Two-dimensional Arrays
Let us say that you have a two-dimensional
array ‘a’ with 12 rows and 20 columns.
Then we can declare it as:
int a[12][20]
or
as a one-dimensional array using pointers.
For example:
int *a[20]
We can also depict the above a as pointer
to pointer ** a
Pictorially following the figure makes the
concept clear. Therefore, a[0] points to the
beginning of the first row. a[11] points to
the beginning of the 11th row. Note that
a[0]….a[11] are pointers to respective
rows.
Now suppose you want to access the 1st
row 5 element; then a[1] is the pointer to
the first row and 5 elements displacement is
5:
We know we can write a[1] as *(a+1)
Therefore, the address of the desired
element is a[1]+5 or *(a+1) +5
The value of element is : * (*(a+1) + 5
).
9.5.5 Array Declaration on Heap Memory
We can declare an array of 12 integers as :
int x[12]. This array declaration
reserves 12 contiguous locations in memory.
In case the user does not use all 12 locations,
memory will be wasted. Array declaration is
an example of static memory allocation.
Instead, we can also declare an array as
int *x =new int[12]; // x is a pointer
variable pointing to array by name x
//, having 12 contiguous locations.
int *ptr=x; // now ptr points x[0], i.e.
starting of an array
Let us write a program to pass an array to
a function that receives an array by
reference and sorts an integer array. We can
define an array of 12 integers using new
function and release the heap memory after
use by deleting function, as follows:
Example 9.6: dynarray.cpp A
Program for Sorting of an Array by
Passing an Array by Reference and
to Find the Maximum of an Array
#include<iostream>
sing namespace std;
// function prototypes
template<class T>
T FindMax( T x[] , int n);
template<class T>
void SortArray( T *a , int n);
void main()
{ int n;
int max; // n=no of values in an array
int *x; // x is a pointer to an array
cout<<"how many elements in your array
:";
cin>>n;
// allocate dynamic memory space using
new operator
x=new int[n]; // allocates 12
contiguous location to pointer x
// read in the array
for (int i=0;i<n;i++)
{ cout<<"value for "
<<i+1<<"element:";
cin>>x[i];
}
cout<<("\n The entered array is….\n");
for (i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<" "<<* (x+i); // same as writing
x[i]
// call Findmax function
max=FindMax(x,n);//x is a pointer to
array
cout<<"\n maximum value of given
array="<<max<<endl;
// call SortArray function
SortArray(x,n);
cout<<("\n The entered array is….\n");
for (i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<" "<<x[i]; // same as writing *
(x+i)
// now that our work with array is over
let us delete the memory allocated
delete [] x; // memory allocated with
new operator stands released
}//end of main
// Fn definition
template<class T>
T FindMax(T x[], int n)
{ T max;
int i;
max=T(); // *x is the value of 1
element
for(i=1;i<n;i++)
{ if (max<*(x+i))
max=*(x+i);
}
return max;
} // end of FindMax
template<class T>
void SortArray( T *a ,int n)
{ int i,j; // i for outer loop j for
inner loop and temp for swapping
T temp=T();
for ( i=0; i< n-1; i++) // last value
need not be sorted
{
// find the smallest of
remaining numbers and exchange it with
for ( j=i+1; j< n; j++)
{ if (*(a+j) < *(a+i))
{ // swap
temp=*(a+i);
*(a+i)=*(a+j);
*(a+j)=temp;
}
}
}
}
/*output : how many elements in your
array :6
value for 1element:32
value for 2element:43
value for 3element:34
value for 4element:65
value for 5element:67
value for 6element:12
The entered array is….
32 43 34 65 67 12
maximum value of given array=67
The sorted array is….
12 32 34 43 65 67
9.5.6 Pointer to Pointer
You remember the treasure hunt game we
all have played at some time or the other. In
a first clue, we would receive a chit that gives
clues regarding a second address at which
the second clue or treasure is kept. Pointer
to pointer can be viewed as pointer to an
address, i.e. an address that points to
another address. We can recover the value
from the second address. For example,
consider a two-dimensional matrix.
Let us say that you have a two-
dimensional array ‘a’ with 12 rows and 20
columns.
Then we can declare it as:
int a[12][20]
or
as a one-dimensional array using pointers.
For example:
int *a[20]
We have learnt in Section 9.4.4 that we can
also depict the above a as pointer to pointer
** a. We have shown deployment of
dynamic memory allocation techniques in
Example 9.4.
When will the pointer to pointer be
useful? An array or function is known by its
name. We have also learnt by now that name
is address. Symbol Address Table stores
names and also address allocation for
functions, arrays, variables, etc. Now in
situations wherein there is a need to delete a
first entry like the first element of the array
or there is a need to add an element in the
front, a normal pointer would entail
changing of name in the symbol address
table and entail in fructuous work. A pointer
to pointer would isolate names and
addresses stored by the system and hence
adding in the front and deletion would
become less cumbersome.
9.5.7 Dynamic Memory for a Two-
dimensional Array
In our next example, we will demonstrate
the creation and usage of dynamic memory
using new operators. We will read a 2 x 2
matrix. First, we will allocate dynamic
memory for rows and then we will allocate
for columns of each row.
We will use try and catch blocks. This
feature will be explained in detail in the
chapter on errors and exceptions, but for
now, we will introduce the concept in brief
here. When an error occurs during the
execution of a program, due to non-
availability of resources, normally the
program stops execution and reports the
error or exception. Try and catch blocks
provide a way out for the programmer to
take corrective steps for the errors and
exceptions that occur during run time. Try
block will allocate heap memory during run
time. If it fails due to nonavailability of
memory or for any other reason, then it will
throw the exception object. Catch block will
catch the exception thrown by try block and
take remedial measures.
Example 9.7: matptrptr.cpp A
Program for Reading and Printing
of Matrix with Dynamic Memory
Allocation Using Pointer to Pointer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// functional prototype declarations
void ReadMatrix( int **A,int m , int n);
void PrintMatrix( int **A , int m , int
n);
void main()
{ int m,n;
int **A=0; // A is a pointer to
pointer
cout<<”Enter the order of matrix <m,n>
:”;
cin>>m>>n;
/* Now allocate dyn memory. First
allocate to rows
Then allocate to columns. We will use
try and catch blocks.
Try will allocate dyn memory. If it
fails due to non-availability of memory
then it will throw the exception object.
Catch block will catch the exception
thrown by try block and take
remedial measures. */
try
{ A=new int * [m]; // dynamic memory
for row allocation
for (int i=0;i<m;i++)
A[i]=new int[n]; // dynamic memory
for columns
}
catch (bad_alloc)
{ cout<<”\n bad
allocation”<<endl;
exit(1);
}
ReadMatrix(A,m,n);
printf(“The elements of the Matrix
are:\n”);
PrintMatrix(A,m,n);
} /*end of main*/
void ReadMatrix( int **A, int m,int n)
{ int i,j;
cout<<”Enter the elements :”;
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{ for(j=0;j<n;j++)
cin>>A[i][j]; /*input
elements*/
}
}//end of ReadMatrix
void PrintMatrix( int **A, int m,int n)
{ int i,j;
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{ for(j=0;j<n;j++)
cout<<” “<<A[i][j];
cout<<endl;
}
}
/*output: Enter the order of matrix
<m,n> :2 2
Enter the elements :1 2 3 4
The elements of the Matrix are:
1 2
3 4*/
9.5.8 Pointers and Three-dimensional
Arrays
To access an element a[3][4][5]
1. a is the pointer to the first row. We need three rows.
Therefore, it is a[3] or *(a+3).
2. Column displacement is 4. Therefore, the address is *
(a+3)+4 and the value is: *(*(a+3)+4).
3. Three-dimensional displacement is 5. Therefore, the
address is: *(*(a+3)+4). The value of element,
therefore, is: *(*(*(a+3)+4)).
9.5.9 Array of Pointers
Pointers can be stored in arrays. You already
know that pointer means address, hence an
array of pointers means a collection of
addresses. For example, you can store a set
of five pointers each pointing to a string
variable like:
char * ptr[5] = { “welcome”, “to”
,”self_learning”,”C++” , ”Book” }
ptr is a dimension 5, i.e. an array of five
pointers. The following example will make
the concept clear:
Example 9.8: arrayofptr.cpp
Program to Demonstrate Use of
Array of Pointers
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{ // array of pointers with 5 elements
char *ptr[5]=
{“welcome”,”to”,”self_learning”,”C++A”,”
Books”};
char *x; // x is a pointer of type char
x=ptr[0]; // x now points to ptr, i.e.
starting pointer in an array of pointers
for ( int i = 0 ; i< 5; i++)
cout<<”\n”<< *(ptr+i)<<endl;
// following cout statements will teach
you more about array of pointers
cout<<”\n”<< *ptr[3]; // you can expect
value of starting element in CDS i.e. C
}
/*Output:
welcome
to
self_learning
C++
Books*/
9.5.10 Pointers to Void
Remember ‘void’ is a data type. Usually,
we will declare pointer to point to a
particular type of data. For example, int *
ptr or char * ptr, etc. The void can be
employed if your program has multiple data
types. But typecasting is essential, when the
void pointer is used as shown in Figure 9.4.
Figure 9.4 Void pointer declaration, definition and
reassignment
Declaration:
int x;
float salary;
void *ptr ; // pointer to void data type
declaration
Definition:
ptr = & x ; // assign pointer to type
integer
Usage:
Type casting the void pointer is mandatory
cout<<*(int*)ptr;
Reassignment:
ptr=&sal;
cout<< * (float*)ptr; // typecasting of
ptr to float
Example 9.9: voidptr.cpp A
Program to Demonstrate the Use of
Void Pointers
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int x=100;
float sal=2000.00;
void * ptr;// ptr is a pointer to
data type void
// assign void pointer to int
ptr=&x;
cout<<”\nptr type casted to integer
:”<< *(int*)ptr; // typecasting of ptr
to int
// assign void pointer to float
ptr=&sal;
cout<<”\nptr type casted to float
:”<<*(float*)ptr; // typecasting of ptr
to float
}//end of program
/*Output : ptr type casted to integer
:100
ptr type casted to float :2000*/
9.5.11 Pointer to a Constant vs const Pointer
We are aware that pointers are addresses
and provide us a fast access to memory and
data manipulation. But there are issues of
safe operation and data integrity. There are
situations wherein we want that data should
not be altered. In such cases, we would have
declared that data as constant. The main
advantage of pointers is that they can be
reassigned. This feature allows us to
navigate through the array or memory, etc.
But there are situations when we need the
pointers to be constant, i.e. they should not
be reassigned. In such cases, we would
declare const pointers.
Thus, there are two combinations
involved, i.e. pointer type and data
type. Each type can have two variations of
data type: constant and normal. Therefore,
we can have a total of four variations in the
declaration of variables. These are shown
below:
For example, let us say we have two
variables declared as
int val = 25;
const float PI=3.14159;
Pointer to data // normal pointer and
normal data
int *x=& val;
Pointer to const data
// y is a pointer to constant float. It
cannot be changed const float * y=&PI;
Const pointer to data
// constant pointer to int data type.
Pointer cannot be reassigned int * const
x=& val;
Const pointer to a const data
// constant pointer to constant data
type. Hence value cannot be changed
// and pointer cannot be reassigned
const float * const z=& PI
Example 9.10: Pointers Constant
Data and Constant Pointers.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
// pointer to int
int val = 25;
// int variable
int *ptr = & val ; // ptr
is a normal pointer
cout<<++(*ptr); // output 26
cout<<++ptr; // ptr is incremented
// constant pointer to int
int const * cptr = & val; // cptr is
constant pointer to int
cout<<++(*cptr); // Allowed . output
26
cout<<++cptr; // Not allowed . cptr
cannot be incremented
// pointer to constant float PI
const float PI=3.14159;
// float variable PI declared as
constant
const float * cfptr = &PI; //
cfptr is pointer to const data type
float
cout<<++(*cfptr); // Not Allowed as
*cfptr is constant
cout<<++cfptr; // Allowed .
Increments cfptr
// constant pointer to constant float PI
const float * const cfptc = & PI ; //
cfptr is const pointer to const data
cout<<++(*cfptr); // Not
Allowed as *cfptr is constant
cout<<++cfptr; // Not
Allowed . cfptr is constant.
9.5.12 Pointers to Function
We are aware a name means an address.
Like array, name is address of the array.
Hence, we can call it as pointer to an array.
Function name likewise is an address. We
can think of it as a pointer to a constant. At
that address, the code for the function is
stored.
Pointer to function hence means pointer to a
constant pointer.
int Findmax( int a[] , int n); // A
function is declared
int (*ptrfun ) (int) ; // a pointer to
function i.e. ptrfun is created
ptrfun = & FindMax ; // pointer to
function is assigned to FindMax function
Note that in the statement int (*ptrfun )
(int) ; the function takes int as argument
and returns int data type.
Example 9.11: ptrtofun.cpp.
Program to Demonstrate Use of
Pointers to Function
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void FindTriangle(float &a , float & b
);
void FindRect(float &a , float & b );
void (*funptr) ( float & , float & ); //
ptr to function
void main()
{ float x= 25.0 , y=50.0;
int choice;
cout<<"\n Enter your choice .. < 0 to
quit : 1 for Triangle : 2 for Rectangle
>";
cin>>choice;
while ( choice !=0)
{ switch (choice)
case 0 : cout<<"\n exiting the
programme…."<<endl;
exit(0);
case 1 : funptr = FindTriangle;
break;
case 2 : funptr=FindRect; break;
}// end of switch
funptr(x,y);
cout<<"\n Enter your choice .. < 0 to
quit : 1 for Triangle : 2 for Rectangle
>";
cin>>choice;
}//end of while
}//end of main
//Fn definitions
void FindTriangle( float &a , float &b)
{cout<<"\n Area of the Triangle = "<<
0.5*a*b << endl;}
void FindRect( float &a , float &b)
{cout<<"\n Area of the Rectangle = "<<
a*b << endl;}
/*Output : Enter your choice .. < 0 to
quit : 1 for Triangle : 2 for Rectangle
>1
Area of the Triangle = 625
Enter your choice .. < 0 to quit : 1 for
Triangle : 2 for Rectangle >2
Area of the Rectangle = 1250
Enter your choice .. < 0 to quit : 1 for
Triangle : 2 for Rectangle >0*/
9.6 What, Why and How of References
C++ gives us an additional facility called
reference. A reference is an alias or another
name to a variable. Figure 9.5 shows usage
of reference.
Figure 9.5 Reference x and rx refer to the same location 2513
and value 25
Reference operator &: It has two uses
&x ; // evaluates the address of x
int & rx = x ; implies that rx is a
reference of type int
Example 9.12: ptrtofun.cpp. 6
ref1.cpp Program to Introduce
Reference Concepts
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{ int age1=50;
int age2=18;
//create a reference to age1 i.e. an
alias by name rage to age1
int & rage=age1; //rage is an alias or
another name to age1
cout<<”\n age1 “<< age1<<”\t”<<”&age1
“<< &age1<<endl; // displays address of
age1
cout<<”\n age1 with rage”<<
rage<<”\t”<<”&rage “<< &rage<<endl;
cout<<”\n both rage and age1 must have
same addresses..”<<endl;
/* you cannot reassign references like
you did for pointers. If you do, the
original assigned data will be lost*
rage = age2;
cout<<”\n wehave forcibly reassigned a
reference to “;
cout<<”\n another variable. Rage is an
alias of age1.”;
cout<<”\n Therefore age1 will now have
value of age2.”<<endl;
cout<<”\n age1 “<< age1<<”\t”<<”&age1
“<< &age1<<endl;
cout<<”\n age2 “<< age2<<”\t”<<”&age2
“<< &age2<<endl;
cout<<”\n rage assigned to age2 but
value it hold is age1 :”<<rage<<endl;
}//end of main
/*Output : age1 50 &age1 0012FF7C
age1 with rage50 &rage 0012FF7C
both rage and age1 must have same
addresses..
we have forcibly reassigned a reference
to
another variable. Rage is an alias of
age1.
Therefore age1 will now have value of
age2.
age1 18 &age1 0012FF7C
age2 18 &age2 0012FF78
rage assigned to age2 but value it holds
is age1 :18*/
9.6.1 Which is Better – Pointer or
Reference?
Pointers are used when you have to
reassign. For example, if you are using an
array that stores values at contiguous
memory locations, you will need to
increment the pointer to refer to the next
element of the array. But pointers, though
quick acting , have inherent dangers
associated with them like memory leak,
memory crash, dangling pointers, etc.
References are aliases – another name
for variables. They cannot be reassigned. If
you insist and reassign, as reference is an
alias, the first variable will be assigned with
reassigned variables value.
Common advantages of both
pointers and references. Both forward
only addresses to function, i.e. they employ
pass by reference technique. Hence, there
are no overhead like making copies of
variables and objects while passing these
items to a function. Function can return
more than one value.
References offer a clean efficient and risk
and error-free environment and hence it is
the experienced programmers first choice.
We will present the advanced concepts
involved with references through a series of
programs in our chapter on objects.
References offer risk-free and efficient
programming. To start with, recall how
PtrSwap program in Example 9.2 ensured
that changes made in function reflected in
the main program. In our next example, we
have shown how we can achieve the same
result by using pass by reference.
Example 9.13: RefSwap.cpp. A
Program to Swap Values by Using
References Concepts
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
// declaration of function prototypes
void RefSwap ( int &a , int & b); //
Call by Ref. a & b are pointers by def.
void main()
{ int x=5, y=10;
// call by reference using reference.
Note that we have to send reference
//In prototype we have promised to
send references like &a and &b
//i.e. addresses of x & y . Hence we
will pass x and y.
RefSwap(x,y);
cout<<”\nafter call by ref using
References :”<<endl;
cout<<”x value after
RefSwap:”<<x<<endl;
cout<<”y value after
RefSwap:”<<y<<endl;
}//end of main
// Function definitions
void RefSwap ( int &a, int &b)
{ // a & b are references . Hence we
need ordinary variable temp
int temp; temp=a; a=b; b=temp;
cout<<”\ninside RefSwap using
reference :”<<endl;
cout<<”x value inside
RefSwap:”<<a<<endl;
cout<<”y value inside
RefSwap:”<<b<<endl;
}
/*Output:
inside RefSwap using reference :
x value inside RefSwap:10
y value inside RefSwap:5
after call by ref using References :
x value after RefSwap:10
y value after RefSwap:5 */
Example 9.14: RefSwap.cpp. A
Program to Swap Values by Using
References Concepts
In this example, we will show how to return
a reference from a function FindLarge. We
declare a function prototype as double &
FindLarge(double &r, double &s).
The function finds the largest of the two
double quantity and returns a reference to
largest, in this case to m. Also observe the
working of FindLarge (k, m)=10 ; &
FindLarge (k, m) ++; statements.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
double & FindLarge(double &r, double
&s);
int main ()
{ double k=5, m=9;
cout <<" Given Values k: " << k <<" :
m: " << m << endl;
cout <<"\nValues after FindLarge (k,
m) : "<<FindLarge (k, m)<<endl;
cout <<" Values k: " << k <<" : m: "
<< m << endl; //output 9
cout << endl;
FindLarge (k, m)=10; // largest is m=9
,it is replaced by 10 .
cout <<"\nValues after FindLarge (k,
m) = 10"<<endl;
cout <<" Values k: " << k <<" : m: "
<< m << endl; //output 3 & 10
cout << endl;
FindLarge (k, m) ++;
cout <<"\nValues after FindLarge (k,
m)++"<<endl;
cout <<" Values k: " << k <<" : m: "
<< m << endl; //output 3 & 11
cout << endl;
return 0;
}
double & FindLarge(double &r, double &s)
{if (r > s) return r;
else return s;
}
/*output :Given Values k: 5 : m: 9
Values after FindLarge (k, m): 9
Values k: 5 : m: 9
Values after FindLarge (k, m)=10
Values k: 5 : m: 10
Values after FindLarge (k, m)++
Values k: 5 : m: 11 :*/
9.7 Summary
1. Pointers are like variables. Hence, they have address.
2. Pointers are addresses.
3. To get a value, use dereference operator * on pointer.
4. Pointers can be reassigned to point to any other variable
of the same data type.
5. Operator new allocates space for pointer and statement
delete frees the dynamic pointer.
6. Memory leak is reallocating the dynamic pointer to a
new variable without deleting the existing assignment;
the originally assigned variable and heap memory
allocated is permanently lost and not available to
program.
7. Dangling pointer: In this, the user tries to use the
pointer after it has been deleted.
8. Array of pointers. Pointers can be stored in arrays. Array
of pointers means collection of addresses.
9. Void pointers point to data type called void. Explicit type
casting is required when void pointers point to a
particular type of data.
10. Pointer to function. It is as a pointer to a constant
pointer as function name is an address. At that address,
the code for the function is stored.
11. A reference is an alias or another name to a variable. A
reference always points to a variable.
12. A reference cannot be reassigned. If reassigned, the
original variable will lose its data.
13. A reference is risk free and free from memory leaks and
dangling pointers.
14. A reference is best suited when reassignments are not
present or when we need fixed address.
15. A pointer, on other hand, is most suited when
reassignment is required.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. The pointer is used to specify a pointer whose base type
is unknown and is a generic pointer.
1. NULL pointer
2. NIL pointer
3. 0
4. Void
2. ___________ is the means by which a program can
obtain memory during run time.
1. Static allocation
2. Dynamic allocation
3. Stack allocation
4. All of a, b, c.
3. Memory allocated by C++'s dynamic allocation functions
is obtained from ______memory.
1. Global
2. Static
3. Stack
4. Heap
4. The new function returns a pointer of type
__________ which means that we can assign it to any
type of pointer.
1. NULL pointer
2. Void
3. 0
4. NIL
5. In call by reference, actual arguments are not copied but
only addresses (pointers) are forwarded. True/False
6. The declaration of two-dimensional arrays int a[12][20]
and int *a[20] in dynamic memory allocation scheme
are one and the same. True/False
7. Multiplication and division operations are allowed on
pointers. True/False
8. Only addition and subtraction operations are permitted
on pointers. True/False
9. The ____ is a unary operator that returns the memory
address of its operand.
1. &
2. +
3. %
4. *
10. Which among these is the indirection operator?
1. &
2. +
3. %
4. *
11. Dereferenced means get the value stored at
location. True/False
12. Indirection operator and dereferencing mean one and
the same. True/False
13. Const pointer can call a non-constant
function. True/False
14. If object is declared constant, then this pointer is a
constant pointer. True/False
15. Dynamic memory can be allocated without the use of
pointers. True/False
16. If int A[6] is a one-dimensional array of integers, which
of the following refers to the value of fourth element in
the array:
1. * (A+4)
2. * (A+3)
3. A+4
4. A+3
17. cout<< x[5]; is equal to
1. cout<< *x[5];
2. cout<< x+5;
3. cout<< *x+5;
4. cout<< *(x+5);
18. Constant this pointer can call non-constant
functions. True/False
19. Pointer to a function is pointer to a constant
pointer True/False
20. If ( a= =b) then ( &a = = & b) True/False
21. If ( a= =b) then ( *a= =*b) True/False
Short-answer Questions
22. What are pointers? List out reasons for using pointers.
23. Explain the process of assessing a variable through its
pointer. Give an example.
24. How to use pointers as arguments in a function? Explain
through an example.
25. Explain the process of declaring and initializing
pointers. Give an example.
26. Distinguish pointer * operator (indirection operator)
and address operator(&) with examples.
27. Explain passing by reference using pointers and using
reference.
28. Which usage is better: pointers or reference? Why?
29. Distinguish & operator and reference in C++ language.
30. Differentiate array of pointers and pointer to an array.
31. Explain heap memory space or free storage space.
32. Explain dynamic memory operators new and delete.
33. How do you declare an array on heap memory? Explain
with examples.
34. How do you allocate dynamic memory for a two-
dimensional array using pointer to pointer concept.
35. Explain how a void pointer could be useful.
36. Explain pointer to a function with examples.
37. Distinguish dangling pointer and memory leak with
examples.
38. Explain different ways to use & operator.
39. Distinguish reference operator and dereference
operator.
40. Explain pointer to pointer declaration in case of two-
dimensional array.
Long-answer Questions
41. Write a cpp that forwards an array of strings of names
function that return a new array that contains pointers
to duplicate names.
42. Write a cpp that reverses an array of integers.
43. Write a cpp to find the trace of a square matrix. [Hint:
Trace is sum of diagonal elements.]
44. Write a cpp to find if the given matrix is singular matrix.
[Hint: Matrix is singular if determinant is 0. Use
recursion to find the determinant of a matrix.]
45. Explain how dynamic memory can be allocated to two-
dimensional array when the dimensions are not known
at compile time. [Hint: Use pointer to pointer concept.]
46. The declarations int a[5][6] ans *a [6] and **a all
refer to the same two-dimensional array of integers.
Explain the process of memory allocation for the above
three declarations.
47. Write a cpp to implement Merge Sort.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. d
2. b
3. d
4. b
5. True
6. True
7. False
8. True
9. a
10. d
11. True
12. True
13. False
14. True
15. False
16. a
17. d
18. False
19. True
20. True
21. False
10
Classes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to
Write C++ programs using classes and objects.
Understand concepts of constructors, destructors,
and member data and functions.
Understand container classes and their usage.
Understand friend functions and inline functions.
Understand objects and dynamic memory usage with
pointers and reference.
Understand this operator and static declarations and
their usage.
10.1 Introduction
We use class in C++ to define our own data
type. A class is a derived data type like an
array. The difference is that in an array you
have single data type, while in a class data
type you can have different data types. These
different data types can be intrinsic data
types such as int, float, etc. or derived or
user-defined data types or functions
or operators.
Object contains data types and functions
and/or operators defined by class. So we can
call object as an instance of a class. In
other words, object is a variable of data
type class. We can define an object as an
independent entity that holds its own data
and member functions. We can say that
object tells us the data it holds and allowable
operations on the object. A class therefore
allows us to encapsulate member
functions and member data into
single entity called object.
Object-oriented programming involves
writing programs that use classes. We create
objects of different classes to solve the
problem at hand and make objects
communicate with each other through the
member functions. In this chapter, we will
learn how to solve problems by using classes
and objects. We will also cover topics such
as data hiding and abstraction and access
privileges enjoyed by members of the class.
This chapter introduces the concepts of
constructor and destructor. Variations in
member functions such as friend functions
and inline functions are discussed. Classes
within a class, called container classes, are
introduced. Different methods to use
dynamic memory with objects using
pointers and references are highlighted with
their merits and demerits. This operator and
static member functions and their relevance
and usage are explained.
10.2 Classes and Objects
Look around your classroom. There are
students all around. First of all, why have
they been grouped together by your
principal? Firstly, because they all share
common interests, for example they
would like to learn the language C++ or they
would like to complete their PG or UG
studies. In computer parlance, we can say
that all students have the same functionality.
That is why they can be grouped together.
Figure 10.1 shows member functions and
member data.
Figure 10.1 Class member functions and attributes
But notice that each student has his own
individual attributes. Attributes mean own
member data like height, weight, marks,
attendance, etc. Also notice that there are
about 60 students in your class each with his
or her own attributes but common
functionality. We can call 60 instances of
object of Students class. Well so much
background for analogy.
Class: A collection of objects. We can also
define as an array of instances objects. But
class can have member functions and
member data. Here, unlike array, a class can
have different data types as its elements.
Object: An object is an entity. That is, it
can be felt and seen. Examples are student,
pen, table, chair, etc. Therefore, an object is
an independent entity that has its own
member data and member functions.
Data Hiding/Data Abstraction. It is
customary to declare all member data as
private only. But the data declared as private
is hidden and cannot be accessed by any
one. This feature is called data hiding or
data abstraction. But how can we get them?
You can access this only through public
member functions. There is no other way. It
is comparable to the case where even the
chief librarian of a university library cannot
take home the books unless he uses the
access card supplied by the library.
Public: Member functions and data if any
declared as public can be accessed outside
the class member functions.
Private: Member data declared as
private can only be accessed within the
class member functions and data is hidden
from outside.
Protected: Member data and member
functions declared as protected is private
to outsiders and public to descendants of the
class in inheritance relationship. You will
learn more about this in the chapter on
Inheritance.
Encapsulation: Binding together the
member functions and member data with
access specifiers like private, public, etc. into
object by the class is called encapsulation.
Declaring a class: Use keyword class
followed by brace brackets. Inside brace
brackets we can include member data and
member functions as shown below:
Example 10.1: Class Declaration
class Student
{ // constructors and member functions
public:
Student()
{rollNo=50595,name=”Anand”;}
~Student(){}; // Default
destructor
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
rollNo=n;}
// member data
private:
int rollNo;
};
10.2.1 How to Create an Object to a Class?
Remember that an object is a variable of a
class. Therefore, you can define the object
just like you define a variable of a data type.
In the example that follows, we create an
ordinary object called std and 50 instances
of class Student, as well as a pointer that
creates an instance of Student on the Heap
memory.
Example 10.2: Creation of an
Object of a Class
Student std; // std is an object of
class Student
Student std[50]; // There are 50
instances created for Student class
Student *ptr = new Student;// object on
free store created
10.2.2 How to Access Member Data and
Member Functions?
Once the object to a class is created, we can
access the member functions and public
member data of a class using
dot(.)operator. We have learnt that
member data is declared as private in C++ to
achieve data hiding and abstraction. Hence,
to access these private member data, we
need to define public member functions. We
call them public accessory functions. To
draw an example from our life, you would
have observed that books in your library can
only be borrowed if you have the library
cards. So is the case with the chief librarian;
though he is the custodian of the books, he
also needs library cards to take books home.
Example 10.3: Accessing Member
Functions and Member Data
Student Std: // object is created
Std.SetRollNo(8345); // Sets roll no to
8345
cout<<Std.GetRollNo(); // displays roll
number
In our next example, we will show all the
concepts we have discussed so far through a
class declaration called Polar. In this
program, you will learn the concept of class
and object, public accessory functions, etc.
The class we will consider is vector in
Cartesian form denoted by real number a
and an imaginary component b. In Polar
coordinates, the same can be represented by
vector whose magnitude is r given by the
formula r = √ ( a2 + b2 ), and the direction
−
is given by θ = tan ( b / a ).
Our program will accept the real value a
and imaginary component b through a
public accessory function called GetData()
and convert it to Polar form with magnitude
r and angle θ through a public accessory
function called ConvertToPolar() and
display the result through a function called
DisplayPolar(). A word or two about
the way we will declare and define functions.
If the function to be implemented is big
code, then we would declare the prototype
inside the class as
void ConvertToPolar(); // to convert to
polar form and define the function code
outside the class as shown below:
void Polar::ConvertToPolar()
{ double x=0.0;
r=sqrt(a*a + b*b);
x=atan(b/a); // x is in radians
t= (7.0/22.0)*180.0*x; // conversion
to degrees .PI radians 180 degrees
}
Note that we have used the operator ::
called scope resolution operator to inform
the compiler to link up with function
prototype declared within the class. Suppose
the function to be implemented is one line
or two lines only; we can then declare it as
inline function as we have explained in
Chapter 3.
inline double GetMag() const {
return r ;}
There is also an easier option of including
the code in class definition itself as we have
shown: double GetMag() const {
return r;}. Then compiler treats the
function as inline automatically.
Example 10.4: Polarform.cpp
Accessing Member Functions and
Data of a Class
#include<iostream>
#include<cmath> // for maths related
functions like sqrt,cos, tan, tan- etc.
using namespace std;
// Declaration of class called Polar
class Polar
{ // public accessory functions
public:
void GetData();
double GetReal() const { return a;}
// returns real component a. const
implies
// function can only return a, but it
cannot alter
double GetImag() const { return b;}
double GetMag() const { return r;} //
Two function GetMag() & GetTheeta
double GetTheeta() const { return t;}
// for Polar form
void ConvertToPolar(); // to convert
to polar form
void DisplayPolar(); // to display in
polar and cartesian forms
// all member data is declared as
private
private:
double r; // magnitude
double t; // angle theeta
double a; // real
double b; // imaginary
};
void Polar::GetData() // :: is called
scope resolution operator. It is used
since we are
// defining
GetData() outside the class definition
{ cout<<”Enter Cartesian form Vector
Details “<<endl;
cout<<” Enter real <a> : “;
cin >>a;
cout<<” Enter Imaginary <b> : “;
cin >>b;
r=0.0; t=0.0;
}
void Polar::DisplayPolar()
{ cout<<"\n Inside the classes member
function …"<<endl;
cout<< "\n Vector in polar form using
r and t directly: magnitude = "<<r
<<" Angle ="<<t<<endl; // We can
directly use r and t because it is
accessed
// inside the member function of the
class thus equal to public
cout<< "\n Vector in polar form using
v1.GetMag() etc: magnitude = "<<GetMag()
<<" Angle ="<<GetTheeta()<<endl;
}
void Polar::ConvertToPolar()
{ double x=0.0;
r=sqrt(a*a + b*b);
x=atan(b/a); // x is in radians
t= (7.0/22.0)*180.0*x; // conversion
to degrees .PI radians equals 180
degrees
}
void main()
{ Polar v1; // v1 is the object of
Polar class
// obtain data for v1
v1.GetData(); // This is the way we
will call member functions using object
v1
// convert to Polar form
v1.ConvertToPolar();
cout<<"\n Vectors in Polar form ….\n"
<<endl;
v1.DisplayPolar();
//cout<<"\nVector in polar form :
magnitude & Angel = "<<v1.r<<v1.t<<endl;
//Error ‘r’ ‘t’: cannot access
private member declared in class
‘Polar’. Commented out
cout<<"\n\n\n Outside the class using
v1.Getmag() etc…."<<endl;
cout<< "\n Vector in polar form :
magnitude = "<<v1.GetMag()
<<" Angle ="<<v1.GetTheeta()<<endl;
// This is the correct way
}// end of
/*Output : Enter Cartesian form Vector
Details
Enter real <a> : 3
Enter Imaginary <b> : 4
Vectors in Polar form form ….
Inside the class …
Vector in polar form using r and t
directly: magnitude = 5 Angle =53.1087
Vector in polar form using v1.GetMag()
etc: magnitude = 5 Angle =53.1087
Outside the class using v1.Getmag()
etc….
Vector in polar form: magnitude = 5
Angle =53.1087
*/
A few points to remember
Inside member functions that is invoked by
object you can access the private members
directly. For example, in function
DisplayPolar(), we have used cout<<r.
This is ok.
But outside, like in main, we cannot use
v1. r. We have to use public accessory
function like v1.GetMag().
10.2.3 Constructors and Destructors
When you need to construct a house, you go
to a specialist called architect or mason so
that they make the house ready for
occupation and usage. So is the case with
Class. When a class is declared and an object
is created, the constructor for the class is
called. His job is to create the object, allocate
memory for the data members and initialize
them with initial values if supplied by the
user.
The constructor will have the same name
as that of the class but no return value. The
constructor needs to be declared as public.
Student(){ } // Default constructor.
No initial values. If you do not declare the
default constructor, compiler automatically
creates it. Hence, the term default
constructor.
Overloading means the same function
name but different types or different
numbers of arguments. For example:
Student ( int n, char * p) { rollNo=n,
name = p ; } is an overloaded
constructor.
Destructor: When the program has
ended there is a need to clear the memory
resources allocated to it. This job is done by
the destructor.
~Student(){ }; // Default destructor. The
default destructor is called automatically
when the program ends.
Copy Constructor: This is the second of
the special constructors, the first being
default constructor, created automatically, if
you do not create on your own. It takes one
argument i.e., the object to be copied. Look
at the following declaration and definition:
Student( const Student & src)
:rollNo(src.rollNo),name(src.name){}
The object is passed as constant reference so
that it cannot be altered. Once declared, we
can use it to copy the entire state of the
object into new object.
Student std; // object is created
Student std1(std) ; // entire object std
is copied on to std1
Let us attempt a problem to make our
understanding of constructors and
destructors clearer. In this program, you will
learn the concept of class constructor
overloaded constructor, copy constructor,
default destructor, etc.
Example 10.5: classbasic2.cpp
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
// overloaded constructors
Student(){rollNo=0,name=”No Name”;}
Student(int n, char *p)
{rollNo=n,name=p;}
Student( const Student & src) //
copy constructor
{
rollNo=src.GetRollNo();name=src.GetName(
);
cout<<” Copy
Constructor….”<<endl;}
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
// public access functions
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
name;}
void SetName( char *p) { name=p;}
private:
int rollNo;
char *name; // pointer to name
};
void main()
{ Student std; // object created
cout<<” \n Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : “
<<std.GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
Default constructor : “
<<std.GetName()<<endl;
//set roll no to 6060 and name to
gautam.
//We have to use public accessory
function to update private data
// Why ? Because we are not inside
member function
std.SetRollNo(6060);
std.SetName(“Gautam”);
cout<<”\n Students rollNo set by
SetRollNo :”
<<std.GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
SetName :”
<<std.GetName()<<endl;
// Now let us make use of overloaded
constructor
Student std2(7070,”Ramesh”);
cout<<” \n Students rollNo set by
(int n, char *p) overloaded
constructor : “
<<std2.GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by (int
n, char *p) overloaded : “
<<std2.GetName()<<endl;
// Now let us use copy constructor
and copy std2 onto std3
Student std3(std2); // std is copied
on to new object called std3
cout<<” \n Students(std3 rollNo) :
“<<std3.GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students (std3 name) :
“<<std3.GetName()<<endl;
}
/*Output : Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : 0
Students name set by Default constructor
: No Name
Students rollNo set by SetRollNo :6060
Students name set by SetName :Gautam
Student(std2.rollNo) set by (int n, char
*p) overloaded constructor : 7070
Student(std2.name) name set by (int n,
char *p) overloaded : Ramesh
Copy Constructors
Students(std3 rollNo) : 7070
Students (std3 name) : Ramesh*/
We have explained the salient features in the
running program itself. Also take a final look
at the public accessory functions we have
used.
int GetRollNo() const { return rollNo;}
char * GetName() const { return name;}
When we do not want the function to alter
value, we declare as constant as shown
above. It will be an error if we write int
GetRollNo() const { return rollNo++;}.
Whereas in the functions shown below
SetName can set, i.e. alter the name. Hence
we have not declared as constant.
void SetName( char *p) { name=p;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) { rollNo=n;}
Look at the constructor declaration and
definition we have declared and defined as
Student(int n, char *p)
{rollNo=n,name=p;} .
We can also declare and define it as
Student(int n, char *p) : rollNo(n),
name(p) { } . We will be using this mode
of declaration and definition in all our
programs henceforth.
10.3 Friend Function
Due to data encapsulation and data hiding
features of C++, only public member
functions can access private data. We can
also declare member functions to access
private data, like we have been using
GetData() in our programs, but it is
cumbersome. Is there a method by which we
be can access private data through a non-
member function? Friend operator just
achieves that. You can include a non-
member inside a class by declaring it as
friend.
For example, let us revisit the Polar class,
declare friend functions for Multiplication
and DisplayData() and see ourselves how
the program gets simplified.
friend void DisplayPolar(Polar v); // to
display in polar forms
friend Polar Multiply(Polar v1, Polar
v2);
When defining these friend functions
outside the class, there is no need to use
scope resolution operator:: since friend
functions are non-members.
void DisplayPolar(Polar v) // For a
friend we do not use scope resolution
operator
{// We can directly use r and t because
DisplayPolar() is a friend function
cout<<”Magnitude”<<v.r<<” Angle
=”<<v.t<<endl;
}
Polar Multiply(Polar v1, Polar v2)
{ Polar v3;
v3.r = v1.r * v2.r; // multiply
the magnitudes
v3.t = v1.t+v2.t; // add the
angles
return v3;
}
Also notice that though the functions are
non-members, because they are friend
functions we could use private data
directly without using public accessory
functions. What is then the cost paid for this
simplification? You have given access to
private data to a non-member function.
Example 10.6: classbasic3.cpp
Friend Functions of a Class
/* In this program, you will learn the
concept friend operator.
Two functions Multiply and DisplayData
are declared as friend functions*/
#include<iostream>
#include<cmath> // for maths related
functions like sqrt,cos, tan, tan- etc
using namespace std;
// Declaration of class called Polar
class Polar
{ //public accessory functions
public:
Polar():r(0.0),t(0.0){} // Default
constructor
Polar( double f, double
g):r(f),t(g){} // This is how we will
declare
// constructor
~Polar(){} // Default Destructor
friend void DisplayPolar(Polar v);
// to display in polar forms
friend Polar Multiply(Polar v1,
Polar v2);
// all member data is declared as
private
private:
double r; // magnitude
double t; // angle theeta
};
void DisplayPolar(Polar v) // For a
friend we do not use scope resolution
operator
{ // We can directly use r and t because
DisplayPolar() is a friend function
cout<<”Magnitude”<<v.r<<” Angle
=”<<v.t<<endl;
}
Polar Multiply(Polar v1, Polar v2)
{ Polar v3;
v3.r = v1.r * v2.r; // multiply
the magnitudes
v3.t = v1.t+v2.t; // add the
angles
return v3;
}
void main()
{Polar v1(5.0,53.0),v2(6.0,28.0),v3; //
v1,v2,v3 is the object of Polar class
// multiply Polar Vectors v1 & v2 and
store it in v3
v3=Multiply(v1,v2);
cout<<“\nThe Given Vectors in Polar
form form ….\n“<<endl;
cout<<“\nPolar form vector v1 :“;
DisplayPolar(v1);
cout<<“\nPolar form vector 2 v2 :“;
DisplayPolar(v2);
cout<<“\nv3=v1*v2 in Polar Form :“;
DisplayPolar(v3);
}// end of main
/*Output :The Given Vectors in Polar
form form ….
Polar form vector v1 :Magnitude5 Angle
=53
Polar form vector 2 v2 :Magnitude6 Angle
=28
v3=v1*v2 in Polar Form :Magnitude30
Angle =81*/
10.4 Class Within a Class: Container Class
Container class is one of the techniques
provided by C++ to achieve reusability of the
code. Inheritance is another powerful
feature for reusability which we will explore
in the chapter on inheritance.
Container class means a class containing
another class or more than one class. For
example, a computer has a microprocessor
in it. Further, a Student class can have a data
member belonging to a string class. Then we
would say that the string class is contained
in the Student class. In other words, it can
also be called composition or
aggregation of string class. The advantage
of containment is that we can use string
class within Student class to store the details
of name and address, etc., belonging to
string class. Similarly, if we define a class
called Date with day, month and year
information, we can define object of Date
within a class called Student and define
Date-related data such as DOB, DOJ, etc.
Composition is a “has”-type of
relation. For the example we have given
above Student has name of string class and
DOB of Date class.
Example 10.7: PointCircle.cpp An
Example for Container Class, i.e.
Class as a Data Member of Another
Class. Constructors and Destructors
of a Class
In this program, you will learn the concept
of class within a class. That is, class as a data
member of another class. We will define a
class called Point and later declare this as a
data member of class called Circle. We will
then find the area of the circle.
#include<iostream>
#include<cmath>
using namespace std;
// Declare a class called Point
class Point
{ public:
Point(){} // default constructor
~Point(){} // default Destructor
float GetX() const { return x;}
void SetX(float f) { x=f;}
float GetY() const { return y;}
void SetY(float f) { y=f;}
private:
float x;
float y;
};
class Circle
{ // We will use user defined data
called Point declared above
public:
Circle(float r, float p, float q
);
~Circle(){} // default Destructor
Point GetCircleCenter() const {
return CircleCenter;}
void SetCircleCenter(Point f) {
CircleCenter=f;}
float GetCircleRadius() const {
return CircleRadius;}
void SetCircleRadius(float f) {
CircleRadius=f;}
float GetArea() const; // Fn to
Find Area of the Circle
private:
float CircleRadius;
Point CircleCenter; //
CircleCenter is a object of class Point
};
Circle::Circle(float r, float p, float
q)
{
CircleCenter.SetX(p); //
CircleCenter is object of Point
class
CircleCenter.SetY(q);
CircleRadius=r;
}
float Circle::GetArea() const{return
(22.0/7.0)*CircleRadius*CircleRadius;}
void main()
{ Circle circ(3.0,1.5,2.5); // object is
created with center(1.5,2.5)
and Radius=3.0
float area=circ.GetArea();
cout<<” area of the circle with radius
= “<<circ.GetCircleRadius()
<<”
Center(“<<circ.GetCircleCenter().GetX()
<<”,”<<circ.GetCircleCenter().GetY()
<<”)=”<<area<<” Sq Units”<<endl;
}/*Output:
area of the circle with radius = 3
Center(1.5,2.5)=28.2857 Sq Units*/
Observe the cout statement we have used
circ.GetCircleCenter() returns a Point data
type. With this Point we have invoked
GetX() and GetY().
cout<<” area of the circle with radius
= “<<circ.GetCircleRadius()
<<”
Center(“<<circ.GetCircleCenter().GetX()
<<”,”<<circ.GetCircleCenter().GetY()
<<”)=”<<area<<” Sq Units”<<endl;
As another example consider a class called
Student containing another class called
Date.
Date class has date information as data
members and public accessory function to
set and get date fields such as day, month
and year. Class Student declares variables
belonging to class Date as shown below:
Date dateDOB;
Date dateDOJ;
Member functions to access these private
variables are also declared. It may be noted
that GetDOB() returns variable of type Date.
Date GetDOB() const { return dateDOB;}
Date GetDOJ() const { return dateDOJ;}
void SetDOB( Date dtb) { dateDOB=dtb;}
void SetDOJ( Date dtj) { dateDOJ=dtj;}
Example 10.8: DateStudent.cpp
Student Class Contains Date Class.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Date
{public:
Date ( int d=0, int m=0,int y=0)
:dd(d),mm(m),yy(y) { } // constructor
void SetDate( int d, int m, int y){
dd=d,mm=m,yy=y;}
int GetDD() const { return dd;};
int GetMM() const { return mm;};
int GetYY() const { return yy;};
private:
int dd;
int mm;
int yy;
};
class Student
{ public:
Student();
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) { rollNo=n;}
Date GetDOB() const { return
dateDOB;}
Date GetDOJ() const { return
dateDOJ;}
void SetDOB( Date dtb) {
dateDOB=dtb;}
void SetDOJ( Date dtj) {
dateDOJ=dtj;}
private:
int rollNo;
Date dateDOB;
Date dateDOJ;
};
Student::Student()
{ dateDOB.SetDate(14,11,54);
dateDOJ.SetDate(25,11,77);
rollNo=5050;
}
void main()
{ Student std; // object created
cout<<” \n Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : “<<std.
GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n date of Birth :”;
cout<<std.GetDOB().GetDD()
<<”/”<<std.GetDOB().GetMM()
<<”/”<<std.GetDOB().GetYY()<<endl;
cout<<”\n date of Joining :”;
cout<<std.GetDOJ().GetDD()
<<”/”<<std.GetDOJ().GetMM()
<<”/”<<std.GetDOJ().GetYY()<<endl;
}
/*Output : Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : 5050
date of Birth :14/11/54
date of Joining : 25/11/77*/
Note that in cout statements in the main
program, std.GetDOJ() returns data type
of Date. Hence, with that variable we have
further invoked GetMM().
10.5 Objects and Data Members on Heap
Memory
We have learnt that Heap memory is
dynamic memory and we can derive lot of
advantage by using heap memory. The main
advantage is the conservation of primary
memory that arises as a result when we load
objects, use and free the memory after use.
In this way we can solve large complex
problems. So naturally we have to equip
ourselves with the skills for deploying
objects onto heap memory. As an example,
we can declare a class called Student. We
can further declare a pointer to that class
and create an object of Student on Heap
Memory.
Student *ptr - new Student;// object
on free store created
We use in direction operator -> to access the
object functions and member data on the
heap. : cout<<ptr->GetName()<<endl;
// access member data from heap. After use
we need to free the heap memory allocated.
:delete ptr; // we need to delete and
free dynamic memory. The following
program makes things clear.
Example 10.9: objheap.cpp
Creation of Object on to Heap
Memory and Access Member Data.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{public:
Student()
{rollNo=50595,name=”Anand”;}
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
name;}
void SetName( char *p) { name=p;}
private:
int rollNo;
char *name;
};
void main()
{ Student std; // object created
Student *ptr = new Student;//
object on free store created
cout<<” \n Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetName()<<endl; // access
member data from heap
//set roll no to 50
ptr->SetRollNo(6060);
ptr->SetName(“Gautam”);
cout<<”\n Students rollNo set by
SetRollNo :”
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
Default constructor :”
<<ptr->GetName()<<endl;
//now delete the memory from heap
delete ptr; // we need to delete
and free dynamic memory
}
/*output :Students rollNo set by Default
constructor : 50595
Students name set by Default constructor
: Anand
Students rollNo set by SetRollNo :6060
Students name set by Default constructor
:Gautam*/
In the above example, we have created
entire object on heap memory. We can also
create the member data on heap memory
and use indirection operator -> to access
data members. Note that heap memory can
be accessed only through the use of pointers.
Therefore, our declaration of member data
would be pointers
int *rollNo; // we have to use pointers
as we want to use Heap Memory
char *name;
Our public accessory functions have to
deal in pointers :
int GetRollNo() const { return *rollNo;}
Creation of object onto heap memory and
access of members would be
Student *ptr = new Student;// object on
heap created
cout<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
Example 10.10: objmemheap.cpp
Creation of Object and Member
Data on to Heap Memory and
Access Member Data Using
Indirection Operator -> Member
Data. Constructors and Destructors
of a Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
Student();
~Student(){delete rollNo;delete
name;} // Default destructor
int GetRollNo() const { return
*rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
*rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
name;}
void SetName( char *p) { name=p;}
private:
int *rollNo; // we have to use
pointers as we want to use Heap Memory
char *name;
};
Student::Student(){rollNo= new
int(50);name= new char;name=”ramesh”;}
void main()
{ Student *ptr = new Student;// object
on heap created
cout<<” \n Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetName()<<endl;
//set roll no to 6060
ptr->SetRollNo(6060);
ptr->SetName(“Gautam”);
cout<<”\n Students rollNo set by
SetRollNo :”
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
Default constructor :”
<<ptr->GetName()<<endl;
}//end of main
/*Output : Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : 50
Students name set by Default constructor
: ramesh
Students rollNo set by SetRollNo :6060
Students name set by Default constructor
:Gautam*/
10.6 This Pointer
We are aware that memory management of
C++ allocates separate memory area called
code section for your code. Accordingly your
function code will be in this area. But we
also know that variables are stored either in
stack area or in heap memory. When a
function is invoked by an object, there is a
need to link up function that is called with
the objects data. Therefore, the object is
forwarded to function as an argument to
that function. But this argument, i.e. address
of the object invoking the function, is not
visible like ordinary formal arguments and it
is hidden. This hidden address is called this
pointer. It is called this because it points
this object, i.e. object that has invoked the
function.
In a function if you use this pointer
explicitly then it refers to object member
data. Note that we can get the same effect by
using object instead. But note that this is a
pointer and hence it has all the advantages
of instant and fast access to object. Look at
the program at Example 10.9 rewritten using
this pointer.
Example 10.11: this.cpp Object on
to Heap Memory Using this Pointer.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class Student
{ public:
Student()
{rollNo=50595,name=”Anand”;}
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
int GetRollNo() const { return
this->rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) { this-
>rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
this->name;}
void SetName( char *p) { this-
>name=p;}
private:
int rollNo;
char *name;
};
void main()
{ Student std; // object created
Student *ptr = new Student;//
object on free store created
cout<<” \n Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetName()<<endl; //
access member data from heap
//set roll no to 50
ptr->SetRollNo(6060);
ptr->SetName(“Gautam”);
cout<<”\n Students rollNo set by
SetRollNo :”
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students name set by
Default constructor :”
<<ptr->GetName()<<endl;
//now delete the memory from heap
delete ptr;
}
/*Output :Students rollNo set by Default
constructor : 50595
Students name set by Default constructor
: Anand
Students rollNo set by SetRollNo :6060
Students name set by Default constructor
:Gautam*/
10.7 Pointers vs Objects: Use of Constant
Declarations
We are aware that pointers are addresses
and provide us a fast access to memory and
data manipulation. But there are issues of
safe operation and data integrity. In Section
4.5.11, we have seen the use of pointers and
effect of declaration of const pointer and
constant data. In this section, we will study
the effect and efficacy of using const
declaration to pointers while working with
objects. While manipulating objects stored
in memory, a programmer faces several
demanding situations such as data should
not be altered. In such cases, we would have
declared that data as constant.
The pointers to be constant i.e. they
should not be reassigned. In such cases, we
would declare as const pointers.
Thus, there are two combinations
involved, i.e. Pointer type and Data
Type. Each type can have two variations of
data type: constant and normal. Therefore,
we can have a total of four variations in
declaration of variables. These are shown
below:
Pointer to Object
// normal pointer & Normal object on
heap
Student *ptr = new Student; // ptr is
normal pointer on heap
Pointer to const Object
// conststudent is a pointer to constant
Student
const Student *conststudent = new
Student;
Const pointer to Object
//constptr is constant pointer to
Student
Student * const constptr = new Student;
Const pointer to a const Object
//cptrcstd is a constant pointer to
constant student
Const Student * const cptrstd = new
Student;
In the example that follows we would
demonstrate the methods and rules for
deployment of different types of pointers
and data type discussed above. When we use
normal pointer to normal objects on heap,
we can use Get() and Set() functions.
Usage of Set() function implies that we can
modify the objects data. Note that all Get
() functions we would have declared Get()
as const. so that it cannot alter the data
values but it can only browse these values
Student *ptr = new Student;
int GetRollNo() const { return rollNo;}
// only read . Function cannot alter
data.
void SetGrade( char p) { grade=p;}
When we use pointer to constant object,
we cannot use serGrade() functions as it
sets data for grade. This is so because we
have declared the object as constant.
// conststudent is a pointer to constant
Student
const Student *conststudent = new
Student;
ptr->SetGrade(‘C’); // NOT OK
When we use the third option, i.e. const
pointer to constant object, pointer cannot be
reassigned nor can the data be amended.
// const pointer to constant object
Const Student * const cptrstd = new
Student;
int GetRollNo() const { return rollNo;}
// Allowed
ptr->SetGrade(‘C’); // NOT OK
Example 10.12: ptrcdata.cpp To
Demonstrate Use of Constant
Pointer and Constant Object.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
Student(){rollNo=50595,grade=’A’;}
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
rollNo=n;}
char GetGrade() const { return
grade;}
void SetGrade( char p) { grade=p;}
private:
int rollNo;
char grade;
};
void main()
{ // ptr is normal pointer on heap
Student *ptr = new Student;
// conststudent is a pointer to
constant Student
const Student *conststudent = new
Student
//constptr is constant pointer to
Student
Student * const constptr = new
Student;
const Student * const cptr = new
Student;
cout<<”explore the possibilities
with normal heap pointer *ptr”<<endl;
cout<<” \n Students rollNo set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Students Grade set by
Default constructor : “
<<ptr->GetGrade()<<endl;
//set roll no to 50 and Garde to B
ptr->SetRollNo(6060);
ptr->SetGrade(‘B’);
cout<<“\n Students rollNo set by
SetRollNo() function :“
<<ptr->GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<“\n Students name set by
setgrade() function:“
<<ptr->GetGrade()<<endl;
cout<<“\nexplore the possibilities
with pointer *conststudentto“<<endl;
cout<<“ constant object
Student“<<endl;
cout << ”\n Display Grade
…“<<conststudent ->GetGrade()<<endl;
//conststudent->SetGrade(‘C’);
//NOT OK.
/*const pointer calling non-const
fn . This is error. conststudent is a
pointer to constant Student, whereas
SetGrade is a non-constant function and
can change value. Hence we cannot use.
You will observe error C2662: ‘SetGrade’
: cannot convert ‘this‘ pointer from
‘const class Student‘ to ‘class Student
&‘ Hence it
shown in comments */
// constant pointer to constant
data object
cout<<“\nexplore the possibilities
with const pointer *cptr to“<<endl;
cout<<“ constant object
Student“<<endl;
cout<<“\ncptr->
GetGrade()..“<<cptr->GetGrade()
<<endl;//ok
//cout<<“\ncptr-
>SetGrade(‘C‘)..“<<cptr->SetGrade(‘C‘)
<<endl;//not ok
//now delete the memory from heap
delete ptr;
delete cptr;
delete conststudent;
}
/*Output :explore the possibilities
with normal heap pointer *ptr
Students rollNo set by Default
constructor : 50595
Students Grade set by Default
constructor : A
Students rollNo set by SetRollNo()
function :6060
Students name set by setgrade()
function:B
explore the possibilities with pointer
*conststudentto
constant object Student
Display Grade …A
explore the possibilities with const
pointer *cptr to
constant object Student
cptr-> GetGrade()..A/*
So why do we use constant pointers?
We do so because constant pointers cannot
call non-constant member functions, i.e.
member functions that can alter member
data. So our member data is safe. While
const pointer to constant object is possible,
it is tedious and cumbersome. Instead, the
same can be achieved more elegantly if we
use reference. Remember, insinuations
wherein we cannot reassign pointers,
reference is a better alternative.
10.8 Passing of Objects by Reference and
Pointers to a Function
We are aware that normal variables can be
passed to and from function with pass by
value and pass by reference. We have also
learnt in Chapter 6 on pointers that passing
by reference involves passing either by
pointer or reference (address). Objects,
because they occupy good amount of
memory, have to be passed as call by
reference. More so because if you use call by
value, a copy is made when an object is
passed on to function and another copy of
the object is made when function returns an
object to calling function. What a waste of
precious memory! Not only that, other
resources are also employed such as calling a
copy constructor and destructor. Your
program is busy doing these unnecessary
jobs when you use call by value.
In our next example, we will study the
implications of call by value, call by
reference on objects calling functions. For
this, we would declare three different
functions outside the class and show the
costs and efficiencies involved in different
modes of invoking the function.
Student FindGrade( Student std); //call
by value
Student * FindGrPtr(Student *std); //
call by ref using pointers
Student & FindGrRef (Student &std); //
call by reference using reference
Also note that we have declared all the
member data as pointers.
int *rollNo; float *total; char *grade;
Constructor allocates memory in Heap
memory with new operator as shown below
Student::Student(int n, float t, char c)
{ cout<<”\n This is
Student(int,float,char) constructor…\n”;
rollNo= new int(n);
grade= new char(c);
total=new float(t);
}
Destructor is called whenever we have to
destroy the object. But remember, our data
members like rollNo, grade, and total
are also residing on the heap memory.
Therefore, we have to explicitly delete them
~Student(){cout<<”\n This is
destructor..\n”;
delete rollNo;delete grade;delete total;
} // destructor
Copy constructor gets data items from src
and allocates space on heap with new
operator.
Student::Student(Student &src) // src
means source
{ cout<<”This is copy constructor..\n”;
rollNo=new int(*(src.rollNo));
grade=new char(*(src.grade));
total=new float(*(src.total));
}
src is the name we use to denote that it is a
source file. Generally left-hand side is
reserved for current object, i.e. target and
source is placed on the right-hand side. We
are creating data members on heap memory.
Therefore, rollNo and grade and total
have been allocated space using new
operator. Note that as we are within member
function, i.e. constructor, we could use
*src.rollNo directly without going
through public accessory function (
*src.GetRollNo())
We have created an object of Student
Student std; // an object made
.Therefore, constructor will be called
As our data members are pointers, cout
statements in the main program are
cout<<”\n RollNO:”<<*(std.GetRollNo())
<<”\t”
<<“Total:“<<*(std.GetTotal())
<<endl;
When we use call by value by statement
FindGrade(std); copy constructors are
invoked twice: once for forwarding the
object to function and once for return from
the function. Normally changes made in the
function are not reflected in the calling
function in case of call by value. But in this
case we are returning the object to called
function by statement : return std; hence
grade changes are reflected in the main
program.
A call to a function FindGrPtr(
Student *std) means we are resorting to
pass by reference using pointer. In this case,
copy constructors and destructors are not
involved at all . This means that primary
memory and computer time is conserved. As
this is pass by reference using pointer, value
set by local variable(grade) is reflected
in the main. As we are using pointer to
object and data members are all pointers we
have to use indirection operator to access
data members : cout<<*(std2-
>GetGrade())
Student *std2=new Student(); // std2 is
created on heap .
std2=FindGrPtr(std2); // pass by
reference pointer method
cout<<”\n Students Grade set by
FindGrPtr() : “
<<*(std2->GetGrade())<<endl;
//pass by ref ptr
A call to a function Student & FindGrRef
(Student &std); means that we are resorting
to pass by reference using & operator. In this
case, copy constructors and destructors are
not involved at all. This means that primary
memory and computer time is conserved. As
this is pass by reference using address, value
set by local variable(grade) is reflected in the
main.
Student *std2=new Student(); // std2 is
created on heap .
std2=FindGrPtr(std2); // pass by
reference pointer method
cout<<”\n Students Grade set by
FindGrPtr() : “
<<*(std2->GetGrade())<<endl;
//pass by ref ptr
Example 10.13: refptr.cpp To
Demonstrate Passing of Objects by
Reference and Pass by Pointers and
Pass by Value. Constructors and
Destructors of a Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
Student();
Student(int n, float t, char c);
Student(Student &);
~Student(){cout<<”\n This is
destructor..\n”;
delete rollNo;delete grade;delete
total;} // Default destructor
int *GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
*rollNo=n;}
char *GetGrade() const { return
grade;}
void SetGrade( char p) { *grade=p;}
float * GetTotal() const { return
total;}
void SetTotal( float t) { *total=t;}
private:
int *rollNo;
float *total;
char *grade;
};
Student::Student()
{ cout<<"\nThis is default
constructor…\n";
rollNo= new int;
grade= new char(‘D’); //
default Grade
total=new float;
}
Student::Student(int n, float t,
char c)
{ cout<<"\n This is
Student(int,float,char) constructor…\n";
rollNo= new int(n);
grade= new char(c);
total=new float(t);
}
Student::Student(Student &src) //
src means source
{ cout<<"This is copy
constructor..\n";
rollNo=new int(*
(src.rollNo));
grade=new char(*(src.grade));
total=new float(*
(src.total));
}
// Three non-member functions
Student FindGrade( Student std); //call
by value
Student * FindGrPtr(Student *std); //
call by ref using pointers
Student & FindGrRef (Student &std); //
call by reference using reference
void main()
{ cout<<"\n create an ordinary object
called std for Student class..\n";
Student std; // an object made.
Therefore constructor will be called
Student *std2=new Student(); // std2 is
created on heap.
std.SetRollNo(50);
std.SetTotal(99.0);
cout<<”\n RollNO:”<<*(std.GetRollNo())
<<”\t”
<<”Total:”<<*(std.GetTotal())<<endl;
// now call a function FindGrade(Student
std)
// See how copy constructors are
involved one for forward copy and one
for return
// see also how value set by local
variable(grade =A) is reflected in the
main
// because you are returning the object
by value using statement return std
// you should also see two destructors
FindGrade(std);
cout<<”\n Students Grade set by
FindGrade() :”
<<*(std.GetGrade())<<endl;
// now call a functon FindGrPtr( Student
*std)
// See how copy constructors and
destructors are not involved at all
// see also how value set by local
variable(grade) is reflected in the main
std2=FindGrPtr(std2); // pass by
reference pointer method
cout<<”\n Students Grade set by
FindGrPtr() : “
<<*(std2->GetGrade())<<endl;
//pass by ref ptr
// now call a function FindGrref(Student
& std)
// See how copy constructors and
destructors are not involved at all
// see also how value set by local
variable(grade) is reflected in the main
FindGrRef(std); // pass by
reference reference method
cout<<”\n Students Grade set by
FindGrRef() :”
<<*(std.GetGrade())<<endl; //
pass by reference - reference */
}// end of main
// Define functions
Student FindGrade( Student std)
{ cout<<”\n FindGrade( Student std)
function …\n”;
cout<<” \n Students Grade set by
FindGrade() : \n”;
std.SetGrade(‘A’);
cout<<”\n inside FindGrade..:”<<*
(std.GetGrade())<<endl;
return std;
}
Student * FindGrPtr(Student *std)
{ std->SetGrade(‘B’);
cout<<”\n Inside FindGrPtr() :
“<<*(std->GetGrade())<<endl;
return std;
}
Student & FindGrRef ( Student &std)
{ std.SetGrade(‘C’);
cout<<”\n Inside FindGrRef() : “<<*
(std.GetGrade())<<endl;
return std;
}
/*Output :This is copy constructor..
FindGrade( Student std) function …
Students Grade set by FindGrade() :
inside FindGrade..:A
This is copy constructor..
This is destructor..
This is destructor..
Students Grade set by FindGrade() :D
Inside FindGrPtr() : B
Students Grade set by FindGrPtr() : B
Inside FindGrRef() : C
Students Grade set by FindGrRef() :C
This is destructor..*/
10.9 Constant Pointers and Constant
References
Recall that in the above example function
Student * FindGrPtr(Student
*std); receives the object by reference
using pointers. It also amends the Grade.
What if we want the function to receive the
object by reference because of efficiency and
yet should not be able to change the values.
Clearly the solution is to pass a constant
pointer to Student and thus FindGrPtr ()
not amend the object. This is because of the
stipulation that a constant pointer can only
call a constant function and constant
function by definition cannot alter the
values.
const Student * const FindGrPtr(const
Student * const std);
const Student & FindGrRef (const Student
&std);
Call by ref using constant pointers and also
constant object. The second call involves call
by reference using & operator and also
constant object Student. Look at the
program presented below to understand the
concepts involved better.
Example 10.14: constrefptr.cpp To
Demonstrate Constant Pointer and
Constant Reference and Constant
Object. Constructors and
Destructors of a Class
//constptrref.cpp
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
Student();
Student(int n, float t, char c);
Student(Student &);
~Student(){cout<<”\n This is
destructor..\n”;
delete rollNo;delete grade;delete
total;} // Default destructor
int *GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) { *rollNo=n;}
char *GetGrade() const { return
grade;}
void SetGrade( char p) { *grade=p;}
float * GetTotal() const { return
total;}
void SetTotal( float t) { *total=t;}
private:
int *rollNo;
float *total;
char *grade;
};
Student::Student()
{ cout<<"\nThis is default
constructor…\n";
rollNo= new int;
grade= new char(‘D’); // default
Grade
total=new float;
}
Student::Student(int n, float t, char c)
{ cout<<"\n This is
Student(int,float,char) constructor…\n";
rollNo= new int(n);
grade= new char(c);
total=new float(t);
}
Student::Student(Student &src) // src
means source
{
cout<<"This is copy constructor..\n";
rollNo=new int(*(src.rollNo));
grade=new char(*(src.grade));
total=new float(*(src.total));
}
const Student * const FindGrPtr(const
Student * const std);
const Student & FindGrRef (const
Student &std);
void main()
{ cout<<"\n create an ordinary objet
called std for Student class..\n";
Student std; // an object made .
Constructor will be called
std.SetRollNo(50);
std.SetTotal(99.0);
cout<<"\n RollNO :"<<*std.GetRollNo()
<<"\t"<<"Total :"
<<*std.GetTotal()
<<"Grade : "<<*std.GetGrade()
<<endl;
// now call const Student * const
FindGrPtr(const Student * const std);
FindGrPtr(& std); // pass by
reference pointer method
cout<<"\n Students Grade after
return from FindGrPtr() : "
<<*std.GetGrade()<<endl;
// now call a function : const
Student & FindGrRef (const Student
&std);
FindGrRef(std); // pass by
reference reference method
cout<<"\n Students Grade after
returning from FindGrRef() :"
<<*std.GetGrade()<<endl;
}// end of main
const Student * const FindGrPtr(const
Student * const std)
{ //std->SetGrade(‘B’); // clearly
error constant pointer to constant obj
cout<<"\n Inside FindGrPtr() : "
<<*std->GetGrade()<<endl;
return std;
}
const Student & FindGrRef ( const
Student & std)
{ //std.SetGrade(‘C’); // clearly error
. student is a constant obj
cout<<"\n Inside FindGrRef() : "
<<*std.GetGrade()<<endl;
return std;
}
/*Output :create an ordinary objet
called std for Student class..
This is default constructor…
RollNO :50 Total :99Grade : D
Inside FindGrPtr() : D
Students Grade after return from
FindGrPtr() : D
Inside FindGrRef() : D
Students Grade after returning from
FindGrRef() :D
This is destructor..*/
Note that in cout statements in main()
and functions std.GetGrade() return a
pointer of character type as per our function
prototype declaration. Hence we have used
dereference operator * : *std.GetGrade()
or *std->GetGrade();
10.10 Static Member Data
Recall our definition of encapsulation. It is
binding of member data and member
functions into a single entity by class. A class
has access tights defined for its data
members and enjoys the benefits of
protective and security features like data
hiding, abstraction, etc. Further you are
aware that member data is exclusive to an
instance of object. For example, Student
Hari cannot share the data of Student Shiva.
If we want a single data item to be
available to all instances of the class, one
way is to declare it as a global variable. But
in that case we would lose all advantages of
being a member of a class like data security,
access privileges, etc.
For example, if we want a variable called
count to keep track of the number of objects
being created and the number of objects
being deleted, how do we declare such a
variable?
If we declare it in global section, we would
lose benefits of being within the class. But if
we declare it within the class, it becomes
part of the class and hence belongs to an
instance of class and cannot be shared
amongst objects. Then how can the variable
keep track of the number of objects being
created?
Variable declared as static, though resides
inside a class; it can keep track of the objects
being created or destroyed. This means that
it is accessible to all instances of the class.
We can say that static data belongs to class
and not to an object.
class Student
{ public:
Student(){count++;}
~Student(){count--;} // Default
destructor
static int count; // static data member
declared as public
};
Therefore, to give access to all instances of
the class declare the variable as static. It
does not belong to class and is not initialized
along with member data when the object is
created. Also note that no memory resources
are allocated by static declaration made
inside the class. Hence, the static variables
are required to be declared globally outside
the class and then only resources are
allocated.
int Student::count=0; // mandatory to
declare in global section
In the example shown below, we have
instantiated four objects, two outside the
controlling braces and two within the
controlling braces. We can use static
variable count with any one of the objects to
get the count of objects created:
Student a,b;
{ Student ramesh, suresh;
cout<<”ramesh.count”<<ramesh.count<<”\t”
<<”suresh.count”
}
The life of variables is till the controlling
brace brackets. Hence we would get count as
2 when we check the count after the
controlling braces.
Example 10.15: static1.cpp To
Demonstrate Usage of Static Data
Within a Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
Student(){count++;}
~Student(){count--;} // Default
destructor
static int count; // static data
member declared as public
};
int Student::count=0; // mandatory to
declare in global section
void main()
{
{ Student a,b; // two objects have been
created
Student ramesh, suresh;
cout<<”ramesh.count”<<ramesh.count<<”\t”
<<”suresh.count”
<<suresh.count<<endl;
cout<<”The above result shows that
static variable is available to ramesh &
suresh”;
}
cout<<”\nafter brace brackets
:”<<endl;
cout<<”a.count=”<<a.count<<endl;
Student w,x,y,z;
cout<<”\nafter creation of w x y z
:”<<endl;
cout<<”a.count”<<a.count<<”\t”<<”b.count
”<<b.count<<endl;
}
/*Output :ramesh.count4 suresh.count4
The above result shows that static
variable is available to ramesh & suresh
after brace brackets :
a.count=2
after creation of w x y z :
a.count6 b.count6*/
What happens if you declare the static
data as private? Quite simple. By now you
must have understood that the only way to
access a private data is through a public
accessory function. Code is reproduced for
static data type that is declared as private.
Example 10.16: static2.cpp To
Demonstrate Usage of Private Static
Data Within a Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{public:
Student(){count++;}
~Student(){count--;} // Default
destructor
int GetCount() const { return
count;}// public function to access
static private data
private:
static int count; // static data
member declared as private
};
int Student::count=0; // mandatory
to declare in global section
void main()
{ Student a,b;
{ Student ramesh, suresh;
cout<<”ramesh.count”<<ramesh.GetCount()
<<”\t”<<”suresh.count”
<<suresh.GetCount()<<endl;
cout<<”The above result shows
that static variable is available to
ramesh & suresh”;
}
cout<<”\nafter brace brackets
:”<<endl;
cout<<”a.count=”<<a.GetCount()
<<endl; // because static private
declaration
Student w,x,y,z;
cout<<”\nafter creation of w x y z
:”<<endl;
cout<<”Student.count”<<x.GetCount()
<<”\t”<<”y.count”<<y.GetCount()<<endl;
}
/*Output :ramesh.count4 suresh.count4
The above result shows that static
variable is available to ramesh & suresh
after brace brackets :
a.count=2
after creation of w x y z :
Student.count :6 y.count : 6*/
10.11 Static Member Functions
The data members declared as static is
available for all instances of the class. That is
why we could use x.GetCount() and
y.GetCount() in the above program.
Therefore, it really does not matter which
object calls the function that displays static
data.
To make it independent of object we need
to define the member function as static.
static int GetCount() { return count;}//
public function to access static private
cout<<Student::GetCount() // you can
call static function without object
// by using
class name and scope resolution operator
The next program illustrates the static
function concept and usage.
Example 10.17: static3.cpp To
Demonstrate Usage of Static
Member Functions Within a Class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
Student(){count++;}
~Student(){count--;} // Default
destructor
static int GetCount() { return
count;}// public function to access
static private data
private:
static int count; // static data
member declared as public
};
int Student::count=0; // mandatory
to declare in global section
void main()
{ Student a,b;
{ Student ramesh, suresh;
cout<<”Student.count”<<Student::GetCount
()<<endl;
}
cout<<”\nafter brace brackets :”<<endl;
cout<<”Student.count=”<<Student::GetCoun
t()<<endl;
Student w,x,y,z;
cout<<”\nafter creation of w x y z
:”<<endl;
cout<<”Student count
:”<<Student::GetCount()<<endl;
}
/*Output : Student.count4
after brace brackets :
Student.count=2
after creation of w x y z :
Student count :6
*/
10.12 Summary
1. Class, we use in C++, to define our own data type. Class
data types can be of different data types.
2. Object is a variable of data type class.
3. A class therefore allows us to encapsulate member
functions and member data into a single entity called
object.
4. Encapsulation is binding of data and member function
into objects by a class.
5. Access privileges are public, private and protected.
Members declared as public are available to all, whereas
members declared as private are only available to
instances of the class. Protected members are private to
all but public to descendants, i.e. derived classes in
inheritance relation.
6. The only way to access private member data is through
public accessory functions.
7. Use scope resolution operator :: to define member
functions outside the class.
8. Member functions declared and defined inside a class
are treated as inline functions, though explicitly not
stated.
9. Constructors and destructors have the same name of the
class but they have no return types.
10. Friend function carries a keyword friend, even if
declared inside the class does not belong to class. It has
access to all private data members directly without going
through the public accessory functions. When defining
friend functions outside the class, there is no need to use
scope resolution operator as the friend function does not
belong to class.
11. Containers are provided by C++ to achieve reusability of
code. Containments are also called composition or
aggregation. Composition is a ‘has’-type of relation.
12. Objects and data members can be allocated space on
Heap memory using new operator and released using
delete operator. Indirection operator ->is used to access
members on heap.
13. This pointer is a hidden pointer that is forwarded to a
function. It is called this pointer because it refers to this
object that has invoked the function.
14. Constant pointers and constant objects are used to
ensure data security and integrity. Constant pointers can
only call constant functions.
15. Objects are passed by reference, either by reference or
through pointers.
16. When using const object and no reassignment is
involved it is better to use reference method that is easy
to use and elegant rather than const pointer to constant
object.
17. Static member data though resided inside a class does
not belong to class . It is available to all instances of the
class. It is mandatory to define in global section static
member data so that memory resources can be
allocated.
18. To make invoking of member functions independent of
objects we need to declare public functions handling
static data as static functions.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. A constructor is called whenever
1. An object is declared
2. An object is used
3. A class is declared
4. A class is used
2. A class having no name
1. Is not allowed
2. Cannot have a constructor
3. Cannot have a destructor
4. Cannot be passed as argument
3. Constructors can take arguments
1. Zero arguments
2. Two arguments
3. No arguments
4. Any number of arguments
4. Destructors can take arguments T
1. One argument
2. Two arguments
3. No arguments
4. Any number of arguments
5. Constructor can be overloaded while destructor cannot
be overloaded True/False
6. Constructors are used to create data
members. True/False
7. Constructors return void data type. True/False
8. Member functions declared and defined inside a class
are inline though not explicitly defined. True/False
9. In C++, a function declared within a class is called
1. Inline function
2. Member function
3. Contained function
4. Class function
10. The default access specifies for data members in C++ is
1. Public
2. Private
3. Protected
4. Inherited
11. Declaring a friend function inside a class allows the
friend function to access
1. Private data of all member objects of the class
2. Private member functions of all member objects of the class
3. Both a and b
4. None of the above
12. Static variable declared as private is available to all
instances of the class
1. Through public function
2. Through public function declared as static
3. Directly without public function
4. None of above
13. 13) A static function can handle
1. Non-static data
2. Only static data
3. Private data
4. Public data.
14. Class declaration and definition and is placed above void
main(). Which one of the following statements are NOT
true?
1. It is required by all functions
2. It is a global declaration
3. Space available
4. They are global declarations and available to all
15. Const pointer can call
1. Non-constant function
2. Const function
3. Any function
4. None
16. If object is declared constant then this pointer is a
constant pointer True/False
17. Dynamic memory can be allocated with
1. Pointers only
2. Reference operator only
3. Both a and b
4. None
18. Constant this pointer can call
1. Non-constant function
2. Const function
3. Any function
4. None
Short-answer Questions
19. Distinguish between private and public access specifiers.
20. Distinguish a class and an object. Why is scope
resolution operator employed in C++?
21. Explain data hiding and encapsulation.
22. Explain why private variables cannot be accessed
outside the class directly.
23. What is the solution provided by language C++? For
problem at 4.
24. Explain constructor overloading.
25. Explain the difference between default constructor and
constructor with arguments.
26. What is a friend function? How is it useful?
27. Explain static data variable.
28. Distinguish a static data and a global data.
29. What is a container class? Explain with examples.
30. Explain the use of this pointer.
31. Why are constant pointers deployed?
32. Explain the context under which constant pointer to
constant object can be deployed.
33. Constant pointer can only invoke a constant function.
Why this restriction?
34. How do you create objects on heap memory? Explain
with examples.
35. How do you create member data on heap memory?
Explain with examples
36. Differentiate Const pointer to data and pointer to
constant data.
Long-answer Questions
37. Declare a class called Account with data members,
accNo, name, balance. Declare a data members as
private and member functions as public. Declare a
member function called Transact which will allow
withdrawal of amount and then display the balance.
38. Rewrite the above code with a private member function
called DisplayTrDate() that will be invoked by
withdraw function and will display transaction date.
39. Implement a class called FractionNo with suitable
constructors and destructors. Include functionality like
add, multiply and inverse.
40. Declare a Point class inside a class Rectangle and
calculate the area of the rectangle.
41. Write code for creating objects of two employees with
idNo, name, basicPay. Demonstrate the use of
constructor, copy constructor.
42. Rewrite the code for sl 5 with object and member data
on the heap memory.
43. Write a class based cpp to calculate the grades of n
number of students. There are 2 mid-term
examinations. Each mid-term examination consists of
one online for 20 marks and one subjective paper for 20
marks. For internal marks consider the best of the
online and the best of subjective papers. External papers
to have 60% weight. Declare grade A for 80% and above,
Grade B for 60 to 79%, Grade C for others. Use a private
member function to determine the grade of the student.
44. Declare a class called a rational number, defined as two
integer variables called numerator and denominator,
and include functionality for + ., −, *, / of two rational
numbers. Use friend function for mathematical
operations.
45. Implement a class to represent a Circle that holds
radius, x, y(center coordinates) and functions to
calculate area and circumference. Use containment
concept.
46. Use a class called counter. Declare a private static
variable called count. Use it through public function and
display the no. of objects created. Constructor and
destructor must keep track of count addition on creation
and subtraction on deletion.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. a
2. a
3. d
4. c
5. True
6. False
7. False
8. True
9. b
10. b
11. c
12. b
13. b
14. c
15. b
16. True
17. a
18. b
11
C++ Special Features
ERRORS AND EXCEPTIONS AND
OPERATOR OVERLOADING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to
Write objective-oriented C++ programs that
incorporate errors and exceptions.
Write programs with your own errors and exceptions
class to suit particular and individual needs.
Write programs with overloading of operators.
11.1 Introduction
Many of you would have come across a pop-
up while using the Internet or operating
system, wherein the pop message says “OS
or Browser has experienced a serious
problem and needs to be closed down. Error
reporting is in process”. Indeed, error has
occurred. Despite elaborate testing prior to
delivery, errors cannot be prevented but
they can be minimized. In this chapter, we
will study of mechanism of C++ to handle
errors and exceptions.
An important feature of any modern OOPs
language is overloading. Overloading means
making a function or operator perform more
than one task, depending on the arguments
supplied, at run-time. Function overloading
is one such example. C++ has overloaded
the operators too. Intrinsic operators have
been overloaded thus enhancing the
efficiency of language.
11.2 Errors and Exceptions
There are three types of errors that can
crop up in a program:
Syntactical Errors: Can be easily detected and corrected
by compilers.
Logical Errors: Arise due to the programmer not
understanding flow of logic.
This can be corrected by extensive testing.
Bugs: These can be fixed by the programmer using
assert() macros and debuggers available.
Exceptions, on the other hand, are
unusual conditions that occur at run-time
and can lead to errors that can crash a
program. The exceptions can be classified as
Synchronous, i.e. those can be
predicted. For example, array index going
outside the permissible values can be easily
detected because such errors occur only
when you have executed the statement
involving array index. The synchronous
exception can occur at any one or more of
the following situations:
Memory allocation exception
IO handling exception
Maths handling exception like division by zero
Asynchronous exceptions, those that
cannot be predicted.
Generally, the resources required for the
program are allocated at the very beginning
and resources are demanded at run-time.
Thus, it is likely that our program may
exceed the initial allotment. As an example,
consider allocated memory for an array.
When such an exception occurs, we need a
mechanism to carry such information to the
area where recourses are allocated so that
we can take corrective actions and prevent
program crashing.
11.3 Try and Catch Blocks
C++ raises an exception object. For it to do
so, we need to use a try block, wherever we
expect likely exception. Catch blocks that
follow try blocks catch the exception object
and take remedial action.
Consider the case of allocating dynamic
memory allocation for a two-dimensional
matrix. Try will allocate dynamic memory. If
it fails due to non-availability of memory,
then it will throw the exception object. Catch
block will catch the exception thrown by try
block and take remedial measures. In the
example that follows, we will show how to
use try and catch blocks for allocation of
memory for a two-dimensional matrix.
Example 11.1: Use of Try and Catch
Block. Allocation of Memory for a
Two-dimensional Matrix
1. try
2. { A=new int * [m];
3. for (int i=0;i<m;i++)
4. A[i]=new int[n];
5. }catch (bad_alloc) { cout<<”\n bad
allocation”<<endl;exit(1);}
Example 11.2: A Try Block can
Catch Multiple Exceptions Like IO
Exception, Index Out of Bounds
Exception, etc
try
{
// allocation code here
}
catch (bad allocation object){ }
catch ( File IO exception object) { }
Example 11.3: Nesting of Try Block
try
{ // allocation code here
try{// inner try block code here}
catch ( File IO exception object)
{ }
}
catch (bad allocation object){ }
catch ( File IO exception object) { }
11.4 Exception Classes
In the following example, we will
demonstrate the use of exception handling
in the case of divide by zero error that occurs
at run-time. The example is that of
calculation of density using the formula
density = mass/area. The inputs are mass
and radius. At run-time, if the radius is
entered as zero, the program throws an
exception object called DivideByZero();
Note that we have defined a class
DivideByZero{} with an empty body so
that we can use it as a tool to catch the
exception and enter the catch block. In the
catch block, we will inform the user and
make a decent exit through exit(0)
statement.
Example 11.4: dividebyzero.cpp A
Program to Demonstrate Exception
Class – Divide by Zero
1. #include<iostream> // for using cin
and cout for input and output library
2. using namespace std;
3. class DivideByZero{} // exception
class used to enter catch
4. template <class T>
5. T FindDensity(T mass , T radius);
6. void main()
7. { double mass, radius, area,
density;
8. while (1)
9. { cout << “\n Enter mass in Kgs :”;
10. cin>> mass;
11. cout << “\n Enter radius < 0 to test
divide by zero and exit> :”;
12. cin>> radius;
13. try
14. {if ( radius==0.0)
15. throw DivideByZero();
16. else
17. {area = 4*3.141581
*radius*radius;density = mass/area;}
18. }catch ( DivideByZero)
19. { cout<<”\n Dive by zero error has
occurred :”<<endl;
20. cout<<”\n the parameters are : mass
=”<<mass
21. <<”\t”<<”radius =”<<radius<<endl;
22. cout<<”\n Exiting the
programme:”<<endl;
23. exit(0);
24. }
25. cout<<”\n the parameters are : mass
=”<<mass
26. <<”\t”<<”radius
=”<<radius<<”\t”<<”density
=”<<density<<endl;
27. cout<<“\n Normal execution of the
programme.“<<endl;
28. }
29. } // end of main
/*Output: Enter mass in Kgs :25.00
Enter radius < 0 to test divide by zero
and exit> :3.0
the parameters are : mass =25 radius =3
density =0.221049
Normal execution of the programme.
Enter radius < 0 to test divide by zero
and exit> :0.0
Dive by zero error has occurred :
the parameters are : mass =45 radius =0
Exiting the programme:*/
L class DivideByZero{}; When an exception
i object is thrown, control passes to catch block,
n wherein corrective mechanisms are in place. To
e gain entry into catch block, we have declared
and defined an exception class inside the main
N class. Note that this exception class has no body.
o Its sole purpose is to give entry into catch block.
.
3
:
L throw DivideByZero(); is inside a try block.
i This means that try block throws
n DivideByZero() object.
e
N
o
.
1
5
:
L are try block and Lines No 18–24 are catch
i block.
n
e
s
N
o
.
1
3
–
1
8
:
We will use stack data structure to
demonstrate errors and exception features.
But before we do that, there is a need to
understand the data structure called stack.
11.5 Stack Data Structure
Stack is a linear data structure. Data is
inserted and extracted based on a technique
called Last in first Out(LIFO) concept. As an
example think of an activity of students
submitting assignments to their teacher. The
teacher will receive and pile them in a stack
on the table and will start corrections from
the top. Therefore, last in assignment gets
service first. As you will see, computer
systems depend on stack structure to solve
several problems. Representation is shown
in Figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1 Stack representation and terms
Stack Operations
Create a stack.
Check if stack is full or empty. We cannot insert into a
full stack. Neither can we extract from an empty stack.
Initialize the stack. For example, tos= –1, and tos = max
–1; are initialization commands. Stack extends from 0 to
(max –1).
Push (insert) an element onto stack if it is not full.
Pop(extract) an element from the stack if it is not empty.
Read from top of stack.
Display/print the entire stack.
As an example, while programming stack
operations, we can include two exceptions,
namely, stackfullexception and
stackemptyexception.
class Stack
{ public: ………………….
…………………..
// Exception classes
class stackfullerror {};
class stackemptyerror {};
};
Try block and its associated catch block
can be placed in the main program, where
push and pop operations are contemplated.
As shown below, try
{
s.push(“Thunder”);
cout<<s.top()<<endl;
s.push(“Anand”);
cout<<s.top()<<endl;
s.push(“Ramesh”);
}
The following programs, 11.6, will
highlight these features:
Example 11.5: stackassign2.cpp
Implements the Stack ADT Using
Dynamic Arrays
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<string>
3. using namespace std;
4. const int max_size=3;
5. class Stack
6. { public:
7. Stack(); //default constructor
8. ~Stack(); //destructor
9. Stack& operator=(const Stack&);
//Assignment operator overloading
10. int size() const; //returns number
of elements in stack
11. int empty() const; //returns 1 if
stack is empty
12. int & top(); //returns top of stack
13. void pop(); //pops top of stack
14. void push(const int &); //pushes
element on top of stack
15. // exception classes
16. class stackfullerror {};
17. class stackemptyerror {};
18. private:
19. int* stack_array; //dynamic array
20. int tos; //top of stack pointer
21. int stack_size; //size of dynamic
array
22. };
23. //default constructor
24. Stack :: Stack()
25. { stack_array = new int[max_size];
26. stack_size = max_size;
27. tos = -1;
28. }
29. //destructor
30. Stack:: ~Stack() {delete []
stack_array;}
31. Stack& Stack :: operator=(const
Stack& S) // Assignment Operator
32. { stack_array = new
int[S.stack_size];
33. tos = S.tos;
34. stack_size = S.stack_size;
35. for(int i =0 ; i<S.size(); i++)
36. stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
37. return * this; // for chaining
purpose
38. }
39. int Stack :: size() const {return
tos+1;}
40. int Stack :: empty() const
41. { if(tos == -1)
42. return 1;
43. else return 0;
44. }
45. void Stack:: push(const int & val)
46. {if( tos<stack_size-1 )
47. { tos++;
48. stack_array[tos] = val;
49. }
50. else
51. throw stackfullerror();
52. }
53. void Stack :: pop()
54. { if(tos >= 0)
55. tos--;
56. else
57. throw stackemptyerror();
58. }
59. int& Stack :: top()
{return(stack_array[tos]);}
60. void main()
61. { Stack s;
62. //check for stack full exception
63. try
64. {s.push(10);s.push(20); s.push(30);
65. }catch(Stack::stackfullerror)
66. { cout<<”\nstack full exception.
Cannot be pursued on to stack:”<<endl;
67. cout<<”\nExiting the catch block of
stackfull exception ..”<<endl;
68. }
69. //overloaded assignment operator
70. cout<<”\n Result of = operator on
stack objects s & t ..”<<endl;
71. Stack t;
72. t=s; // assignment Operator
73. cout<<”\n Elements of Stack s
“<<endl;
74. while(!s.empty())
75. { cout<<s.top()<<endl;s.pop();}
76. cout<<”\n Elements of Stack t after
= operator”<<endl;
77. while(!t.empty())
78. { cout<<t.top()<<endl; t.pop();}
79. }//end of main
/* Output: Result of = operator on stack
objects s & t ..
Elements of Stack s : 30 20 10
Elements of Stack t after = operator 30
20 10*/
Line Declare a class for Stack class.
No. 5:
Lines declare two functions called size()
No. 10 and empty()
and 11:
Lines declare two functions top() and pop()
No. 12
and 13:
Lines Define class stackfullerror {}
No. 16 and class stackemptyerror {}
& 17: inside class Stack
Line declares a dynamic array called
No. 19: stack_array :int * stack_array;
Line int Stack :: empty() const //
No. 40: empty() function definition
Lines Try block wherein we have tried to push
No. elements on to stack
63–65:
Lines catch block catches stackfullerror
No.
65–68:
11.6 Operator Overloading
Predefined operators such as +, –/, *, etc.
are defined and provided by the compiler to
work on intrinsic(basic) data types
such as int, char, double, etc. We have also
discussed at length while discussing the
concept of function overloading that if a
function can perform more than one task,
then we can call it as overloading and it is an
efficient way of utilizing scarce resources
like primary memory. Operator overloading
also improves the efficiency and throughput
of the program by conserving the primary
memory of C++.
If we can make these predefined operators
work on user-defined data types such as
classes, we would call this operator
overloading. For example, consider a
predefined operator +, and its normal
operation:
int x=10, y=20;
int z = x + y ; // contents of x and y
are added and placed in z
Now consider two complex numbers in
polar form of representation:
Polar v1(25.0,53.50); // magnitude and
angle theta
Polar v2(5.0, 45.00);
Polar v3;
11.6.1 Overloading of + Operator and *
Operator
Operator + overloading means we can write
v3 = v1 + v2. In that case, what would
compiler do? Exactly what we tell the
compiler to do in operator overloading
function definition like
Convert both polar form vectors into
Cartesian coordinates like r cos t + j
sin t.
Add real terms of v1 and v2 and place
them in v3.
Add imaginary terms of v1 and v2 and
place them in v3.
Convert the resultant v3 into polar form.
For multiplication:
Convert both into polar form.
Multiply magnitude of polar1 &
polar2 to get resultant magnitude.
Add angles of polar1 & polar2 to get
resultant theta.
Declare resultant magnitude and resultant
theta as a result of multiplication.
Let us attempt this interesting problem in
our next problem. In this program, we will
show how to overload operators + and * to
perform operations on objects v1 and v2 so
that we can write
v3=v1+v2;
v3=v1*v2;
Example 11.6: opplus.cpp A
Program to Show Operators + , *
Overloading
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<cmath>
3. using namespace std;
4. class Polar
5. {// public accessory functions
6. public:
7. Polar(){r=0.0;t=0.0;a=0.0;b=0.0;}
8. Polar(double x, double y)
{a=x;b=y;r=0.0;t=0.0;}
9. double GetA() const{return a;}
10. double GetB() const {return b;}
11. double GetR() const{return r;}
12. double GetT() const {return t;}
13. void ConvertToPolar(); // to
convert to polar form
14. void ConvertToCartesian(); // to
convert to Cartesian form
15. friend void DisplayPolar(const
Polar &v); // to display in cartesian
forms
16. friend void DisplayCartesian(const
Polar &v);
17. Polar operator+(const Polar &v1);
18. Polar operator*(const Polar &v1);
19. private:
20. double r; //mag
21. double t; //theeta
22. double a; // real
23. double b; // imaginary
24. };
25. void Polar::ConvertToPolar()
26. { double x=0.0;
r=sqrt(a*a + b*b);
x=atan(b/a);
t= (7.0/22.0)*180.0*x; // PI radians
equals 180 degrees
27. }
28. void Polar::ConvertToCartesian()
29. { double x=0.0;
x=atan(b/a);
a=r*cos(x);
b=r*sin(x);
30. }
31. Polar Polar::operator+ (const Polar
&v)
32. { Polar v3(a+v.GetA(),b+v.GetB());
return v3;}
33. Polar Polar::operator* (const
Polar &v)
34. { Polar v3;
35. float x=0.0;
36. v3.r=r*v.GetR();
37. v3.t=t+v.GetT();
38. x = t*(7.0/22.0)*180;
39. v3.a=r*cos(x);
40. v3.b=r*sin(x);
41. return v3;
42. }
43. void DisplayCartesian(const Polar &
v)
44. { cout<< «\n Vector in cartesian :
real = «<<v.a<<» imaginary
=»<<v.b<<endl; }
45. void DisplayPolar(const Polar & v)
46. { cout<< “\n Vector in polar form
etc: magnitude = “<<v.r<<” Angle
=”<<v.t<<endl;
47. }
48. void main()
49. { Polar v1(3.0,4.0),v2(3.0,4.0),v3
,v4;
50. cout<<»\n Given Vector V1 :»;
51. DisplayCartesian(v1);
52. cout<<»\n Given Vector V2 :»;
53. DisplayCartesian(v2);
54. v3=v1+v2;
55. cout<<”\n after v1 + v2 :operator
overloading ..”<<endl;
56. DisplayCartesian(v3);
57. v1.ConvertToPolar();
58. v2.ConvertToPolar();
59. DisplayPolar(v1);
60. DisplayPolar(v2);
61. v4=v1*v2;
62. cout<<»\n after v1 * v2 :operator
overloading ..»<<endl;
63. DisplayPolar(v4);
64. }
/* Given Vector V1 :Vector in cartesian
: real = 3 imaginary =4
Given Vector V2 : Vector in cartesian :
real = 3 imaginary =4
after v1 + v2 :operator overloading ..
Vector in cartesian : real = 6 imaginary
=8
Vector in polar form etc: magnitude = 5
Angle =53.1087
Vector in polar form etc: magnitude = 5
Angle =53.1087
after v1 * v2 :operator overloading ..
Vector in polar form etc: magnitude = 25
Angle =106.217*/
11.6.2 Operator << Overloading
We can write individual functions to display
the object, as shown below, through the
usage of DisplayPolar() function, but
this is cumbersome. Instead, can we simply
write cout<<v3 and still expect the same
result? Operator << over loading achieves
this result.
Example 11.7: opcout.cpp To
Demonstrate Overloading of <<
Operator
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<cmath> // for maths related
functions like sqrt,cos, tan, tan- etc
3. using namespace std;
4. // Declaration of class called Polar
5. class Polar
6. { public: Polar():r(0.0),t(0.0){} //
Default constructor
7. Polar( double f , double
g):r(f),t(g){} // constructor
8. ~Polar(){} // Default Destructor
9. Polar operator*(const Polar &v1);
10. void Display(ostream & src) const
11. { src<<”Magnitude =
“<<r<<”\t”<<”Angle theeta =”<<t<<endl;}
12. double GetR() const{return r;}
13. double GetT() const {return t;}
14. private:double r; t ; // magnitude
& angle theeta
15. };
16. ostream & operator<<(ostream &src,
const Polar v){ v.Display(src); return
src;}
17. Polar Polar::operator* (const Polar
&v)
18. { Polar v3;
19. float x=0.0;
20. v3.r=r*v.GetR();
21. v3.t=t+v.GetT();
22. return v3;
23. }
24. void main()
25. { Polar
v1(5.0,53.0),v2(6.0,28.0),v3; //
v1,v2,v3 is the object of Polar class
26. cout<<“\nThe Given Vectors in
Polar form form ….\n“<<endl;
27. cout<<“\nPolar form vector v1
:“<<v1<<endl;
28. cout<<“\nPolar form vector 2 v2
:“<<v2<<endl;
29. // multiply Polar Vectors v1 & v2
and store it in v3 using overloaded
operator
30. v3=v1*v2;
31. cout<<“\nv3=v1*v2 in Polar Form
:“;
32. cout<<v3;
33. }// end of main
34. /*Output: The Given Vectors in Polar
form form ….
35. Polar form vector v1 :Magnitude = 5
Angle theeta =53
36. Polar form vector 2 v2 :Magnitude =
6 Angle theeta =28
37. v3=v1*v2 in Polar Form :Magnitude =
30 Angle theeta =81*/
11.6.3 What We Can Overload and What
We Cannot Overload
All operators of C++ can be overloaded. We
cannot overload the following operators:
Member function access operator : .
Dereferencing pointer to member : *
Conditional operator : ?
Scope resolution operator : ::
Sizeof()operator
All operators operating on a class must be overloaded
except operators such as assignment = , address
operator &, and comma operator , . Precedence of
overloaded operators is exactly the same as that of
normal operators.
11.6.4 Overloading Assignment Operator =
By now we appreciate what is meant by
overloading. If we overload the assignment
operator, we should be able to write in our
code A = B where A and B are objects. In
C++, we are aware that we can write
assignment of several variables like
double x = y = z = 3.141519;
Clearly after assigning the initial
assignment as z = 3.141519, the
operator must return the reference of what
is assigned so that chaining can be
continued and compiler can assign the
values to y and thence to x. We also
discussed that this pointer is always present
when a function is invoked by the object and
we can conveniently make use of this pointer
to return the reference.
Polar & Polar :: operator = ( const
Polar & src)
{ r = src.r; t = src.t;
return *this; } // here we are
returning ref for chaining explained
above
As a second example, look at the problem
in Example 11.6 discussed above wherein we
have used operator = overloading
9 Stack& operator=(const Stack&);
//Assignment operator overloading
31 Stack& Stack :: operator=(const
Stack& S) // Assignment Operator
32 { stack_array = new
int[S.stack_size];
33 tos = S.tos;
34 stack_size = S.stack_size;
35 for(int i =0 ; i<S.size(); i++)
36 stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
37 return * this; // for chaining
purpose
38 }
Line No. is a prototype declaration
9:
Line No. allocates space for new integer array
32: as per S stack size
Line No. equates S.stack_size to
33: stck_size
Lines No. get the array values
35–36:
Line No. returns a reference * this
37:
If we are using templates, the assignment
operator for a class called Stack in Example
11.4 looks like the following:
template <class T>
Stack<T>& Stack<T> :: operator=(const
Stack& S)
{ stack_array = new T[S.stack_size];
tos = S.tos;
stack_size = S.stack_size;
for(int i =0 ; i<size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
return *this;}
11.7 Pre- and Post-increment Operator
Overloading
While end result is the same, C++ treats pre-
and post-increment operators differently.
For pre-increment operators, the syntax
is: Height & operator ++ (); //pre fix
For post-increment operators, the syntax
is: Height & operator ++ (int);// post
fix
Note that the argument int shown in case
of post-increment operators is a dummy. It
is used by compiler just to distinguish from
pre-increment operators.
Example 11.8: prepostfix.cpp
Demonstrates Operator ++
Overloading.ence
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<cmath> // for maths related
functions like sqrt,cos , tan , tan- etc
3. using namespace std;
4. class Height {
5. public:
6. Height(float h);
7. Height & operator ++ (); //pre fix
8. Height & operator ++ (int); // post
fix
9. ~Height(); // Destructor
10. Height(Height const& m); // Copy
constructor
11. Height& operator= (Height const& m);
// Assignment operator
12. float GetHeight() const { return
yourHeight;}
13. private:float yourHeight;
14. };
15. inline Height::Height(float
h):yourHeight (h){}
16. inline Height::~Height() {} //
Destructor
17. Height & Height::operator++ (){
++yourHeight;return * this;}
18. Height & Height::operator ++ (int)
{yourHeight++;return * this;}
19. void main()
20. { Height
Ramesh(179.0),Gautam(172.0),Anand(171);
// three objects created
21. cout<<”\n Given Height…”<<endl;
22. cout <<Ramesh.GetHeight()<<” :
“<<Anand.GetHeight()<<” :
“<<Gautam.GetHeight()<<endl;
23. ++Ramesh;++Anand;++Gautam;
24. cout<<”\n Height after prefix ++
overloading…”<<endl;
25. cout <<Ramesh.GetHeight()<<” :
“<<Anand.GetHeight()<<” :
“<<Gautam.GetHeight()<<endl;
26. Ramesh++;Anand++;Gautam++;
27. cout<<”\n Height after postfix ++
overloading…”<<endl;
28. cout <<Ramesh.GetHeight()<<” :
“<<Anand.GetHeight()<<” :
“<<Gautam.GetHeight()<<endl;
29. }
/*Output: Given Height…179 : 171 :
172
Height after prefix ++ overloading…
180 : 172 : 173
Height after postfix ++ overloading…
181 : 173 : 174*/
Line Pre- and post-increment operators
s No. definition. Observe that your Height has
17 been increased and *this (reference
and object) has been returned
18:
11.8 Overloading Operators New and Delete
We are aware from our study of dynamic
memory allocation that new operator is used
for allocation of memory in heap memory.
The syntax for new and delete operators is
presented here:
int *x = new int; // creation and
allocation of heap memory
*x=25; // assign value
Alternately, we can use a single
statement
int *x = new int(12); allocate value
12 to pointer variable on heap memory
……………………
delete x; // q pointer has been
deleted
For array declarations : //x is a
pointer variable pointing to array by
name x
int *x =new int[12]; // having 12
contiguous locations.
…………………….
delete [] x; // deletion of pointer to
an array
In the example that follows, we will show
overloading of new and delete operators. As
we are overloading new and delete
operations, for memory allocation, we
cannot use their original definitions.
Instead, we use malloc() and free()
functions from C language. The syntax is
shown below:
int *x ; // x is a pointer variable
//allocate dynamic memory space using
malloc()
x = (int *)malloc( 12 *sizeof(int));
……………………..
free(x); // delete the memory
allocated
Example 11.9: Stundent1.cpp A
program to Overload New and
Delete
1. #include <iostream>
2. #include <cstdlib> // for using
malloc() & free operators
3. #include <new> // including new fro
c standard library
4. using namespace std;
5. class Stundent
6. {public:
7. Stundent() {rollNo = marks = 0;}
//default constructor
8. Stundent(int a, int b) {rollNo =
a;marks = b;}
9. void Display()
10. {cout <<”Roll No :”<<rollNo << “
Marks : “<<marks << endl;}
11. int GetrollNo()const { return
rollNo;}
12. int Getmarks()const { return marks;}
13. void * operator new(size_t size);
14. void operator delete(void *std);
15. private :
16. int rollNo, marks;
17. };
18. // overloaded new operator
19. void *Stundent::operator new(size_t
size)
20. { void *std;
21. cout << “In overloaded new.\n”;
22. std = malloc(size); // we are
using malloc because we are overloading
new
23. if(!std)
24. {bad_alloc e; throw e;}
25. return std;
26. }
27. // delete operator overloaded
28. void Stundent::operator delete(void
*std)
29. { cout << “In Side overloaded
delete.\n”; free(std);}
30. void main()
31. { Stundent *std;
32. try {
33. std = new Stundent (50595, 89);
34. }catch (bad_alloc e) {cout <<
“Allocation error for obj1.\n”;exit(1);}
35. std->Display();
36. delete std; // free an object
37. }
/*Output: In overloaded new.
Roll No :50595 Marks : 89
In Side overloaded delete.*/
Li void * operator new(size_t size);
n void operator delete(void *std); are
es prototypes for new and delete operators.
N
o.
13
a
n
d
14
:
Li Definition for new operator. Line No 21 uses
n malloc function of C language for allocation
es space demanded by size. Also note that at line
N no 19, size_t is a data type defined in all
o. include definitions supplied by compiler
19 writers. It is equivalent to int.
–
2
6:
Li show use of exception called bad_alloc,
n which throws an exception object e. The
es exception object is caught at line No 34.
N
o.
2
3
–
2
6:
Li shows overloading of delete operator, which
n uses free() function of C.
e
N
o.
2
8:
11.9 Conversion (Casting) Operators
There are many occasions wherein an object
of a class, say class number, needs to be
converted to an object of string class.
Conversion operators are useful in this case.
It means userdefined objects such as classes
and structures, etc., can be type casted to
other objects by a facility called conversion
operators. Conversion operator has to be a
non-static member function (why?). For
example:
Student std; // an object of Student
Operator char * () const; // converts
std into char *
Operator int() const; // converts std
into int
Operator Person() const; //
converts std into an object of user-defined
class Person ;
Const implies that conversion operator
cannot change the original object. Note also
that conversion operator does not have any
return type. Compiler automatically
converts object to char * when it sees the
command operator char *(). Note also
that overloaded conversion operators can be
used to convert user-defined object into
fundamental data type.
Example 11.10: //convop.cpp A
Program to Show Conversion
Operator
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<cstring>
3. using namespace std;
4. class OwnString
5. { public:
6. OwnString(); //default
constructor
7. OwnString(const char *s){stg=s;};
// constructor with argument
8. operator const char *() {return
stg;} // conversion operator to convert
to ctype string
9. private:
10. const char *stg;
11. int size;
12. };
13. void main()
14. { OwnString stg(“Example of
conversion Operator”);
15. int n = strcmp(stg,”Example”);
16. cout<<”Strings are NOT same :
“<<n<<endl;
17. n=strcmp(stg,”Example of
conversion Operator”);
18. cout<<”Strings are same :
“<<n<<endl;
19. }
/*Output
Strings are NOT same : 1 : Strings are
same : 0*/
Li is overloaded constructor
ne
No
. 7:
Li conversion operator that returns stg of type
ne const char *(ctype) so that we can use it
No with strcmp in line no. 15 and 17.
.
8:
11.10 Summary
1. Errors are of three types: syntactical errors, logical
errors and bugs.
2. Syntactical errors can be easily detected and corrected
by compilers.
3. Logical errors arise due to the prog rammer not
understanding the flow of logic. This can be corrected by
extensive testing.
4. Exceptions are unusual conditions that occur at run-
time and can lead to errors that can crash a program.
They can be classified as synchronous and asynchronous
exceptions.
5. Synchronous exceptions are those that can be predicted.
They occur due to one or more of reasons like memory
allocation, IO handling and exceptions such as divide by
zero, etc.
6. Asynchronous exceptions are those that cannot be
predicted.
7. Try and catch blocks are used to address problems
arising out of errors and exceptions. Wherever error or
exception is likely, the programmer includes a try block.
Try block detects the errors and exceptions and throws
error/exception objects. A try block can catch multiple
exceptions and it can be nested.
8. Catch block catches error/exception objects and takes
remedial actions.
9. Exception objects are used to gain entry into catch
blocks.
10. Operator overloading refers to basic operators
performing operations on user-defined data types like
lasses and objects in addition to intrinsic data types.
11. Input and output operators like << and >> can be
overloaded to operate on objects in conjunction with cin
and cout objects of iostream.
12. The operators that cannot be overloaded are: dot
operator (.), * , ?, and ::
13. Conversion operators can be used to convert objects of a
class into objects of another class or into fundamental
type.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are valid function
overloading?
1. Same function name with different no of arguments.
2. Same function name with different types of arguments.
3. Same function name with same arguments but different return
types.
4. Same function name with different arguments and different return
types.
1. i and ii
2. ii and iii
3. iii
4. i and iv
2. Which of the following statements are true about data
types of C++ errors and exceptions?
1. Errors can be prevented
2. Errors can be minimized
3. Synchronous errors can be predicted
4. Asynchronous errors can be predicted
1. i and ii
2. ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i and iv
3. Which of the following statements are valid with respect
to C++ operator overloading?
1. Basic operators work on basic data types.
2. Basic operators work on basic data types and also user-defined
data types.
3. All operators of C++ can be overloaded.
4. Overloading of operator is an OOPS feature.
1. i, ii and iv
2. ii and iii
3. iii and iv
4. i and iv
4. Which of the following statements are valid with respect
to C++ errors?
1. Synchronous errors can be detected by compiler.
2. Asynchronous errors can be detected by compiler.
3. Logical errors can be detected by compiler.
4. Bugs can be detected by compiler.
1. i, ii and iv
2. ii and iii
3. iii and iv
4. i and iv
5. Which of the following statements are valid with respect
to C++ exceptions?
1. Synchronous errors cannot be predicted.
2. Asynchronous errors cannot be predicted by compiler.
3. IO exception is a synchronous exception.
4. Resource allocation is done in the beginning and exception occurs
at run-time.
1. i, ii and iv
2. ii, iii and iv
3. iii and iv
4. i and iv
6. Exception objects are thrown by
1. Try block
2. Catch block
3. IO block
4. Exception class
7. Remedial and corrective actions on the exception caught
are handled by
1. Try block
2. Catch block
3. IO block
4. Exception class
8. Which of the following operators cannot be overloaded?
1. [ ]
2. : :
3. −>
4. Dereferencing pointer to member *
1. i, ii and iv
2. ii, iii and iv
3. ii and iv
4. i and iv
9. ? operator can be overloaded TRUE/FALSE
10. Bugs are a type of exception TRUE/FALSE
11. Which of the following are true in respect of operator
overloading?
1. >> & << are stream extraction operators
2. >> & << are left shift & right shift operators
3. both i) and ii)
4. Meaning based on the context
1. i
2. ii
3. iii
4. iii and iv
12. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to conversion operators?
1. Conversion operators are stati(c)
2. Objects of one class can be converted to object of another class.
3. Objects of one class cannot be converted to fundamental data
types.
4. Fundamental data types can also be converted into object of a class
1. ii and iv
2. ii and iii
3. i and iii
4. iii and iv
Short-answer Questions
13. Distinguish errors, exceptions.
14. Differentiate synchronous and asynchronous exceptions.
15. What are logical errors?
16. What are bugs? How can they be minimized?
17. Differentiate roles of try and catch blocks.
18. What is the role of exception object?
19. What is operator overloading?
20. Why does OOPS language support operator
overloading?
21. Which of the operators cannot be overloaded? And why?
Long-answer Questions
22. Explain what are errors and exceptions.
23. Explain how error handling is carried out in C++.
24. Explain different modes of usage of try and catch blocks
with examples.
25. Explain operator overloading with suitable examples.
26. Explain working of new and delete operator overloading
with examples.
27. What is conversion operator? Explain with examples.
28. Compare functions and operator overloading for solving
a problem. Which is better and why?
Assignment Questions
29. Implement a class called array with functionality such as
find() sort() insert() and delete() with
exception class such as ArrayOutOfBound { }and
IOException { }.
30. Write a cpp having an exception class called
Insufficientfund { }. Your application should
raise exception object if there no sufficient funds in the
user's bank account. The exception object to give a
suitable message.
31. Implement queue data structure with class QueFull{
}and class QueEmpty{ }. Exception classes. Hint:
Use an array implementation for queue. The elements in
the array are serviced on first come first serve basis.
Insertion of an element is at the end and removal for
service is from the front.
32. Implement a class called Array. Demonstrate the
operator overloading for functionality such as addition,
multiplication by a scalar, dot product and cross
product.
33. Implement a class called Rational with operator
overloading for: + , = = , != operators.
34. Implement a class called String with all necessary
operator overloading.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. c
2. b
3. a
4. d
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. a
9. False
10. True
11. d
12. a
12
Inheritance
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to
Use inheritance to extend a new class from the
existing classes.
Understand the types of inheritances and concepts
therein.
Understand the concepts of ADT, virtual functions,
and dynamic data binding.
12.1 Introduction
The concept of inheritance is not new to us.
We inherit property, goodwill and name
from our parents. Similarly, our descendants
will derive these qualities from us.
Reusability of code is one of the strong
promises that are made by C++ and
inheritance is the tool selected by C++ to
fulfill this promise. In this chapter, we take
you through inheritance and its properties
and rules. We will dwelve into the
terminology of inheritance and the types of
inheritances. We will introduce the reader to
overloading and overriding concepts and
introduce the various types of inheritances
through examples. We will also cover the
virtual functions and ADTs in detail. Each
concept you will learn through an example.
12.2 Inheritance Hierarchy
Study the inheritance hierarchy shown in
Figure 12.1. Human and Animal derive
qualities from living beings. Professionals,
students and Athletes are derived from
Human. We say these three categories have
inherited from Human. Class Human is
called base class and Student and Athlete are
called derived classes. What can be
inherited? Both member functions and
member data can be inherited. Have you
noticed the direction of the arrow to
indicate the inheritance relation? It is
pointed upwards as per modelling language
specifications
Figure 12.1 Inheritance hierarchy
Inheritance specifies is type of relation.
Observe that a Student is a Human.
Similarly Mammal is Animal. Human is a
base class and Student is a derived class.
Derivation from base class is the technique
to implement is type of relation. When do
we use Inheritance? You inherit so that you
can derive all the functionality and member
data from base class and derived class can
add its own specialized or individualistic
functionality. For example, Athlete derives
all functionality and attributes of Human
and in addition adds sports and Athletic
functionality and attributes on its own.
Example 12.1: Syntax for
Inheritance
class Human
{ public:
protected: // variables declared as
protected are public to
derived classes
// protected variables
};
// Student inherited from Human ,
inheritance type is public
class Student : public Human
{ public:
private:
};
Note that members declared as private are
not available to derived class. If you make
these member data as public then security is
compromised. So what is the way out?
Declare the member data as protected.
Protected variables mean that these
variables are public to derived classes and
private to other classes.
If a public member function has the
object, i.e. object has invoked the member
function, then that function can access all
the public member functions and public
member data. Public functions of a class
can access all the private member data and
member functions of its own class and
protected member data and member
functions of their base classes.
Example 12.2: inherit1.cpp
Program to Show Inheritance with
Derived Class and Base Class
1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. class BaseClass
4. { public:
5. void SetBase(int a, int b) { length =
a; bredth = b; }
6. void DisplayBase(){ cout
<<”length:”<<length << “ : “
<<”bredth:”<<bredth <<endl; }
7. protected:
8. int length, bredth;
9. };
10. // public inheritance
11. class DerivedClass : public
BaseClass
12. { public:
13. DerivedClass(int x) { height = x; }
14. void DisplayDerived() { cout
<<”Height:”<< height <<endl; }
15. private:
16. int height;
17. };
18. void main()
19. { // create an briefcaseject of
derived class height=20
20. DerivedClass briefcase(10);
21. briefcase.SetBase(25,30); // access
member of base
22. cout<<”\naccess & display member of
base class”<<endl;
23. briefcase.DisplayBase(); // access
member of base
24. cout<<”\nAccess & display members of
derived class”<<endl;
25. briefcase.DisplayDerived(); // uses
member of derived class
26. }//end of main
/*Output: access & display member of
base class : length:25 : bredth:30
Access & display members of derived
class : Height:10 */
Line No. Base class extends i.e. derives from
11 Base class
Line No. A derived Class object briefcase has
20 been created Height=10
Line No. DC, briefcase accesses BC and sets its
21 length and Bredth
Line No. briefcase displays both base class and
23 & 25 derived class data
12.3 Types of Inheritance
Inheritance means ability to derive a
descendant class from base class. So in how
many ways can we do that? We will refer to
BC for base class and DC for derived class.
Single Inheritance: Figure 12a. DC is
derived from the base class
Figure 12.2a Single inheritance
Multiple Inheritance: In Figure 12.2b,
multiple inheritance is at display. Note that
subclass DC# has inherited from DC2 and
also from DC1. Base class is virtual because
both DC1 & DC2 have only one base class
but each derived class feels that it has its
own base class. Hence, the term “virtual”.
Thus, we can also call this type of
inheritance as inheritance with virtual base
class.
Figure 12.2b Multilevel inheritance
Multilevel Inheritance: Figure 12.2c is
self-explanatory
Figure 12.2c Multi level inheritance
Hierarchical Inheritance: Figure
12.2d is self-explanatory
Figure 12.2d Hierarchical inheritance
Hybrid Inheritance: Figure 12.2e. DC1
and DC2 are derived from BC. Hence base
class is virtual base class. However, DC3 is
derived from both DC2 & DC3. DC3 holds
properties and data partly from DC2 and
DC3 and also from DC as per design. Hence,
this type of inheritance is called Hybrid
Inheritance.
Figure 12.2e Hybrid inheritance
12.4 Constructors and Destructors
When we are creating object of derived class
like Student, notice that Student constructor
will call the base class constructor Human
and first constructs Human portion of
member data like idNo and name. Then
Student constructor will initiate its own part
of data like Category called CAT.
Similarly, when an object has to be
destroyed, the derived class destructor class
will be called first, followed by base class
destructor. Notice also that derived classes,
in addition to importing the functionality of
base class like Work() and Learn(), add
their own functionality like UseNet() and
UseGym(). This is the way Inheritance is to
be used. Inherit but add your own
functionality in derived classes.
12.5 Base Class Function Overriding
Base class Human defines two functions,
namely, Work() and Learn(). Derived
class, if it does not define these functions
once again, it can use base class learn(0)
or Work(). But if it wants its own
implementation, different from base class, it
can define these functions in its class
definition.
void Learn(){ cout<<”\n Students learn
professional subjects… ”<< endl;}
void Work(){ cout<<”\n Students work at
college laboratories… ”<< endl;}
When derived class object calls these
functions, it will get derived class
functionality only but NOT the base class
functionality. If derived class object
specifically needs the base class
functionality, then it must call base class
function using scope resolution operator as
shown below:
cout<<”\n Student does Work() belonging
to base class “<<endl;
std.Human::Work();
Example 12.3: inherit2.cpp
Program with Constructors and
Destructors
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. enum CAT { BTECH,MBA,MCA,MSC}; //
Category of student
4. enum BAT { ATHLETE,SPORTS}; // Batch
of Athlete or sports person
5. class Human
6. { public:
7. Human():idNo(0),name(“Noname”) //Base
constructor
8. {cout<<”\n default Human
constructor..”<<endl;}
9. Human(int n , char
*p):idNo(n),name(p) // Base overloaded
constructor
10. {cout<<”\nHuman
constructor..”<<endl;}
11. ~Human(){cout<<”\nHuman
destructor..”<<endl;} // base destructor
12. // Public functions
13. int GetReg()const{return idNo;}
14. void SetId(int n) { idNo=n;}
15. char * GetName() const { return
name;}
16. void SetName( char *p) { name=p;}
17. void Learn()const{ cout<<”\n Human
beings strive to learn …”<<endl;}
18. void Work()const { cout<<”\n Human
work ….”<<endl;}
19. protected:
20. int idNo;
21. char *name;
22. };
23. class Student : public Human
24. { public:
25. Student():Human(),stcat(BTECH)
{cout<<”\nStudent constructor..
”<<endl;}
26. Student(int n , char *p
):Human(n,p),stcat(BTECH)
27. {cout<<”\n Student(int n, char *p)
constructor..”<< endl;}
28. ~Student(){}; // Default destructor
29. CAT GetCAT() const { return stcat;}
30. void SetCAT ( CAT c) { stcat=c;}
31. //students do differently functions
32. //void Learn(){ cout<<\n Students
learn professional subjects…” endl;}
33. //void Work(){ cout<<\n Students
work at college laboratories…” endl;}
34. void Play() { cout<<”\n Students
play at college and at home… ”<<endl;}
35. void UseNet(){ cout<<”\n Students
use internet for learning..”<<endl;}
36. private:
37. CAT stcat; // students category
38. };
39. void main()
40. { Student std(50,”Thunder”);
41. std.Learn();
std.Work();std.UseNet();
42. cout<<”\n Students name is
:”<<std.GetName()<<endl;
43. cout<<”\n Explicit call to base
class work………..”<<endl;
44. std.Human::Work(); // explicit call
to base class work
45. }
46. /*Output : Human constructor..
47. Student(int n, char *p)
constructor..
48. Human beings strive to learn …
49. Human work ….
50. Students use internet for
advancement…
51. Students name is :Thunder
52. Explicit call to base class
work………..
53. Human work ….
54. Human destructor..*/
Li Declare enum data type CAT & BAT.
n
e
N
o.
2
&
3:
Li Base class constructors class Human.
n
e
N
o.
7
&
9:
Li public accessory functions
n
e
N
o.
13
&
16
:
Li implements two functions of Human work()
n & Learn()
e
N
o.
17
&
18
:
Li Student class inherits public from Human
n
e
N
o.
2
3:
Li Student constructor first call base class
n constructor Human to set id No and Name and
e then sets its variables like CAT
N
o.
2
5:
Li void Learn(){ cout<<\n Students learn
n professional subjects…”endl;}
e
N
o.
3
2
&
3
3:
void Work(){ cout<<\n Students work at
college laboratories…”endl;}
show that Student over rides base class
functions work() and Learn() at Line No. 17
&18.
Li Student Declares its own functions like
n Play() & UseNet()
e
N
o.
3
4
&
3
5:
Li Student std(50,”Thunder”); creates an
n object std of type Student. Firstly it calls base
e class constructor Human. ( Line No 44), then
N calls for Student(int , char *)
o. constructor and completes the creation of
4 object.
0:
Li std.Learn();
n std.Work();std.UseNet(); are invoked by
e object std. As we have commented out
N statement 32 & 33 , learn() and Work() of
o. base class Human are invoked as shown in line
46 & 47.
41
:
Li Show explicit call to base class over ridden
n function
e
N
o.
5
2
&
5
3:
If you remove comment from 33 & 34 and
recompile and run you will see Student
objects Learn() and Work() will be
invoked since they have overridden base
class functions. Human constructor.
Student(int n, char *p) constructor..
Students learn professional subjects…
Students work at college laboratories
Students use internet for advancement…
Students name is: Thunder
Human destructor.
In our next example, we would work out two
derived classes, namely, Student and Athlete
Example 12.4: inherit3.cpp
Program to Show Inheritance with
Two Derived Classes
Copy Line No. 1 to 38, i.e. up to declaration
of Students class prior to statement 1 and
compile.
1. class Athlete : public Human
2. { public:
3. Athlete():Human(),atcat(SPORTS)
4. {cout<<”\n Athlete
constructor..”<<endl;}
5. Athlete(int n , char *p
):Human(n,p),atcat(SPORTS)
6. {cout<<”\n Athlete(int n, char *p)
constructor..”<<endl;}
7. ~Athlete(){}; // Default destructor
8. BAT GetBAT() const { return atcat;}
9. void SetBAT ( BAT c) { atcat=c;}
10. // Athletes do differently functions
11. void Play() { cout<<”\n Athletes
play at college and at home… ”<<endl;}
12. void UseGym(){ cout<<”\n Athletes
use GYM for advancement… ”<<endl;}
13. private: BAT atcat; // Athletes
category
14. };
15. void main()
16. { Human hum(53,”Ramesh”);
17. Student std(27,”Anand”);
18. Athlete atd(25,”Gautam”);
19. cout<<”\nHuman name is
:”<<hum.GetName()<<endl;
20. cout<<”\nStudents name is
:”<<std.GetName()<<endl;
21. cout<<”\n Athletes name is
:”<<atd.GetName()<<endl;
22. cout<<”\n Objectof Human….”<<endl;
23. hum.Work();
24. hum.Learn();
25. cout<<”\n Objectof Student….”<<endl;
26. cout<<”\n Student works like Human.
Student inherits Work() from
Human”<<endl;
27. std.Work();
28. cout<<”\n Student does his own thing
like UseNet “<<endl;
29. std.UseNet();
30. cout<<”\n Objectof Athlete….”<<endl;
31. cout<<”\n Athlete learns like Human.
Athlete inherits Learn() from
Human”<<endl;
32. atd.Learn();
33. cout<<”\nAthlete does his own thing
like UseGym “<<endl;
34. atd.UseGym();
35. }
/*Output :Human constructor..
Human constructor..
Student(int n, char *p) constructor..
Human constructor..
Athlete(int n, char *p) constructor..
Human name is :Ramesh : Students name is
:Anand : Athletes name
is :Gautam
Objectof Human. Human work . : Human
beings strive to learn :
Objectof Student.
Student works like Human. Student
inherits Work() from Human
Human work
Student does his own thing like UseNet
:Students use internet
for learning..
Objectof Athlete : Athlete learns like
Human. Athlete inherits
Learn() from Human
Human beings strive to learn
Athlete does his own thing like UseGym :
Athletes use GYM for
advancement
Human destructor.. Human destructor.. :
Human destructor..*/
We leave analysis of output statements and
invoking of constructors and destructors vis
à vis the code as an exercise for the reader.
12.6 Base Class Function Hiding
When a derived class overrides a base class
function and if the base class function has
been overloaded three times, then except for
the function that is overridden, the other
two overloaded functions are hidden and not
available. For example, let us say that
Work() has been overloaded in a base class
called Human as shown below:
void Work()const { cout<<”\n Human work
….”<<endl;}
void Work(int n) const {cout<<”\n Human
work full speed…”<<endl;
void Work(int n, int p) const {
cout<<”\n Human work round the
clock…”<<endl;
Now if derived class Student overrides one
of the base class say void Work(), then
the balance two functions, void Work(int
n) const and void Work(int n , int p)
const, are hidden and not available using
derived class Student object.
Example 12.5: inherit4.cpp
Program to Show Base Class
Function Hiding
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. class Human
4. {public:
5. void Learn()const{ cout<<”\n Human
beings strive to learn …”<<endl;}
6. void Learn(int f)const{ cout<<”\n
Humans learn at good speed… ”<<endl;}
7. void Learn(int f, int g) const{
cout<<”\n Humans learn at good speed.&
well”<<endl;}
8. void Work()const { cout<<”\n Human
work ….”<<endl;}
9. };
10. class Student:public Human
11. { public:
12. /* students do differently
functions. So it overrides base class
Learn() function. But base class has
Learn() as over loaded function.
Therefore balance two overloaded
functions are lost to Student.*/
13. void Learn(){ cout<<”\n Students
strive to learn professional
subjects…”<<endl;}
14. };
15. void main()
16. { Human hum; // object of base class
17. Student std; // object of derived
class
18. cout<<”\n Object of base class can
call all varieties of overloaded
function..”<<endl;
19. hum.Learn();
20. hum.Learn(2); // Learn with double
speed
21. hum.Learn(2,2); // Learn with good
speed and well
22. cout<<”\n Objectof Student….”<<endl;
23. cout<<”\n Student over rides Learn()
of base class”<<endl;
24. std.Learn(); //std over ride one of
the base class function Learn()
25. cout<<”\n Two other base class over
loaded functions Learn(int),
Learn(int,int) are lost”<<endl;
26. //std.Learn(2); //lost
27. cout<<”\nstd can still call an
overloaded base class function by
explicit call”<<endl;
28. std.Human::Learn(2);
}
/*Output : Object of base class can call
all varieties of overloaded function..
Human beings strive to learn : Humans
learn at good speed
Humans learn at good speed & well
Objectof Student. : Student overrides
Learn() of base class
Students strive to learn professional
subjects
Two other base class overloaded
functions Learn(int), Learn (int,int)
are lost
std can still call an overloaded base
class function by explicit call
Humans learn at good speed */
12.7 Virtual Functions
If function is declared as virtual function in
base class, then we can execute an
overriding function with the same name in
the derived class with a pointer to base class.
This means that we have
Inheritance relation available. Ex
Student is a Human
Pointer to base class must be declared
and memory obtained from
Heap.
Ex Human * ptr = new Student; This is a
valid assignment since Student is a
Human.
With a pointer to base class we can access all
the member data and functions of derived
class. But for this magic to work we have to
declare the base class functions that are
going to be overridden in derived class as
virtual function like this
In base class
virtual void Work() const { cout<<”\n
Human work ……base class.”;}
In derived class
void Work()const { cout<<”\n Students
work in
Laboratories..”<<endl;}
We can, in addition call base class
functions which have been normally
overridden and requires that an exclusive
call has to be made like
std.Human::Work(); with a statement
shown: cout<< ptr->GetRollNo(); We
have shown all the above concepts are
working in our next example:
Example 12.6: inherit5.cpp Virtual
Functions
//inherit5.cpp Virtual Functions :
declare a base class called Human and a
//derived classes called Student
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. enum CAT { BTECH,MBA,MCA,MSC}; //
Category of student
4. class Human
5. {public:
6. Human():idNo(0),name(“Noname”)
7. {cout<<”\nHuman
constructor..”<<endl;} //Base
constructor
8. ~Human(){cout<<”\nHuman
destructor..”<<endl;} // base destructor
9. // Public functions
10. void Learn()const{ cout<<”\n Human
beings strive to learn …”
<<endl;}
11.virtual void Work()const { cout<<”\n
Human work ….”<<endl;}
12. protected: int idNo; char *name;
13. };
14. class Student:public Human
15. { public:
16. Student() {cout<<”\n Student
constructor..”<<endl;}
17. ~Student(){}; // Default destructor
18. // functions over ride base class
19. void Learn(){ cout<<”\n Students
work at college laboratories…”<<endl;}
20. // Students own function
21. void UseNet(){ cout<<”\n Students
use internet for advancement…”<<endl;}
22. // over riding of base class virtual
function
23. void Work(){ cout<<”\n Students
strive to learn professional
subjects\n”;}
24. private:
25. // kept empty purposely to make
understanding of the program easy
26. };
27. void main()
28. {Human *pstd = new Student;
29. cout <<”\n Calling overriding
function Learn()…”<<endl;
30. cout<<”\nThough object is derived
class as the pointer is to base
class\n”;
31. cout<<”\n you can see its base class
Learn() that is accessed”<<endl;
32. pstd->Learn();
33. cout <<”\ncalling a virtual function
with pointer to base class..”<<endl;
34. cout<<”\nThough pointer is to base
class , because its virtual
function”<<endl;
35. cout<<”\n you can access derived
class function..”<<endl;
36. pstd->Learn();
37. }
/*Output: Human constructor..
Student constructor.. Calling over
riding function Learn()
Though object is derived class as the
pointer is to base class
you can see its base class Learn() that
is accessed
Human beings strive to learn
calling a virtual function with pointer
to base class..
Though pointer is to base class,
because its virtual function
you can access derived class function..
Human beings strive to learn */
Line human declares a virtual function
No. learn() to be overridden by derived
11: classes
Line Derived class overrides base class virtual
No. function.
23:
Line Human *pstd = new Student; The
No. object is new student on the heap memory.
28:
But the pointer is to base class Human.
12.8 Multiple Virtual Functions
The concept of virtual function can be
extended to cover multiple virtual functions.
For example, base class can define a virtual
function and there can be several derived
classes with their own implementations.
Depending on the implementation chosen
by the user, virtual function pointer can
invoke the particular implementation by the
derived class. The situation diagram is
shown in Figure 12.3.
Figure 12.3 Two derived classes
Example 12.7: inherit6.cpp
Multiple Virtual Functions
1. //Example 12.6 inherit6.cpp multiple
virtual functions
2. //declare a base class called Human
and two derived classes called Student
and Athlete
3. #include<iostream>
4. using namespace std;
5. class Human
6. {
7. public:
8. Human():idNo(0){} //Base
constructor
9. ~Human(){} // base destructor
10. // Public functions
11. virtual void Work()const {
cout<<”\n Human work
….”<<endl;}
12. protected:
13. int idNo;
14. };
15. class Student:public Human
16. {public:
17. // Own implementation of virtual
function Work()
18. void Work()const{ cout<<”\n Students
work at college labs..”<<endl;}
19. };
20. class Athlete:public Human
21. {public:
22. // Athletes Own implementation of
virtual function Work()
23. void Work()const{ cout<<”\nAthletes
workout at Gym after study hour\n”;}
24. };
25. void main()
26. { Human *hum[2]; // array of
pointers to base class
27. Human *ptr; //pointer to base class
28. int i=0;
29. for ( i=0;i<3;i++)
30. { if(i==1)
31. ptr=new Student;
32. else
33. {if(i==2)
34. ptr=new Athlete;
35. else
36. ptr=new Human;
37. }
38. hum[i]=ptr;
39. } // end of while
40. for ( i=0;i<3;i++)
41. hum[i]->Work();
42. }
/*Output Human work ….
Students work at college laboratories…
Athletes workout at college Gym after
study hours…*/
Line Human *hum[2]; // array of pointers
No. 26: to base class.
Line Is a pointer to base class.
No. 27:
Line Produces object of new Student, or new
No. 31, Athlet, or new Human depending on if
34 & else statements
36:
Line allocates pointer to hum[i] and Line
No. 38: No. 40 & 41 run a loop to display
hum[i]->work()
12.9 Virtual Destructors: Why and How?
In inheritance relation, we know that a
Student is Human. Therefore, we can pass a
pointer to derived class instead of pointer to
base class. Now when we try to delete the
object, the derived class destructor should
be called first, which in turn calls the base
class destructor. For this to happen, the base
class destructor must be declared as virtual.
Note that the constructor cannot be
declared as virtual.
12.10 Hybrid Inheritance with Multiple
Inheritances
In some situations, single inheritance is not
sufficient and leads to ambiguity. Consider
the example presented in Figure 12.4.
Figure 12.4 Hybrid inheritance
A Student works at college laboratories
and an Athlete works out at the Gym after
college hours. But let us say the recruiting
companies need a Professional who works at
collage laboratories and also takes keen
interest in Gym and sports. We need a
professional who inherits Work() of
Students and also Work() of Athlete on
requirement. In addition, the Professional
must retain all the basic qualities of Human
(shown as dotted arrow).
Multiple inheritance is deriving a
class from more than one base class.
Also notice in the figure that both Student
and Athlete have the same base class. This
type of base class is called virtual base
class because though there is only one base
class common to both derived classes, each
of the derived classes feels it has its own
base class.
12.11 Virtual Inheritance
Refer to Figure 12.4 once again. The
Professional is deriving properties and
qualities both from Student and Athlete
depending on the need. In order to facilitate
inheritance of properties, functions and
member data selectively from Student and
Athlete, we need to declare these two classes
as virtual inheritance from the base
class. This concept is illustrated in our next
example. The example we have chosen is
that companies want to select professionals
who are good students and good athletes
and good humans. Accordingly, we have
introduced fields and variables
enum OKAY{FALSE,TRUE}; // eligible for
selection or not.
enum DIV { DISTINCTION,FIRST, SECOND,
NATIONAL, STATE, COLLEGE};
for recoding achievements of athletes.
Num or n no of companies willing to give
weightage to all round
development
Example 12.8: inherit7.cpp Virtual
Inheritance
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. enum CAT { BTECH,MBA,MCA,MSC}; //
Category of student
4. enum BAT { ATHLETE,SPORTS};
5. enum DIV { DISTINCTION,FIRST,SECOND
,NATIONAL, STATE, COLLEGE};
6. // Division obtained by Students
7. enum OKAY{FALSE,TRUE}; // eligible
for selection or not
8. class Humans
9. {public:
10. Humans(int n):idNo(n)
11. {cout<<"\n default Humans
constructor.."<<endl;} //Base
constructor
12. virtual ~Humans(){cout<<"\nHumans
destructor.."<<endl;} //
base destructor
13. // Public functions
14. virtual int GetId()const{return
idNo;}
15. virtual void SetId(int n) { idNo=n;}
16. protected:
17. int idNo;
18. };
19. class Student:virtual public Humans
20. { public:
21. Student(CAT cat , DIV d , int num);
22. virtual ~Student(){}; // Default
destructor
23. // students do differently functions
24. virtual void Learn()const{ cout<<”\n
Students learn relevant courses\n”;}
25. virtual void Work()const{ cout<<”\n
Students worked Industry programs\n”;}
26. virtual CAT GetCAT() const { return
stcat;}
27. virtual void SetCAT(CAT c) {
stcat=c;}
28. virtual DIV GetDIV() const { return
division;}
29. virtual void SetDIV ( DIV d) {
division = d;}
30. protected:
31. CAT stcat; // students category
32. DIV division; // division
Distinction/first class etc
obtained
33. };
34. Student::Student(CAT cat , DIV d ,
int idnum):
35. Humans(idnum),stcat(cat),
division(d)
36. { cout<<”\n Students
constructor..”<<endl;}
37. class Athlet:virtual public Humans
38. { public:
39. Athlet(CAT cat , DIV d , OKAY ok ,
int idnum);
40. virtual ~Athlet(){}; // Default
destructor
41. virtual void AtLearn()const{
cout<<”\n Athlets learn subjects &
sports\n;}
42. virtual void AtWork()const{
cout<<”\n Athlets worked at lab and
GYM\n”;}
43. virtual void Play() const{ cout<<”\n
Athlets can play games and events\n”;}
44. virtual CAT GetCAT() const { return
stcat;}
45. virtual void SetCAT(CAT c) {
stcat=c;}
46. virtual DIV GetDIV() const { return
division;}
47. virtual void SetDIV ( DIV d) {
division = d;}
48. virtual OKAY GetOKAY() const {
return qualified;}
49. virtual void SetOKAY ( OKAY q) {
qualified = q;}
50. private:
51. CAT stcat;
52. DIV division; //
national/state/district/college
53. OKAY qualified;
54. };
55. Athlet::Athlet(CAT cat , DIV d ,
OKAY ok, int idnum):
56.
Humans(idnum),stcat(cat),division(d),qua
lified(ok)
57. {cout<<”\n Athlet
constructor..”<<endl;}
58. class Professional : public Student
, public Athlet
59. { public:
60. Professional(CAT cat , DIV d, OKAY q
,int idnum , int n); ~Professional()
{cout<<”\n Professionals
destructor..”<<endl;}
61. // n is no of companies giving
weightage to all round development
62. virtual GetNum() const { return
num;}
63. //num : these are companies willing
to give weightage to sports
64. virtual DIV GetDIV() const { return
Student::division;}
65. void AtLearn() const { Learn();} //
Learn subjects like students
66. void AtWork() const { Work();} //
Work in Laboratories like Students
67. private:
68. int num ; //Number of companies who
are willing to give weightage to sports
69. };
70. Professional::Professional(CAT cat ,
DIV d, OKAY q ,int idnum, int n):
71.
Student(cat,d,num),Athlet(cat,d,q,idnum)
,Humans(idnum),num(n)
72. { cout<<”\n Professionals
constructor..”<<endl;}
73. void main()
74. {Professional *ptr = new
Professional(BTECH,FIRST,TRUE,50595,100)
;
75. int rollNo = ptr->GetId();
76. ptr->Learn();
77. //Though we call AtLearn() of Athlet
, it will call learn() of Student.
78. //We want student to be sound in
Knowledge.
79. ptr->AtLearn();
80. ptr->Play(); // play like an athlete
81. cout<<"\n No of companies allocating
weightage to all round personality :"
<<ptr->GetNum()<<endl;
82. cout<<"\n Division obtained by the
professional :"<<ptr->GetDIV()<<endl;
83. cout<<"\n The selected Professional
is : "<<rollNo<<endl;
84. delete ptr;
85. }
/*Output : default Humans constructor..
Students constructor.. : Athlet
constructor..: Professionals
constructor..
Students learnt Industry relevant
courses: Students learnt Industry
relevant courses
Athletes can play games and participate
in events
No. of companies allocating weightage to
all round personality: 100
Division obtained by the professional: 1
Companies tion The selected Professional
is: 50595
Professionals destructor..
Humans destructor*/
L are statements showing Student and Athlete
i using virtual inheritance form single base class
n Human.
e
N
o
.
1
9
&
3
7
:
L Student declares virtual functions Learn() and
i Work() so that they can be inherited by
n Professional if he needs them. Similarly, Line
e No. 41 to 49 define virtual functions for Athlete
N class.
o
.
2
4
&
2
9
:
L are virtual destructors.
i
n
e
N
o
.
1
2
,
2
2
,
&
4
0
:
L Professional::Professional(CAT cat,
i DIV d, OKAY q, int idnum, int n)
n Student(cat,d,num),
e Athlet(cat,d,q,idnum),
N
Humans(idnum), num(n) are for constructor
o
for Professional. Observe that Student, Athlet
.
and Human constructors are called in turn to
7
create an object called Professional
0
&
7
1
:
L ptr->AtLearn(); Though we call
i AtLearn() of Athlet , it will call learn() of
n Student. We want student to be sound in
e Knowledge.
N
o
.
7
6
:
12.12 Run-time Polymorphism and Dynamic
Binding
Inheritance solves the problem of
reusability. That is derived class can access
all the data members and function members
of base class that are declared as protected.
We have also learnt that derived class can
override the functions defined in base class.
Further, we have seen while dealing with
virtual functions that with a pointer to base
class we can call the derived class object
Human *ptr=new Student;
Combining the above two features C++ gives
us a powerful tool, called run-time
polymorphism and dynamic binding. What
this feature means to the programmer is that
with a pointer to base class, we can decide at
run-time to call a particular derived classes
overriding function. In other words, we can
bind the overriding function from several of
the derived classes, with pointer to base
class.
12.13 Abstract Data Types (ADTs)
The features described above, namely, run-
time polymorphism and dynamic binding
will allow us to define a base class with
virtual functions with no implementation
(called pure virtual functions) or with
dummy functionality just to indicate to the
user that implementation is by derived class.
These classes are called abstract data types
because they hide the implementation.
We will declare a base class called Shape.
You will appreciate Shape has no definite
shape, no defined area, perimeter or specific
draw routine. We will derive classes like
Circle and Square and provide the solid
implementation of these virtual functions.
Solid means all virtual functions will be
implemented in each of the derived class.
The concepts discussed are at work in our
next example.
Example 12.9: inherit8.cpp
ADT – Run-time Polymorphism and
Dynamic Binding
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. const double PI=3.14159;
4. class Shape
5. { public:
6. Shape(){};
7. ~Shape(){}
8. virtual double ComputeArea()
9. {cout<<”\n Shape has no definite Area
“<<endl;return 0.0;}
10. virtual double ComputePerimeter()
11. {cout<<”\n Shape has no definite
Area “<<endl; return 0.0;}
12. virtual void DrawShape() {}};
13. class Circle: public Shape
14. {public: Circle(double r):radius(r)
{};
15. ~Circle(){}; // Default destructor
16. // Circles do functions differently
17. double ComputeArea()
18. {cout<<"\n Circle implementation of
ComputeArea "<<endl;
19. return PI*radius*radius; }
20. virtual double ComputePerimeter()
21. {cout<<"\n Circle implementation of
ComputePerimeter <<endl;
22. return 2*PI*radius; }
23. virtual void DrawShape() {cout<<"\n
Circle Draw code here" <<endl;}
24. private:double radius;
25. };
26. class Square: public Shape
27. {public: Square(double r):side(r){};
28. ~Square(){}; // Default destructor
29. // Squares do functions differently
30. double ComputeArea()
31. {cout<<"\n Square implementation of
ComputeArea "<<endl;
32. return side*side; }
33. virtual double ComputePerimeter()
34. {cout<<"\n Square implementation of
ComputePerimeter "<<endl;
35. return 4*side; }
36. virtual void DrawShape() {cout<<"\n
Square Draw code here"<<endl;}
37. private:double side;
38. };
39. void main()
40. { int choice;
41. Shape *ptr; // pointer to base
class
42. while(choice!=3)
43. { cout<<"\n 1 : Circle 2 : Square
3: Exit .. :";
44. cin>>choice;
45. switch(choice)
46. { case 1 : ptr = new
Circle(2.0); break;
47. case 2 : ptr= new Square(5.0);
break;
48. case 3 : exit(0);
49. default: cout<<"\n wrong
choice. Try Again.."<<endl; continue;
50. }
51. // Function Polymorphism and
Dynamic Binding at work
52. ptr->ComputeArea(); // call to
derived class function
53. ptr->ComputePerimeter();ptr-
>DrawShape();
54. }//end of while
55. }//end of main
/*Output 1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit
.. :1
Circle implementation of ComputeArea
Circle implementation of
ComputePerimeter
Cirle Draw code here
1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit .. :2
Square implementation of ComputeArea
Square implementation of
ComputePerimeter
Square Draw code here
1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit .. :3
*//*output :1 : Circle 2 : Square 3:
Exit .. :1
Circle implementation of ComputeArea
Circle implementation of
ComputePerimeter
Cirle Draw code here
1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit .. :2
Square implementation of ComputeArea
Square implementation of
ComputePerimeter
Square Draw code here
1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit .. :4
wrong choice. Try Again..
1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit .. :3 */
12.14 Pure Virtual Functions
Sometimes we will need situations wherein
base class should not have any solid
implementation. Like we did not achieve
anything in ComputeArea() or DrawShape()
functions in base class. They are simply tools
to create pointer to derived class functions
wherein all virtual functions are
implemented. In such cases, it is better to
use pure virtual functions.
virtual double ComputeArea()=0;
virtual void DrawShape()=0;
By declaring a function in base class, we
are telling the compiler that
implementations are in derived class. Note
that if a base class has pure virtual
functions, we cannot create an object of base
class at all. Also all pure virtual functions
must be implemented in derived class.
But if you have some common
functionality which every derived class must
implement, then repeating the code at each
of the derived classes defeats the purpose of
reusability. Thankfully, you can include such
common code in the base class Shape and,
for solid implementations, use derived class
DrawShape() and on completion revert to
base class for undertaking common
functionality. We provide implementation of
pure virtual function in the example that
follows:
Example 12.10: inherit9.cpp ADT –
Run-time Polymorphism and
Dynamic Binding
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. const double PI=3.14159;
4. class Shape
5. {public: Shape(){};
6. ~Shape(){}
7. virtual double ComputeArea()=0;
//pure virtual function
8. virtual double ComputePerimeter()
=0;
9. virtual void DrawShape()=0;
10. };
11. // We will implement DrawShape (),
though it is a pure virtual Function
12. // to include common functionality
of all the derived functions
13. void Shape::DrawShape()
14. {cout<<”\n Completion of DrawShape()
mechanism from derived class…”<<endl; }
15. class Circle: public Shape
16. {public: Circle(double r):radius(r)
{};
17. ~Circle(){}; // Default
destructor
18. // Circles do functions
differently
19. double ComputeArea()
20. {cout<<"\n Circle implementation
of ComputeArea "<<endl;
21. return PI*radius*radius;}
22. double ComputePerimeter()
23. {cout<<"\n Circle implementation
of ComputePerimeter "<<endl;
24. return 2*PI*radius;}
25. void DrawShape()
26. {cout<<"\n Circle Draw code here"
<<endl;
27. Shape::DrawShape();} // call to
base class to finish common
functionality
28. private: double radius;
29. };
30. class Square: public Shape
31. {public: Square(double r):side(r){};
32. ~Square(){}; // Default
destructor
33. // Square implements functions
differently
34. double ComputeArea()
35. {cout<<"\n Square implementation
of ComputeArea "<<endl;
36. return side*side;}
37. double ComputePerimeter()
38. {cout<<"\n Square implementation
of ComputePerimeter "<<endl;
39. return 4*side;}
40. void DrawShape()
41. {cout<<"\n Square Draw code here"
<<endl;
42. Shape::DrawShape(); } // call to
base class to finish common
functionality
43. private:double side;
44. };
45. void main()
46. {int choice;
47. Shape *ptr; // pointer to base class
48. while(choice!=3)
49. {cout<<"\n 1 : Circle 2 : Square 3:
Exit .. :";
50. cin>>choice;
51. switch(choice)
52. { case 1 : ptr = new Circle(2.0);
break;
53. case 2 : ptr= new Square(5.0);
break;
54. case 3 : exit(0);
55. default: cout<<"\n wrong choice.
Try Again.."<<endl; continue;
56. }
57. ptr->ComputeArea(); ptr-
>ComputePerimeter(); ptr->DrawShape();
58. }//end of while
59. }
/*Output 1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit
.. :1
Circle implementation of ComputeArea
Circle implementation of
ComputePerimeter
Cirle Draw code here
Completion of DrawShape() mechanism from
derived class…
1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit .. :2
Square implementation of ComputeArea
Square implementation of
ComputePerimeter
Square Draw code here
Completion of DrawShape() mechanism from
derived class…
1 : Circle 2 : Square 3: Exit .. :3
12.15 Summary
1. Reusability is the main reason why inheritance has been
included as an important concept of OOP language.
2. Inheritance specifies is type of relation.
3. A derived class can inherit public or private or protected.
4. If inheritance is public then public and protected
members of base class remain public and protected in
derived class.
5. If inheritance is protected, the public and protected
members become protected members.
6. If inheritance is private, the public and protected
members become private members.
7. Single inheritance is when a derived class inherits only
from one base class.
8. Multiple inheritance is when a derived class inherits
from multiple base classes.
9. Hierarchical inheritance is when many derived classes
inherit from a single base class.
10. Multilevel inheritance is when a derived class inherits
from a class which has been inherited from another
class.
11. Hybrid inheritance is when a derived classes inherits
from multiple base classes and they in turn are derived
from a single base class.
12. In hybrid inheritance, ambiguity may arise and to
resolve the ambiguity use explicit call with scope
resolution operator :: or declare the base classes as
virtual. This is called virtual inheritance.
13. When a derived class overrides a base class function and
if the base class function has been overloaded three
times, then except for the function that is overridden,
the other two overloaded functions are hidden and not
available.
14. If the function is declared as virtual function in base
class, then we can execute an overriding function with
the same name in the derived class with a pointer to the
base class.
15. In multiple virtual functions, the base class defines a
virtual function and there can be several derived classes
with their own implementations.
16. Destructors can be virtual but constructors cannot be
virtual.
17. Run-time polymorphism means that we can bind the
overriding function from several of the derived classes,
with pointer to base class.
18. Classes are called abstract data types because they hide
the implementation. A base class with virtual functions
with no implementation (called pure virtual functions)
or with dummy functionality indicates to the user that
implementation is by derived class.
19. A pure virtual function means a base class should not
have any solid implementation, but contains only names
of the functions. For example: virtual void
DrawShape()=0; Pure virtual functions are simply
tools to create pointer to derived class functions.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Inheritance specifies -------- type of relation.
1. has
2. was
3. is
4. segregation
2. In public inheritance, public implies derived class can
inherit
1. Only public variable
2. Only public functions
3. Both member functions and member data
4. (d) None of member functions and member data
3. If a function has an object it has access to
1. All public member functions and data
2. All private member functions and data
3. All protected members and data from objects from which they
derive
1. i
2. i and ii
3. ii and iii
4. i, ii and iii
4. Public function of a derived class can access all the
protected data of base class TRUE/FALSE
5. When you create the object for the derived class, the
constructor for derived class is
called first. TRUE/FALSE
6. When an object belonging to derived class has to be
removed, the base class destructor will be called
first. TRUE/FALSE
7. When a derived class overrides a base class overloaded
function, the object of derived class can get access to
1. Only overridden function of derived class.
2. All the overloaded functions of base class.
3. All the overridden functions of derived class.
1. i only
2. ii only
3. i and ii
4. i and iii
8. In C++ pointer to base class can be assigned to derived
class. TRUE/FALSE
9. For run-time polymorphism and dynamic binding to
work the following are required: Pointer to base class
1. Inheritance relation
2. Function to be declared as virtual
3. Function to be overridden in derived class
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. NOT i, ii, iii and iv
10. What is the name of the relation depicted in the picture?
1. Inheritance
2. Virtual base class
3. Multiple inheritance
4. All of a, b, c
11. What is the name of the relation depicted in the picture?
1. Virtual base class
2. Multiple inheritance
3. Inheritance
4. b and c
12. Pure virtual functions declaration in base class means
1. No implementation in base class only name
2. Common to all derived classes implementation can be included in
base class
3. Derived classes must implement all the pure virtual functions.
1. Not i, ii and iii
2. i, NOT ii and iii
3. i, ii and iii
4. i, ii and NOT iii
13. Pure virtual function means
1. Object to class that has pure virtual function cannot be declared.
2. Derived class must define all pure virtual function in its class.
3. Virtual r/t function name() {};
4. Virtual r/t function name ()=0;
5. Pure virtual r/t function name ()=0;
1. i, ii, not iii, iv and not v
2. i, ii and iii
3. i, ii and v
4. i, ii and iv
14. Destructor need not be virtual if a class has virtual
functions TRUE/FALSE
15. Constructor of class having virtual function can be
virtual TRUE/FALSE
16. ADT are so-called because
1. They hide implementation
2. They bind member functions of derived class dynamically at run-
time.
3. They have abstract data
1. i
2. ii
3. iii
4. i and ii
17. What is the name of the relation depicted in the picture?
1. Hybrid inheritance
2. Virtual base class
3. Multiple inheritance
4. All of a, b and c
18. What is the name of the relation depicted in the picture?
1. Hierarchical inheritance
2. Virtual base class
3. Multiple inheritance
4. a, b and c
19. Protected members in a base class can be accessed
1. Only in derived class
2. Only in base class
3. Both i and ii (iv) None
20. In public inheritance, public members become public in
derived class. TRUE/FALSE
21. In private inheritance, the inherited members can
further be passed on to derived classe
by class. TRUE/FALSE
22. In protected inheritance, public members & protected
members retain their visibility in derived
class. TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
23. What is public inheritance? What is private inheritance?
On what occasions do you use public or private
inheritance?
24. What are the types of inheritance?
25. What is virtual inheritance?
26. Can constructors be virtual? Why or why not?
27. Can destructors be virtual? Why or why not?
28. Explain base class over riding.
29. Explain multiple virtual functions.
Long-answer Questions
30. Discuss the access specifiers and the visibility in
inheritance relationship.
31. Compare is a and has a relationship with suitable
examples.
32. Distinguish between overloading and base class
overriding. What is base class function hiding?
33. What are virtual functions? How are they different from
pure virtual functions?
34. Explain run-time polymorphism and dynamic binding.
35. What are abstract classes? How are they useful in
achieving reusability in OOPs?
36. Explain how hybrid inheritance leads to ambiguity and
this ambiguity can be resolved.
Assignment Questions
37. What does inheritance mean in C++? What are the
different types of inheritances? Give examples for each
type.
38. What is a virtual function? Why do we need virtual
functions? What are the rules for virtual function
implementation?
39. What is an abstract class? Why do we need abstract
classes? What are the rules governing virtual base class?
Implement a program covering the above aspects.
40. Are friendship and inheritance contradicting in their
roles? When do you use friend functions and when do
you use inheritance.
41. Containment and inheritance have been introduced to
achieve reusability. Bring out the similarities and
differences through examples.
42. Are ADT and pure virtual functions one and the same or
are they different? Explain with suitable examples.
43. Bring out the differences in constructor invocation in
case of nested classes and inherited classes.
44. The relationships in a bank are shown below. The class
diagram shown also indicates the functions and member
data. The additional rules are Type of account : current
and savings
Minimum Balance: Rs 5000/– for current and Rs
1000/– for savings.
Penalty: Rs 100/– if the balance falls below and also
makes the account inactive.
The functionality of banking system to include
Update transaction of deposited amount and display
Transaction details.
Compute annual interest compounded twice at 10% per
annum of interest.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. c
2. c
3. d
4. True
5. False
6. False
7. d
8. True
9. c
10. c
11. b
12. c
13. a
14. False
15. False
16. d
17. d
18. a
19. c
20. True
21. False
22. True
13
IO Streaming
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, you will be able
to understand and program
Unformatted and formatted stream operators.
Use IO manipulator to format output.
Sequential and random/direct access file handling.
Read objects from and write objects onto a file
13.1 Introduction
What crosses your mind when you think of
streams? Probably streams of water, we call
them springs, flowing from the top of a hill
to plains. In C++, we call streams or IO
streams.
This chapter will introduce to you
unformatted and formatted input and
output streams. It deals extensively with
stream manipulators that are used to format
and control stream data. The chapter also
concentrates on file handling in C++
through <fstream> header file. The
concepts covered are sequential file handling
and random/direct access techniques. The
techniques to handle formatted data and
raw data are discussed. We will wrap up the
chapter with object read and write
operations onto a file.
13.2 IO Streaming
In C++, IO streams are flow of bytes from
one input device to memory and vice versa.
A stream is like a pipe. It can carry anything
in the pipe, be it kerosene, milk, water, etc. –
refer to Figure 13.1 shown below.
Figure 13.1 Streams – A concept
Figure 13.2 IO Streaming – A close look
Streams output whatever is inputted.
Byte Stream int in: int out
string in: string out
object in: object out
13.3 IO Library Files Classification
The library functions are classified as
Console IO, Disk IO and Port IO. Port IO are
used for input and output programming,
when we want to use ports for data input
and output.
Disk IO: This mode of operation is
performed on entities called files. Usually,
writing onto files and reading from the files
are never done directly onto disk. Instead, a
buffer (a memory) is used to store prior to
writing onto file and after reading from the
file. Buffering in case of Disk IO is essential
for saving access time required to access
memory. DiskIO is of two types:
High-level disk IO also called standard IO/Stream
IO: Buffer management is done by the
compiler/operating system.
Low-level disk IO also called system IO: Buffer
management is to be taken care of by the programmer.
Console IO: All the input and output
functions control the way input has to be fed
and the way output looks on standard
output devices, i.e. screen. These IO
statements are further classified as
formatted and unformatted.
Formatted IO: We use cin and cout objects. We
specify the format formatting commands of C++.
Unformatted IO: The unformatted category for input
and output.
13.3.1 Formatted IO
In order to perform I/O operations, a stream
is attached to an I/O device. Typical I/O
devices include consoles, keyboards, files
and electronic devices like sensors. The
inserters represented by the “<<” symbol
work as translators which translate in
memory representation of data types such as
integers, floats and user-defined data types
into data types which can be understood by
the I/O devices. The extractor represented
by the “>>” symbol translates data sent by
I/O devices to in memory representation
formats such as integers and floats. Typical
I/O devices like consoles and keyboards
send and receive data in ASCI format.
Let us see with an example how extractors
and inserters work. Consider the following
piece of code int n; cin >> n; Now
using the keyboard, assume the user has
entered numbers 6, 7 and 8 followed by the
enter key. Following this operation, the
buffer associated with the input stream
would look like Figure 13.3.
Figure 13.3 Representations of input stream
ASCII representation of individual
numbers is as follows:
6 = 0 × 36 = 0011 0110 7 = 0 ×
37 = 0011 0111 8 = 0 × 38 = 0011 1000
Through the statement cin >> n extractor
knows that the input stream should be
formatted into an integer as n is of the type
integer. The extractor then proceeds to
extract each character from the stream and
converts it into decimal value. To get
equivalent decimal values from ASCII
format, the extractor subtracts ASCII value
of 0(0 × 30) from each character in the
stream.
‘6’ – ‘0’ = 0 × 36 – 0 × 30 = 6 : ‘7’
– ‘0’ = 0 × 37 – 0 × 30 = 7 : ‘8’ – ‘0’
= 0 × 38 – 0 × 30 = 8
The extractor continues to do the above
operation till it encounters ‘\n’, carriage
return (CR) in the input stream. It also stops
extracting if it encounters Tab, Space and
EOF markers. During extraction, the
extraction operator also keeps a count of
numbers or characters it has extracted and
accordingly sets the place value of each digit.
In our case, 6 is assigned a place value of
100, 7 a place value of 10, and 8 a place
value of 1. The last step involves multiplying
the extracted decimal values with their
corresponding place values and adding them
up to get integer representation: n = 6*100 +
7*10 + 8*1 = 678. But in memory,
representation is in the form of integer, so
678 will be represented as:
678 = 0 × 2A6 = 0000 0010 1010
0110.
The inserter works in exactly the opposite
way. As seen from the above example,
iostream library object cin coupled with the
extractor operator >> provides the user
translation services and also the processing
of special characters such as Carriage
Return(CR), Space, Tabs and End of
File(EOF). This kind of I/O is called
formatted or high-level I/O. Formatted I/O
abstracts the user from inner workings of
streams and is easier to use. The
disadvantage of formatted I/O is that it is
slow and not suitable for large data sizes.
13.3.2 Unformatted IO
Unformatted I/O is also called low-level I/O.
It offers the highest efficiency and
throughput amongst all the other I/O
mechanisms. Unlike formatted I/O, here
input has no automatic whitespace, Tab,
carriage return detection and processing,
and also data is not formatted – the
programmer has to interpret the data.
Input:
get():
Reads a character from stream including delimiters like
white spaces, EOF markers and returns it.
Usage cin.get()
get(char& ch):
Reads a character from stream and stores it in ch
Usage cin.get()
get(char* str, int count, char
delim=’\n’):
Function reads count-1 characters or till it encounters
the delimiter character in the stream and stores the
characters in the str buffer.
When the delimiter is encountered, it is not copied into
the str buffer. It remains in the input stream
Null character is inserted in the array str
delimiter has to be flushed from stream else it will
remain in the stream
Usage cin.get(buffer, count) //when you want
to use default delimiter ‘\n’
Usage cin.get(buffer, count, ‘#’) //when you
want to use different delimiter
getline(char* str, int count,
char delim=’\n’):
Operates like get(char* str, int count, char
delim= ’\n’):
When the delimiter is encountered, it is not copied into
the str buffer but unlike get(), getline() discards
delimiter from stream
Usage: similar to get(char* str, int count,
char delim=’\n’)
read(char* str, int count) :
Function reads count characters from the stream and
place in array str.
Unlike the formatted I/O functions read does not
append string termination character to the buffer str.
If EOF marker is encountered during read operation
function returns error.
Output:
put(char ch):
Function writes the character ch to the stream.
Usage: cout.put(ch);
write(const char* str, int
count):
Functions writes count characters from the buffer str to
the stream.
Write operation does not terminate for any of the
delimiters.
Precautions should be taken to ensure count number of
characters are present in the buffer str.
Usage: cout.write(str, count)
Miscellaneous:
putback(char c)
Places the character c obtained by get() back in to the
stream.
peek()
Returns the next character from the stream without
removing it
ignore( streamsize num=1, int
delim=EOF ):
Skips over a designated number of characters (default is
1)
Terminates upon encountering a designated delimiter
(default is EOF)
Consider the following piece of code:
cout <<”\n Enter source file name..:
“;
cin>>filename;
cout<<”\n Enter text for inputting to
file …”<<endl;
cin.ignore(1,’\n’);
cin.getline(text,80);
Now suppose you have entered
thunder.txt and pressed enter at the first
prompt the operation cin>>filename
reads the input stream stores filename with
the value thunder.txt but the cin
operator does not extract the extra enter
(‘\n’) key that you have inputted. Now
suppose that we do not include
cin.ignore(1,’\n’) and directly call
cin.getline(text,80), it will return
NULL as first character in the stream is
‘\n’ the default delimiter for getline().
To avert this situation, we ignore the
operation to discard the ‘\n’ character
present in the input stream.
Example 13.1: unformatedio1.cpp
Program to Show cin.get()) to
Read a Character
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<cstring>
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. {char ch, str[10];
6. cout<<”\n Enter any string : Showing
character input thru cin.get() :”;
7. while((ch = cin.get()) != ‘\n’) //
using get() function
8. cout << ch;
9. cout<<”\n Enter a string<Less Than 9
or less characters : cin.read>: “;
//using read fn
10. cin.read(str, sizeof(str));
11. str[9] = ‘\0’;
12. cout << endl << str;
13. }
/*Output: Enter any string: Showing
character input through cin.get() :Hello
World
Hello World
Enter a string<Less Than 9 or less
characters : cin.read>: hello USA*
Line No 7 Shown cin.get() . Line No 10
shows cin.read() . Note that read() also
works with cin object.
Example 13.2: unformatio2.cpp
Program to Show Unformatted
Output Functions
1. hello USA*/
2. #include<iostream>
3. #include<conio.h>
4. #include<string.h>
5. using namespace std;
6. void main()
7. { int i;
8. char str[] = “I enjoy programming in
C++” ;
9. for(i = 0 ; str[i] != ‘\0’; i++)
cout.put(str[i]); //using write function
10. cout<<endl; cout.write(str,
strlen(str)); getch();
11. }
/*Output I enjoy programming in C++ I
enjoy programming in C++*/
Line No 9 shows usage of cout.write().
Note that write works with cout also.
13.3.3 IO Stream State
I/O library in C++ provides a mechanism to
test whether a particular I/O operation has
succeeded or failed. Each stream object
maintains a set of flags which indicate the
state of the stream after an I/O operation.
Library also provides set of member
functions which can be used to test the flags.
The flags and the corresponding member
functions are shown in the Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Flags and member fuctions
Flag Name Description Testing Function
good Set to 1 when stream encounters no good()
bit errors
Ex:
cin.good
()
eofb Set to 1 when stream encounters end of eof()
it file
Ex:
cin.eof(
)
fail Set to 1 when stream encounters an fail()
bit error but is recoverable
Ex:
cin.fail
()
badb Set to 1 when stream is corrupted and bad()
it is unrecoverable
Ex:cin.b
ad()
Example 13.3: streamstate.cpp
Program to Show Reading Stream
State Flags
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
using namespace std;
void main()
{int value;
cout << “Enter Value: “;cin >> value;
cout <<endl <<”goodbit: “<<
cin.good();cout <<endl <<”eofbit : “<<
cin.eof();
cout <<endl <<”failbit: “<<
cin.fail();cout <<endl <<”badbit : “<<
cin.bad();
cout <<endl <<"Enter Value(enter
characters to see effect on flags):
";cin >> value;
cout <<endl <<"goodbit: "<<
cin.good();cout <<endl <<"eofbit : "<<
cin.eof();
cout <<endl <<”failbit: “<<
cin.fail();cout <<endl <<”badbit : “<<
cin.bad();
getch();
}
/* Output : Enter Value: 47 goodbit:
1eofbit : 0failbit: 0badbit : 0
Enter Value(enter characters to see
effect on flags): ghj :
goodbit: 0eofbit : 0failbit: 1badbit :
0*/
13.3.4 IO Stream Library – Header Files
The <iostream> header file allows byte of
data to flow from source to destination.
Stream is independent of what data type is
getting streamed or the source of
destination.
C++ supports istream for input and
ostream for output. IO stream library
includes four types of predefined streams:
cin : for standard buffered input
cout : for standard buffered output
cerr : for unbuffered error output. Works
just like cout
clog : for buffered log
<iomanip> header file consists of several
functionalities to handle formatted
output such as setw ()
setprecision(), etc.
<fstream> contains all the
programs needed for file
handling. The hierarchy of IO stream is
shown in Figure 13.4.
Figure 13.4 IO stream class hierarchy
Example 13.4: io1.cpp Program to
Show Cin and Cout at Work
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{double price; char title[30]; char
author[30];
char * tell = “ Enter the title of the
Book, Author and price :”; cout<<tell;
cin>>title>>author>>price;
cout<<”\nTile of the book
:”<<title<<endl;
cout<<”\nAuthor of the book
:”<<author<<endl;
cout<<”\nPrice of the book
:”<<price<<endl;
}
/*Output :Enter the title of the Book,
Author and price :C++ ramesh 250.00
Tile of the book :C++ : Author of the
book :ramesh : Price of the book :250*/
13.4 IO Manipulators
Manipulators alter the status of streams. For
using this feature we need to include the
statement: #include<iomanip> in global
section. For example, if we use a
manipulator setprecision(2), all the
floating point variable output will be two
digits after decimal point. A few of the
important IO manipulator are:
cout<<dec<<intvar;decimal / hexa / octal
representation from integers
cout<<hex; cout <<oct;
cout<<setiosflags(ios::dec) Sets the
formatting bits as decimal
cout<<resetiosflags(ios::hex) Resets
already set flags as per format
specified
cout<<setbase(int n) :Sets bas to n
cout<<setw(int n) :specifies width for
output formatting
cout<<setfill(“*”); :fills the unfilled
space set with setw() with fill
character
Character manipulators are shown in
Table 13.2. Numberic and Data stream
manipulators are shown in Tables 13.3 and
13.4, respectively.
Table 13.2 Character manipulators
Manipulator Affected Flag Description
setw(v None Sets the width of output filed to the
al) specified value
setfil None Pads the unfilled width of the output
(char) with the specified character
right ios::ri Right justifies the output
ght
left ios::le Left justifies the output
ft
intern ios::in Left adjusts the sign and right adjusts
al ternal the value
Table 13.3 Numeric manipulators
Manipulator Affected Flag Description
dec ios::dec I/O uses decimal notation for
input and output
hex ios::hex I/O uses hexadecimal notation
for input and output
oct ios::oct I/O uses octal notation for
input and output
scientifi ios::scie Display floating point number
c ntific in scientific notation
fixed ios::fixe Display floating point number
d in fixed notation
setprecis None Sets precision of floating point
ion(n) variables to n
Table 13.4 Data stream manipulators
Manipulator Affected Flag Description
en N Inserts newline character in the stream and
dl on flushes (sends) the buffer to output
e
fl N Flush the output buffer to the console
us on
h e
ws N Ignore white spaces in the input
on
e
cout<<endl; :new line to iostream and
flushes the buffer.
cout<<flush; :flushes ostream buffer
cout<<ends; :inserts null character at
the end
Method 1: Using setiosflags to
manipulate flags
cout<< setiosflags(ios::left);
cout << setw(10) << setfill(‘.’) <<
“Hello” ;
Method 2: Using Manipulators
cout << left <<setw(10)<<setfill(‘.’)
<<”Hello” ;
Example 13.5: io2.cpp Program to
Show Cin and Cout at Work
1. #include<iostream>
2. #include<iomanip>
3. using namespace std;
4. void main()
5. {double price; char title[30]; char
author[30]; int copies;
6. char * tell1 = “ Enter the title of
the Book :”;
7. char *tell2 = “ Enter the Author of
the Book :”;
8. char *tell3 = “ Enter the price of
the Book :”;
9. char *tell4 = “ Enter No of copies
of the Book :”;
10. cout<<tell1<<flush;
11. cin>>ws>>title; cout<<tell2<<flush;
cin>>author; cout<<tell3 <<flush;
12. cin>>price; cout<<tell4<<flush;
cin>>dec>>copies;
13. cout<<setiosflags(ios::left)
<<”\nTitle of the book :”<<title <<endl;
14. cout<<”\nAuthor of the book
:”<<author<<endl;
15. cout<<resetiosflags(ios::right)
<<”\nPrice of the book :”<<setw(10)
<<price<<endl;
16. cout<<”\n Number of copies
:”<<setw(10)<<copies<<endl;
17. }
/*Output: Enter the title of the Book
:C++ : Enter the Author of the Book
:Ramesh
Enter the price of the Book :250 :Enter
No of copies of the Book : 10000
Title of the book :C++ :Author of the
book :Ramesh : Price of the book :250
Number of copies :10000 */
Li shows that we need to use flush() to flush
ne the buffer on to IO device.
N
o.
10
:
Li instructs ws meaning accept white spaces
ne while taking in title. Of course, once set, the
N flags continue to be set unless cancelled by
o. altering the flag.
11:
Li shows flush() and decimal setting. Line No
ne 13 shows left justification.
N
o.
12
:
Li shows setw(10) meaning width of 10. It also
ne restsiosflag to right.
N
o.
15
:
13.5 Flags
The arguments that can be passed to
setiosflag and resetiosflags manipulators are
shown below:
ios::skipws skip white spaces in input
stream
ios::left or left or right justification
ios::right
ios::scientif
ic
ios::fixed follows decimal notation for
floating point numbers
ios::hex,ios:
:oct
ios::showbase outputs the base number
system
ios::showpoin shows decimal point
t compulsorily.
Ios::showposs shows + sign while displaying
positive numbers
13.6 File I/O
We would come across files everywhere we
go. For example, college holds a file for each
of their students. Similarly municipality
holds files containing details of taxes to be
paid by citizens. Indeed files are so common
in our lives, C++ language and other
languages support files. What is a file? A
file is a collection of records. Figure 13.2
shows a file named student.dat with n
records belonging to n number of students.
A record in a physical file is a data sheet
wherein details of a student are recorded.
There will be as many records as there are
students. In a C++ file too, there will be
records, again one for each student. Figure
13.5 shows a record.
Figure 13.5 File and records
A record in turn contains fields. Figure
13.6 shows a record and fields contained
therein.
Figure 13.6 Record and fields
13.6.1 File Types
Files can be classified based on the way they
are accessed from the memory as
Sequential File: All records are stored
sequentially as they are entered. This type of
file is best suited when we have to access all
the records in sequence one after the other.
Marks processing of a class is an example.
Random Access File: In this mode of
access, a record is accessed using an index
maintained for this purpose. It is like
browsing through a chapter and within the
chapter a page of interest using the index
provided at the beginning of the book.
Direct Access File: In this mode, the
records are stored based on their relative
position with respect to the first record. For
example, record 50 will be 50 lengths away
from the address of record 1. The main
advantage of this mode of access is that
there is no need to maintain indexes that
would result in memory overhead. The
disadvantage is that memory locations get
blocked.
C++ language supports both sequential and
direct access mode.
Files can be further classified as text files
or binary files. Normally, in a text file,
data is stored using ASCII character code.
Thus, to store 1234.5 in text mode, we would
need 6 character spaces, i.e. 48 bits, whereas
if you store it in binary mode, one would
save a lot of memory as we will convert
1234.5 into binary and then store. Hence, for
storing intrinsic data of large numbers and
sizes, binary mode is always preferred.
The classes required in connection with
file handling in C++ are all kept in fstream
header. Therefore, insert a statement :
#include<fstream>
To open a file for writing data on to it, we
would create an object of ofstream like this:
ofstream outfile(“Student.dat”);
To open a file for reading data from it, we
would create an object of ifstream like this:
ifstream infile(“Student.dat”);
We need to check if infile stream has been
successfully allocated. In C++, logical NOT
has been overloaded to check the stream file
creation
if(!infile) {cerr<<”\n Sorry cannot open
the file infile..”<<endl; exit(1);}
After use, every file that is opened needs
to be closed like this outfile.close();
infile.close();
13.6.2 Stream Operating Modes
It is possible to control the stream files
opening modes. We need to include these
mode switches while creating the object
through constructors.
ios::a ; appends data to the file at the end of
pp file.
ios::a : opens the file and positions the reader
te or writer controller at the read head at
the end
ios::i : opens the file for reading
n
ios::o : opens the file for writing
ut
ios::n : fails to open if it does not exist already
ocreat
e
ios::n : file should exist and also either of
orepla ios::ate or ios::app should be set.
ce
ios::t : truncates the file, if it already exists
runk
We will write a program to copy a file's
contents onto another file . In Example 13.6,
we would use command line arguments
feature. With commandline argument, you
can execute the program from command line
prompt C:>\ iop io2.cpp
io2copy.cpp There are three arguments,
namely, argv[0] = io2.cpp argv[1]
= io2.cpp is the source. argv[2] =
io2copy.cpp is the destination file. This
feature allows us to execute the program
without invoking IDE of Turbo C++ or VC++
directly from the command line prompt.
Example 13.6: io3.cpp Program to
Copy a File Through Command Line
Arguments
#include<fstream>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main(int argc , char **argv)
{if ( argc<3)
{cout<<”\n correct usage of
command line argument is : copyfile
inputfile
outputfile..”<<endl; exit(0); }
// open inputfile and connect it
to input stream inputstream
ifstream inputstream(argv[1]);
if(!inputstream)
{ cout<<”\n cannot open the input
file ..”<<argv[1]<<endl; exit(1); }
//open the output file and connect
it to outputstream
of stream outputstream(argv[2]);
if(!outputstream)
{ cout<<”\n cannot open the output
file ..”<<argv[2]<<endl; exit(1); }
// now read from input file and
copy to output file
char ch;
while ( (inputstream.get(ch)) &&
outputstream ) outputstream.put(ch);
}
We have shown another version in which
we obtain the file names from the user and
execute copy source file onto the destination
file in the solved example section, Ex 2 at the
end of the chapter.
Example 13.7: io5.cpp Open a File
in Append Mode, Append a Line
#include<fstream>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void main()
{ char filename[30];
char text[80]; // for user input
cout <<”\n Enter source file name..:
“;
cin>>filename;
//Now lets open the file once again
for append mode
ofstream outfile(filename,ios::app);
if(!outfile)
{ cout<<”\n cannot open the input
file for appending..”<<filename <<endl;
exit(1); }
cout<<”\n Enter text for inputting
to file …”<<endl; cin.ignore(1,’\n’);
cin.getline(text,80);
outfile<<text<<”\n”;outfile.close();
cout<<”\n completed writing to
output file”<<endl;
// now lets read the file, we have
just outputted our text for confirmation
cout<<filename<<endl;
ifstream infile(filename);
if(!infile)
{cout<<”\n cannot open the input
file ..”<<filename<<endl; exit(1);}
char ch;
while ( infile.get(ch)) // now read
from input file and copy to output file
cout<<ch;
cout<<”\n display process
completed..”<<endl;
infile.close();
}
/*Output:
Enter source file name..: io4.cpp :
Enter text for inputting to file …
Hi we are trying out appending through
io5.cpp : completed writing to output
file
Hi we are trying out appending through
io5.cpp : display process completed..*/
Note that C++ supports all form of input
and output statements of C language. You
can freely use them in C++. We have used
the following statements in the program
char text[30]; // buffer for user
input
cin.getline(text,30); // getline
takes in to buffer text maximum of 30
characters
// But new line character \n is
ignored and not taken in
cin.ignor(1,’\n’); // ignores 1
character shown as second argument
13.7 Binary File
Normally, to facilitate direct reading on the
console, the files are stored in text format.
But for efficiency and saving the memory
space, it would be far more efficient to store
the data in binary form, i.e. in 0 s and 1 s.
For example, a number 50595 is stored by
text file as ‘5’, ‘0’, ‘5’, ‘9’, ‘5’, whereas the
binary form will allocate 2 or 4 bytes
depending on the hardware used and stores
the number as binary equivalent >. In C++ a
flag called ios::binary will specify
the mode.
A binary file can be used to store all the
intrinsic data types as well as user-defined
data types like objects. We will use write()
to write data on to binary files and read() to
get the data from binary files.
Student std ( 20 , 70) ; // student
object with roll number and average
marks
fileobject.write( ( char*) & std ,
sizeof (std) );
fileobject.read( ( char*) & std , sizeof
(std) );
Example 13.8: io6.cpp Program to
Write a Class Called Student on to a
File and Read Back the Contents of
the File
#include<iostream>
#include<fstream>
using namespace std;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public: Student(int n, char *p, double
d) {rollNo=n,name=p, total =d;}
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
// public access functions
int GetRollNo() const { return
rollNo;}
void SetRollNo ( int n) {
rollNo=n;}
char * GetName() const { return
name;}
void SetName( char *p) { name=p;}
double GetTotal() const { return
total;}
void SetTotal ( double d) {
total=d;}
private: int rollNo; char *name;double
total; // name is a pointer to name
};
void main()
{ char filename[80];
cout<<”\n Enter file name…:”;
cin >>filename;
ofstream
outfile(filename,ios::binary); // open
in bibnary mode
if(!outfile) cout<<”\n Cannot open
iffile in binary
mode..”<<filename<<endl;
exit(1); }
Student std(5095,”Thunder”,70.0);
// create a student object and write on
to file
cout<<”\n Data of Student we have
created..”<<endl;
cout<<”\n Student roll number :
“<<std.GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Student name :
“<<std.GetName()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Student total :
“<<std.GetTotal()<<endl;
outfile.write( (char*) & std ,
sizeof std ); outfile.close();
// now lets open the file and read
the content
ifstream
infile(filename,ios::binary);
if(!infile)
{ cout<<”\n Cannot open infile in
binary mode..”<<filename <<endl;
exit(1); }
// we will create a dummy std2 and
read the data from file on to std2
Student std2(1,”No Name”,0.0);
infile.read( (char*) &std2 ,
sizeof(std2) );
cout<<”\n Data of Student read from
file..”<<endl;
cout<<”\n Student roll number :
“<<std2.GetRollNo()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Student name :
“<<std2.GetName()<<endl;
cout<<”\n Student total :
“<<std2.GetTotal()<<endl;
}
/*Output: Enter file name…:stdbinary:
Data of Student we have created..
Student roll number: 5095: Student name:
Thunder: Student total: 70
Data of Student read from file..
Student roll number: 5095: Student name:
Thunder: Student total: 70*/
13.8 Seekg()/Seekp() and Tellg() and
Tellp() Functionality of C++
In C language, you have used, fseek() and
ftell() to position the read & write cursor
on the file. In C++, we will use seekg() and
seekp() for get position and seek position.
This is because in C++ the same stream is
used for both input and output.
Seekg() alters the get position, i.e. the position from
where we can read from a file.
Seekp() alters the position from where we can write.
infile.seekg(256); // skip 256
bytes and position get cursor at
position 217
outfile.seekp(1024); // position
the cursor for writing at byte position
1025
tellg() and tellp() functions on the other hand tell
us about the position of read and write during our next
read and write operation.
int pos = infile.tellg() ; //
indicates the position of next read
operation.
int pos = infile.tellp() ; //
indicates the position of next write
operation.
Example 13.9: io7.cpp Program to
Write Student Object on to File and
Use Seekg()/Tellg()
#include<iostream>
#include<fstream>
#include<iomanip>
using namespace std;
const int max =3;
//declare a class called Student
class Student
{ public:
Student(){}
~Student(){}; // Default destructor
// public access functions
void GetData(void);
void DisplayData(void);
private: int rollNo; char name[20];
float mat,sci,eng,total,avg;};
void Student::GetData(void)
{ cout<<”\n Enter name : “;cin>>name;
cout<<”\n Enter id No : “;
cin>>rollNo;
cout<<”\n Enter <Maths , Science and
English> Marks :”; cin>>mat>> sci>>eng;
total = mat+sci+eng; avg=total/3.0; }
void Student::DisplayData(void)
{ cout<<"\n Name :"
<<setiosflags(ios::left)<<setw(20)
<<name;
cout<<"\n Total :"<<setprecision(2)
<<setw(20)<<setiosflags(ios::fixed)
<<total<<endl;
cout<<"\n Average :"<<setprecision(2)
<<setw(20)<<avg<<endl; }
void main()
{ Student std[2]; // two student objects
char filename[30];
int ch,pos,p,sz=0;
cout<<"\n Enter filename…";
cin>>filename;
fstream inoutfile;
inoutfile.open(filename,ios::in|ios::out
);
do{cout<<"\n MENU ";
cout<<"\n 1.Add a record\n 2.Display
nth record\n 3.Exit\n";
cout<<" Enter choice of operation:
";cin>>ch;
switch(ch)
{case 1: if (sz>=max)
{ cout<<"\n out of bounds.."
<<endl; exit(1); }
std[sz].GetData();
inoutfile.write((char*)&std[sz],sizeof(s
td[sz]));
sz++; // keep the count
inoutfile.close();
break;
case 2: inoutfile.seekg(0); // go to
beginning
cout<<"\nEnter the position of the
record to be displayed : ";
cin>>p;
if(p>max)
{cout<<"\nPosition out of
bounds";break; }
pos = (p-1) * sizeof(std) ;
inoutfile.seekg(pos);
inoutfile.read((char*)&std[p-
1],sizeof(std[p-1]));
cout<<"\nDetails of record "
<<p<<endl;
std[p-1].DisplayData();
inoutfile.close();
break;
case 3: exit(1);
}//end of switch
}while( ch>=1 && ch<4);
}//end of main
/*Output: Enter filename…Student.dat :
MENU
1.Add a record 2.Display nth record
3.Exit
Enter choice of operation: 1 Enter name:
Ramesh Enter id No: 100
Enter <Maths, Science and English> Marks
:90 90 90
MENU Enter choice of operation: 2 enter
the position of the record to be
displayed: 2
details of record 2: Name: Gautam Total:
294.00 : Average: 98.00 */
13.9 Summary
1. IO streaming is flow of data from one device to another
device. For example, from input device like console to
memory or from memory to output device like console.
2. Input from keyboard and output to console are called
standard input and output device.
3. There are operators like inserters and extractors (<< and
>>) provided to work with IO stream objects like cin,
cout, cerr to convert into ASCII to intrinsic data for
storage and convert back to ASCII for outputting to
standard IO devices.
4. The extractor represented by the “>>” symbol translates
data sent by I/O devices in memory representation
formats such as integers and floats.
5. iostream library object cin coupled with the extractor
operator >> provides the user translation services and
also the processing of special characters such as Carriage
Return(CR), Space, Tabs and End of File(EOF).
6. IO streaming functions make use of buffers to cater to
different speeds of IO devices and computer systems.
Various flags are set by IO streaming function to inform
to the user the status IO streaming.
7. High-level disk IO also called standard IO/stream IO:
Buffer management is done by the compiler/operating
system.
8. Low-level disk IO also called system IO: Buffer
management is to be taken care by the programmer.
9. console IO: All the input and output functions control
the way input has to be fed and the way output looks on
standard output devices, i.e. screen.
10. Console IO is further classified ad formatted IO and
unformatted IO.
11. Unformatted I/O is also called low-level I/O. It offers
the highest efficiency and throughput amongst all the
other I/O mechanisms. Unlike formatted I/O, here input
has no automatic whitespace, Tab, carriage return
detection and processing, and also data is not formatted
– the programmer has to interpret the data.
12. I/O library in C++ provides a mechanism to test
whether a particular I/O operation has succeeded or
failed. Each stream object maintains a set of flags which
indicates the state of the stream after an I/O operation.
13. C++ supports istream for input and ostream for output.
IO stream library includes four types of predefined
streams. cin,cout,cerr,clog
14. IO manipulators alter the status of streams. For using
this feature we need to include the statement:
#include<iomanip> in global section.
15. Flags are the arguments that can be passed to setiosflag
and resetiosflags manipulators.
16. File is a collection of records. Records are a collection of
fields. Fields are the smallest units of data. Fields can be
basic data types or user-defined or derived data.
17. Sequential File All records are stored sequentially as
they are entered.
18. Random Access File: In this mode of access, a record is
accessed using an index maintained for this purpose.
19. Direct Access File: In this mode, the records are stored
based on their relative position with respect to first
record.
20. Files can be further classified as text files or binary
files. Normally, in a text file, data is stored using ASCII
character code. In binary files, data is stored just like it
is stored in memory. Hence, binary mode saves memory.
21. The classes required in connection with file handling in
C++ are all kept in fstream header. Therefore, insert a
statement : #include<fstream>
22. In C++, logical NOT has been overloaded to check the
stream file creation. if(!infile) {cerr<<”\n
Sorry cannot open the file
infile..”<<endl; exit(1); }. In C++, a flag
called ios::binary will specify the mode.
23. Stream operating modes are used to control the stream
files opening modes. Include these mode switches while
creating the object through constructors.
24. Seekg() alters the get position, i.e. the position from
where we can read from a file.
25. Seekp() alters the position from where we can write.
26. tellg() and tellp() functions on the other hand
tell us about the position of read and write during our
next read and write operation.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
unformatted IO?
1. Input has automatic recognition of white space
2. Low-level IO
3. Input finishes with EOF
4. Lowest efficiency
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. d) ii, iii and iv
2. << operator defined in IO Stream is called
1. Inserter
2. Extractor
3. Translator
4. Shift left
1. i and iii
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
3. << operator defined in IO Stream is called
1. Insertor
2. Extractor
3. Translator
4. Shift left
1. i and iii
2. i and ii
3. ii and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
4. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to high-level disk IO?
1. Also called standard IO
2. Buffer management by user
3. Also called stream IO
4. Operates on files
1. i
2. i, iii and iv
3. i, ii and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
5. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to low-level disk IO?
1. Individual character processing
2. Buffer management by user
3. Input has automatic white space recognition
4. Operates with highest efficiency
1. i
2. i, iii and iv
3. i , ii and iii
4. i, ii and iv
6. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to read(char* str, int count)? :
1. Reads count characters from Stream
2. Appends String Terminator character
3. It is part of unformatted IO
4. Returns error if EOF is encountered
1. i
2. i, iii and iv
3. i, ii and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
7. setw () setprecision() functions are contained in
1. <iostream>
2. <iomanip>
3. <cstring>
4. <fstream>
8. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to manipulators?
1. endl flushes the buffer on to console
2. Inserts a new line character
3. ignores white spaces in the buffer
4. i, ii and iii
1. i
2. i and ii
3. iv
4. ii and iii
9. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to manipulators?
1. ios::skipws: skip white spaces in input stream
2. ios::showpos: shows position
3. ios::showpoint shows decimal point compulsorily
4. ios::showbase shows base
1. ii and iii
2. i, ii and iii
3. i and iv
4. i, iii and iv
10. Seekg() can work relative to any position in the
file TRUE/FALSE
11. For reading data from a random access file we use
1. get()
2. getline()
3. readline()
4. read()
12. Write() function cannot send to standard output
stream cout TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
13. Define IO stream.
14. What is a byte stream?
15. Distinguish formatted and unformatted IO.
16. What do peek() & ignore() and putback()
commands achieve?
17. What predefined IO streams are contained in IO stream
library?
18. Define the terms file, record and field.
19. What are binary files? How do they save space in
memory?
20. What is sequential access of a file?
21. Explain direct access method.
Long-answer Questions
22. Classify the IO stream functions.
23. Explain formatted and unformatted IO functions with
examples.
24. Explain what is stream state and flags used by C++.
25. Explain IO stream class hierarchy.
26. Explain IO manipulators available in C++.
27. What flags can be sent as arguments to setiosflag
and resetiosflag functions?
28. Explain file classification in terms of access of data.
29. Explain stream operating modes with suitable examples.
30. Explain Seekg() / seekp() and tellg() and
tellp() functionality of C++.
Assignment Questions
31. Write a program to merge two files into a third file. Each
file holds a specified number of strings.
32. Write a program to print telephone directory. Use a class
called Telephone to hold the data and member functions
for telephone directory to create the directory and the
file.
33. Write a program to sort the file that holds a specified
number of strings.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. d
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. d
6. b
7. b
8. b
9. d
10. True
11. d
12. False
14
Generic Programming and
Templates
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to understand
Using template classes employing template class
member functions as well as non-template class
member functions.
Use type-specific friend functions and static member
function and data.
Use generic programs extensively for data structure
implementation such as stack.
Appreciate concepts of developing template libraries.
14.1 Introduction
Generic programming means writing
programs that will work for any type of data,
i.e. make the programs independent of the
type of data. With generic programs, there
will be no need to develop type-specific
programs for each data type. Templates in
C++ are implementation tools provided to
write generic programs. For example, a data
structure such as stack can be used for
storing different types of data such as
integers, floats, characters and strings of
messages. Using template facility provided
by the C++ language, a generic program can
be written and stored in a directory and can
be used by all programmers for different
data types.
14.2 What is Generic Programming and
Why Use Templates?
Template is a tool provided by C++ for
achieving reusability of code. We can hence
say that it is a productivity enhancement
tool for the programmer. On many
occasions, we come across problems in real
life wherein the logic is the same but the
data set is different. Suppose that we need a
function to sort the given data. The data
could be data of integers or data of floats or
data of double. Do we write separate
functions for each of the data types or is
there a tool or method wherein one function
takes care of all the data types. Function
template is the solution provided by C++.
When we consider the array data
structure, do we need to write separate
classes for each type of array objects such as
array of Students, array of cars, or array of
Employees? Class template allows us to
write a single class template program and
allow us to instantiate several arrays of
different groups of objects. Therefore, we
can conclude that C++ allows data types to
be forwarded to function and class definition
at run-time as parameters.
14.3 Template Classes
Suppose that we implement a stack – a last-
in-first-out data structure – to store
integers. Then we have modified through cut
and paste strategy and implemented a stack
of floats. Now if we need stack of orders,
what shall we do? Keep copying through cut
paste! This is not reusability promised by
C++. Class templates are very useful when
the logic is the same and data sets are
different. For example, if we have a class
template for Stack class, we can store
integers, floats, objects of students on to
Stack. Similarly, an array expressed as
template allows us to store an array of
integers or an array of students, etc. The
main advantage of template classes is that if
you declare a class template, you can store it
in a directory and use these definitions of
class templates as and when required in
program development, just by creating
instances of objects as and when required. It
is precisely this concept of reusability that is
of immense value to developers. This aspect
will be studied in more detail in the next
chapter on standard template libraries.
Stack is the most widely used-user defined
structure in problem solving. C++ templates
allow us to implement a generic Stack<T>
template that has a type parameter T. T can
be replaced with actual types at run-time, for
example, Stack<int>, and C++ will
generate the class Stack<int>. We can
also create classes such as Stack<float>,
Stack<Student> and Stack<char>.
Define template once and use it to create
classes of different intrinsic and user-
defined data types. Incorporating changes is
very easy since once the changes are
implemented in the template Stack<T>,
they are immediately reflected in all classes
– Stack<float>, Stack<Student> and
Stack<char>. Our next example amplifies
these important concepts.
Example 14.1: Template Class –
Stack
A class template definition is just like a
regular class definition. It is preceded by the
keyword template. For example, here is the
definition of a class template for Stack. Note
that T is a parameter value which changes
with each instance of class we create. The
word class is a keyword that specifies that T
is a parameter that will be used to represent
the parameter type (T). We can create
instances of int, float and Students in the
void main section as follows:
Stack<int> I; //Stack of integers
Stack<float> F; //Stack of floats
Stack<Student> stdStack; // Stack of
students
Note that we can use Stack<int> or
Stack <float>, etc., as data types
anywhere in the program just like you use
normal data type, for example, to pass
arguments, to receive return values, etc.
Stack class shown below is like any other
class except that parameter type T is used as
data type:
1. template <class T>
2. class Stack
3. {public:Stack(); //default
constructor
4. Stack(const Stack&); //Copy
constructor
5. ~Stack(){ delete [] stack_array;}
//destructor
6. Stack& operator=(const
Stack&);//Assignment operator
7. int Size() const;
8. int empty() const; //returns 1 if
stack is empty
9. T& top(); //returns top of stack
10. void pop(); //pops top of stack
11. void push(const T&); //pushes
12. template<class T>
13. friend ostream &
operator<<(ostream & out1,Stack<T>&S);
14. private:
15. T *stack_array; // Stack of data
integers,double,students
16. int tos;
17. int stack_size; // Stack size
18. };
Normally, if you declare and define any
function, for example, say the constructor
Stack within the class itself, like the
constructor shown below, then there will be
no need to use parameter type T:
Stack<T> :: Stack() { stack_array =
new T[max]; stack_size = max; tos = -1;}
But if you define outside the class,
you have to use qualifiers as shown
below:
template <class T>
Stack<T> :: Stack(){ stack_array =
new T[max]; stack_size = max; tos = -1;}
We define assignment operator as shown
below:
template <class T>
Stack<T>& Stack<T> :: operator=(const
Stack& S)
{ stack_array = new T[S.stack_size];
tos = S.tos;
stack_size = S.stack_size;
for(int i =0 ; i<size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];}
template <class T> // Size( )
function returns the size of the
stack. int Stack<T> :: Size() const {
return tos+1;}
Prior to retrieving the data from the top of
the stack, we need to ensure that stack is not
empty. This is ensured by function empty()
shown below:
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: empty() const
{if(tos == -1) return 1;
else return 0;}
Push operation in Stack data structure is like
adding an element on to the top of the stack.
There is a need to increment top of stack (
tos) after each push operation.
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: push(const T& val)
{ if( tos<stack_size-1 )
{ tos++;stack_array[tos] = val; }
}
In pop operation, we would eject the value
from the top of the stack. This we would
achieve by decrementing the top of stack
(tos)
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: pop()
{if(tos >= 0)tos--; }
In top() operation, we would use the
value returned by the function for
displaying the top of the stack. We
would also decrement the tos, after
top() operation:
template <class T>
T& Stack<T> :: top()
{ return (stack_array[tos--]); }
Also observe that we have declared <<
operator as friend of Stack class. As we want
<< operator to be friend of all instances of
Stack class, we have declared as a template
function as shown below:
template<class T>
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream &
out1,Stack<T>&S)
{out1<<”\n \t”<<”content”<<endl;
for ( int j=0 ; j<max; j++)
out1<<S.top()<<" : ";
}
Student class is a normal class that is
provided to create an instance of students to
template class. We would store the roll
numbers on to stack, to be extracted on last-
in-first-out basis. We have included operator
<< to be a friend of Student class
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream
&src, Student &S)
{src<<S.Display(); // to display the
roll no of the student
return src;}
In the next example, we would declare a
student class . We would use this class to
push instances of students on to Stack. We
would also create instances of float Stack
and int Stack to demonstrate the utility and
power of the template.
Example 14.2:
stacktemplate1b.cpp
Implementation of Stack Data
Structure Using Templates
#include<iostream>
#include<iomanip>
using namespace std;
const int max=10; // declares maximum
of array size
class Student
{public:
Student(int roll); // constructor
with roll no input
Student():rollNo(0){} //default
constructor
~Student() {}; // default
destructor
int Display() const {return
rollNo;}
friend ostream &
operator<<(ostream &src, Student &S)
{src<<S.Display();return src; }
private: int rollNo;
};
Student::Student(int roll):rollNo(roll)
{}
template <class T>
class Stack
{ public: Stack(); //default constructor
Stack(const Stack&); //Copy constructor
~Stack(){ delete [] stack_array;}
//destructor
Stack& operator=(const
Stack&);//Assignment operator
int Size() const;
int empty() const; //returns 1 if
stack is empty
T& top(); //returns top of stack
void pop(); //pops top of stack
void push(const T&); //pushes
template<class T>
friend ostream &
operator<<(ostream & out1,Stack<T>&S);
private:
T *stack_array; // Stack of data
integers,double,students
int tos; //top of stack
int stack_size; // Stack size
};
template<class T>
ostream & operator<<(ostream &
out1,Stack<T>&S)
{out1<<”\n \t”<<”content”<<endl;
for ( int j=0 ; j<max; j++)
out1<<S.top()<<" : "; }
template <class T> //default constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack()
{stack_array = new T[max]; stack_size =
max; tos = -1;}
//copy constructor
template <class T> //copy constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack(const Stack& S):
stack_array(new T[S.size]),
tos(S.tos),stack_size(S.stack_size)
{for(int i =0 ; i<stack_size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i]; }
template <class T>
Stack<T>& Stack<T> :: operator=(const
Stack& S)
{ stack_array = new T[S.stack_size];
tos = S.tos;
stack_size =S.stack_size;
for(int i =0 ; i<size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: Size() const { return
tos+1;}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: empty() const
{if(tos == -1) return 1;
else return 0; }
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: push(const T& val)
{if( tos<stack_size-1 )
{ tos++;stack_array[tos] = val; }
}
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: pop()
{if(tos >= 0) tos--; }
template <class T>
T& Stack<T> :: top()
{return (stack_array[tos--]); }
void main()
{Stack<int> I; //Stack of integers
Stack<float> F; //Stack of floats
Stack<Student> stdStack;
for ( int i=0;i<max;i++)
{ I.push(i+10); F.push(i+20);
stdStack.push(i+10000); }
cout<<"\n The contents of the int
stack"<<endl;
cout<<" "<<I;cout<<endl;
cout<<"\n The contents of the float
stack"<<endl;
cout<<" "<<F; cout<<endl;
cout<<"\n The RollNos of the Student
from stack"<<endl;
cout<<" "<<stdStack; cout<<endl;
cout<<"\n endof program"<<endl;
}
/*Output :The contents of the int stack
Content 19 : 18 : 17 : 16 : 15 : 14 :
13 : 12 : 11 : 10 :
The contents of the float stack
Content 29 : 28 : 27 : 26 : 25 : 24 :
23 : 22 : 21 : 20 :
The RollNos of the Student from stack
content10009 : 10008 : 10007 : 10006
: 10005 : 10004 : 10003 : 10002 : 10001
: 10000*/
14.4 Function Templates and Passing of
Arguments to a Function
Normal function accepting normal instance
of data, for example, a function called
FindMax accepting array of integers.
You must pass an integer instance of the
array: int FindMax(Array<int> &);
For a function that accepts Student array:
void FindMax (Array<Student>&);
A generic template function declaration can
handle all kinds of arrays: template <class
T> void FindMax( Array<T>& );
A generic template function can also
handle parameterized as well particular
instances of a template: template <class
T> void FindMax(Array<T>& ,
Array<float>);
14.5 Template Friends
A template class can have friends. These
friends can be
Non-template friend class or function
Template friend class or function
Type-specific template friend function
We would refer the reader to Chapter 8 for
general functions update. We have also seen
in the previous example template friend
function as friend operator << to stack
template class.
14.5.1 Non-template Function
We can declare a class or function as friend
to template class. In the example that
follows, we would include a friend function
called FindSum() that will add elements of
integer array. This program will use a non-
template friend function FindSum() that
will work only on integer arrays because it is
a non-template friend function. We would
also create instances of float stack and int
stack.
Example 14.3:
stacktemplate2b.cpp A Non-
template Friend Function
FindSum() That Will Work Only on
Integer Arrays
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
const int max=10; // declares maximum
of array size
template <class T>
class Stack
{ public: Stack(); //default
constructor
Stack(const Stack&); //Copy
constructor
~Stack(){ delete [] stack_array;}
//destructor
Stack& operator=(const
Stack&);//Assignment operator
int Size() const;
int empty() const; //returns 1 if
stack is empty
T& top(); //returns top of stack
void pop(); //pops top of stack
void push(const T&); //pushes
template<class T>
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream &
out1,Stack<T>&S);
int FindSum( Stack<int> I ) // I is
array of integers
private: T *stack_array; // Stack
of data integers, double, students
int tos;
int stack_size; // Stack size
};
template<class T>
ostream & operator<<(ostream &
out1,Stack<T>&S)
{out1<<”\n \t”<<”content”<<endl;
for ( int j=0 ; j<max; j++)
out1<<S.top()<<" : ";}
//definition of friend FindSum().Gets
access to private data
int FindSum( Stack<int> I ) // I is
array of integers
{ int sum=0;
for ( int j=0 ; j<max; j++)
sum+=I.top();
return sum;
}
template <class T> //default
constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack()
{stack_array = new T[max]; _size =
max; = -1; }
template <class T> //copy constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack(const Stack& S):
stack_array(new T[S.stack_size]),
tos(S.tos),stack_size(S.stack_size)
{ int i;
for(i =0 ; i<stack_size; i++)
stack_array[i] =
S.stack_array[i];
}
template <class T>
Stack<T>& Stack<T> :: operator=(const
Stack& S)
{ stack_array = new T[S.stack_size];
tos = S.tos;
stack_size =S.stack_size;
for(int i =0 ; i<size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: Size() const { return
tos+1;}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: empty() const
{if(tos == -1) return 1;
else return 0;
}
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: push(const T& val)
{if( tos<stack_size-1 )
{ tos++;stack_array[tos] = val; }
}
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: pop()
{if(tos >= 0) tos--; }
template <class T>
T& Stack<T> :: top()
{ return (stack_array[tos--]); }
void main()
{ Stack<int> I; //Stack of integers
//populate int stack
for ( int i=0;i<max;i++)
{I.push(i+10);}
cout<<"\n Use friend function int
FindSum(Stack<int>)"
<<"\n to calculate the sum
of int Stack"<<endl;
int sum = FindSum(I);
cout<<"\n Sum of integer Stack:
" << sum<<endl;
cout<<"\n endof program"<<endl;
}
/* Output Use friend function int
FindSum(Stack<int>)
to calculate the sum of int Stack :
Sum of integer Stack: 145 */
14.5.2 Template Friend Class or Function
In Example 14.2, we have used extraction
operator << as a template friend function of
class Stack. In this section, we will introduce
another very widely used data structure, i.e.
array. Template declaration for Array class is
given below:
Example 14.4: Template Declaration
for Array Class is Given Below
template <class T>
class Array
{ public:
Array(int array_size=max); //
constructor
Array(const Array&); //Copy
constructor
~Array(){ delete [] array;}
//destructor
Array& operator=(const
Array&);//Assignment operator
T& operator[] (int i) {return
array[i];}
const T& operator[](int i) const
{return array[i];}
int Size() const { return
array_size;}
template<class T>
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream
& out1,Array<T>&S);
private:
T *array; // array of data
integers,double,students
int array_size; // array size
};
Assignment operator =. First we would
check if what we have on the left-hand side
(lhs) and what we are equating with at the
right-hand side (rhs) are one and the same.
If same, there is no need to carry out the
assignment operation. Hence, we return
*this to called function Why return
*this? You must appreciate that =
operation allows chaining, i.e. we can write
statement such as A=B=C=D=25. Then
compiler first assigns D=25 and chains to C
and thence to B & A. Hence, we need to
return reference so that chaining is possible.
Then before copying from the rhs, it is a
good idea to delete what is on the lhs.
Therefore, we use delete *array:
template <class T>
Array<T>& Array<T> :: operator=(const
Array& S)
{if( this==&S)
return *this; // source &
destination are same no need for =
operation
delete *array; // delete
destination prior to copy from rhs
array_size=S.Size();
array=new T[array_size];
for int i=0;i<array_size;i++)
array[i]=S[i];
return *this; // this is for
chaining = operator allows chaining
}
int Size() const { return
array_size;} is public accessory function
provided to access private data
array_size.
We have also declared << as a friend
function of Array class
template<class T>
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream
& out1,Array<T>&S)
{out1<<”\n \t”<<”Index”
<<”\t\t”<<”content”<<endl;
for ( int j=0 ;
j<S.array_size; j++)
out1<<”\n\t”<<j<<”\t\t”<<S[j];
}
Also note that if S[j] pertains to Student
class, then it will invoke friend operator <<
defined in Student class.
int Display() const {return rollNo;}
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream
&src, Student &S)
{src<<S.Display();return src; }
We have included overloading of operator [ ]
in Array class as shown below:
T& operator[] (int i) {return
array[i];}
const T& operator[](int i) const
{return array[i];}
Please note that array has been declared
as pointer belonging to data type T. Given
off set or cell number of the array, operator [
] returns a reference of type T or const T.
Because of these overloading operators, we
could use statements like
for ( int i=0;i<I.Size();i++)
{ I[i]=i+10;
F[i]=i+20.0;
pstd=new Student(i+10000);
stdarray[i]=*pstd;
}
Finally, observe that overloaded friend
operator << has allowed us to use
statements like cout<<I; in the main
program. Student class is a normal class that
is provided to create an instance of students
to template class. Ex 2 at the end of the
chapter gives a complete solution.
14.5.3 Type-specific Friend Function in
Class Templates
In the next program, we will use a template
friend function FindSum() that will work
on all types of arrays because its a template
friend function. We will also declare
operator << (extraction operator) as friend
of Stack class.
Note that we have placed both these
functions above public and private
declarations in Stack class. Friend in any
case gets access to private data. Hence, it
can be above public and private declarations
of the class. This is one of the ways to
declare and define friend functions.
Note further that we have declared friend
functions to be type-specific. This means
that integer Stack will be a friend of
Stack<int> class only. Similarly, float
Stack will a be friend of Stack<float class.
Hence, we have omitted template <class
T> in our friend function definitions.
In the example that follows, we will also
show you how to pass the template object as
an argument to a function FindSum.
Example 14.5: stacktemplate3b.cpp
Type-specific Friend Functions
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
const int max=10; // declares maximum
of array size
template <class T>
class Stack
{friend void FindSum( Stack<T> I ) //
I is stack of integers
{ T sum=T(0);
for ( int j=0 ; j<max; j++)
sum+=I.top();
cout<< sum<<endl;
}
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream &
out1,Stack<T>&S)
{out1<<”\n \t”<<”content”<<endl;
for ( int j=0 ; j<S.Size(); j++)
out1<<S.top()<<" : ";
return out1;
}
public: Stack(); //default
constructor
Stack(const Stack&); //Copy
constructor
~Stack(){ delete [] stack_array;}
//destructor
Stack& operator=(const
Stack&);//Assignment operator
oint Size() const;
int empty() const; //returns 1 if
stack is empty
T& top(); //returns top of stack
void pop(); //pops top of stack
void push(const T&); //pushes
void SetTos(){ tos=max-1;}
private:
T *stack_array; // Stack of data
integers,double,students
int tos;
int stack_size; // Stack size
};
template <class T> //default
constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack()
{stack_array = new T[max]; stack_size
= max; tos = -1;}
template <class T> //copy constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack(const Stack& S):
stack_array(new T[S.stack_size]),
tos(S.tos),stack_size(S.stack_size)
{ int i;
for(i =0 ; i<stack_size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
}
template <class T>
Stack<T>& Stack<T> :: operator=(const
Stack& S)
{ stack_array = new T[S.stack_size];
tos = S.tos;
stack_size =S.stack_size;
for(int i =0 ; i<size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: Size() const
{return tos+1;}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: empty() const
{if(tos == -1) return 1;
else return 0;
}
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: push(const T& val)
{if( tos<stack_size-1 )
{ tos++;stack_array[tos] = val; }
}
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: pop()
{if(tos >= 0) tos--; }
template <class T>
T& Stack<T> :: top()
{ return (stack_array[tos--]); }
void main()
{Stack<int> I1; //stack of integers
Stack<float> F1; //stack of floats
// fill the data in to all three
stacks
for ( int i=0;i<max;i++)
{ I1.push(i+10);
F1.push(i+20.0);
}
cout<<"\n output using friend <<
operator"<<endl;
cout<<"\n The contents of the stack
of int type"<<endl; cout<<I1;
cout <<"\n The contents of the stack
of float type"<<endl; cout<<F1;
//tos() function decrements tos for
each display till tos=-1
//To Go to top of stack Call SetTos()
function for reusing Stack
F1.SetTos(); I1.SetTos();
cout<<"\nUse friend function T
FindSum(Stack<T>)"
<<"\nto calculate the sum of T
type stack"<<endl;
cout<<"\n Sum of integer stack :
";FindSum(I1);
cout<<"\n Sum of float stack : ";
FindSum(F1);
}
/*Output: out put using friend <<
operator
The contents of the stack of int type
Content 19 : 18 : 17 : 16 : 15 :
The contents of the stack of float
type
Content 29 : 28 : 27 : 26 : 25 :
Use friend function T
FindSum(Stack<T>)
to calculate the sum of T type stack
Sum of integer stack : 145 Sum of
float stack : 245 */
14.6 Templates and Static Member
Functions and Member Data
While handling static member data and
member functions, all the rule that apply to
static declarations with respect to ordinary
classes also apply for template classes and
member functions. Static declaration in
template allows each instant of template to
have its own static data. For example, if we
declare a static member data to stack like
numberOfStacks in our array class, then
each instantiation of Student array and
integer array will have its own
numberOfStacks to keep track of how
many student arrays or integer arrays have
been created.
Example 14.6: stacktemplate5b.cpp
Program to Demonstrate Static
Member
//functions and static data
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
const int max=10; // declares maximum
of stack size
class Student
{ public: Student(int roll); //
constructor with roll no input
Student():rollNo(0){}
//default constructor
~Student() {}; // default
destructor
private: int rollNo;
};
Student::Student(int
roll):rollNo(roll){}
template <class T>
class Stack
{friend void FindSum( Stack<T> I ) //
I is stack of integers
{ T sum=T(0);
for ( int j=0 ; j<max; j++)
sum+=I.top();
cout<< sum<<endl;
}
friend ostream & operator<<(ostream &
out1,Stack<T>&S)
{out1<<”\n \t”<<”content”<<endl;
for ( int j=0 ; j<S.Size(); j++)
out1<<S.top()<<" : ";
return out1;
}
public: Stack(); //default
constructor
Stack(const Stack&); //Copy
constructor
~Stack(){ delete [] stack_array;}
//destructor
Stack& operator=(const
Stack&);//Assignment operator
int Size() const;
int empty() const; //returns 1 if
stack is empty
T& top(); //returns top of stack
void pop(); //pops top of stack
void push(const T&); //pushes
void SetTos(){ tos=max-1;} // To
go to top of stack
static int GetNumberOfStacks() {
return numOfStacks;}
private:
T *stack_array; // Stack of data
integers,double,students
int tos;
int stack_size; // Stack size
static int numOfStacks; // static
data to keep track of number of stacks
};
// template instantiation of static
member
template < class T>
int Stack<T>::numOfStacks=0;
template <class T> //default
constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack()
{ stack_array = new T[max];
stack_size = max;
tos = -1;
numOfStacks++;
}
template <class T> //copy constructor
Stack<T> :: Stack(const Stack& S):
stack_array(new T[S.stack_size]),
tos(S.tos),stack_size(S.stack_size)
{ int i;
for(i =0 ; i<stack_size; i++)
stack_array[i] =
S.stack_array[i];
numOfStacks++;
}
template <class T>
Stack<T>& Stack<T> :: operator=(const
Stack& S)
{ stack_array = new T[S.stack_size];
tos = S.tos;
stack_size =S.stack_size;
for(int i =0 ; i<size; i++)
stack_array[i] = S.stack_array[i];
}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: Size() const { return
tos+1;}
template <class T>
int Stack<T> :: empty() const
{if(tos == -1) return 1;
else return 0;
}
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: push(const T& val)
{if( tos<stack_size-1 )
{ tos++;stack_array[tos] = val; }
}
template <class T>
void Stack<T> :: pop()
{if(tos >= 0) tos--; }
template <class T>
T& Stack<T> :: top()
{ return (stack_array[tos--]); }
void main()
{ Stack<int> I1; //stack of integers
Stack<float> F1; //stack of floats
Stack<Student> stdStack; // stack
of Students
// fill the data in to all three
stacks
for ( int i=0;i<max;i++)
{I1.push(i+10); F1.push(i+20.0);
stdStack.push(i+10000);
}
// declare & fill the data in
Second set of Stacks
Stack<int> I2; //Stack of integers
Stack<float> F2; //Stack of floats
Stack<Student> stdStack2; // Stack
of students
// fill the data in to all three
stacks for second set
for ( i=0;i<I2.Size();i++)
{ I2.push(i+10); F2.push(i+20.0);
stdStack2.push(i+10000);
}
cout<<"\n Display static data
using full class specification.."<<endl;
cout<<"\n integers Stacks"<<"\t"
<<Stack<int>::GetNumberOf Stacks()
<<endl;
cout<<" float Stacks"<<"\t"<<"\t"
<<Stack<float>::GetNumberOf Stacks()
<<endl;
cout<<" Student Stacks"<<"\t"
<<Stack<Student>::GetNumberOf Stacks()
<<endl;
cout<<"\n Display static data
using object say I2 , F2 , stdStack2.."
<<endl;
cout<<"\n integers Stacks"<<"\t"
<<I2.GetNumberOfStacks()<<endl;
cout<<" float Stacks"<<"\t"<<"\t"
<<F2.GetNumberOfStacks() <<endl;
cout<<" Student Stacks"<<"\t"
<<stdStack2.GetNumberOfStacks() <<endl;
}
/*Output Display static data using
full class specification.
integers Stacks 2
float Stacks 2
Student Stacks 2
Display static data using object say
I2 , F2 , stdStack2..
integers Stacks 2
float Stacks 2
Student Stacks 2*/
14.7 Template Exceptions
For dealing with exceptions while using in
conjunction with templates, the
programmer has the following options:
Declare the exception class outside the template class.
Declare the exception inside the template class.
Recall from Chapter 11 on exceptions tha t
we have defined an exception class
stackfullexception {} and
stackemptyexception {} with an empty
body with in the class definition so that we
could use it as a tool to catch the exception
and enter the catch block. The catch block,
then, informs the user and makes necessary
rectification or exits the program. Note that
this exception class has no body. Its sole
purpose is to give entry to catch block. As an
example, while programming Stack
operations, we can include two exceptions,
namely, stackfullexception and
stackemptyexception, within the template
class Stack as shown below:
class Stack
{public: ………………….
// Exception classes
class stackfullerror {};
class stackemptyerror {}
};
When an exception object is thrown, control
passes to catch block wherein corrective
mechanisms are in place. Note that we have
to use Stack<string> as we are using
templates and string specifies the parameter
type.
catch(Stack<string>::stackfullerror)
{ cout<<”\nstack full exception .
Cannot be pushed on to stack:”<<endl;
cout<<”\nExiting the catch block of
stackfull exception ..”<<endl;
}
Ex 3 at the end of the chapter gives
complete solution.
14.8 Summary
1. Generic programming means writing programs that will
work for any type of data, i.e. make the programs
independent of type of data.
2. Template is a tool provided by C++ for achieving
reusability of code.
3. Class templates are very useful when the logic is the
same and data sets are different.
4. A generic template function declaration can handle all
kinds of arrays template <class T>void
FindMax( Array<T>& ).
5. A generic template function can also handle
parameterized as well particular instances of a template:
template <class T> void FindMax(
Array<T>& , Array<float>).
6. A template class can have friends viz non-template
friend class or function, template friend class or
function, or type-specific template friend function.
7. We can declare a class or function as a friend to template
class.
8. We can also declare a type-specific friend function in
class templates.
9. Template classes can have static member functions and
member data.
10. Template classes can have exception classes also.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Generic programming means
1. Program independence
2. Data-type independence
3. Hardware independence
4. Language independence
2. Generic programming relies on the concept of
1. Data binding
2. Abstraction
3. Polymorphism
4. Encapsulation
3. Templates in C++ achieves
1. Inheritance
2. reusability
3. Run-time polymorphism
4. Data hiding
1. ii
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. i and iv
4. Creating a specific type of template is called
1. Objectization
2. Instantiating
3. Parameterization
4. Serialization
5. Templates are useful when
1. Logic and data are the same
2. Logic is the same and data are different
3. Logic and data differ
4. In all above cases
6. In template declaration: template < class T >
class & T imply
1. T is a parameter used
2. T is an object of class
3. Class is identifier of parameter of type T
4. T is a parameterized identifier used throughout the program
7. If a function is declared and defined within the class
there is no need to use parameter type
T. TRUE/FALSE
8. If a function is declared and defined outside the class,
there is no need to use parameter type
T. TRUE/FALSE
9. Passing a stack object to a function FindMax that is
accepting Student stack as parameter, the prototype
declaration can be written as
1. void FindMax ( Stack <T> & );
2. void FindMax ( Stack & );
3. void FindMax ( Stack <Student> & );
4. void FindMax ( Student <Stack> & );
10. Correct syntax for declaring a inline template function is
1. Template < class T> inline FindMax(Stack <T> &)
2. Inline template < class T> FindMax(Stack <T> &)
3. Any of a and b
4. None of a and b
11. When class has static member functions and a private
static member data, each instant of class will have its
own static member. TRUE/FALSE
12. A generic template function cannot be made specialized
template function by overriding the function with a
specific type of argument template
function. TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
13. Distinguish between template and macro.
14. Differentiate function arguments and template
arguments.
15. What is parameterization? Explain with examples.
16. How many types of friend declarations are possible with
templates? Explain with examples.
17. Distinguish specific and general friends in case of
template functions.
18. How do you pass template class as argument to a
template function and non-template function?
19. Explain static member function and static member data
usage in a template class declaration.
Long-answer Questions
20. Explain the syntax for declaring a template function
within a class definition and outside a class definition.
21. Explain assignment operator and extraction operator
working with class templates with example data
structure array.
22. How do templates handle friend functions? Explain with
examples.
23. How do templates handle static member functions and
data?
24. Discuss the syntax for handling exceptions inside a
template.
Assignment Questions
25. Implement == operator for Stack class discussed in the
chapter.
26. Implement exception classes ArrayOutOfBound(){}
and IOError(0{} for Array class discussed in the
chapter. Include exception within template class and
also outside the template class.
27. Expand the definition of Array class to include
functionality such as Travesre(), Insert() and
Delete(), and sort () with exception handling
mechanism. Catch block should reallocate the memory
double the size of the original allotment; copy the
contents into enlarged array and resume the porgram.
28. Write a template based cpp for Queue class. Include
operators for ==, << and ++ to indicate servicing of
next element in the Queue. Include functionality such as
Display() and Enqueue() to insert in the end of the
Queue, Dequeue () to service the first element by
displaying the element.
29. Write a template based cpp for LinkedList class. Include
operators for ==, << and ++ to indicate servicing of
next element in the Linked List. Include functionality
such as Display() and AddFront() to insert in the
front of the LinkedList, FindElem() to find the element
given the position and element value.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. b
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. b
6. d
7. True
8. False
9. c
10. a
11. True
12. False
15
Object-Oriented Programming
with Java
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, you should be
able to understand
Downloading and installing JDK required to run
your programs.
Setting environment variables.
Understanding what processes are involved in
running a Java program.
Running a Java stand-alone program.
Running a Java applet with Java swing
components.
Using Industry standard Eclipse Development Tool.
15.1 Introduction
Java has been specially designed for the
Internet. There are many features of Java
that are ideally suited for calling it as
language for the network. C and C++ are
proven structured and objective-oriented
languages but they are not built for network
and the Internet. Java is a pure objective-
oriented language and we can program in
Java without using objects.
In this chapter, we will introduce you to
the World Wide Web and discuss aspects of
Java that make the language best suited
language for networking applications. The
objective-oriented features of Java are
discussed in brief and portability and
platform-independent features are discussed
in detail. Care has also been taken to provide
examples of methods and programs to make
you comfortable with the programming
environment of Java.
15.2 Internet and the World Wide Web
Java has been specially created as a network
language. There are two terms closely
connected with Java programming. They are
Internet and the World Wide Web (www).
They are NOT synonymous and are NOT the
same.
Firstly, network is a collection of
computers either homogenous or
heterogeneous.
Internet is a collection or grouping
together of networks. We can say that the
Internet is a network of networks,
comprising of millions of computers. These
computers communicate with each other
using Internet protocols.
Protocol is set of rules for communicating
computers. One such popular protocol is
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) which
is widely used. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
is also another widely used protocol.
World Wide Web (WWW) is a way of
accessing information on the Internet. It
uses HTTP to exchange data amongst
communicating computers. The services
provided by www uses Internet browsers
such as Internet Explorer (IE), FireFox, and
Google Chrome, etc. The information is
exchanged using HTTP and web pages. Web
page is a place where required information
is stored. Web pages are linked through
hyperlinks.
Who is the boss – Internet or www? It is
Internet who is the boss. www is a method of
Internet to exchange data over the Internet.
Can you guess other ways to exchange data
on the Internet. Yes, email is another
popular method. It uses SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol).
15.3 C and C++ are Around – Then Why
Java?
C is a structured and procedure-oriented
and powerful language designed for systems
programming such as operating systems,
compilers, data base programs, etc. C was
originally designed as a language for UNIX
operating system. C++ was developed as an
object-oriented programming language with
very well-developed reusability features such
as inheritance, etc. However, both these
languages are NOT designed to work with
the Internet. Both C and C++ are machine
dependent. This means that programs will
work only on computers that have the same
hardware and OS as that on which programs
have been originally written. In other words,
C and C++ programs lack wider portability.
On the other hand, Java has been specially
designed to work with the Internet. The
Internet has heterogeneous computers
interconnected through www. Hence, Java is
designed to be platform independent. This
means that it is hardware and OS
independent. There is a popular saying
about Java language: Write here and execute
it anywhere! Sun Micro Systems indeed used
“Write Once, Run Anywhere
(WORA)” as its catchword.
15.4 Java Story
James Gosling and Patric Naughton,
inventors of Java language, were originally
looking for designing a universal remote that
would work with any set top box. They
wanted it to be a “virtual machine” that
would truly be machine (set top box)
independent. Later, they added advanced
features and called it as “oak”. It was also
known for some time as “Green” and
ultimately settled as “Java”. The idea by
Gosling was to build a virtual machine and a
language that would work truly as a
machine-independent language with
features of already popular C++ language
notation. The design goals envisaged by
inventors of Java are:
It should be simple, object oriented, and familiar.
It should be robust and secure.
It should be architecture neutral and portable.
It should execute with high performance.
It should be interpreted, threaded, and dynamic.
Sun Micro first released Java 1.0 in 1995.
All major web browsers incorporated and
supported Java 1.0. With rich platform-
independent and easy to program features,
Java soon became very popular. J2SE 1.2
was released in 1998–1999 to cater to
different platforms. J2EE catered to
Enterprise Edition and J2ME catered to
mobile computing requirements. Since
2006, Java is known by three names based
on the segments they provide service,
namely Java SE (Standard Edition),
JavaEE, and JavaME.
15.5 Java Features
15.5.1 Portability or Platform Independent
Machine-dependent languages, such as C
and C++, use compilers that produce object
codes that are highly machine/hardware and
OS dependent, whereas programs written in
Java run without any modifications on any
other hardware or operating system. To
achieve this feature, Java uses “byte
code” and a virtual machine.
Byte code is interpreted by virtual
machine (VM) for the host hardware. Users
need to install JRE (Java Run-Time
Environment) along with JDK for running
Java applications. JRE is also available in
web browsers for executing Java applets.
What is the cost involved in getting all
important machine independence and
portability? It is speed. Interpretation is
slow compared to the compilation process.
To increase the speed, Just in time
Compilers (JIT compilers) were introduced
that convert byte code into machine code.
JDK shipped by Sun Micro Systems is a
superset of Java compiler, Javadoc, and a
debugger.
15.5.2 Automatic Garbage Collection
Unlike C++ where in program had to keep
track of dispersal of objects after use, Java
resorts to automatic memory release for
objects no more needed. Java uses
automatic garbage collector to manage
memory. So what is automatic garbage
collector? Garbage collector is a software
program that runs in the background and
picks up and clears memory space occupied
by the dead objects. It follows a
predetermined algorithm to decide which
objects have no remaining reference, i.e.
they are no longer referred and frees the
memory automatically. This process will
happen when the program is idle or when
there is insufficient free memory on the heap
to be freed.
15.5.3 Object-oriented Features
For detailed treatment on objective-oriented
features, we would strongly advise the
reader to visit Chapters 1, 2, and 3. The
succeeding sections give a brief overview of
the concepts involved.
15.5.3.1 Classes and Objects
Object-oriented programming is a
methodology in which we create cooperating
objects that communicate with each other
and accomplish the desired task. Java is a
pure object-oriented language. You cannot
write a Java program without a class. In fact
program resides in a class. Java program
uses objects and classes. So when we refer to
object called Student we refer to both
attributes(state) and behaviour. Attributes
are also called state of an object.
Class: A collection of objects. We can also
define as an array of instances objects. But
class can have member functions and
member data. Here unlike array, a class can
have different data types as its elements.
Class defines abstract, i.e. hidden
characteristics of an object including
attributes and behaviour. A class called
Student can be viewed as a factory
producing instances of Object Student that
have different attributes (i.e. individual
data) and a common functionality (i.e.
common functions) Attributes and functions
provided by the class are called member
data and member functions. In Java,
member functions are called methods. A
class allows us to encapsulate member
functions and member data into a single
entity called object. Figure 15.1 shows
objects of students class.
Figure 15.1 | Student objects
Objects – Encapsulation: In object-
oriented programming like Java is a data
primacy language, i.e. data is important and
functions are not important. As per memory
mapping, data is stored in data areas such as
stack, free space, functions are stored in
code area and there is a need to maintain
strict control over the accessing of data by
functions. Java achieves this control by
using encapsulation feature. Encapsulation
is binding member data and calling
function together with security
classification, so that no unauthorized
access to data takes place. Java depends
heavily on access specifiers to maintain data
integrity. The security access specifiers are
public, private, protected, and default
specifier package.
Public: Member functions and data if any
declared as public can be accessed outside
the class member functions.
Private: Member data declared as private
can only be accessed within the class
member functions and data is hidden from
outside.
Protected: Member data and member
functions declared as protected are private
to outsiders and public to descendants of the
class in inheritance relationship. You will
learn more about this in the chapter on
Inheritance under C++ and the Java chapter
that follows.
Package (default): You can access it from
any other class in the same directory.
Encapsulation can now be defined as
“Binding together the member functions and
member data with access specifiers like
private, public, and protected, package, etc.
into object by the class.”
15.5.3.2 Method
In Java, class member functions are called
Methods. A method is nothing but a code
written to achieve a result. The syntax is:
Arguments: Number and type of
parameters are called arguments.
Parameters are also called formal
parameters.
Signature: Name and arguments together
are called the signature of the method. A
method will have a return type which is
outside the signature. The variables declared
inside a method are called local variables
and are never available anywhere outside
the method. A method can be executed by
sending a message to the object. Message
comprises: a reference to the object, a dot
(.), method name, and actual parameters
(arguments). Values of actual parameters
are copied to formal parameters, a method
gets executed and return value replaces the
message. The local values are all lost.
15.5.3.3 Polymorphism
Polymorphism means one method
performing many different tasks depending
on the users’ requirements. This is one of the
most powerful features of object orientation.
There are two kinds of polymorphisms.
Overloading and Overriding. Overloading
means the same name but different
signatures (number and type of parameters).
When a message is sent, signatures are
compared and best fit methods get loaded.
This happens at run-time.
Overriding is a phenomenon which take
place in inheritance. Overriding is
commonly used to make methods more
specific. Suppose both base class and class
derived from base class have declared the
same method with common signatures; then
when a message is sent to an object, the
method of derived class is loaded.
15.5.3.4 Extending/Deriving New Classes
We can derive a new class based on the
existing class. This is possible through the
inheritance and containment property
afforded by Java. Inheritance provides
access to member data and member
functions declared as protected to the
descendant class.
15.5.3.5 Inner Class
Class within a Class – Inner Class.
Inner class is one of the techniques provided
by Java to achieve reusability of the code.
Inner class means a class containing another
class or more than one class. Inner classes
cannot be declared as static.
15.5.3.6 Inheritance and Class Hierarchy
Reusability of code is one of the strong
promises that are made by designers of Java
and inheritance is the tool selected by Java
to fulfill the promise of reusability. The
concept of inheritance is not new to us. We
inherit property, goodwill and name from
our parents. Similarly, our descendants will
derive these qualities from us. Study the
inheritance class hierarchy shown in Figure
15.2. Human and Animal derive qualities
from living beings. Professionals, students
and Athletes are derived from Human. We
say these three categories have inherited
from Human. Class Human is called base
class and Student and Athlete are called
derived class. What can be inherited? Both
member functions and member data can be
inherited.
Figure 15.2 Inheritance hierarchy
Have you noticed the direction of the
arrow to indicate the inheritance relation? It
is pointed upwards as per modelling
language specifications.
Inheritance specifies is type of relation.
Observe that a Student is a Human.
Similarly Mammal is Animal. Human is a
superclass and Student is a derived
class. Derivation from base class is the
technique to implement is type of relation. A
superclass can have more than one derived
class.
When do we use Inheritance? You inherit
so that you can derive all the functionality
and member data from base class and
derived class can add its own specialized or
individualistic functionality. For example,
Athlete derives all functionality and
attributes of Human and in addition adds
sports and Athletic functionality and
attributes on its own.
Inheritance is a powerful tool in the hand
of a programmer to define a new class from
existing classes.
15.5.3.7 Class as Abstract Data Type (ADT)
A class can also be called Abstract Data
Type (ADT). Refer to Figure 15.3.
Figure 15.3 Hierarchical inheritance
We will declare a base class (ADT) called
Shape. You will appreciate Shape has no
definite shape, no definite area or perimeter
or specific draw routine. Shape will hence
declare methods with only names and no
implementation details. In Java, these types
of classes are called interfaces and methods
are called abstract method. An abstract
method is a method that is declared but
not defined. It is declared with the keyword
abstract, and has a header like any other
method, but ends with a semicolon instead
of a method body.
An abstract class is one that contains
one or more abstract methods; it must itself
be declared with the abstract keyword. A
class may be declared abstract even if it does
not contain any abstract methods. A non-
abstract class is sometimes called a
concrete class. An abstract class cannot be
instantiated because it has no solid methods.
We will derive classes like Circle and Square
and provide the solid implementation of the
methods declared in the interface. Solid
means that all methods will be implemented
in each of the derived classes.
Interface is declared with the keyword
interface instead of the usual keyword class.
Interface can only contain abstract methods.
However, using the keyword abstract for
these methods is optional. A class can
extend to only one class but can
implement several interfaces.
15.5.3.8 Generic Programming in Java
Generic programming is a facility provided
by Java to achieve reusability of code.
Generics can be applied to classes and
methods. Class templates are very useful in
achieving the reusability of code for different
data types. No wonder then that Java relies
heavily on Generic programming. Generic
programming is very useful to abstract over
types. For example, Java's Container types
present Java's Collection hierarchy, are very
useful in implementing data structures often
used in programming, such as Linked List,
Queue, Stack, Searching and Sorting, etc. In
a nutshell, Generic Programming improves
productivity of the programmer.
15.5.4 Easy to Learn and Excellent
Documentation
Since Java has done away with pointers,
operator overloading, multiple inheritances
etc., it is relatively easy to learn for a
programmer. It follows C & C++ syntax
which are already popular with
programmers and widely used in the
Industry. In addition, Java provides
excellent inline documentation called APIs
in .html format for providing instant help
to the programmer. For this, Java provides
three types of comment statements.
Comments are included to enhance the
readability of the program. Java allows both
single-line comment statements and also
multiline comment statements like C & C++
Single line comment. These comment lines
start with double slash : //
Ex :// HelloWorld.java , a Java program
to print a line of text
Multi Line Comment: These comment lines
are used when comments extend beyond a
single line. They start with /* and end
with */
Ex: /* Inheritance.java :The program
introduces concepts of Inheritance and
other related reusability features of
Java */
Java API Documentation Comments: These
comments are used to describe features of
Java program. Java documentation feature
depends on .html file format and produce
.html file we need to use these
documentation comments. They start with
/** and end with */.
Ex: /** Class definition to show extend
feature*//** Method to compute student
grades */
These .html files are called APIs
(Application Program Interfaces). To
produce these APIs we need to use Javadoc
compiler. In Section 15.5.4, Example 15.1, we
have shown the procedure for producing API
document for a Java source program.
15.5.5 Byte Code
Byte code is an instruction set of one byte (8
bits). Byte code may often be either directly
executed on a virtual machine (i.e.
interpreter), or it may be further compiled
into machine code for better performance.
These are employed because they reduce the
dependence on hardware and operating
systems. Byte codes are compact numeric
codes and references (normally numeric
addresses) which encode the result of
parsing and semantic analysis and hence
offer much better performance than by
direct reading of source code. A byte code
program can be parsed directly executing
instructions one at a time by byte code
Interpreter. These are portable codes. After
parsing and semantic analysis, part code
that requires repeated execution, etc., are
handed over to Just in time compiler (JIT
Compiler) to translate byte code into
machine code at run-time. Thus, JVM is not
portable but byte code is fully portable.
Because of its performance advantage, Java
language implementations execute a
program in two phases, first compiling the
source code into byte codes, and then
passing the byte codes to the virtual
machine. Therefore, there are virtual
machines for Java.
15.5.6 Java Virtual Machine (JVM)
JVM is specific to hardware and Operating
System. Each JVM will have the following
components:
Class Loader Mechanism for loading class files and
interfaces.
Execution Engine to execute instructions contained in
class files.
Run-time data areas to store class files, formal and
actual parameters, return values, etc.
Each instance of the Java virtual machine has one
method area and one heap. These run-time data areas
are shared by all threads running inside the virtual
machine. All objects instantiated are stored on heap
area.
Java Stack comprises several stack frames. Java
allocates separate stack frames to each of the
Java threads (for now its just a new task).
When a new thread comes into effect, it is allotted a
Program Counter (PC) and its own Java Stack area. PC
stores the address of the next instruction and Java Stack
stores the state of Java Methods invoked. The state of a
Java method invocation includes its local variables, the
parameters with which it was invoked, its return value,
and intermediate calculations. When a thread invokes a
method, the Java virtual machine pushes a new frame
onto that thread's Java stack. When the method
completes, the virtual machine pops and discards the
frame for that method.
Native Stack area is machine dependent and keeps track
of native method invocation.
These areas are private to the owning thread. No thread
can access the pc register or Java stack of another
thread.
Figure 15.4 provides details of Java
Development Environment. Figure 15.5
depicts the architecture explained above.
Figure 15.6 gives details of run-time shared
data areas.
Figure 15.4 A Java Development Environment
Figure 15.5 Architecture of JVM
Figure 15.6 Shared and exclusive data areas. MethodArea and
heap are shared by all Threads. Java Stack, PC are individual to
each thread, which are shown in the shaded box
15.5.7 Comparison with C++
The main differences between C++ and Java
are summarized in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Differences between C++ and Java
C++ Java
C++ is not pure Java is pure object-oriented
objective-oriented programming language. Java
language. It is program is a collection of classes
possible to write
C++ programs
without using classes
C++ supports Java does not support C/C++ style
pointers pointers
C++ primitive data Primitive data types are not objects
types are objects
In C++, the Freeing of heap memory of objects
programmer has to no longer referred is automatically
free the heap carried out by Java's garbage
memory occupied by collector
the object when it is
no longer required.
C++ supports Java does not support operator
operator overloading overloading
C++ supports Java does not support multiple
multiple inheritance inheritance
There are Java supports only constructor.
constructors and Garbage collector does the job of
destructors freeing of objects no longer required
C++ supports two There are three different styles of
kinds of comments: comment: a single line style marked
a single line style with two slashes (//), a multiple line
marked with two style opened with a slash asterisk
slashes (//), a (/*) and closed with an asterisk slash
multiple line style (*/) and the Javadoc commenting
opened with a slash style opened with a slash and two
asterisk (/*) and asterisks (/**) and closed with an
closed with an asterisk slash (*/)
asterisk slash (*/)
Write once compile Write once run anywhere /
anywhere (WOCA) everywhere (WORA / WORE)
Allows direct calls to Call through the Java Native
native system Interface and recently Java Native
libraries Access
Exposes low-level Runs in a protected virtual machine
system facilities environment
C++ supports native Java does not support native
unsigned arithmetic unsigned arithmetic
Pointers, References, Primitive data types always passed
and pass-by value by value. Objects are passed by
are supported nullable reference
Supports class, Java supports only classes and
struct, and union allocates them to heap memory
and can allocate
them on heap or
stack
No inline Javadoc is documentation supported
documentation is by Java
supported by C++
C++ supports No function pointers. Java uses
function pointers interfaces and listeners to achieve
and function objects the same purpose
C++ supports const Java supports final, a limited version
keyword for primitive data type
15.6 Developing First Java Application
15.6.1 Installing and Using Java
Development Kit
We will be using JDK1.6.0_20 of Sun
Micro Systems for developing and executing
our programs. You can freely download the
Java Development Kit(JDK1.6.0_20)
from
java.sun.com/javase/6/download.j
sp. Normally when you download JDK
from Sun Micros web site, it gets
downloaded to C:\Program Files\java
unless otherwise chosen by you. After
downloading, the JDK directory will look as
shown in Figure 15.7. The bin directory
contains both the compiler and the launcher.
We will be demonstrating all our programs
with JDK1.6.0 environment.
Figure 15.7 Directory Structure after installing JDK 15.0_20
15.6.2 Setting Path and Classpath
It is very important to set environment for
JDK 1.6.0_20 so that compilation and
execution take place very smoothly. There
are two environment variables to be set. Of
course, your programs will run without
setting up these variables but every time we
have to specify path and classpath which can
be very tiring and cumbersome. Hence we
recommend setting up these variables on a
permanent basis, so that they are available
at the time of booting the system.
Let us say that we want to use a folder
called “Oopsjava” in C directory and
within the folder we have created a separate
folder called “examples”. In side folder
“examples”, two subfolders, namely bin
and src, are created. “bin” folder will
house all our compiled code. In Java
environment, file holding compiled code is
called class file and will have .class as
extension. Class file holds “byte code”.
“src” folder on the other hand will hold all
our source programs. In addition, we would
create a separate folder called
“TestDriver” to hold all our test
programs for class files we have written.
These programs are also called driver
programs or interfaces. Therefore, the
path for storing all class files and source
programs developed by us would be
C:\Oopsjava\examples\bin
C:\Oopsjava\examples\src
C:\Oopsjava\examples\TestDriver
Eclipse is an Industry popular IDE and can
be used for developing Java applications.
You can download from
www.eclipse.org/downloads/. Usage of
Eclipse is optional for you. Eclipse can be
loaded into our folder “Oopsjava”.
We also need to link up bin and lib
directories of JDK1.6.0-20. Their paths
would be
C:\Program
Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_20\bin // contains
all company supplied programs
C:\Program
Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_20\include; // win32
& header files
C:\Program
Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_20\lib // libraries
We can depict our directory structure
pictorially as shown in Figure 15.8. The
upper part of the figure depicts the folders
you have to create using the Operating
system or created automatically when you
use an IDE like eclipse. The lower part of the
folders is automatically created by Java
package statement. We will explain about
Java package when we handle our first Java
program.
Figure 15.8 Organization structure
We need to set the path variable if we
want to run Java executables such as
javac.exe, java.exe, javadoc.exe,
etc. from any directory without having to
type the full path or classpath of the
command. If you do not set these variables,
you need to specify the full path to the
executable every time you run it. By setting
path variable, we will have freedom to
operate from any directory and calling any
module or program without explicitly
mentioning the path name.
Variable classpath, on the other hand, is a
message from you to the Java environment,
where to search for your class files.
Remember you have to set classpath only for
the class file you have created. You need not
bother about class files supplied by Java.
While setting these variables, note that dot “
. ” indicates current working directory.
Example 15.1: How to Set Path and
Classpath for Windows Platforms
Setting Environment Variables on Windows
Platforms “
Path:
C:\Java\jdk1.6.0_20\bin;C:\Java\jdk1.6.0
_20\lib;c:\java\jdk1.6.0_220\include;c:\
Oopsjava\examples;c:\Oopsjava\examples\s
rc;c:\Oopsjava\examples\bin;
c: \Oopsjava\examples\TestDriver
Classpath :
.;c:\OopsJava\examples\bin;c:\OopsJava\e
xamples\TestDriver
Permanent Setting of variable:
• Go to settings->control panel-
>system -> advanced-> set environment
variable.
• Select path->edit : copy & paste
path -> ok
• Select classpath ->edit : copy &
paste ->ok
• Reboot the system
Alternately, you can set path and
classpath each time you give the command
Path:
• C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0\bin
> javac HelloWorld.java
Classpath:
• C:\OopsJava\examples>java -
classpath c:\OopsJava\.examples\bin>
HelloWorl
To check whether CLASSPATH is set on
Microsoft Windows XP, enter & execute
C:> echo CLASSPATH
• If CLASSPATH is not set you will
get a %CLASSPATH% (MicrosoftXP).
Example 15.2: How to Set Path and
Classpath for Linux Platforms
Let us suppose that jdk15.0_20 has been
installed in directory /usr/local/
Linux:
For C shell (csh), edit the
startup file (~/.cshrc):
set path=(/usr/local/jdk1.6.0/bin
)
For bash, edit the startup file
(~/.bashrc):
PATH=/usr/local/jdk1.6.0/bin:
export PATH
For ksh, the startup file is named
by the environment variable, ENV.
To set the path:
PATH=/usr/local/jdk1.6.0/bin:
export PATH
For sh, edit the profile file
(~/.profile):
PATH=/usr/local/jdk1.6.0/bin:
export PATH
Then load the startup file and verify that the
path is set by repeating the Java command
shown below:
For C shell (csh):
% source ~/.cshrc
% java -version
For ksh, bash, or sh:
% . /.profile
% java -version
Alternately, you can set path each time you
give the commands
Path:
% /usr/local/jdk1.6.0/bin/>javac
HelloWorld.java
To find out if the path is properly
set, execute:
% java -version
This will print the version of the Java tool, if
it can find it. If the version is old or you get
the error java: Command not found,
then the path is not properly set.
Classpath in Linux:
We need to set our classpath to include three
directories: current working directory
denoted by a dot (.), bin directory and
TestDriver.
The class path is the path that the Java run-
time environment searches for classes. The
class path can be set using either the -
classpath option when calling Java tool
such as Javac or Javadoc or Java, etc. by
setting the CLASSPATH environment
variable. The -classpath option is
preferred because you can set it individually
for each application without affecting other
applications and without other applications
modifying its value.
%javac –classpath
classpath1:classpath2:classpath
%javac –classpath
.:/usr/local/Oopsjava/examples/bin:
/usr/local/Oopsjava/examples/TestDriver:
Current working directory by default
classpath search directory. Setting the
CLASSPATH variable or using the -classpath
command-line option overrides that default,
hence we have included the current
directory “.” in the search path.
You can also get the same result by
executing the following command:
In csh % setenv CLASSPATH
classpath1:classpath2…
In sh enter; CLASSPATH =
path1:path2:… export CLASSPATH
To clear classpath already set from
the previous commands
In csh: unsetenv CLASSPATH
In sh : unset CLASSPATH
To check if classpath is set
correctly on Linux, execute the
following:
% echo $CLASSPATH
If CLASSPATH is not set you will get
a
CLASSPATH: Undefined variable
error
Changing Startup Settings:
If the class path is set at system
startup then we should:
For shells csh , tcsh look for
setenv command in .cshrc file
(~/.cshrc): and enter
% setenv CLASSPATH
classpath1:classpath2…
For shells sh , ksh look into
.profile export command(~/.
profile):
CLASSPATH= classpath1:classpath2:
export classpath
One final word about setting classpath. For
.class files in an unnamed package,
the class path ends with the directory that
contains the .class files. For .class
files in a named package, the class path
ends with the directory that contains the
“root” package (the first package in the full
package name). Multiple path entries are
separated by colons. We have explained
package concept in Section 15.5.5.
So much for environment variables? Yes,
understanding the environment variables
setting is very important if you do not want
to waste weeks in getting your advanced
programs compiled and run correctly.
15.6.3 Java Program Structure
Java is a pure object-oriented language.
Remember that we cannot write anything
outside the class. OOP is a creation of
objects and achieves the desired result
through communication and interaction
amongst them. The sections in a Java
program are shown in Figure 15.9.
Figure 15.9 Program Structure
Therefore, all class files which are
required are kept in a package. With a
statement
package com.oops.chap1;
Refer to Figure 15.8. Setting classpath will
take the control to
c:\Oopsjava\exmples\bin. Our
package statement will create the directories
com\oops\chap1.
Next important section is you need to
import all the packages either supplied by
Java or written and stored by you through
the package statement explained above.
Finally, the structure will have a collection
of classes. If you are engaged in writing a
standalone application, then there will be
class with void main () statement. There
can be more than one class. A Java program
can also be an Applet-based program in
which case the class will not have void
main() but will have init() function.
15.6.4 Java Documentation Comments
The syntax is: javadoc packagename.
Look at the organization chart in Figure
15.8. Our packages are kept in src with
package com.oops.chap1. javadoc
compiler and its usage in producing API
documents are explained in Example 15.3.
Example 15.3: How to Produce
Java API Documents with Javadoc
Compiler
We want to produce API documents to our
package com.oops/chap1. These are situated
in our src directory( refer to Figure 15.8). Go
to src directory and type
C:\OopsJava\examples\src>javadoc
com.oops.chap1
Loading source files for package
com.oops.chap1…
Constructing Javadoc information…
Standard Doclet version 1.6.0_20
Building tree for all the packages and
classes…
Generating com/oops/chap1/\ClassX.html…
Generating com/oops/chap1/\ClassY.html…
Generating
com/oops/chap1/\HaiWorld.html…
Generating
com/oops/chap1/\HelloWorld.html…
Generating
com/oops/chap1/\VrHello.html..
Generating
com/oops/chap1/\VrHelloIndia.html…
Generating com/oops/chap1/\package-
frame.html..
Generating com/oops/chap1/\package-
tree.html…
Generating com/oops/chap1/\package-
summary.html…
Generating constant-values.html…
Generating serialized-form.html…
Building index for all the packages and
classes… Generating overview-tree.html…
Generating index-all.html… Generating
deprecated-list.html…
Building index for all classes…
Generating allclasses-frame.html…
Generating allclasses-noframe.html..
Generating index.html…
Generating help-doc.html.. Generating
stylesheet.css…
All the above documents with extension
.html are produced by Java-doc compiler
and stored at
C:\oopsjava\examples\src>.Go ahead and
get acquainted with Javadoc API. As a
professional programmer you need to know
the organization and method of
presentation of Java documentation.
15.6.5 Java Development Environment
Before we execute our program there is a
need to understand the Java development
environment (refer to Figure 15.4).
Step 1: Edit: Edit the source program using
any of the editors notepads. For example,
our program will have a main class
“HelloWorld”. Hence our Java program
should also be named HelloWorld.java.
Remember that we want to use package
com.oops.chap1 as explained in Figure
15.8. Hence move to directory
C:\Oopsjava\examples\src\com\oop
s\chap1 and create the required source file.
cd
C:\Oopsjava\examples\src\com\oo
ps\chap1> edit HelloWorld.java
Step 2: Compile: We need to store all our
compiled code in
C:\Oopsjava\examples\bin\com\oop
s\chap1. Therefore from the directory
C:\Oopsjava\examples\src\com\oop
s\chap1. Compile the source file and
redirect the class file into
C:\Oopsjava\examples\bin\com\oop
s\chap1. For redirecting you have to use –
d option and provide the complete path to
bin directory as shown below:
C:\OopsJava\examples\src\com\oo
ps\chap1>javac -d
c:\Oopsjava\examples\bin
HelloWorld.java
Compiler creates byte codes and stores then
in a file with name HelloWorld.class at
c:\Oopsjava\examples\bin\com\oop
s\chap1.
Step 3: Loader: Class Loader ;Loads the
byte codes (Class file) into primary memory
Step 4: Byte code Verifier: It checks if
the byte codes are all ok and do not override
Java's security restrictions.
Step 5: JVM: (Java Virtual Machine) calls
interpreter and Just in time (JIT) compiler
and converts the byte codes into object
codes that local machines understand. JVM
is a combination of interpreter and
compiler. JVM as it interprets looks for
“hotspots”, i.e. parts of the program that
are repeated, for example, a loop executing
several times. In such cases, the JIT
compiler converts them into machine code
and for others, interpreter of JVM simply
interprets the byte code.
15.6.6 Our First Java Application
As our first Java application, we want to
simply display a message: “HelloWorld,
Welcome to Object-oriented
Programming in Java”.
Example 15.4: HelloWorld.java:
Our First Java Application
1. // A program HelloWorld.java to
print a line
2. package com.oops.chap1;
3. public class HelloWorld
4. {
5. public static void main(String[]
args)
6. {
7. System.out.println(“Welcome to
Object Oriented Programming in Java “);
8. }
9. }
Welcome to Object-oriented
Programming in C++ and Java
L package: As a developer, you would like to keep
i all your work together, so that you can reuse
n them in future if needed. We would like to keep
e all our work as a “package”. Suppose you are
N working in a company called “oops.com”,
o then it is customary to create package as
. “com.oops”. Now we are writing programs for
2 Chapter 1. Hence we will name our package as
: “com.oops.chap1”. More details about
package later in Chapter 19 (refer to Figure
15.8). Path variable will link up to
c:\Oopajava\example\src. It is your
package statement which will link to
com.oops.chap1.
L Source file must be named after the public
i classes they contain. Hence we have named our
n Java source program as HelloWorld.java.
e The source file can contain only one public class
N and several non-public classes.
o
3 Keyword public means that methods inside a
: public class can be called outside the class
hierarchy. The hierarchy of the class is the name
of the directory in which .java file resides.
Keyword static means that the class can be
invoked directly without using an instance of
the class to invoke the method “main”. This
facility is required because normally you can
invoke a method only through an instance of the
object of the class. If we can invoke method
main without instance of object, we can
instantiate objects inside main() and achieve
the desired result. Static just does this job. Note
that main() is not a keyword of Java. Just that
main() is called by Java to launch the program
and pass control.
Void means that the main method does not
return any value. Note also that void is a data
type.
String args: The main method accepts an
array of Strings objects of variable length as
arguments normally through command line.
Number of arguments, String objects, is
specified by args.
L System class has defined a public static called
i out, which is an instance of PrintStream
n class and provides several methods for printing
e out data to Standard.out, such as
N println(), etc. The string “Welcome to
o
Object-oriented Programming in
.
Java” is automatically converted toString
7
: object by the compiler.
To produce the above output, Type/Edit
the source program.
C:\OopsJava\examples\src\com\oo
ps\chap1\ edit HelloWorld.java
Compile WelcomeWorld.java using the
command
C:\OopsJava\examples\src\com\oo
ps\chap1>javac -d
c:\Oopsjava\examples\bin
HelloWorld.java
Now go to bin directory and type the
command to execute Java program giving
the full package path.
C:\OopsJava\examples\bin>java
com/oops/chap1/HelloWorld
Welcome to Object Oriented
Programming in Java
Note that since it is a simple program, we
have executed it from bin directory. For
large programs or programs with several
classes, we would write a driver program
and place the class program in directory
TestDriver. Then we need to execute Java
command from TestDriver directory.
15.6.7 Application with Swing Components
Java extended package called Javax houses
several graphical libraries which would
greatly enhance the graphics components.
One such facility is a dialog box for
obtaining the input from the use and
displaying the message. Broad class
hierarchy of JComponents is shown in
Figure 15.10 for basic understanding. We
have shown only the components that we are
going to use in the immediate sections. More
details can be found in Chapters 22 and 23
on Graphics and Swing Components.
Example 15.5 deals Java application that
uses dialog boxes of swing components in
Java.
Figure 15.10 Class hierarchy of graphics in Java
Example 15.5:
HelloWorldDialog.java: Java
Application with Dialog Boxes Using
Swing
//HelloWorldDialog.java
//We will use Dialog box offered
in swing components
1. package com.oops.chap1;
2. import javax.swing.JOptionPane;
3. public class HelloWorldDialog {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. String input =
JOptionPane.showInputDialog(“Enter your
name?”);
6. // create the message
7. String message =
8. String.format(“Welcome %s to
Object oriented programming in
9. Java”,input);
10. // display the message
11.
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null,
message);
}
}
Class JOptionPane in swing package is a
predefined class which provides dialog boxes
to be readily inserted into your program.
JOptionPane.showInputDialog(“Ent
er your name?”); produces a dialog box
for user input.
L String message = String.format(“Welcome
i %s to Object oriented programming
n in Java”, input); embeds input name in
e to message of String class.Finally Line No. 10
N displays output again through Dialog box.
o
.
7
&
8
:
To obtain output Type/Edit the source
program.
Table 15.2 Escape characters and their functions
C:\Oopsjava\examples\src\com\oo
ps\chap1\ edit
HelloWorldDialog.java
Compile WelcomeWorld.java using the
command.
C:\OopsJava\examples\src\com\oo
ps\chap1>javac -d
c:\Oopsjava\examples\bin
HelloWorldDialog.java
Now go to bin directory and type the
command to execute Java program giving
the full package path.
C:\OopsJava\examples\bin>java
com/oops/chap1/HelloWorldDialog
a
Dialog Boxes
Caution/Note: We are providing detailed
compile and run instructions only in
Chapter 1. We expect you to practice these
commands well. In the succeeding chapters,
we provide example programs only. Now
that you have practiced two programs and
learnt the edit, compile and load and run in
command screen, we will introduce you to
Java programming using “eclipse” JDE.
15.6.8 Eclipse-integrated Development
Environment
We have loaded eclipse.exe in
C:\OopsJava\eclipse-jee-galileo-
SR2-win32\eclipse and execute
eclipse.exe
Step 1: File new javaproject
..> project name : examples2
//enter project name
Execution environment :java SE 1.6 //
select from drop list
Create separate folders for source &
class files // select the check box
Finish.
At this stage you can see that required
folders : examples2 and bin , and
src have been created by eclipse at
C:\OopsJava\examples2
Step 2: File new class
Observe that you have chosen
src folder: examples2/src package :
com.oops.chap1
class name as Calculator with
java.lang.Object as its Super
Application with public static void
main()
Inherit abstract methods
Click : finish
“eclipse” will provide basic program
structure. Type in the program shown in
Example 15.6. Observe that eclipse would
have created your package by creating
additional folders in bin and src of your
project directory examples2. The package
you have asked is “com.oops.chap1.
Hence your Calculator.java program
will be positioned at
c:\Oopsjava\examples2\src\com\oo
ps\chap1 directory. Similarly, class
file will be positioned at
c:\Oopsjava\examples2\bin\com\oo
ps\chap1 directory. Run as Java
Application or Java applet as the case may
be. You have two options: (1) Go through
run command or (2) click run on the tool
bar.
Example 15.6: Calculator.java: Java
Applet With Swing
1. package com.oops.chap1;
2. import javax.swing.*;// for
JOptionPane
3. public class Calculator
4. {
5. public static void main(String[]
args)
6. {
7. String number1,number2,choice; // two
numbers from the user from console
8. int num1,num2,result,ch; // we need
these data to do internal calculations
9. //input data as strings
10.
number1=JOptionPane.showInputDialog(“Ent
er first number”);
11.
number2=JOptionPane.showInputDialog(“Ent
er second number”);
12. // get the choice of operation to be
performed**
13. choice =
JOptionPane.showInputDialog(
14. “Enter 1 - Addition :\n 2 -
Subtraction “);
15. //for doing calculations we need to
convert to intrinsic data type say int
16. num1 = Integer.parseInt(number1);
17. num2 = Integer.parseInt(number2);
18. ch = Integer.parseInt(choice);
19. if (ch==1)
20. result=num1+num2;
21. else
22. //subtract
23. result=num1-num2;
24. //display result
25.
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null,”The
result is “+result,
”Answer”,JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE);
26. // return i.e. exit programme
27. System.exit(0);
28. }
29. } // end Calculator prog
Output
Lin Number1,number2, and choice have been
e defined as variables of string class of Java. All
No inputs we will get as String class in Java.
. 7:
Lin We will convert String variables into int
e variable of Java to facilitate internal
No computations. num1 =
s. Integer.parseInt(number1); will
15, convert String class variable to Integer class
17, variable.
&
18:
Lin If statement will confirm if operation is
e addition or subtraction.
No
s.
19
–
23:
Lin Displays the result through message dialog
e box of JOptionpane. Null in the arguments
No states that dialog box to appear in the center
. of the screen, Message type is plain. The
25: other options of type of messages are:
JOptionMessage.ERROR_MESSAGE
JOptionMessage.INFORMATION_MESSAGE
JOptionMessage.WARNING_MESSAGE
JOptionMessage.QUESTION_MESSAGE
Lin Is System.exit(0) returns control to Java
e Run-Time(JRE). Argument 0 indicates exit
No without error. Return 1 implies unusual
. program termination and return.
27:
15.6.9 Command Line Arguments
In this example, we will revisit our calculator
program and execute it through command
line arguments. Please observe the void
main() method
public static void
main(String[] args) {
Strings [] args means we can pass any
number of arguments to main(). These are
array of Strings . Accordingly, args[0]
args[1] args[2] ….. etc. each
argument is separated by a space. There are
three arguments: number1 , number2,
operation (Add or Subtract)
Example 15.7: Calculator2.java: A
Calculator Program Command Line
Argument
1. package com.oops.chap1;
2. import javax.swing.*;
3. public class Calculator2 {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. int num1 = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
6. int num2 = Integer.parseInt(args[1]);
7. int ch = Integer.parseInt(args[2]);
8. int result;
9. if (ch==1)
10. result=num1+num2;
11. else
12. //subtract
13. result=num1-num2;
14. //display result
15.
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null,”The
result is “+result,
”Answer”,JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE);
16. // return i.e exit programme
17. System.exit(0);
18. }
19. } // end Calculator prog
Compile Calculator2.java using the
command.
C:\OopsJava\examples\src\com\oo
ps\chap1>javac -d
c:\Oopsjava\examples\bin
Calculator2.java
Now go to bin directory and type the
command to execute Java program giving
full package path with arguments: 10 10 1
C:\OopsJava\examples\bin>java
com/oops/chap1/Calculator2 10
10
A common mistake everybody does at the
stage is to forget to give complete package
path: java
com/oops/chap1/Calculator2. If you
forget this, you will encounter “class not
found error”.
15.7 Summary
1. Java is a networking language. The Internet is a
collection of cooperating networks. A network is a
collection of cooperating computers.
2. WWW (World Wide Web or simply web) is a way of
accessing information from the network. We use
HTTP/FTP for retrieval of information from the web.
Email (through Simple Mail Protocol, SMP) is another
important and widely used method to exchange
information on the web.
3. Java is platform independent, i.e. it is independent of
underlying hardware and operating systems that are
controlling the hardware resources.
4. Java was originally named as “OAK” by its inventors
James Gosling and Patrik Naughton.
5. Extending/Deriving new classes from existing classes,
containment through inner classes, Extending through
Inheritance mechanism.
6. Single, multi level , and hierarchical inheritance are
allowed by Java . Java does not support multiple
inheritance.
7. A class with abstract method is called abstract class with
keyword abstract. An abstract class need not necessarily
have abstract methods.
8. Interface is declared with keyword interface instead of
usual keyword class. Interface can only contain abstract
methods. However, using keyword abstract for these
methods is optional.
9. A class can extend to only one class but can
implement several interfaces.
10. Generic programming is a facility provided by Java to
achieve reusability of code. Generics can be applied to
classes and methods. Generic programming is very
useful to abstract over types.
11. Java supports single line, multiline, and Java API
documentation comments.
12. Byte code is an instruction set of 1 byte (8 bits). Byte
codes are compact numeric codes and references
(normally numeric addresses).
13. JVM is not portable but byte code is fully portable. JVM
is specific to hardware and Operating System.
14. Package is a collection of all class files.
15. Path command is used to link all resources situated in
any directory.
16. Classpath is used to inform the Java runtime
environment where to find class files.
17. Javadoc is a compiler used to generate API documents
for a package.
18. Java.io.* is an import statement used to import all
files related to io. Similarly java.lang.* is a package
imported to include Java features. This is default
package Java imports automatically by default.
19. Keyword public means that methods inside a public
class can be called outside the class hierarchy.
20. Keyword static means that the class can be invoked
directly without using an instance of the class to invoke
the method “main”.
21. Java extended package called Javax houses several
graphical libraries which would greatly enhance the
graphics components.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Java has been developed by
1. Gosling and Patric Naughton
2. Bjarne Stroustrup
3. Rambaugh
4. Grady Booch
2. Java is
1. Hardware independent
2. Software independent
3. Language independent
4. Firmware independent
3. ------------------- command converts Java source code
into byte code class file
1. Java
2. Javac
3. Appletviewer
4. Javadoc
4. ------------------- command loads and executes a Java
class file
1. Java
2. Javac
3. Appletviewer
4. Javadoc
5. Javadoc compiler produces a file in format of type
1. Byte code
2. HTML format
3. HTTP
4. Word
6. Java virtual machine (JVM)
1. Converts Source Code to Object Code
2. Converts Source Code to Byte Code
3. Converts Byte Code to Object Code
4. None of the above
7. JVM uses---------------------- to convert a Java byte code
class to produce machine-dependent object code
1. Interpreter
2. Compiler
3. Interpreter and JIT
4. a, b and c
8. Inheritance is
1. Has-type of relation
2. Is-type relation
3. As-is-type relation
4. None of the above
9. Which of the following statements are true in case of
abstract classes?
1. Must contain at least one abstract method
2. They can be instantiated
3. Keyword abstract must be present in the class declaration
4. Class having abstract methods need to be declared as abstract class
1. i
2. ii
3. i, iii and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
10. In command line arguments statement, the arguments
are separated by
1. Commas
2. Dot (.)
3. Space
4. Colon
11. BufferedReader reads
1. Char by char
2. String per line
3. Word by word
4. Till “Enter” key
Short-answer Questions
12. Explain WWW and internet.
13. What are the popular protocols supported by the world
wide web?
14. Java is a language for network. Justify.
15. What are byte codes?
16. What is Java Virtual Machine?
17. How do byte code and virtual machine ensure
portability?
18. What is interpreter?
19. How do interpreter and JIT compiler improve
performance of Java?
20. List out access specifiers of Java.
21. What are the types of inheritances supported by Java?
22. What is the difference between a class and an interface
in Java?
23. Explain the terms JDK and API.
24. What is Java package?
Long-answer Questions
25. Discuss how Java can be truly called language designed
for networks.
26. Justify “WORA”, write once and reuse it anywhere,
philosophy of Java developers.
27. Explain the objective-oriented features of Java.
28. Discuss the similarities and differences between abstract
class and interface.
29. Explain the byte codes and JVM role in Java run-time
environment.
30. Discuss the architecture of JVM.
31. What are environment variables? Why do we need to set
these variables?
Assignment Questions
32. Explain how Java is most suited for networking
program.
33. How does main() work in Java environment? Explain
the keyword used in void main() statement and their
relevance.
34. What are objective orientation features program of
Java?
35. Explain with a flowchart how a Java program is
executed.
36. What are the differences and similarities between C++
and Java?
37. Distinguish between abstract class and interface.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. a
2. a
3. b
4. a
5. b
6. c
7. c
8. b
9. c
10. c
11. b
16
Java Fundamentals and Control
Loops
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be
able to
Write Java programs with good grasp and
understanding of fundamentals.
Understand data types and their usage.
Use compound statements and increment and
decrement operators.
Understand operators and their precedence and
association rules.
Use relational and equality operators.
Understand and use control loops.
16.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we introduce you to Java
programming fundamentals like the data
types permitted by Java language, together
with various operators like logical operators,
arithmetic operators, etc. In Chapter 15, you
have of course used some of these features,
but in this chapter we will provide you with
underlying syntax, grammar and theory of
the Java language. We have shown working
of various types of operators such as binary
operators and unary operators and bit-wise
operators with sample programs. The
precedence and association of operators are
presented.
There are basically two types of
statements, viz., sequential and control
statements. Control statements alter the
sequence of execution of statements.
Repetitive execution of a block of statements
is controlled by counter controlled types of
statements executed by commands like for,
while, do-while and switch statements.
16.2 Constants/Literal Constants
They do not change their value during
running of the program. Note that constants
are also called literal constants and are
presented in Figure 16.1.
Figure 16.1 Java literal constants
16.2.1 Integer Constants
They can be subdivided into
1. Decimal integer constants: 0 10 −745 999
Example: int myAge=56; // 56 is in decimal
2. Octal integer constants: Only digits between 0 and 7
are allowed. All octal numbers must start with 0 digit to
identify as octal number.
Allowed octal constants: 0777, 001, 0116, 07565L (octal
long)
Illegal octal constants are: 089 − 8 is illegal, 777 − does
not start with 0
: -0675.76 − . is illegal
Example: int myAgeOctal=070; // 70 is octal
equivalent of 56
3. Hexadecimal constants: A hexadecimal number
must start with 0x or 0X followed by digits 0 to 9 or
alphabets a to f, both uppercase or lowercase allowed.
Allowed hexadecimal constants are: 0xffff, 0xa11f,
0x65000UL
Illegal hexadecimal constants are: 0x14.55, illegal
character “.”
Example: int myAgeHexa=0x38; // 38 is Hexa
equivalent of 56
16.2.2 Floating Point Constants/Real
Constants
They are base – 10 number that can be
represented either in exponent form or
decimal point representation.
Valid floating point constants are: 0.01,
789.89765, 5E-5, 1.768E+9
Invalid floating point declarations are:
6 invalid . must contain exponent or float
point.
5E+12.5 Invalid as exponent cannot be float.
6,789.00 Invalid character “,”
Example: float area = 567.89; // float value
double area2 = 567.89; //double value
double area3 = 5.6789e2 ; // scientific
notation
16.2.3 Character Constants
Character constants can be declared based
on the character set followed in a computer.
ANSI have standardized these values as
shown below.
In addition, Java allows Unicode characters
like ISO Latin for example: \u0042,\u0043
etc. for Latin character set a, b, etc. A
character constant contains a single
character enclosed within a pair of single
quote marks. Examples of character
constants are: ‘5’ ‘X’ ‘;’ ‘ ‘
Note that the character constant ‘5’ is not
the same as the number 5. The last constant
is a blank space. Character constants have
integer values known as ASCII values.
Special characters that cannot be printed
normally, double quote (“),
apostrophe (‘), question mark
(?) and backslash (\) can be
represented by using escape sequences. An
escape sequence always starts with \
followed by special character stated above.
16.2.4 String Constants
String constants can contain any number of
characters in sequence but enclosed in
double quotation marks.
“new delhi” , “14 Nov 1954” , an empty
string is “”.
Please note that NULL character \0
indicates NULL character and is used by
Java language to indicate the end of a string.
16.2.5 Backlash Character Strings
A few of the backlash character constants
that are supported by Java and extensively
used in output programming are shown in
Table 16.1.
Table 16.1 Precedence and association rules for the
operators
Special Character Escape Sequence
Bell \a
Back space \b
Horizontal tab \t
Vertical tab \v
Form feed \f
New line \n
Carriage return \r
Double Quote \”
Apostrophe/Single quote \’
Backslash \\
Null \0
Octal number \On
Hexadecimal number \cHn
16.2.6 Boolean Literals
Boolean data type represents either true or
false. For example: boolean flag =
true; boolean ready = false. Note
that we cannot use 1 or 0 to represent true or
false as done in C++. Further, observe that
true and false are NOT enclosed in quotes.
16.2.7 Symbolic Constants
Many a times, we need to use symbolic
constants such as PI, to represent 3.141519
that remains constant through out the
program. A symbolic name substitutes a
sequence of characters or a numerical value
that follows it. Symbolic names are written
in capital letters as a convention. We use
declaration final and its syntax and
examples are shown below:
final data_type symbolic_name = value ;
final double PI = 3.14159; final int MAX
= 50;
16.3 Variables and Assignment of Values to
Variables
A variable can consist of alphabets and
digits. Either upper- or lowercase or
mixtures of both cases are allowed. A
variable cannot start with a digit. It can start
with an _. The allowable characters in Java
language are alphabets A to Z, a to z,
numbers 0 to 9. Examples of valid variables
are:
int x; char a,b,c; byte b;
double pi;
Once variables are declared, they need to be
assigned values prior to using them. This
can be achieved by
Assigning values to variables. We can assign the values
at the time of declaration of variables or just before they
are used. Examples are:
int count = 100;
byte m = n= k= 75;
double x=3.14159;
int x , y=10; // initializes y to
10
Read statement: We can obtain the values interactively
from the user from key board using readLine()
command. In the example that follows, we show how to
take input from keyboard in detail in Chapter 17.
16.4 Data Types
Data types define the range of permitted
values and operations that can be performed
on the data type. Data types, also called
intrinsic data types or primitive data types,
supported by Java language is given in
Figure 16.2. The ranges allowed for a 32-bit
IBM PC and memory requirements are
highlighted in Table 16.2.
Figure 16.2 Data types in Java
Table 16.2 Integer data types and their permissible ranges
Data types can also be distinguished as
Intrinsic or basic data types like int, char, float, double,
etc. Intrinsic or basic data types are those that do not
contain any other data types.
Derived data types classes, arrays, interfaces, etc.
16.4.1 Integer Data Types
Java supports four integer data types. The
permissible ranges are defined in Table 16.2.
Note that it is better to use integer data
types as per requirement of storage space
rather than routinely declaring the data type
as int. Since int takes 4 bytes, it takes longer
processing time than byte which is only 1
byte. Also note that Java does not support
unsigned data types. All data types are
signed, i.e. positive or negative. Long integer
constant can be specified by appending the
letter l s at the end . For example,
789654234L or 7896s
16.4.2 Floating Point Data Types
Float data types are used to represent
fractional part of data such as 2.434. There
are two types of floating point numbers viz.,
single precision and double precision. Float
data types and their ranges are presented in
Table 16.3. By default Java treats float data
type with double precision numbers and to
get float, we must either type cast or attach
‘f’ or ‘F’ to denote single precision. For
example, 1.4397f or 1.4397e4F. Double
precision numbers are used when we need
higher precision. In Java all mathematical
calculations are carried out in double
precision only.
Table 16.3 Floating point data types and their permissible
ranges
16.4.3 Character Type
Java supports char data type and it takes 2
bytes but it can store only single characters.
Two bytes are allocated because Java has to
cater for larger number of characters in
Unicode.
16.4.4 Boolean Data Type
Boolean data type uses only a single bit of
storage. It is used to demote true or false
condition. The true and false cannot be put
in single or double quotes and neither can
they be used as identifiers.
Example 16.1: FindMaxDemo.java To
Find Program to Find Max of Three
Numbers
//FindMaxDemo.java
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class FindMax{
4. public int Max3Numbers(int a ,int b,
int c){
5. int max=a;
6. if ( max<b) max = b;
7. else if ( max<c) max=c;
8. return max;}
9. }//end of Findmax
10. public class FindMaxDemo{
11. public static void main(String[]
args) {
12. // create an object of FindMax
13. FindMax obj=new FindMax();
14. int num1=0;int num2=0;int num3=0;int
max=0;
15. try{
16. BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader
(System.in));
17. System.out.println(“Enter value for
number num1:”);
18. num1 =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
19. System.out.println(“Enter value for
number num1:”);
20. num2 =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
21. System.out.println(“Enter value for
number num1:”);
22. num3 =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
23. }catch(Exception e){}
24. //get data for 3 numbers. Call
GetNumbers() ofFindmax
25. max=obj.Max3Numbers(num1,num2,num3);
26. System.out.println(“Maximum of three
numbers:” + num1+” : “+num2 +” : “+ num3
+ “ = “+max);
27. }
28. }// end of class FindMaxDemo
Output: Enter value for number num1: 45
Enter value for number num1: 67
Enter value for number num1: 12
Maximum of three numbers:45 : 67 : 12 =
67
L is package statement: package
i com.oops.chap16 our class files are stored
n here.
e
N
o
.
3
:
L imports package java.io.* which is required
i to handle input and output methods.
n
e
N
o
.
2
:
L declares a class FindMax. This will be class that
i will perform our core function of finding out
n maximum of three numbers.
e
N
o
.
3
:
L defines a method called Max3Numbers that
i receive three integers num1, num2, num3 and
n finds maximum and returns max number at
e line no 8.
N
o
s
.
4
–
8
:
L is our main class, hence it is declared along with
i public static void main(String[] args)
n { statement at Line No 11.
e
N
o
.
1
0
:
L defines an object of class FindMax FindMax
i obj=new FindMax();
n
e
N
o
.
1
3
:
L defines three variables num1, num2, num3
i and max and initializes with 0;
n
e
N
o
.
1
4
:
L are part of try and catch block, which is used to
i catch any IO-related errors or exceptions. Note
n that at line no 15 we have included try block
e because at line no 16, we are reading
N BufferedReader input from keyboard.
o
s
.
1
5
&
2
3
:
L BufferedReader input = new
i BufferedReader (new
n InputStreamReader(System.in)); It
e shows that System.in is keyboard ,
N
standard input device. This has been
o
attached to InputStreamReader and read
.
into system by BufferedReader object.
1
6
:
L num1 =
i Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
n This is how we will read data from keyboard.
e
N
o
.
1
8
:
You will see more about input statements
and classes in succeeding chapters. For now,
get used to our modus operandi of solving
problems with objects.
16.5 Scope and Life Time of Variables
The class variables and instance variables,
i.e. objects of a class, are declared inside a
class. Class declaration is enclosed in a set of
brace brackets { }. Variables belong to
all the instances of the class, the instances
are particular to the object being created.
We define two characteristics for variables
viz. scope and life.
Java is a block-oriented language. Block
can be defined as a set of statements
enclosed in a pair of controlling brace
brackets. Scope is defined as availability
across methods function and program
segments. Life is defined as life of
controlling brace brackets. It also means life
of variables extends up to controlling block
of statement. Hence these variables are also
called local variables, i.e. local to block.
The scope of the variable is local. This
means that a variable declared in a function
is accessible only within the function.
Further, the life of variables declared within
the function is the life of the function itself,
i.e. within the brace brackets of the function.
Hence these variables are called local
variables.
Example 16.2: SwapDemo.java A
Java Program to Demonstrate Static
Variable Usage
//SwapDemo.java to demonstrate local
variables
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. class Swap{
3. public void SwapVars(int x , int y){
4. int temp;
5. temp=x;x=y;y=temp;
6. System.out.print(“X&Y vars inside
Swap Method after swapping”);
7. System.out.println(“ X = “ +x + “ Y =
“ + y);}
8. }
9. class SwapDemo {
10. public static void main(String[]
args) {
11. int x=10; int y=100;
12. System.out.print(“X&Y variables
before calling Swap Method”);
13. System.out.println(“ X = “ +x + “ Y
= “ + y);
14. //create an object
15. Swap obj=new Swap();
16. obj.SwapVars(x, y);
17. System.out.print(“X&Y variables
after return from Swap Method”);
18. System.out.println(“ X = “ +x + “ Y
= “ + y);
19. }
20. }// end of SwapDemo
Output: X&Y variables before calling
Swap Method X = 10 Y = 100
X&Y variables inside Swap Method after
swapping X = 100 Y = 10
X&Y variables after return from Swap
Method X = 10 Y = 100
L declares a class SwapDemo. In line No 11, we
i have declared two variables x and y to hold
n values 10 and 100, respectively.
e
N
o
.
9
:
L an object is created for class Swap.
i
n
e
N
o
.
1
5
:
L calls a method SwapVars( x, y) a method
i belonging to Swap class. Variables x and y are
n passed by call by value method. In this method,
e x and y are copied to stack area belonging to
N SwapVars() stack area.
o
.
1
6
:
L define a method SwapVars(int x, int y)
i
n
e
N
o
s
.
3
t
o
9
:
L declares a local variable called temp. Even x
i and y which are copied by calling method
n main() into SwapVars() area are local
e variables.
N
o
.
4
:
L swaps the values of variable x and y using a
i third variable temp;
n
e
N
o
.
5
:
L display changed variable x and y as 100 and 10
i inside SwapVars() method as expected.
n
e
N
o
s
.
6
&
7
:
L in main() method displays x and y after
i return from SwapVars() method and the
n result is that variables have not been swapped,
e with x and y showing originally assigned values
N 10 and 100. So what has gone wrong? Nothing.
o This is what call by value and local variables are
s expected to do. The change made in
. SwapVars() method on local variable, in this
1 case temp x and y, are not reflected to calling
6 method main(). Why? Because they belong to
&
different areas of the stack.
1
8
:
Swapping variables without using a third
variable: In the method SwapVars() of
Example 16.2, we have used a third variable
called temp to swap the variable. Can we
achieve the same result without using the
third variable? Refer to the code segment
shown below:
1. public void SwapVars(int x , int y){
// suppose x=10 & y=100
2. x=x+y; // x now becomes 110
3. y=x-y; // y now becomes 110-100 =10
4. x=x-y; // y now becomes 110-10 = 100
5. System.out.print(“X&Y vars inside
Swap Method after swapping”);
6. System.out.println(“ X = “ +x + “ Y =
“ + y);}
7. }
This code is more efficient as we have not
used a third variable.
16.6 Arithmetic Operators
The basic (also known as intrinsic) operators
are
+ addition - subtraction *
multiplication
/ division % modulus (remainder after
division)
These operators are called binary operators
because they operate on two operands. For
example, a + b involves a binary operator +
and two operands a and b. In Java, division
implies integer division. For example, 5/4
would result 1. The % operator also called
modulus operator would give remainder as
result. For example, 20%4 would result in 0
and 21%4 would result in 5.
16.7 Type Conversion and Type Casting
16.7.1 Type Conversion
If the variables involved in an operation are
of different types, then Java carries out type
conversion automatically before the
operation. If the operation is between a float
and double, the float will be converted to
double and the result will result in double.
We can say either widening or narrowing
takes place in type conversion. The process
of conversion to a larger data type from a
smaller data type is called widening and
conversion from larger to smaller data type
is called narrowing. Note that narrowing will
cause truncation of data. If an expression
holds byte, short or int, then the result is
widened to int. Similarly for floating point,
Java automatically converts to double and
finally the result is shown as per the largest
data type in the expression or as desired by
the user through type casting, which is
explained in the next section.
16.7.2 Type Cast
Suppose that we want to declare the result in
particular data type, we can type cast as
shown below. Casting is often used when a
method returns a different data type.
The syntax is as follows:
type var1 = ( type casted) var2;
int a , b; float x;
x=(float)a/b; // a/b is integer
division and the result is converted to
float.
Example 16.3: QuadraticDemo.java
To Find the Toots of Quadratic
Equation
//QuadraticDemo.java
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Quadratic{
4. public void FindRoots(int a ,int b,
int c){
5. int d;
6. float root1,root2;
7. System.out.println(“The Equation is
“);
8. System.out.println( a + “X^2” + “+” +
b+ “*”+ “X”+”+”+c);
9. d = ((b*b)-(4*a*c));
10. if (d<0)
11. { System.out.println( “No real
solution since d<0”);
12. System.out.println( “roots are
imaginary\n”);
13. double sqrd= (double)Math.sqrt(-
d/(2*a));
14. double real = (double)(-b)/(double)
(2*a);
15. System.out.println( “root1 : “+ real
+ “+ i “+ (float)(sqrd));
16. System.out.println( “root1 : “+ real
+ “- i “+ (float)(sqrd));
17. }
18. if(d==0)
19. { System.out.println( “roots are
real\n”);
20. System.out.println( “root1&2 are
equal “+ (float)-b/(2*a));
21. }
22. else
23. if ( d>0)
24. { double sqrd = Math.sqrt(d);
25. System.out.println( “root1 : “+
(float)(-b + sqrd)/(2*a));
26. System.out.println( “root2 : “+
(float)(-b - sqrd)/(2*a));
27. }
28. }//end of FindRoots
29. }//end of Quadratic
30. public class QuadraticDemo{
31. public static void main(String[]
args) {
32. // create an object of Quadratic
33. Quadratic obj=new Quadratic();
34. int num1=0 ;int num2=0; int num3=0;
35. try{
36. BufferedReader input =
newBufferedReader (new InputStreamReader
(System.in));
37. System.out.println(“Enter Non-zero
Integer value for number num1:”);
38. num1 =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
39. System.out.println(“Enter Non-Zero
Integer value for numbernum1:”);
40. num2 =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
41. System.out.println(“Enter Non-Zero
Integer value for number num1:”);
42. num3 =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
43. }catch(Exception e){}
44. // Call FindRoots of Quadratic
45. obj.FindRoots(num1,num2,num3);
46. System.out.println(“End of Programme
…”);
47. }
48. }// end of class QuadratciDemo
Output: Enter Non-Zero Integer value for
number num1:3
Enter Non-Zero Integer value for
numbernum1:2
Enter Non-Zero Integer value for number
num1:-5
The Equation is :3X^2+2X+-5
root1 : 1.0
root2 : -1.6666666
End of Programme …
Enter Non-Zero Integer value for number
num1:2
Enter Non-Zero Integer value for
numbernum1:3
Enter Non-Zero Integer value for number
num1:4
The Equation is 2X^2+3X+4
No real solution since d<0
roots are imaginary
root1 : -0.75+ i 2.236068
root1 : -0.75- i 2.236068
End of Programme …
L declares a class Quadratic, which in turn
i defines a public method called FindRoots
n that receives three integer arguments a,b,c.
e
N
o.
3:
L calculates the value of d given by b*2 – 4 * a *
i c;
n
e
N
o.
9:
L deal for d <0 in which case the roots are
i imaginary and takes the form -b/2a + i
n (d/2a). We had resorted to type casting to
e float or double as a,b,c are integers. The type
N casting is shown in line No 9: double real =
o
(double)(-b)/(double)(2*a);
s.
1
0
–
1
6:
L deal with a case for d = 0 and roots are equal:
i (float)-b/(2*a))
n
e
N
o
s.
1
8
–
2
1:
L deal with a case for d > 0 and roots are given
i by: root1 :+ (float)(-b +
n sqrd)/(2*a))and root2 :(float)(-b
e - sqrd)/(2*a));
N
o
s.
2
2
–
2
7:
L declares main public class QuadraticDemo
i and at Line No 33 creates an object for class
n quadratic.
e
N
o.
3
0
:
L obtain values for three coefficients num1,
i num2, num3 form keyboard. Notice that we
n have used try and catch blocks for detecting
e any errors while reading input from keyboard
N using System.in and BufferedReeader
o object.
s.
3
7
t
o
4
3:
16.8 Unary Operators
In unary operators, operator precedes a
single operand. Unary operators are: unary
minus (- ), Increment and decrement
operators : ++ , -- . . Examples are : -
4.0 , -5*(A+B)
++ i , i++ , --i , i−
Minus operator is both a unary and a
binary operator. Unary minus, for example
-5.0 operates on variable on its right, while
the binary operator has variables on both
sides of operator and it is an arithmetic
operator.
16.8.1 Increment and Decrement Operators
If they precede the operand, the variable is
incremented at first and then the operation
is performed. If they follow the operand,
then the operation is performed first and
then the variable is incremented.
Example 16.4: IncrDecr.java To
Demonstrate Pre- and Post-
increment Operators
//16.4 IncrDecr.java to demonstrate pre
& Post Increment operators
package com.oops.chap16;
public class IncrDecr {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int count = 1;
System.out.println(“Count = “ +
count); // out put will be 1
/* count will be incremented by one
and then operation of
print is performed . Output will be
2*/
System.out.println(“Count Pre Incr = “
+ (++count));
/* Now , if you use count will be
printed first. Output is 2.
Then count will be incremented by 1 to
3.*/
System.out.println(“Count Post Incr;
but increment will be after statement =
“ + (count++));
System.out.println(“Count Post Incr
after executing post incr = “ +
(count));
}
}
Output: Count = 1
Count Pre Incr = 2
Count Post Incr; but increment will be
after statement = 2
Count Post Incr after executing post
incr = 3
16.8.2 Assignment Operator
The assignment operator is =. This is also
called equality operator. For example, int
x= 45; creates a variable of data type int
and assigns a value 45 to it.
There is a compound assignment operator
wherein two operators are combined into
one statement. For example, x+=10;
means x=x+10.
16.8.3 Chained Assignment
The assignment operator together with
compound assignment operators can be
used in chained assignment statement. For
example: int x = y = z = 0; this
statement is equivalent to statement x= (
y = ( z = 0)).
Note that assignment always takes place
from right to left. The first assignment is z
= 0; its reference is passed to y, so that y is
also equated to 0, and then lastly x = 0.
16.8.4 Relational Operators
The relational operators are : > >= < and
<=.
These four relational operators have the
same precedence. However, they have lower
priority than arithmetic operators. The two
more operators, known as equality
operators = = and ! =, have priority
just below relational operators.
16.9 Logical Operators
These are && and || and NOT operators (!).
Evaluation of expressions connected by
logical operators are done from left to right
and evaluation stops when either truth or
falsehood is established. In the statement
shown below:
if ( (iflag==0) && (
youflag= 0) )
first iflag == 0 is evaluated, if it is
true, then only the second expression
(youflag= 0) is evaluated. In other
words, evaluation stops as soon as truth or
falsehood is established.
We will show the use of logical operators
with an example. If attendance is > 75 and
sessionals > =50, then set eligible to true,
else set it to false. Depending on the
eligibility issue, admit card for end term
examinations.
Example 16.5: LogicalOpDemo.java
To Show the Usage of Logical
Operators Not
//LogicalDemo.java
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Logical{
4. public boolean Eligibility(int marks,
int att){
5. boolean yesno=true;
6. if ( (marks>50)&& (att>=75) )
yesno=true;
7. else yesno=false;
8. return yesno;
9. }//end of FindReverse
10. }//end of Reverse class
11. public class LogicalDemo{
12. public static void main(String[]
args) {
13. //create an object of Logical
14. Logical obj=new Logical();
15. int marks=0;int attendance=0;String
name=””;boolean yesno;
16. try{
17. BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader
(System.in));
18. System.out.println(“Enter Name of
Student”);
19. name=input.readLine();
20. System.out.println(“Enter marks “);
21. marks =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
22. System.out.println(“Enter Attendance
“);
23. attendance =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
24. }catch(Exception e){}
25. //Call Eligibility() of class
Logical
26.
yesno=obj.Eligibility(marks,attendance);
27. System.out.println(“Name :” + name
);
28. System.out.println(“Marks :
Attendance : “ + marks + “ : “+
attendance);
29. System.out.println(“eligibility:” +
yesno );
30. if( yesno==true)
31. System.out.println(“ Collect Admit
Card”);
32. else System.out.println(“Sorry.
falling short of academic or Attendance
Standard”);
33. }
34. }// end of class LogicalDemo
Output:
Enter Name of Student Suresh Enter marks
65 Enter Attendance 66
Name: Suresh Marks : Attendance : 65 :
66 eligibility:false
Sorry. falling short of academic or
Attendance Standard
2 run: Enter Name of Student Gautam
Enter marks 98 Enter Attendance89
Name: Gautam Marks : Attendance : 98 :
89eligibility:true
Collect Admit Card
L If(( marks>=50) && (att >=75)) is a
i statement that contains logical and &&. First the
n left-hand side (LHS) of &&, i.e. expression
e
(marks>=50), is evaluated. Only if it is true,
N the right-hand side (RHS) of && expression
o (att >=75) is evaluated. Only if both are true,
. only yesno is set to true. Else it is set to false.
6
:
Observe that && is utilizing the system very
efficiently since it evaluates the RHS if and
only if the LHS is true.
16.10 Bit-wise Operators
There are seven bit-wise operators available
in Java language. They are:
& Bit-wise AND. Used for masking
operation. For example, if you want to mask
the first four bits of a number ‘n’, then we
will mask n with a number whose last four
bits are 1s, i.e. 0001111. In Octal
representation, it is 016. (Remember that an
octal number starts with 0 and a hexa
number starts with 0x.)
n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
& 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 = 016(octal)
result n = 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Note that the last four bits are 0101 and are
unaffected, i.e. they are just reproduced in
the result, whereas the left four bits are all
0s, i.e. they are masked.
| Bit-wise OR. This operator is used
when you want to set a bit. For example, if
we want to set 0th and 2nd bit to 1 for n =
144, then we will use | operator with n, as
shown below:
n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
144(decimal)
| = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 =
005(octal)
result n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
^ Bit-wise Exclusive OR. Exclusive
OR, also known as odd function, produces
output 1 when both bits are not the same
(odd) and produces a 0 when both bits are
the same.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
^ = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 =
005(octal)
result n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
149(decimal)
<< Left Shift. Shifting left by one
position, bits of a binary number is equal to
multiplying the number with 2.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
144(decimal)
n<<1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 =
288(decimal)
n<<2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 576
>> Right Shift. Shifting right by one
position, bits of a binary number is equal to
division of the given number with 2.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 =
144(decimal)
n>> 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 =
72(decimal)
n>>2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 36(decimal)
>>> Bit-wise zero Fill Shift
Operator. This operator shifts right by
specified positions but fill the shifted slots
with zeros. For example, ( n>>>3) would
result in
n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
n>>>3 n = 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 =
18(decimal)
~ Tilde operator. one's
complement Operator. This is a unary
operator used to find one's complement of a
given number.
n = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
149(decimal)
~n = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 = bit-
wise complement
Example 16.6: Bit-wise.java To
Find Whether a Given Number is
Prime or Not
//BitWise.java to show the concepts of
bit wise operators of java;
package com.oops.chap16;
import java.io.*;
public class BitWise {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int n = 149;
int res;
res = n & 0016;
System.out.println(“The resultant of Bit
wise AND operator is :”+ res);
res = n | 0016;
System.out.println(“The resultant of Bit
wise OR operator is :”+res);
System.out.println(“The resultant of
Logical OR operator is :” + res);
res = n ^ 0016;
System.out.println(“The resultant of
Exclusive operator is :” + res);
res = n <<2;
System.out.println(“The resultant of
shift left ( by 2 bits) operator is :” +
res);
res = n >>2;
System.out.println(“The resultant of
shift right ( by 2 bits) operator is :”
+ res);
res = n >>>3;
System.out.println(“The resultant of
shift right>>> ( by 3bits) operator is
:” + res);
res = ~n;
System.out.println(“The resultant of NOT
operator is :” + res);
}
}
OUTPUT :
The resultant of Bit wise AND operator
is :5
The resultant of Bit wise OR operator is
:159
The resultant of Logical OR operator is
:159
The resultant of Exclusive operator is
:154
The resultant of shift left ( by 2 bits)
operator is :596
The resultant of shift right ( by 2
bits) operator is :37
The resultant of shift right>>> ( by
3bits) operator is :18
The resultant of NOT operator is :-150
16.11 Other Operators
16.11.1 Question Mark (?) Operator
Conditional Expressions
Suppose you want to allot 10 additional
bonus marks to students who put in 100
percent attendance, and all others additional
2 marks. This would result in statements like
If ( attendance > 100)
marks += 10;//this is a compound
statement. It means Marks=Marks +10
else
marks +=2;
Java language gives you the facility of
conditional operator, using which the above
4 lines can be coded as a single line
marks = (attendance > 100) ? marks +
10 : marks + 2;
The syntax is : z = exp1 ? expr 2 :
exp3. Exp1 is evaluated first. If it is true z is
equated to the result of exp2 . else z is
equated to exp3.
Example 16.7: Ternary.java To
Find Out Maximum of Two
Numbers and Three Numbers
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. public class Ternary {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. byte a=56, b=101, c=45, max;
5. // find the maximum of a & b
6. max=(a>b)?a:b;
7. System.out.println(“maximum of a &
b =” + max);
8. max=( ( a>( max=(b>c)?b:c))?a :max
);
9. System.out.println(“maximum of a &
b & c =” + max);
10. }
11. }
maximum of a & b =101
maximum of a & b & c =101
16.11.2 Member Operator or Dot Operator
It is used to denote a package or a member
method or a class. For example, we have
shown package as: package
com.oops.chap16. We have further used
member methods as: obj. FindPrime()
etc.
16.11.3 Instanceof Operator
We can use instanceof operator to test if the
object belongs to a particular class or not.
For example, boolean yesno; yesno =
std instanceof Student checks if the
object std is an instance of class Student and
returns true.
16.11.4 New Operator
It is used to allocate resources when we
create objects for classes. New operator
allocates resources in heap memory at run-
time dynamically. For example:
Student std = new Student
(“Ramesh” , 50595,); will allocate
resource to object std on heap memory.
int[] myArray = new int[]
{10,13,18,20}; will create an array
called myArray of data type integer on heap
memory and initialize the array with values
of 10,13,18,20
16.11.5 Operator Precedence and
Associativity
Like in mathematics, in Java too the use of
parentheses overrides the basic precedence
of arithmetic operators. There are two
priorities associated with arithmetic
operators: Higher Priority : * / and
% Lower Priority : + - . Therefore,
when an expression does not contain any
parentheses, Java runs two passes. In the
first pass, the higher priorities are
considered and in the second pass, the lower
priorities are considered.
Example 16.8: Evaluate the
Expression : a+b/3*c/2-4 for a=2,
b=3, and c=4
The given expression is : a + b / 3 * c / 2 – 4
= 2 + 3/3 * 4 / 2 – 4
First pass: High Priority from left to right
Step 1: 2 + 1 * 4/2 -4 ( 3/3 is evaluated)
Step 2: 2 + 4 /2 – 4) (1*4 is evaluated) Step3
: 2+ 2 – 4 ( 4/2 is evaluated)
Second pass low priority from left to right: 2
+2 –4 ( 2+2)
4 – 4 =0 (4 – 4 is evaluated last)
Example 16.9: Evaluate the
Expression : a+b/(3*c)/(8-4) a for
a=2, b=24, c=1
The given expression is : :a + b / (3 * c) / ( 8
– 4 ) . The expressions is parentheses are
highest priority . Hence : 2 + 24 / ( 3) / ( 4)
Brackets are evaluated first
2 + 8/4 left to right : 2 + 2 = 4
The association refers to the execution of
operators by the compiler. It can be from
right to left or from left to right. The
precedence and association of operators are
summarized in Table 16.4. The operators at
the top have priority more than those that
appear later in the table, i.e. operator
priority is highest at the top of the table and
lowest at the bottom of the table. Operators
on the same line have the same priority.
Table 16.4 Precedence and association rules for the
operators
Operator Association Priority
Dot operator . Method call ( ) Array Left
ref [ ] to
right
1
Logical negation (!) , Tilde( ~), Righ
Increment ( ++ ) , Decrement (--) + t to
Unary minus ( -) , (type) casting left
2
* / % Left
to
right
3
+ - Left
to
right
4
<< >> >>> Left
to
right
5
< <= > >= instanceof Left
to
right
6
= = != Left
to
right
7
& bit wise & Left
to
^ bit wise XOR right
8
| bit wise or
Left
&& logical and to
right
9
|| logical or
Left
to
right
10
Left
to
right
11
Left
to
right
12
?: conditional operator Righ
t to
= Assignment operator left
13
Righ
t to
left
14
= += -= *= /= %= ^= != <<= >>= Righ
t to
left
, Left
to
right
* / and % have all the same priority
Unary operators like + , - , and * have more priorities
than binary operators
16.12 Conditional and Branching
Statements
Normally the instructions are executed
sequentially. But logic demands that the
next instruction to be executed need not
necessarily be the next in line, but can be
branched to any other statement as per logic
of the algorithms. These are called
branching statements. The branching can
either be conditional or unconditional.
Java is a block-oriented language. The
program consists of statements. Statements
are logically grouped into blocks. Blocks are
enclosed in brace brackets. {and} are used
to denote start and end of the block in Java.
All variables declared inside the controlling
braces are called local to the block. It means
the value the variable holds is available only
inside the block. Statements inside the block
are also called compound statements. Note
that there will be no semicolon after closing
brace brackets. For example, in function
definition we have enclosed all the
statements in brace brackets.
16.12.1 If and If–Else Statements
Refer to Figures 16.3 and 16.4. Control flow
and syntax are shown for if statements and
also for if-else statements. Else statement is
optional. But if used, it will be associated
with the nearest if statement. In the example
shown, else is attached to the innermost if.
Figure 16.3 Control flow in If statement
Figure 16.4 Control flow in If-else statement
if ( totalMarks > 60)
if ( total Marks > 70)
System.out.println (“passed with
distinction”);
else System.out.println (“passed with
First class”);
Use of brace brackets dictate the association
rule for else statement. Else in the following
code is linked up with the immediate if
statement above it
if ( totalMarks > 60)
{ if ( total Marks > 70)
{ System.out.println (“passed with
distinction”);}
else // associated with inner if
{ cout<<“passed with first
class”<<endl;}
}
else // associated with outer if
{ …else block………}
Example 16.10: IfLoop.java To Test
the if Control Loop
//IfLoop.java to test the if loop
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. public class IfLoop {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. //Declare two arrays to hole marks
and attendance of 5 students
5. int[] idNo = new int[]{ 50595,
50596,50597,50598,50599};
6. float[] marks = new float[]
{96.0F,65.8F,71.0F,46.0F,33.0F};
7. float[] att = new float[]
{78.0F,66.0F,71.0F,75.0F,45.0F};
8. boolean [] yesno = new boolean[5];
9. for ( int i=0;
i<5;i++)yesno[i]=false; //initial value
for yesno
10. // To be eligible attendance >=60.0
and marks>=50.0
11. for (int i=0; i<5;i++)
12. if ((marks[i]>=50.0)&&
(att[i]>=60.0)) yesno[i]=true;
13. System.out.println(“List of eligible
candidates”);
14. for (int i=0; i<5; i++)
15. if( yesno[i]== true)
16. System.out.println(“ IdNo : “ +
idNo[i] + “ marks :” + marks[i] +”
attendance “ + att[i]);
17. }
18. }//end of IfLoop class
Output: List of eligible candidates
IdNo : 50595 marks :96.0 attendance 78.0
IdNo : 50596 marks :65.8 attendance 66.0
IdNo : 50597 marks :71.0 attendance 71.0
L declares three arrays namely idNo[],
i marks[] and att[] to denote and initializes
n the values to the array. When the array is large ,
e we can also use for loop to enter the values as
N we have done at line No 9 for initializing the
o array yesno[5].
s.
5
t
o
7
:
L checks if marks[i] >=50.0 and
i att[i]>=60.0 by using a logical and &&
n operator and sets corresponding yesno[i]
e to rue.
N
o
.
1
2
:
L ouputs the list of eligible students if is true.
i
n
e
N
o
.
1
6
:
16.12.2 Nested If Statements
Nested if means if statement within an if
statement. The problem in Example 16.8
uses nested if statements to implement
simple calculator
Example 16.11: CalcIf.java To
Simulate Simple Calculator With
+,-,*,/ Operators Using Nested Ifs
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. import java.io.*;
3. public class CalcIf {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException{
5. float a, b, result=0.0F;
6. int choice;
7. BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new InputStream
Reader(System.in));
8. System.out.println(“Enter number 1”);
9. a =
Float.parseFloat(input.readLine());
10. System.out.println(“Enter number
2”);
11. b =
Float.parseFloat(input.readLine());
12. System.out.println(“Enter choice 1
Addition 2: Subtraction 3:
Multiplication 4 : Division”);
13.
choice=Integer.parseInt(input.readLine()
);
14. if( choice == 1) result = a+b;
15. else
16. if( choice == 2) result = a-b;
17. else
18. if( choice == 3) result = a*b;
19. else
20. if (choice == 4) result = a/b;
21. else
22. System.out.println(“Wrong
Operatot”);
23. System.out.println(“The result : “
+result );
24. }
25. }//end of CalcIf class
Output: Enter number 1 100
Enter number 2 20
Enter choice 1 Addition 2: Subtraction
3: Multiplication 4 : Division 4
The result : 5.0
16.12.3 If–Else–If Ladder
Line Nos. 14 to 21 depict the if–else–if
ladder. It is called ladder because it looks
like a ladder. Observe the indentation. Its
deep indent and costs in terms of space.
Hence the if–else–if ladder can be replaced
by the if–else–if, as shown below:
if( choice == 1) result = a+b;
else if( choice == 2) result = a-b;
else if( choice == 3) result = a*b;
else if (choice == 4) result = a/b;
else System.out.println(“Wrong
Operatot”);
System.out.println(“The result : “
+result );
16.12.4 Switch and Case Statements
The switch statement is similar to the if–
else–if ladder we have used in the previous
section. The syntax is switch (var) {
case value1 : statements1 :
break;
case value2 : statements2 : break;
default : statements3; // this statement
is optional
}
Note that var has to be integer and value has
to be an integer constant. Observe also that
case label ends with : To demonstrate the
concepts involved we show next Example
16.9.
Example 16.12: SwitchCalc.java To
Simulate Simple Calculator with
+,-,*,/ Operators Using Switch
Statement Nested Ifs
package com.oops.chap16;
import java.io.*;
public class SwitchCalc {
public static void main(String[] args)
throws IOException {
float a, b, result=0.0F;
int choice;
BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader
(System.in));
System.out.println(“Enter number 1”);
a = Float.parseFloat(input.readLine());
System.out.println(“Enter number 2”);
b = Float.parseFloat(input.readLine());
System.out.println(“Enter choice 1
Addition 2: Subtraction 3:
Multiplication 4 : Division”);
choice=Integer.parseInt(input.readLine()
);
switch(choice)
{
case 1: result = a+b;break;
case 2: result = a-b;break;
case 3: result = a*b;break;
case 4: result = a/b;break;
default: System.out.println(“Wrong
Operatot”);
}//end of switch
System.out.println(“The result : “
+result );
}
}//end of SwitchCalc class
Output: Enter number 1 100
Enter number 2 200
Enter choice 1 Addition 2: Subtraction
3: Multiplication 4 : Division 4
The result : 0.5
16.13 Control Loops
There will be several occasions when a
programmer has to execute a set of
instructions repeatedly till a condition is
met. In these situations we need control
loops. There are several conditions likely
while framing these control loops like:
Programmer is aware of the initial conditions, loop
termination conditions and step increments for testing
the conditions. We use for loop for this purpose.
When the programmer is not aware if the control loop
executes, then he has to check the condition first and
then enter control loop. We use while statement for this
case.
When the programmer wants the control loop to be
executed at least once and then check for the condition,
we use do while loop.
16.13.1 While Loop
While loop is written by a programmer if he
is not sure if the while block will be
executed. A condition is checked first. If it is
true, the while block is executed. The syntax
of while statement is
While (expression) //body of while
contains a single line no brace brackets
required
Statement;
While(expression)
{ statement1;
statement2;
}
while(true) // expression is always
true
{ block of statements;
} // the loop is called forever while
loop
Let us do an interesting problem to show the
use of control loops. We have a number
denoted by 989989. We need sum of digits,
i.e. 9+8+9+9+8+9 = 52 and no. of digits =6.
The method and program are shown below:
Step1 Rem = n% 10 :// rem =9
Step 2 N=n/10 :// n=989989/10 = 98998 (
integer division )
We will repeat Step 1 & 2 while n>0
Example 16.13: Sumdigits.java To
Find Program to Find the Sum of
Digits in a Number
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. public class SumDigits {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. int num = 989989,rem,sum=0, count
=0,temp;
5. temp=num; // store it in temp
6. while ( num>0)
7. {rem=num%10; // finds remainder
8. num=num/10;
9. count++;//increments counter
10. sum+=rem; //adds remainder to sum
Figure 16.5 Control flow for while and for loops
11. }//end of while
12. System.out.println(“Given Number” +
temp);
13. System.out.println(“No of digits=” +
count);
14. System.out.println(“Sum of digits=”
+sum);
15. }
16. }//end of class
Output:Given Number989989
No of digits=6
Sum of digits=52
Line shows while loop. The condition n>0 is
No. checked first. Only if it is true , the loop is
6: entered.
Line is modulus operator that gives remainder.
No.
7:
Line is an integer division. This means that it
No. ignores the remainder
8:
16.13.2 Do-while Loop
The syntax is
Do
{
block of statements
} while (expression);
Do while loop is most appropriate when
we want the control loop to be executed at
least once. The block is executed first and
the condition is checked. If true, the loop is
executed till the condition becomes true. We
will use do-while loop when we know that
the loop needs to be executed at least once,
whereas while loop is used when we are not
aware if the loop needs to be executed or
not. Control flow is shown in Figure 7.6.
Example 16.14:
SumDigitsDoWhile.java a Program
to find sum of digits and also no of
digits using do while
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. public class SumDigitsDoWhile {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. int num = 989989,rem,sum=0, count
=0,temp;
5. temp=num; // store it in temp
6. do
7. {rem=num%10; // finds remainder
8. num=num/10;
9. count++;//increments counter
10. sum+=rem; //adds remainder to sum
11. }while( num>0);
12. System.out.println(“Given Number” +
temp);
13. System.out.println(“No of digits=” +
count);
14. System.out.println(“Sum of digits=”
+sum);
15. }
16. }//end of class
Output: Given Number989989 No of
digits=6 Sum of digits=52
16.13.3 For Loop
For loop, as control loop is used, when we
know the exact number of times the loop
needs to be executed. The syntax of for loop
is
for ( exp1 ; exp2 ; exp3)
{ block of statements }
where exp1 is initialization block
exp2 is condition test block
exp3 is alter initial value assigned
to exp1
Forever or infinite for loop is shown
below. Observe that forever for loop has no
initial and final conditions. Note that infinite
for loops are run forever. We have to forcibly
stop the program by <cntrl – break>
for ( ; ; )
{statement;}
for loops can be nested. That means we can
write for loop with in a for loop. In nested
for loop, the inner loop is executed for each
value of outer loop. For example, the inner
loop is executed for i = 0 and the value of j is
varied from 0 final condition. The outer loop
is executed for values of i varying from 0 to n
− 1.
Figure 16.6 Control flow for Do-while loop
The syntax is
for ( int i=0;i<n;i++)
{for (int j=0;j<n;j++)
{statement}
}
Example 16.15: Fibonaacifor.java
//Program to Find Sum of n
Numbers and Their Average Using
For Loop
package com.oops.chap16;
public class Fibonaaci{
public static void main(String[] args) {
int [] FibArray = new int [20];
int numOfTerms = 20; //number of terms
in the series
FibArray[0]=0; FibArray[1]=1; // first
two number of the series
for (int i =2 ; i< numOfTerms; i++)
{ FibArray[i]=FibArray[i-1]+FibArray[i-
2];}
System.out.println(“ The fibonaacii
series for 20 terms …”);
for (int i =0; i< numOfTerms; i++){
System.out.print(FibArray[i] + “ “);}
}
}//end of class
Output: The fibonaacii series for 20
terms …
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
610 987 1597 2584 4181
16.14 Break
Break statement is used to exit from the
switch control or control loop. We can use
break statement to exit from for, while and
do while, and switch control statements. You
have already seen use of break statement in
Switch statement. When used within a
nested block, a break statement can be used
to go to the end of the block in which the
break is used. There is another use in break
statement. For example: break label2;
takes you to the end of the block labeled as
label2.
Example 16.16: BreakUses.java: A
Program that Demonstrates Break
Statement
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. import java.io.*;
3. public class BreakUses {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException {
5. int count=0; int sum=0,num;
6. // write a forever for loop for
demonstration of
7. // break for going out of control
loop
8. BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader
(System.in));
9. for(;;){
10. if ( count ==5)
11. { System.out.println(“upper limit of
5 reached”);
12. break;}
13. else{
14. System.out.println(“enter value of
“+(count+1)+ “number”);
15. num =
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
16. sum+=num; count++;}
17. }// end of for
18. // Second use of break with label
19. label1:{System.out.println(“Entered
label1 “);
20. label2:{System.out.println(“Entered
label2 “);
21. label3:{System.out.println(“Entered
label3 “);
22. System.out.println(“Inside a label3
Using break label2 Statement”);
23. break label2;
24. }//end of label3
25. }//end of label2
26. System.out.println(“reached end of
label2 “);
27. }//end of label1*/
28. } //end of main()
29. }//end of class
Output: enter value of 01number10
enter value of 11number20
enter value of 21number30
enter value of 31number40
enter value of 41number50
upper limit of 5 reached
Entered label1
Entered label2
Entered label3
Inside a label3 Using break label2
Statement
reached end of label2
Lin uses for evr for loop. It can be only stopped
e by Line No 10 which tests for count == 5
No.
9:
Lin shows break statement. If count == 5 is
e true, break statement breaks the for loop. If
No. count is not 5 it enters else loop.
11:
Lin show the use of break label; statement.
e Each label represents a block of statement.
Nos Line No 23 break label2; takes the
. 19 control to end of label2.
to
27:
16.15 Continue Statement
Continue is used when we want to stop
further processing of loop statements and
start at the beginning of the control loop. In
the example shown below, we would like to
add 10 points to all odd numbers between 0
and 10 and skip adding to even numbers.
Example 16.17: Continue.java : A
Program that Demonstrates
Continue Statement
1. package com.oops.chap16;
2. import java.io.*;
3. public class Continue {
4. public static void main(String[]
args){
5. int count=0;
6. for(count = 0;count<=10;count++){
7. if ( count%2==0)
{System.out.println(“The number “+count+
“ is even “);
8. continue;} //control goes to begining
of for loop
9. System.out.println(“The number
“+count+ “ is odd”);
10. }//end of for
11. }// end of main
12. }//end of class
Output:
The number 0 is even The number 1 is odd
The number 2 is even
The number 3 is odd The number 4 is even
The number 5 is odd
The number 6 is even The number 7 is odd
The number 8 is even
The number 9 is odd The number 10 is
even
Li checks if (count%2 ==0) i.e. if count is even.
n
e
N
o.
7:
Li continue statement ensures that if the number
n is even the control goes to the beginning of the
e loop and does not enter the balance code at
N line no 9.
o.
8:
16.16 Summary
1. Java supports integral, character and Boolean constants.
Literal constants are those that do not change their
value during the running of the program.
2. Integral constants are Integer constants, Octal constants
and Hexa constants.
3. Floating point or real constants are expressed in decimal
or exponent form.
4. Character constants are character and String constants.
5. Boolean literals are expressed as true or false.
6. Constants declared as final cannot change their value
during running of the program.
7. Integer data types are byte (1 byte), short (2
bytes), int (4 bytes), long (8 bytes).
8. Float data types are float (4 bytes) and double (8
bytes).
9. The scope of the variable is local. This means that a
variable declared in a function is accessible only within
the function.
10. The basic (also known as intrinsic) operators are +
addition − subtraction * multiplication /
division % modulus (remainder after
division).
11. Type Conversion: If the variables involved in an
operation are of different types, then Java carries out
type conversion automatically before the operation. The
process of conversion to a larger data type from a
smaller data type is called widening and conversion
from larger to smaller data type is called narrowing.
12. Type Cast: Suppose we want to declare the result in a
particular data type, we can type cast the variable :
(data type) variable.
13. Unary Operators: In unary operators, the operator
precedes a single operand. The minus operator is both a
unary and a binary operator.
14. ++ , -- operators are called increment and decrement
operators.
15. Assignment Operator operator is =. This is also
called equality operator.
16. The relational operators are : > >= < and <=. Two
more operators, known as equality operators = =
and ! =, have priority just below relational operators.
17. Logical Operators: These are && and || and NOT
operator (!). Evaluation of expressions connected by
logical operators are done from left to right and
evaluation stops when either truth or falsehood is
established.
18. Bit-wise operators available in Java language are Seven.
They are & Bit wise AND, | Bitwise OR, ^
Bit wise Exclusive OR, << Left Shift, >>
Right Shift, >>> Bitwise zero Fill Shift
Operator, ~ Tilde operator . one's
complement Operator.
19. instanceof operator to test if the object belongs to a
particular class or not.
20. new operator It is used to allocate resources when we
create objects for classes.
21. Syntax of if statement: if (expression) statement.
22. There will be several occasions when a programmer has
to execute a set of instructions repeatedly till a condition
is met. In these situations, we need control loops. The
switch statement is similar to if-else-if ladder.
23. The syntax of while loop is : While(expression){
statement1;statement2;}.
24. Do-while loop :The syntax is Do{ block of
statements} while (expression).
25. For loop syntax is: for ( exp1 ; exp2 ; exp3),
where exp1 is initialization block, exp2 is condition test
block, exp3 is alter initial value assigned to exp1.
26. Break statement is used to exit from the switch control
or control loop.
27. Continue is used when we want to stop further
processing of loop statements and start at the beginning
of the control loop.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Char data type supported by Java takes
1. 4 bytes
2. 3 bytes
3. 2 bytes
4. 1 byte
2. Float data type supported by Java takes
1. 2 bytes
2. 8 bytes
3. 4 bytes
4. 1 byte
3. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Boolean constants?
1. Enclosed in single quote
2. Enclosed in double quotes
3. Occupies a single bit in memory
4. Can be used as identifiers
1. i
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. iii
4. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
data types of Java?
1. Byte takes 1 byte
2. Short lakes 1 byte
3. Integer takes 2 bytes
4. Long takes 8 bytes
1. iv
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. iii
5. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
variables of Java?
1. Instance variables belong to all instances of class
2. Class variables are declared inside or outside the class
3. Object is a class variable
4. Scope of the variable is local
1. ii and iii
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. iii and iv
6. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
operators of Java?
1. Arithmetic operators have the same priority
2. * / % have the same priority
3. The priority of + - is higher than the priority of * /
4. Association for arithmetic operators is from left to right
1. ii and iv
2. i and ii
3. i, ii and iii
4. iii and iv
7. Modulus operator can only be applied to integer data
types TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
8. What are the different data types of Java?
9. Distinguish a variable and constant with examples.
10. Explain type casting with examples.
11. What are relational and logical operators? Discuss their
priorities.
12. What is the difference between & , && operators?
13. What is the difference between = , = = operators?
14. Explain ? operator.
15. Explain new and instanceof operator.
16. Show the working of bit-wise AND operator with
examples. What is masking operation?
17. Show the working of bit-wise OR and Exclusive OR
operators with examples.
18. Distinguish unary and binary operators.
19. What is >>> operator in Java?
Long-answer Questions
20. What are the literal constants and data types provided
by Java? Explain with suitable examples.
21. Distinguish type casting and type conversion with
examples.
22. Explain the usage of bit-wise operators of Java.
23. What is operator precedence and Associativity? Discuss
with examples.
24. Explain the difference between if–else–if and switch
statements. Which is better and why?
25. Explain variations in for loop statements in Java with
examples.
26. Which one of these are better for control loop: for, while,
do while?
27. Distinguish continue and break statement.
Assignment Questions
28. Write a c module to compute simple and compound
interest using the formula
SI =P*N*R/100 and CI= P*
(1+R/100)^N
29. Write a program to store number, age and weight in
three separate arrays for 10 students. At the end of data
entry, print what has been entered.
30. Using the formula A=Squareroot(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*
(s-c)), compute area of the triangle. S =
(a+b+c)/2, and a, b, and c are sides of the triangle
31. Write a Java program to count the number of lines, the
number of words, the number of open braces and the
number of close braces in an input file.
32. Write a program to convert a given integer into
1. hexadecimal numbers and
2. octal numbers.
33. Write a program to shift given integer to 2 positions to
the left.
34. Write a program to test if the given integer has 1 in 4 bit
position. If it is 0, set it to 1.
35. Write a Java program to mask given integer of the low 4
bits.
36. Using priorities of the operators evaluate z= 4 * 5/6
+ 10 / 5 + 8 – 1 + 7/8.
37. Write a program to print the ASCII table for range 30 to
122.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. c
2. c
3. d
4. a
5. d
6. a
7. False
17
Simple IO and Arrays and Strings
Vectors
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, you will be able
to understand and write programs using
Simple IO statements using BufferedReader and
InputStreamreader.
Read(), readLine() and StringTokenizer
class and its methods.
Java's input using scanner class and output using
String format().
Arrays and Strings handling.
Vectors and wrapper classes.
17.1 Introduction
In Chapters 15 and 16 you have been
introduced to some simple IO statements.
We continue in this chapter to introduce you
to further IO programs as these are required
for carrying out meaningful programming in
Java. You will learn techniques to input
primitive data types using
BufferedReader and
InputStreamReader and read() and
readline() commands. StringTokenizer
which will be used for inputting multiple
data in a single line will also be introduced
in this chapter.
17.2 Input from Keyboard
17.2.1 System.in, System.out and
System.err Commands
In this section, we will see how to take string
and numeric input for Java applications
using standard input or output and in Java
keyboard is represented by
System.in: Standard input is from keyboard. This
represents inputStream Object
System.out: Console is represented by System.out.
This represents PrintStream object.
System.err: Java handles stream objects for input
and output and hence is likely to encounter errors or
exceptions. System.err is used to log errors that occur
while handling streams. We need to catch these errors
and exception objects using try and catch blocks. We will
tell you how to use these commands now and reserve
more detailed discussion to later chapters on errors and
exceptions.
We will use BufferedReader to read
one String per line. Figure 17.1 shows two
streams – InputStreamReader and
BufferedReader – that are connected
together. Two streams are required because
the computer is a high-speed device and
keyboard is a slow device.
InputStreamreader accepts the input
from keyboard and converts the ascii to data
types required by computer and
BufferedReader stores them so that Java
can accept them when they are ready to be
picked up.
Figure 17.1 Input from keyboard
We will read name of the student. We will
also read identification number and marks
of the student. We will also read s a single
character from keyboard
Example 17.1: Student.java: To
Obtain Input String, Int and Float
Data from Console
// Example 17.1 Student.java : To obtain
input String , int and double data
from keyboard using InputStreamreader
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.io.*;
3. import javax.swing.*;
4. public class Student {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException{
6. BufferedReader in;
7. in=new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(System.in));
8. System.out.print(„Enter name : „);
9. String name =in.readLine();
10. System.out.print(ʺEnter your
Roll Number :ʺ);
11. String input=in.readLine();
12. int id=Integer.parseInt(input);
13. System.out.print(ʺEnter your
Total Marks : ʺ);
14. String input2=in.readLine();
15. double
totalmarks=Double.parseDouble(input2);
16. System.out.print(“Enter Grade
of the Student : “);
17. char ch = (char)
in.readLine().charAt(0);
JOptionPane.showMessage
Dialog(null,ʺName ʺ+ name +
18. ʺ\nRoll Number :ʺ + id +ʺ
\nTotal Marks :ʺ +
19. totalmarks+ʺ \n Grade ʺ + ch,ʺ
output displayʺ
,JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE); }
20. }
Output:
Enter name : Ramesh
Enter your Roll Number :50595
Enter your Total Marks : 999
Enter Grade of the Student : A
L import java.io.*;is required as we are
i using InputStreamReader,
n BufferedReader, and IOException
e
N
o
.
2
:
L void main() throw IOException object. This is
i an example of method(void main() throwing an
n exception.
e Observe in Line No. 6: System.in is for
N console input. InputStreamreader is
o attached to System.in.
.
5 InputStremreader in turn belongs to
: BufferedReader.
L show how to accept a string from keyboard :
i String input=in.readLine();
n
e
N
o
s
.
8
&
9
:
L show the commands for accepting integer from
i keyboards:
n 10 System.out.print(ʺEnter your Roll
e Number :ʺ);
N 11String input=in.readLine(); //Accept
o the integer as String
s 12 int id=Integer.parseInt(input);//
. conver String into integer.
1
0
t
o
1
2
:
L show the commands for accepting double from
i keyboards
n 13 System.out.print(ʺEnter your Total
e Marks : ʺ);
N 14 String input2=in.readLine();//Accept
o the integer as String
s 15 double
. totalmarks=Double.parseDouble(input2);
1
3
t
o
1
5
:
L show the commands for accepting a character
i from keyboard using a readLine() command.
n Note that readLine read the String(). charAt()
e returns first character of the string. Hence our
N command would be: char ch = (char)
o in.readLine().charAt(0); We could also
s
write this as: String ch =
.
in.readLine();
1
6
t
o
1
7
:
17.2.2 StringTokenizer to Receive Multiple
Inputs in a Single Line
Those of you familiar with C will know that
in scanf statement for receiving input from
the keyboard we can read several variables
together in a single line. How do we achieve
the same result in Java? By using a class
called StringTokenizer of java.util
package. Firstly we create an object of
String class and read the in:
String stg = input.readLine(); // to
read a string from keyboard
Assume that our input data is separated
by commas. For example, ʺRameshʺ ,
50595,89.0,ʺAʺ representing name.
RollNo, total marks and grade.
Make an object of StringTokenizer
and pass the String object as a parameter to
StringTokenizer object :
StringTokenizer stkn = new
StringTokenizer( stg, ʺ,ʺ);
String Tokenizer breaks the single line
string into tokens based on the separating
symbol comma. We can retrieve the token
using nextToken(). String tkn =
stkn.nextToken();
We will attempt a problem in which we
will read name, number, credits and debits
of an employee. Compute net pay and
display the result.
Example
17.2: EmployeeCredits.java: To
Obtain Multiple Inputs in a Single
Line Using StringTokenizer.
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.util.*; // For using
StringTokenizer()
3. import java.io.*;
4. import javax.swing.JOptionPane;
// Swing components
5. public class EmployeeCredits {
6. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException{
7. String name,idNo,crdts,debts;//
variables or reading input date
8. double credits,debits,netPay; //
variables for internal computations
9. BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader
(System.in));
10. System.out.println(ʺEnter Emp
name, idNo,credits,debits separated by
commaʺ);
11. String stg = input.readLine(); //
multiple data separated by comma
12. StringTokenizer stkn = new
StringTokenizer(stg,","); // object of
StringTokenizer
13. name = stkn.nextToken(); // break
into tokens
14. idNo = stkn.nextToken();
idNo.trim(); // trim is to remove
leading trailing spaces
15. crdts = stkn.nextToken();
crdts.trim();
16. debts =
stkn.nextToken();debts.trim();
17. // convert to double
18. credits =
Double.parseDouble(crdts);
19. debits =
Double.parseDouble(debts);
20. netPay = credits-debits;
21.
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null,"Name
"+ name +
22. "\tId Number :" + idNo
+"\nCredits :" +
23. credits+"\t Debits " + debits
+"\t Net Pay :"+ netPay,"Employee Pay
Bill",JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE);
24. }
25. }
L imports java.util.* a package
i housing StringTokenizer()
n
e
N
o
.
2
:
L String stg = input.readLine(); reads
i String input from keyboard.
n
e
N
o
.
1
1
:
L idNo = stkn.nextToken();
i idNo.trim(); shows how to break a
n continuous string into token by using
e nextToken(). Further idNo.trim()
N
removes leading and trailing spaces if any.
o
.
1
4
:
L converts String to double data. This is required
i to do internal computations.
n
e
N
o
1
7
:
17.2.3 Obtaining Inputs Using Java's
Scanner Class
While StringTokenizer class discussed in the
previous section does its job, it is
cumbersome in that we have to perform
several tasks such as creating an object,
passing an argument, using the trim() and
finally to convert into primitive data type.
Java has provided a simpler alternative
called Scanner class in java.util package.
The first action is to create object. Scanner
scn = new Scanner(System.in);
int idNo = scn.nextInt(); is the only
statement we need to use to begin the
computing process. Similarly,
nextDouble(), nextLong(),
next.Float() would be used for other
data types. Here in Scanner class, when data
is inputted from keyboard, variables are
required to be separated by spaces. Blank
space will be treated as the end of a token.
Example 17.3: ScannerInput.java:
To Obtain Multiple Inputs in a
Single Line Using Scanner Class of
Java
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.util.*; // for Scanner
class
3. import java.io.*;
4. import javax.swing.JOptionPane;
5. public class ScannerInput {
6. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException{
7. String name;// variables or
reading input date
8. int idNo;
9. double credits,debits,netPay;
10. System.out.println(ʺEnter Emp
name, idNo,credits,debits separated by
spacesʺ);
11. Scanner scn = new
Scanner(System.in);
12. name = scn.next();
13. idNo = scn.nextInt();
14. credits = scn.nextDouble();
15. debits = scn.nextDouble();
16. netPay = credits-debits;
17.
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null,ʺName
ʺ+ name +
18. ʺ\tId Number :ʺ + idNo +ʺ
\nCredits :ʺ +
19. credits+ʺ \t Debits ʺ + debits +ʺ
\t Net Pay :ʺ +
20. netPay,ʺ Employee Pay Billʺ
,JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE);
21. }
22. }
Line java.util.* for Scanner class.
No.
2:
Line Scanner scn = new Scanner(System.in);
No. creates an object of Scanner class.
11: System.in represents key board.
Line shows how to take in String data by using
No. name=scn.next();
12:
Line shows how to take in int data by using
No. idNo=scn.nextInt();
13:
Line shows how to take in Double data credits &
Nos. debits by using : credits
14 & =scn.nextDouble();
15: debits=scn.nextDouble();
17.2.4 Using Control Formats –
System.out.printf()
You might have used C language printf()
command wherein we have used controlling
formats to display primitive data types. Java
also provides such a facility to format and
display primitive data types using
System.out.printf() command. The
controlling formats offered by Java are
shown in Table 17.1:
Table 17.1 Formatting for use with
System.out.printf()
%s : String %c : char %d : Decimal
Integer
%f : float %o : octal % x or % X : hexa
%n : new %e or %E : scientific
line notation
Example 17.4: PrintfJava.java: To
Send the Formatted Output Using
System.out.Printf(
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.util.*;
3. import java.io.*;
4. import javax.swing.JOptionPane;
5. public class PrintfJava {
6. public static void main(String[]
args){
7. String name;// variables or
reading input date
8. int idNo;
9. double credits,debits,netPay;
10. System.out.println(ʺEnter Emp
name, idNo,credits,debits separated by
spacesʺ);
11. Scanner scn = new
Scanner(System.in);
12. name=scn.next();
13. idNo=scn.nextInt();
14. credits =scn.nextDouble();
15. debits=scn.nextDouble();
16. netPay=credits-debits;
17. System.out.println(ʺEmployee
pay Bill…..ʺ);
18. System.out.printf(ʺString =
name : %s idNo : %dʺ ,name,idNo );
19. System.out.printf(ʺString =
Credits:%8.2f debits: %8.2f NetPay
%8.2fʺ ,credits,debits,netPay );
20. }
21. }
22. Output: Enter Emp name,
idNo,credits,debits separated by spaces
23. ʺRameshʺ 50595 20000.00 2000.00
24. Empleoyee pay Bill…..
25. String = name : ʺRameshʺ idNo :
50595String = Credits :20000.00 debits :
2000.00 NetPay 17000.00
Li shows the usage of System.out.printf()
ne command. (ʺString = name : %s idNo
N : %dʺ ,name,idNo) is passed as an
o. argument.
17:
Li shws usage of %8.2 f for credits , debits ,
ne and netPay fields. It means total formatting
N space of 8 spaces out of which 2 spaces after
o. decimal.
19
:
17.2.5 Formatted Output with String Format
Java has provided an alternative to format
when only strings are involved in outputting
we can use String.format() method.
This is a static method and hence can be
called directly using String.format()
method.
Example 17.5: StringFormat.java:
To Send the Formatted Output
Using String.format()
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.util.*;
3. import java.io.*;
4. public class StringFormat{
5. public static void main(String[]
args){
6. String name;// variables or
reading input date
7. int idNo;
8. double credits,debits,netPay;
9. System.out.println(ʺEnter Emp
name, idNo,credits,debits separated by
spacesʺ);
10. Scanner scn = new
Scanner(System.in);
11. name=scn.next();
12. idNo=scn.nextInt();
13. credits =scn.nextDouble();
14. debits=scn.nextDouble();
15. netPay=credits-debits;
16. System.out.println(ʺEmpleoyee
pay Bill…..ʺ);
17. String stg =
String.format(ʺname : %s idNo : %dʺ
,name,idNo );
18. System.out.println(stg);
19. stg=String.format(ʺCredits
:%8.2f debits : %8.2f NetPay %8.2fʺ
,credits,debits,netPay );
20. System.out.println(stg);
21. }
22. }
Output: Enter Emp name,
idNo,credits,debits separated by spaces
ʺRameshʺ 50595 20000.0 2000.0
Empleoyee pay Bill…..
name : ʺRameshʺ idNo : 50595
Credits :20000.00 debits : 2000.00
NetPay 17000.00
L stg=String.format(ʺname : %s idNo :
i %dʺ ,name,idNo ); shows the formatting the
n argument for name and idNo.Line No. 17
e similarly show the formatting for credits and
N debits and netPay using %8.2f
o
.
1
7
:
17.3 Arrays
In day-to-day life, there are several
occasions wherein we have to store data of
the same type in contiguous locations For
example, consider a situation where you
would like to store the marks obtained by a
student in six different subjects. Java
provides us with a feature called Arrays
which can be used to accomplish the above
task.
An array is defined as a collection of
elements where each element is of the same
type. The elements of the array can either be
elementary data types like int, float,
char or they can be complex data types like
structures and objects. An array is a data
structure that defines a contiguous memory
location for a single data type. It can be a
group of students’ marks or it can be a group
of employees’ salaries. For example, float
marks[5]; represents an array with 5
marks. The particular value of an array can
be accessed by referring to cell number
called index of an array. For example,
marks[5] refers to marks at index 5.
Generally, the indexes are numbered for 0 to
n-1, where n is the number of elements in
the array. Marks obtained by a student in six
different subjects are shown in an array
named marks in Figure 17.2. Elements of
the array are referenced by array name
followed by subscript. We have shown an
array named marks; six subject marks
scored by the student can be represented by
marks[0]=80.0 and marks[5]=70.0 etc.
Figure 17.2 Representation of an array
17.3.1 Declaring and Creation of an Array
Java provides us with two methods to
declare arrays. The first method involves a
two-step procedure, as follows:
Step 1: Declaration of the array using the
syntax datatype [] arrayname for
example to declare an array of integers with
the name integer_array we would declare as
follows:
int [ ] integer_array
Step 2: Creation of the array using the
syntax arrayname = new
datatype[size]; this step basically
assigns storage space in the memory for the
array. For example, if we want integer_array
declared in step1 to accommodate 6 integers
we would create as follows:
integer_array = new int[6]
Note that while programming both
declaration and creation, i.e. both step 1 and
step 2 can be combined as follows. Also note
that when we declare arrays in such a
fashion all the elements in the array are
initialized to 0.
int [ ] integer_array = new int[6]
The second method is used when you want
to declare arrays using some initial values.
To declare arrays with some initial values we
use the syntax datatype
[size(optional)] arrayname =
{initializer_list}. For example:
int [6] marks = {40, 50, 60, 70,
80,90} or int [ ] marks = {40, 50, 60,
70, 80,90}
Both the above declarations are valid and we
do not have to specify the size of the array.
The compiler will calculate the size of the
array based on the initializer list.
17.3.2 Initialization of Arrays
If the array size is small, we can use dynamic declaration
and allocation all in a single line as : int [] myArray
= new int[5] { 10,20,30,40,50};
If the array size is large, we will use for loop to enter the
data
int [] myArray = new int[size];
String input;
BufferedReader in;
in=new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(System.in));
for ( int i =0; i<size; i++) {
System.out.println(ʺ Enter Array [ʺ
+ i +ʺ] elementʺ);
input=in.readLine();
myArray[i] =
Integer.parseInt(input);
} // end of for loop
17.3.3 How Are Arrays Stored in the
Memory?
Consider an array named x, declared as int
[] x = new int []
{80,90,100,50,65,70};
The addresses shown above are dummy
addresses. Using of size of operator would
tell us the memory requirement of data type
int on your hardware. Assuming that it is 24
bytes, the memories of the array element are
shown in Figure 17.3.
Figure 17.3 Representation arrays with memory locations
shown
17.3.4 Accessing and Modifying Array
Elements
To access an element in the array we must
provide the array name and the index of the
element in the array. Array indices start
from 0 and go up to array length –1, where
index 0 is for the first element and index
length –1 is for the last element. For
example, in Figure 17.3, the array marks
have a length of 6, so indices will range from
0 to 5. The general syntax for accessing
elements of the array is
arrayname[expression]. It is absolutely
essential that the value of the expression
must be an integer and the value must be in
the range of the array indices, i.e. [0,
length–1] else we will encounter an array out
of bounds exception. Let us see a few
examples on accessing array elements; all
the statements below use the marks array
shown in Figure 17.2.
marks[3] = 50 // statement will change
value stored at index 3 in marks array
to 50
val = marks[2] //statement will store
value present at index 2 (100) into
variable val
int index = 6
marks[index -1] = 70 //expression inside
bracket evaluates to 4 so same as
marks[5] = 75
marks[index +1] = 10 //expression
evaluates to 7, so we get array out of
bound exception
Java provides us with a length attribute
through which we can get the length of the
array at run-time. The syntax for getting the
length of the array is arrayname.length.
Usage of length attribute is particularly
useful when processing array elements using
for loops as demonstrated in the following
example.
Example
17.6: TestArrayLength.java To
Obtain the Length of the Array
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. public class ArrayLengthTest {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. int[] arr = new int[]
{10,20,30,40,50,60,70};
5. System.out.println(ʺ Given
Array…………ʺ);
6. for(int i = 0; i < arr.length ;
i++ )
7. { System.out.print(arr[i] + ʺ, ʺ
);}
8. System.out.println(ʺ\nGiven Array
Length :ʺ +arr.length);
9. }
10. }
Output: Given Array…………
10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70,
Given Array Length :7
Line shows the usage of arr.length. Here
No. arr.length returns the length of array
6: arr.
17.3.5 Passing Arrays as Arguments to
Methods
Arrays can be passed as parameters to
functions. To define a method with an array
as a parameter use the following syntax:
ReturnType
MethodName(datatype[] arrayname).
To pass an array as an argument in the
calling function use the following syntax:
MethodName(arrayname),
i.e. use the array name without the brackets.
In the program shown below in Example
17.7, when we pass the array to the function
using the call, the array is passed by
reference.
Example 17.7: SortIntArray.java:
To Sort the Integer Array by
Sending Array to a Method
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. class IntSort1{
3. public void Sort(int myArray[],
int len){
4. int temp;
5. for(int i=0; i <len-1; i++){
6. for ( int j=i+1; j<len; j++){
7. if(myArray[i]<myArray[j]){ //swap
8. temp=myArray[i];
myArray[i]=myArray[j]; myArray[j]=temp;
}//end of if
9. }// end of inner for loop
10. }// end of outer for loop
11. }//end of method Sort
12. }//end of class IntSort
13. class IntSortDemo {
14. public static void
main(String[] args) {
15. IntSort1 obj = new
IntSort1();//make an object
16. int[] myArray = new int[]
{10,13,17,20};
17. int len = myArray.length;
18. System.out.println(ʺ Given
Array ……ʺ);
19. for(int i=0;i<len;i++)
20. System.out.print( ʺ ʺ +
myArray[i]);
21. obj.Sort(myArray, len);
22. System.out.println(ʺ \nSorted
Array ……ʺ);
23. for(int i=0;i<len;i++)
24. System.out.print( ʺ ʺ +
myArray[i]);
25. }
26. }
Output : Given Array …… 10 13 17 20
Sorted Array …… 20 17 13 10
L public void Sort(int myArray[], int
i len){ method defines procedure for sorting an
n array. Observe that int myArray[] is passed
e as an argument. No need to mention the
dimension. Line No. 8 swaps the variable
N myArray[i] if myArray[i]<myArray[j]
o
as shown at Line No. 7.
.
3
:
L defines an object of IntSort1. Line No. 21 calls
i the Sort() method of class IntSort1 by
n passing myArray and length as arguments.
e Observe that myArray is passed as reference.
N
o
.
1
5
:
17.3.6 Returning Arrays as Arguments to
Methods
We have seen through the above example
how arrays can be passed as parameters to a
function. Similarly, arrays can also be a
return type. To define a method with an
array as a return type, we use the following
syntax:
dataType[] methodName() {
function body}
Program to demonstrate array as return
type of a function. Method copies the input
array into a new array and returns the new
array.
Example
17.8: ArrayCopyDemo1.java : To
Copy an Array and Return the Array
to Calling Method
package com.oops.chap17;
class ArrayCopy1{
public int[]Copy( int[] myArray) {
int [] arr = new int[myArray.length];
for(int i=0; i <myArray.length; i++)
arr[i]=myArray[i];
return arr;
}//end of method Copy
}//end of class ArrayCopy
class ArrayCopyDemo1 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayCopy obj = new ArrayCopy();//make
an object
int[] myArray = new int[]
{10,15,20,30,35};
int[] copyArray = new
int[myArray.length];
System.out.println(ʺ Given Array ……ʺ);
for(int i=0;i<myArray.length;i++)
System.out.print( ʺ ʺ + myArray[i]);
copyArray=obj.Copy(myArray);
System.out.println(ʺ \nCopied Array ……ʺ);
for(int i=0;i<copyArray.length;i++)
System.out.print( ʺ ʺ + copyArray[i]);
}
}
Output : Given Array …… 10,15,20,30,35
Copied Array ……ʺ) 10,15,20,30,35
17.3.7 Multi-dimensional Arrays
Arrays can have more than one dimension.
For example, a matrix is a two-dimensional
array with a number of rows and a number
of columns as show in Figure 17.4.
Figure 17.4 A two-dimensional matrix
As an example, to demonstrate the two-
dimensional arrays we would consider the
problem of finding a transpose of a matrix.
Example 17.9: MatTranspose.java
A Program to Find Transpose of a
Matrix
// Matrix transpose
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Matrix{
4. void ReadMat(int A[][],int rows,
int cols){
5. //input matrix related data using
scanner
6. Scanner scn=new
Scanner(System.in);
7. for ( int i=0;i<rows;i++)
8. for ( int j=0;j<cols;j++)
9. { System.out.print(ʺEnter[ʺ+i+ʺ ]ʺ
+ʺ [ʺ+j+ʺ ] element :ʺ);
10. A[i][j]=scn.nextInt();}
11. }//end of ReadMat
12. void DisplayMatrix(int A[]
[],int rows, int cols){
13. for ( int i=0;i<rows;i++)
14. {for ( int j=0;j<cols;j++)
15. { System.out.print( A[i][j] +ʺ
ʺ);}
16. System.out.print( ʺ\nʺ);
17. }
18. }
19. void TranspMat(int A[][],int
rows, int cols){
20. for (int i=0;i<cols;i++)
21. {for (int j=0;j<rows;j++)
22. { System.out.print( A[j][i] +ʺ
ʺ);}
23. System.out.print( ʺ\nʺ);
24. }
25. }//end of TranspMat
26. }//end of Matrix
27. class MatTranspose{
28. public static void
main(String[] args)
29. { Scanner scn = new
Scanner(System.in);
30. System.out.print(ʺEnter no of
rows & columns:ʺ);
31. int rows= scn.nextInt();
32. int cols= scn.nextInt();
33. int A[][]= new int[rows][cols];
//two-dimensional matrix
34. Matrix mat = new Matrix();
//create an object
35. mat.ReadMat(A,rows,cols);
36. System.out.println(ʺGiven
Matrixʺ);
37. mat.DisplayMatrix(A,rows,cols);
38. System.out.println(ʺTransposed
Matrixʺ);
39. mat.TranspMat(A, rows, cols);
40. }
41. }//end of MatTranspose
Output : Enter no of rows & columns:3
3
Enter[0][0] element :1 Enter[0][1]
element :2 Enter[0][2] element :3
Enter[1][0] element :4 Enter[1][1]
element :5 Enter[1][2] element :6
Enter[2][0] element :7 Enter[2][1]
element :8 Enter[2][2] element :9
Given Matrix
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
Transposed Matrix
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
creates an object for Scanner class called scn.
Line Nos. 31 and 32 reads no of rows and
L columns from keyboard using nextInt()
i
n
e
N
o
.
2
9
:
L int A[][]= new int[rows][cols];
i defines two-dimensional matrix called A[][].
n Line No. 35 calls ReadMat() method and Line
e No. 37 calls DisplayMatix() and Line No. 39
N
calls TranspMat() methods of class matrix.
o
All these methods pass two-dimensional matrix
.
and rows and columns as arguments.
3
3
:
L are two for loops for reading matrix elements
i row major wise. Also observe that at line No. 10
n : A[i][j]=scn.nextInt(); we have read
e element A[i][j] using Scanner object as
N scn.nextInt();
o
s
.
7
&
8
:
L viz for (int i=0;i<cols;i++) {for ( int
i j=0;j<rows;j++) observe that outer loop we
n have used cols and inner loop we have used
e rows, thus producing the transpose of a matrix.
N
o
s
.
2
0
&
2
1
:
17.3.8 Java.util. Arrays Class
Java.util package provides a useful
collection class called Arrays class. Arrays
class defines several static methods that can
be used directly without creating an object.
A few of the important and useful static
methods by Arrays class are discussed here.
Note that we will show an example for only
one primitive data type but the syntax and
concepts are equally applicable to other data
types. Datatype in Table 17.2 refers to
primitive data type, for example, say int.
Table 17.2 Arrays class static methods
Arrays class static methods Functionality
static datatype Can be applied to sorted
binarySearch arrays. Uses binary search
datatype method
array[],datatype
val);
static boolean Returns true if two arrays are
equals(datatype equal
myArray1[],datatype
myarray2[]); Returns true if both arrays and
their nested arrays if any are
equal
static boolean
deepEquals (Object
[]
obj1,Object[]obj2)
static void Sorts the array
sort(datatype
myArray[]); Specifies the range in an array
for sorting.
ststic void
sort(datatype
myArray[],int
start,int end)
static void fill( Fills all elements of array with
datatype myArray[], val. If index is beyond,
datatype val);
ArrayIndexOutOfBounds
Exception occurs
Example
17.10: ArraysClassDemo.java: To
Show Usage of Arrays Class Static
Methods
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.io.*;
3. import java.util.Arrays;
4. public class ArraysClassDemo {
5. public static void main(String []
args)
6. throws
IOException,ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsExcepti
on{
7. int[]myArray = new int[12];
8. // fill the array with zeros as
initial values
9. Arrays.fill(myArray, 0);
10. System.out.print(ʺ\nArray with
initial values\nʺ);
11. DisplayArray(myArray);
12. System.out.print(ʺ\nnow
allocate values to arrayʺ);
13. //populata the array in aloop
14. for ( int i=0;i<=
(myArray.length)/2;i++)
15. myArray[i]=(4*i);
16. for ( int i=myArray.length-
1;i>myArray.length/2;i--)
17. myArray[i]=i;
18. System.out.print(ʺ\nArray after
allocating values\nʺ);
19. DisplayArray(myArray);
20. System.out.print(ʺ\nSorting the
array….ʺ);
21. Arrays.sort(myArray);
22. System.out.print(ʺ\nArray after
sorting values\nʺ);
23. DisplayArray(myArray);
24. System.out.print(ʺ\nBinary
Search the array….ʺ);
25. int pos =
Arrays.binarySearch(myArray,4);
26. System.out.print(ʺ\n index = ʺ +
(pos+1));
27. }//end of main
28. static void DisplayArray(int
myArray[]){
29. for ( int
i=0;i<myArray.length;i++)
30. System.out.print(myArray[i]+ʺ
ʺ);
31. // System.out.println(ʺ\nʺ);
32. }// end of DisplayArray
33. }// end of ArraysClassDemo}//
end of ArraysClassDemo
Output:
Array with initial values
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
now allocate values to array
Array after allocating values
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 7 8 9 10 11
Sorting the array….
Array after sorting values
0 4 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 16 20 24
Binary Search the array….
Pos = 2
Lin imports java.uti.Arrays.
e
No
. 3:
Lin throws
e IOException,ArrayIndexOutOfBounds
No Exception.
. 6:
Lin Arrays.fill(myArray, 0); uses static
e method of Arrays called
fill(array[],arg) to fill the array wit all
No zeros. Note that a static method can be called
. 9: directly with class name. No need to invoke
them with object as we normally do with class
objects.
Lin DisplayArray(myArray); I a static method
e displayed in the same class. Hence we have
No used the specifier static.
s.
11
an
d
19
an
d
23:
Lin populate the arrays with values (4*i) and I
e in a loop.
No
s.
14
to
17:
Lin calls Arrays.sort(myArray) to sort the
e array
No
.
21:
17.4 String
A String is an array of characters or a
sequence of characters. In Java, the String
occupies an important position and role
because Java is a language created for
network and to transmit data on the network
we have to use the Strings. In C or C++, a
string is an array of character, with the last
one being ‘\0’. In Java, this is not so. A
String is an object in Java. They are
implemented by String class and
StringBuffer class. We can use any
one of the following three methods to
create a String Object:
Method 1 : String name ; name =
new String(ʺHello Classʺ);
Or we can combine both statements
into one
String name = new
String(ʺHello Classʺ);
Method 2 : convert character arrays into
Strings.
char x[] = {‘G’,’o’,’o’,’d’};
String stg = new String
(stg);
Method 3 : String name =ʺ Hello
Classʺ ;
There are two important methods with
Strings that are widely used.
int len = name.length() ; //
gives the length of String name
Strings can be concatenated as shown below:
System.out.println ( name +ʺ ʺ
+ x); // gives out Hello Class Good
17.4.1 Array of Strings
We can create an array of Strings. For
example, we want to create an array of
Strings containing 6 city names.
//create array of Strings
String [] cityNames= new String[6];
Scanner scn = new Scanner(System.in);
int i=0;
int len = cityNames.length;
System.out.println(ʺEnter 6 city
names separated by spacesʺ);
for ( i=0;i<len;i++)
cityNames[i]=scn.next();
Example solved at Ex 17.6 will show the
working of Array of strings. We will obtain
the strings into an array called cityNames
using Scanner methods and sort the array of
strings alphabetically.
17.4.2 String Class Methods
Method supported by string class is shown
in Table 17.3.
Table 17.3 String class methods
String Method Functionality Performed
stg.length(); Returns length.
stg.CharAt(pos) Returns char at pos.
;
Returns -1/0/1 on stg1< or =
stg1.compare(st or > stg2
g2);
Concatenates stg1 & stg2
stg1.concat(stg
2);
stg2=stg1.toLow Converts stg1 to lower case
erCase();
Converts stg1 to upper case
stg2=stg1.toUpp
erCase(); Replaces char a with char b
stg2=stg1.repla Removes leading & Trailing white
ce( ‘a’, ‘b’); space of stg1.
stg2=stg1.trim(
);
stg1.equals(stg Returns true if stg1 equals stg2
2);
Returns true if stg1 equals stg2
ignoring the case
stg1.equalsIgno
reCase();
stg1.substring( Returns substring from pos
pos);
Returns substring specified by
stg2.substring( start and end-1.
start,end);
Converts s into an object of String.
string.valueOf(
s); Converts object stg to string
stg.toString(); Returns position of first occurrence
of x.
stg.indexOf(‘x’
Returns position of first
);
occurrence of x after pos.
stg.indexof(‘x’
,pos);
Example
17.11: StringMethodsDemo.java: To
Show Usage of String Class Methods
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. public class StringSort {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. //create array of Strings
5. String [] cityNames= new String[]
{ʺMADRASʺ ,ʺ BANGALOREʺ ,ʺ GHAZIABADʺ ,ʺ
BINTULUʺ ,ʺ VIZAGʺ ,ʺ RAIPURʺ };
6. // Get the size
7. int len = cityNames.length;
8. System.out.println(ʺ\nCity Names
………ʺ);
9. for ( int i=0;i<len-1;i++)
10. System.out.print(cityNames[i]+ʺ
ʺ);
11. String temp;
12. for ( int i=0;i<len-1;i++){
13. for ( int j=i+1;j<len;j++){
14. if(
cityNames[j].compareTo(cityNames[i])<0)
15. { // swap city names
16. temp=cityNames[i];
cityNames[i]=cityNames[j];
17. cityNames[j]=temp;
18. }
19. }//inerfor loop
20. }//outer for loop
21. System.out.println(ʺ\nCity
Names Sorted alphabeticallyʺ);
22. for ( int i=0;i<len-1;i++)
23. System.out.print(cityNames[i]+ʺ
ʺ);
24. }//end of main
25. }// end of class StringSort
Output: City Names ………
MADRAS BANGALORE GHAZIABAD BINTULU
VIZAG
City Names Sorted alphabetically
BANGALORE BINTULU GHAZIABAD MADRAS
RAIPUR
L creates a String Object called cityNames[]
i and allocates resources using new operator.
n
e
N
o
.
6
:
L gets length of String cityNames. Observe
i that length has no brackets.
n
e
N
o
.
7
:
L are outer & inner for loops for sorting the
i String Array cityNames[].
n
e
N
o
s
.
1
2
&
1
3
:
L if(cityNames[j].compareTo(cityNames[
i i])<0)uses compareTo() method. This
n method compares cityNames[j]&
e cityNames[i]) and returns <0 or 0
N
or >0 i.e negative, zero, and
o
positive depending on of
.
1 cityNames[i]) is alphabetically
4 appears before cityNames[j]
:
17.4.3 StringBuffer Class
String is a fixed length and modifying the
length and content is not allowed, i.e., they
cannot be muted (they are immutable).
StringBuffer class is meant to fulfill the
gap in requirements of programmers. We
can insert in the middle or at the end of a
string. Hence StringBuffer class elements
are mutable. Methods supported by
StringBuffer class are shown in Table
17.4.
Table 17.4 StringBuffer class methods
StringBuffer Class Methods Functionality
stg.setCha Changes character at pos to c.
rAt(pos,’c
’); Appends stg2 to stg1.
stg1.appen Inserts stg2 at pos.
d(stg2);
Sets length of stg to n. Truncation or
stg1.inser addition with zeros takes place if original
t(pos,stg2 length is > n or <n.
);
stg.setLen
gth(n);
Example
17.12: StringBufferDemo.java: To
Show Usage of StringBuffer Class
Methods
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.util.*;
3. public class StringBufferDemo {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. //create object of StringBuffer
6. StringBuffer stg = new
StringBuffer(ʺC++ & Javaʺ);
7. System.out.println(ʺ\nGiven String
: ʺ + stg);
8. int len = stg.length();
9. System.out.println(ʺPrinting Given
String character by characterʺ);
10. for (int i=0;i<len;i++)
11.
System.out.print(stg.charAt(i)+ʺ ʺ);
12. System.out.println(ʺ\nInserting
a string :OOPS in: at the beginning ʺ);
13. String stg2=ʺ OOPS in ʺ;
14. stg.insert(0,stg2);
15. System.out.println(ʺString
after insertingʺ);
16. System.out.println(stg);
17. System.out.println(ʺModifying
few elements of Stringʺ);
18. stg.setCharAt(0,’o’);
19. stg.setCharAt(1,’o’);
20. stg.setCharAt(2,’p’);
21. stg.setCharAt(3,'s’);
22. System.out.println(ʺString
after modificationsʺ);
23. System.out.println(stg);
24. System.out.println(ʺAppending
Stringʺ);
25. stg.append(ʺ Languagesʺ);
26. System.out.println(ʺString
after appendingʺ);
27. System.out.println(stg);
28. }//end of main
29. }//end of class
StringBufferDemo
Output: Given String : C++ & Java
Printing Given String character by
character
C + + & J a v a
Inserting a string :OOPS in: at the
begining
String after inserting
OOPS inC++ & Java
Modifying few elements of String
String after modifications
oops inC++ & Java
Appending String
String after appending
oops inC++ & Java Languages
Lin StringBuffer stg = new
e StringBuffer(ʺC++ & Javaʺ); creates
No. an object of stringBuffer class and
3: assigns initial value as (ʺC++ & Javaʺ);
Lin prints the string chara by character using :
e charAt() method.
No.
11:
Lin inserts the string ʺOOPS in ʺ using :
e insert() method.
No.
14:
Lin modifies the character using setCharAt()
e method.
No.
17
to
21:
Lin append a string ʺLanguagesʺ to the existing
e String using append() method
No.
25:
17.4.4 StringBuilder Class
Jdk1.5 has provided StringBuilder class
in addition to StringBuffer class.
StringBuilder class is the same as that of
StringBuffer, but it is not synchronized.
What this means is that when several
threads are waiting as StringBuffer class
is synchronized, all the waiting threads will
be executed as per priority one after the
other and thereby prevent a condition called
racing. More details about synchronized
methods and racing are provided in the
chapter on multithread programming. When
programming with single thread,
StringBuilder will provide quicker
solution but multithreaded programming
use of StringBuffer is recommended.
17.5 Collection Framework
Arrays, while they are extremely useful, have
their own limitations. They are static in
nature. This means that resources are to be
allocated at compile time. Arrays are fixed
length data structures. Further arrays
contain only homogenous data types. How
do we store a group of objects in an array?
J2SE 5.0 has provided a collection
framework. This is somewhat similar to
container of C++ but has quite a number of
differences. Collection framework is
implemented in java.util package. The
concept is: make a collection object, Store
group of objects in collection object. The
collection framework of Java is shown in
Figure 17.5.
Figure 17.5 Collection class of java.util
Collection class provides several
interfaces. They are shown in Table 17.5.
Table 17.5 Collection class interfaces
Collection Class Interface Classes
Set<T> HashSet<T>
LinkedHashSet<T>
List<T> Stack<T>
LinkedList<T>
ArrayList<T>
Vector<T>
Queue<T> LinkedList<T>
Map<k,s> HashMap<k,s>
Hashtabel<k,s>
In our next section, we deal with vector
class and leave the balance to be dealt by
other succeeding chapters on Java
Collection.
17.5.1 Vector Class
Vector is a data structure provided by java
J2SE 5.0 to store any number of objects of
any type, and these can be decided and
resources can be allocated at run-time. The
advantages of vectors over arrays can be
summarized as follows:
Vectors are dynamic and can be used to store any
number, any type and any size of objects.
Addition and deletion of objects from the vector is easy
whereas deletion and addition in array requires
readjustment of data.
The disadvantage is that only objects can be
stored and not direct data. Hence we need to
use wrapper class to convert primitive data
to objects. We will implement vector class as
it is logically linked to arrays and leave the
balance topics for handling in ensuing
chapters.
17.5.2 Vector Methods
Methods supported by Vector Class are
placed in Table 17.6.
Table 17.6 Vector methods
Method Remark
boolean Adds at end
addElement()
Adds at position n
boolean
assElementAt(n)
boolean Removes the specified element
removeElement()
Removes element at position n
boolean
removeElementAt( Removes all elements
n)
boolean
removeAllElement
s()
int size() Returns no of object
element get(pos) Returns element at pos
void Sets obj at position
set(pos,obj)
Object[] Copies contents into array
toarray()
InsertElementAt( Returns object class type array with
) all elements of vector
Example 17.13: VectorDemo.java: A
Program to Demonstrate Usage of
Vector Class
1. package com.oops.chap17;
2. import java.util.*;
3. public class VectorDemo {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. // create an object of vector
class to store integers
6. Vector<Integer> vec = new
Vector<Integer>();
7. // define an integer array
8. int [] x = new int []{
10,20,30,40,50,60,70};
9. /* store the integers into vec.
But integers are converted to objects
automatically by a feature autoboxing*/
10. for ( int i=0;i<x.length; i++)
11. vec.add(x[i]);
12.
System.out.println(ʺ\nDisplaying Vector
using vec.get()ʺ);
13. for ( int i=0;i<vec.size();
i++)
14. System.out.print(vec.get(i)+ʺ
ʺ);
15. System.out.println(ʺDisplaying
using ListIteratorʺ);
16. ListIterator itr =
vec.listIterator();
17. System.out.println(ʺUsing
ListIterator move forwardʺ);
18. while (
itr.hasNext())System.out.print(itr.next(
)+ʺ ʺ);
19. System.out.println(ʺUsing
ListIterator move reverseʺ);
20. while ( itr.hasPrevious())
21.
System.out.print(itr.previous()+ʺ ʺ);
22. }// end of main
23. }// end of vectorDemo
Output: Displaying Vector elements
using vec.get()
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Displaying
Vector elements using ListIterator
Using ListIterator move forward
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Using ListIterator move reverse
70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Li Vector<Integer> vec = new
ne Vector<Integer>();creates an object
No called vec of Vector<Integer>
. 6:
Li defines an array called x and assigns values to
ne the array
No
. 8:
Li adds elements into Vector object.Integers are
ne converted to objects automatically by a
No feature autoboxing. Line No. 11 :
s. vec.add(x[i]); shows addition to Vector
9 object vec.
to
11:
Li gets the elements from Vector object vec and
ne prints them
No System.out.print(vec.get(i)+ʺ ʺ);
.
14:
creates an object called listIterator for
Ln class ListIteraotr. This iterator is used to
e raverse the Vector both forward and reverse
No directions by using itr.next and
. itr.previous.
16:
Li checks if itr.hasNext or
ne itr.hasPrevious is true
No
s.
18
&
20
:
17.6 Summary
1. StringTokenizer class is used to receive multiple inputs
in a single line.
2. Scanner class of Java is elegant and easy to use to read
the input data from keyboard.
3. String.format() is a static method and hence can be used
directly to control the output.
4. An array is defined as a collection of elements where
each element is of the same type. The elements of the
array can either be elementary data types like int, float,
char, or can be complex data types like structures and
objects.
5. Java.util package provides a useful collection class called
Arrays class. Arrays class defines several static
methods that can be used directly without creating an
object.
6. A String is an array of characters or sequence of
characters. A String is an object in Java. They are
implemented by String class and StringBuffer
class.
7. StringBuffer class is meant to fulfill the gap in
requirements of programmers. We can insert in the
middle or at the end of a string. Hence StringBuffer class
elements are mutable.
8. StringBuilder class is the same as that of StringBuffer
but it is not synchronized.
9. Collection framework is implemented in java.util
package.
10. Vector is a data structure provided by java J2SE 5.0 to
store any number of objects of any type.
11. Wrapper class converts the primitive data into objects.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Arrays are passé to methods as pass by reference
only. TRUE/FALSE
2. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Java Strings?
1. Java String is an array of characters terminated by ‘\0’
2. Java String is an object of String class.
3. String is implemented using character array.
4. Java String is implemented using String class or StringBuffer class.
1. i and iii
2. ii and iii
3. ii and iv
4. iii and iv
3. A string in Java can be implemented by
1. String class
2. StringBuffer
3. StringBuilder
4. a, b and c
4. Which of the following are true in respect of Arrays and
Strings?
1. arr.length() gives length of the array
2. stg.length; gives the length of the string
3. stg.length() gives the length of stg
4. arr.length ; gives the length of the array
1. ii and iv
2. i and iii
3. iii and iv
4. i and ii
5. String is a fixed length and content can be
modified. TRUE/FALSE
6. StringBuffer class elements are
immutable. TRUE/FALSE
7. StringBuilder class elements are
mutable. TRUE/FALSE
8. Java String elements are mutable. TRUE/FALSE
9. Both StringBuffer and StringBuilder methods are
synchronized. TRUE/FALSE
10. Vectors cannot store direct primitive
data. TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
11. What is an array? How can it be created and set initial
values?
12. Distinguish vector and array.
13. What is a Scanner class?
14. Distinguish the ways in which we can get length of an
array and String.
15. How is an element of character array accessed?
16. How is an element of String accessed?
17. Explain formatted output using System.out.printf()
method.
18. Explain String.format() method to output formatted
data.
19. What is collection framework provided by Java?
20. What is wrapper class?
Long-answer Questions
21. Explain with examples how primitive data can be
inputted from KeyBoard.
22. Explain the utility of StringTokenizer class. How is
Scanner class different from class?
23. Write in detail about one-dimensional and multi-
dimensional arrays. Also write about how initial values
can be specified for each type of array.
1. In what way is array different from ordinary variable?
2. What conditions must be satisfied by the entire elements of any
given array?
3. What are subscripts? How are they written? What restrictions
apply to the values that can be assigned to subscripts?
4. What advantage is there in defining an array size in terms of a
symbolic constant rather than a fixed integer quantity?
24. Explain the various methods available for creation and
setting initial values to an array with suitable examples.
25. How are multi-dimensional arrays defined? Compare
with the manner in which one-dimensional arrays are
defined.
26. Explain salient features of Vector class.
27. Explain with examples the various methods to create
and set initial values to a String.
28. Explain methods of String class with examples.
29. Explain what you understand by the statement
StringBuffer elements are mutable.
30. Distinguish the String class and StringBuffer Class and
StringBuilder Class.
Assignment Questions
31. Write a Java program to find the sum of elements of an
array with recursion.
32. Write a Java program to find the product of two
matrices.
33. Write a Java program to find the determinant of a
matrix.
34. Write a function to merge two sorted arrays.
35. Write a program to read a line from the keyboard and
print the line using a suitable encryption. Simple
encryption can be a substitution with the next character
A with B, a with b, z with a and so on. De-crypt and
display the original message.
36. Develop String class to implement all the functionality
provided by Java String class.
37. Develop Array class to implement the functionality
provided by Arrays class.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. True
2. c
3. d
4. c
5. False
6. False
7. True
8. False
9. False
10. True
18
Class Objects and Methods
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able
to understand and use
Java's classes and objects.
Constructors and their overloading.
Java's methods and their usage.
This operator.
Inner classes.
Finalize method and Garbage collector.
Static methods and classes.
18.1 Introduction
Java is a pure object-oriented language and
hence all programming is enclosed in
classes. Object-oriented programming
involves writing programs that use classes.
We create objects of different classes to solve
the problem at hand and make objects
communicate with each other through the
member functions.
In this chapter, we will learn how to solve
problems by using classes and objects. We
will also cover topics such as data hiding,
abstraction, access privileges enjoyed by
members of the class, and concepts of
constructor and destructor. Variations in
methods such as methods definition,
recursion and factory methods are also
discussed. Classes within a class, called
inner classes, are introduced. This operator
and static member functions and their
relevance and usage are explained. Java's
garbage collector and finalizer methods are
also discussed.
18.2 Classes and Objects
Look around your classroom. There are
students all round. First of all, why have
they been grouped together by your
principal? Firstly because they all share
common interests, for example they
would like to learn the language Java or they
would like to complete their PG or UG
studies. In computer parlance, we can say
that all students have the same functionality.
That is why they could be grouped together.
But notice that each student has his own
individual attributes. Attributes mean own
member data like height, weight, marks,
attendance, etc. Also notice that there are
about 60 students in your class, each with
his or her own attributes but common
functionalities. We can call 60 instances of
object of Students class. Well so much
background for analogy. Figure 18.1 shows
attributes and methods of class student.
Figure 18.1 Class methods and attributes
Class: A collection of objects. We can also
define as an array of instances objects. But
class can have member functions and
member data. Here, unlike array, a class can
have different data types as its elements.
Object: An object is an entity. That is, it can
be felt and seen. Examples are students,
pens, tables, chairs, etc. Therefore, an object
is an independent entity that has its own
member data and member functions.
While methods of a class are common to
all instances of the object, each instance of
an object has its own set of attributes.
Hence, member data is also called instance
variables, i.e. they are different for each
instance of an object.
Data Hiding/Data Abstraction. It is
customary to declare all member data as
private only. But the data declared as private
is hidden and cannot be accessed by anyone.
This feature is called data hiding or data
abstraction. But how can we get them? You
can access this only through public member
methods.
Encapsulation. An object-oriented
programming like Java is a data primacy
language i.e. data is important and functions
are not important. As per memory mapping,
data is stored in data area, such as stack and
free space, and functions are stored in code
area and there is a need to maintain strict
control over the accessing of data by
functions. Java achieves this control by
using the encapsulation feature.
Encapsulation is binding member data and
calling function together with security
classification, so that no unauthorized
access to data takes place. Java depends
heavily on access specifiers to maintain data
integrity. The security access specifiers are
public, private, protected and default
specifier package.
18.3 Declaring a Class and Creating of
Instances of Class Variables
Use keyword class followed by brace
brackets. In side brace brackets we can
include member data and member methods,
as shown below. We will create a class for
Student called Student3. The attributes
are name, rollNo, total marks and
grade. The grades are awarded based on
total marks: A, if total marks are >80; B, if
total marks are >60; C, if total marks are
<60; and D, if total marks are <40.
Example 18.1: How to Declare a
Class Called Student
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Student1{
4. // member data or attributes
5. String name=””; // name of the
student
6. int rollNo;
7. double totalMarks;
8. String grade=””;
9. }
10. class StudentDemo {
11. public static void main(String[]
args) {
12. // create an object of class
Student3
13. Student1 std = new Student1();
14. std.name=”Gautam”;
15. std.rollNo=6274;
16. std.totalMarks=98.78;
17. //compute grade
18. if( std.totalMarks >=80.0)
std.grade=”A”;
19. else if (std.totalMarks>= 60.0)
std.grade=”B”;
20. else if (std.totalMarks>= 50.0)
std.grade=”C”;
21. else std.grade=”D”;
22. System.out.println(“Students
Details are………”);
23. System.out.println(“Roll
Number:” + std.rollNo);
24. System.out.println(“Name:” +
std.name);
25. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + std.totalMarks);
26. System.out.println(”Grade:“ +
std.grade);
27. }
28. }// end of StudentDemo
Output: Students Details are………
Roll Number:6274 Name:Gautam Total
Marks:98.78 Grade:A
L declare attributes like roll number, name,
i totalMarks and grade. As we have not
n declared access specifiers, these are considered
e public inside the package. This means that all
N the classes within the package can access these
o attributes.
s.
5
t
o
8
:
L declares a class StudentDemo with public
i static void() at Line No. 11. This means that is
n our main class and our program is thus named
e StudentDemo.java. This is also called a
N driver program for class Student2
o.
1
0
:
L Student1 std = new
i Student1();creates an object of class
n Student1 named std. New statement allocates
e memory for Student object and then calls
N constructor (default constructor) is user does
o. not explicitly define it.
1
3
:
L show that we can assign data to member
i attributes with operator. For example
n std.name=“Gautam”. Notice that we could
e directly access the member data because they
N are public to package.
o
s.
1
4
–
1
6
:
18.4 Constructors
18.4.1 Default Constructor
When you need to construct a house, you go
to a specialist called architect or mason so
that they make the house ready for
occupation and usage. So is the case with
class. When a class is declared and an object
is created, the constructor for the class is
called. Its job is to create the object, allocate
memory for the data members and initialize
them with initial values if supplied by the
user. If no initial values are supplied by the
user, then it initializes with default values.
Similarly, if the user does not declare a
constructor, default constructor is always
created. Constructor will have the same
name as that of the class but no return value.
Constructor is always treated as public by
default. Whenever an object is created, the
constructor is automatically called.
Student Std = new Student();
// default constructor is called.
18.4.2 Parameterized Constructor and
Overloading of Constructors
Constructors are called parameterized when
we pass initial values at the time of creation
of the object: Student Gautam = new
Student (“ Gautam”,
6274,74.00,”A”); we will demonstrate
the concepts of constructors through an
example of Polar class in Example 18.2:
Example 18.2: PassObjConst.java
A Program for Showing Overloaded
Methods
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. //import java.math.*;
4. class Polar2{
5. // all member data is declared as
private
6. private double r; // magnitude
7. private double t; // angle theeta
8. private double a; // real
9. private double b; // imaginary
10. public void Setr( double rd){
r=rd;}
11. public void Sett( double td){
t=td;}
12. public void Seta( double ad){
a=ad;}
13. public void Setb( double bd){
b=bd;}
14. //constructors
15. //Default Constructor
16. Polar2() {
17. System.out.println(“Polar2
Default constructor….”);
18.
Setr(0.0);Sett(0.0);Seta(0.0);Setb(0.0);
}
19. //parameterized constructor
20. Polar2(double ad, double bd){
21.
System.out.println(“parameterized(a & b)
constructor.”);
22.
Setr(0.0);Sett(0.0);Seta(ad);Setb(bd);}
23. Polar2(double ad, double bd ,
double rd, double td){
24.
System.out.println(“parameterized(
a,b,r,t) constructor.”)
25.
Setr(rd);Sett(td);Seta(ad);Setb(bd);}
26. // public accessory functions
27. public void ConvertToPolar()
{double x=0.0;
28. r=(a*a + b*b)*0.5;
x=Math.atan(b/a);//x in radians
29. t=Math.toDegrees(x);
30. } // to convert to polar form
31. public void DisplayPolar(){
32. System.out.println(“Inside
DisplayPolar .”);
33. /*directly use r and t because
accessed inside method */
34.
System.out.println(«magnitude<r>:» +r +
«Angle<t>» + t);}
35. }// end of class Polar1
36. class Polar2Demo {
37. public static void
main(String[] args) {
38. // create an object of class
Polar1-Default constructor
39. Polar2 pol2 = new Polar2();
40. pol2.DisplayPolar();
41. Polar2 pol2a = new
Polar2(3.0,4.0); // 3 + J4
42. pol2a.ConvertToPolar();
43. pol2a.DisplayPolar();
44. Polar2 pol2b = new
Polar2(3.0,4.0,12.5,53.13); //3+J4 & r,Φ
45. pol2b.DisplayPolar();
}
}// end of Polar2Demo
Output Inside Polar2 Default
constructor………….
Inside DisplayPolar .
magnitude <r> :0.0Angle<t>0.0
Inside Polar2 parameterized(a & b)
constructor………….
Inside Polar2 parameterized( a,b,r,t)
constructor………….
Inside DisplayPolar.
magnitude <r> :12.5Angle<t>53.13
Inside DisplayPolar .
magnitude <r>
:12.5Angle<t>53.13010235415598
L declares a default constructor with nill
i arguments. However, it calls Set methods to set
n initial values of 0.0 for a, b, r, t at Line No. 18.
e Note that these Set methods are defined at line
N Nos. 10–13.
o
.
1
6
:
Overloading of constructors means the same
name but different signatures (number and
type of parameters). In the above example,
we have overloaded the constructors as
shown below:
Li Polar() { ………………………….) Nil
ne arguments. This type of constructor is called
No NIL arguments constructor and also as
. default constructor.
16:
Li Polar2(double ad, double bd)
ne {…………………………………….} 2 arguments
No
.
20
:
Li Polar2(double ad,double bd ,double
ne rd,double td){…} 4 args
No
.
23
:
We have overloaded the constructors. Each
overloaded constructor has a different
number of arguments. Overloading means
the same name but different signatures
(number and type of parameters). When a
message is sent, signatures are compared
and best-fit methods get loaded. This
happens at run time. We have to pass
arguments to constructors. Hence, these are
called parameterized constructors.
18.5 Specifying Private Access Specifiers
and Use of Public Methods
18.5.1 Private Access Specifiers
In the Class we have declared in Example
18.1, the attributes had no access specifiers
and hence they had default access specifiers,
i.e. they are public to all the members of
package and private to outside package.
However, policy of any good OOPS language
is to declare the attributes as private and
provide public methods to access these
attributes. The next example shows that we
have declared all the attributes as private
and provided public methods like
GetData(), DisplayData() and
ComputeData().
18.5.2 Methods
Once the object to a class is created, we can
access the member functions and public
member data of a class using the dot (.)
operator.
In Java, class member functions are called
Methods. A method is nothing but a code
written to achieve a result. The syntax is:
public void main () calls the function
FindMax() by supplying the arguments and
receives the result through return type.
ans = FindMax ( a, b ) ; // a,b,
and ans are all integer data types
Arguments: Number and type of
parameters are called arguments.
Parameters are also called formal
parameters.
Signature: Name and arguments together
are called the signature of the method. A
method will have a return type which is
outside the signature. The variables declared
inside a method are called local variables
and are never available anywhere outside
the method. A method can be executed by
sending a message to the object. Message
comprises – a reference to the object, a dot
(.), method name and actual parameters
(arguments). In the next example, we will
show usage of access specifiers and also
methods that return parameters. Whenever
IO Stream commands are used, there is a
likelihood of errors and exceptions
occurring. Hence, try and catch block.
Instance Methods: Methods are defined
inside a class and can be accessed by object
or instances of object. Hence, these methods
are also called instance methods.
Access/Mutator Methods. Normally the
member data is declared private and public
accessory methods are declared inside a
class to access them. There are a set of these
public methods which are called Get() and
Set() methods whose job is just to set the
private data and read(Get) the private
data. The Get() methods are called
accessor methods and the Set() methods
are called mutator methods. These are
extensively used in deciding the behaviour
pattern of the objects.
Example 18.3: How to Declare a
Class Called Student with Data with
Access Specifiers and Function
Accepts a Value as Parameter and
Returns a Value
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Student3{
4. // member data or attributes
5. private String name=””; // name of
the student
6. private int rollNo;
7. private double totalMarks;
8. private String grade=””;
9. //public metods
10. public void GetData() {
11. try{
12. BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new
InputStreamReader(System.in));
13. System.out.println(“Enter
Students name :”);
14. name = input.readLine();
15. System.out.println(“Enter
Students roll number :”);
16. rollNo=
Integer.parseInt(input.readLine());
17. System.out.println(“Enter total
marks :”);
18. totalMarks=
Double.parseDouble(input.readLine());
19. }catch ( Exception e){}
20. }//endof GetData()
21. public void DisplayData() {
22. System.out.println(“Students
Details are………”);
23. System.out.println(“Roll
Number:” + rollNo);
24. System.out.println(“Name:” +
name);
25. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + totalMarks);
26. System.out.println(“Grade:” +
ComputeGrade(totalMarks));
27. }
28. public String
ComputeGrade(double totalMarks) {
29. String grade=””;
30. if( totalMarks >=80.0)
grade=”A”;
31. else if (totalMarks>= 60.0)
grade=”B”;
32. else if (totalMarks>= 50.0)
grade=”C”;
33. else grade=”D”;
34. return grade;
35. }
36. }// end of Student3
37. class Student3Demo {
38. public static void main(String[]
args) {
39. // create an object of class
Student3
40. Student3 Gautam = new
Student3();
41. Gautam.GetData();
42. Gautam.DisplayData();
43. }
44. }// end of Student3Demo
Output: Students Details are………
Roll Number:50595
Name:Ramesh
Total Marks:98.0
Grade:A
Li define class Student3. Line Nos. 5 to 8
n declare attributes for Student3 that are
e declared as private.
N
os
.
3
to
3
5:
Li declare public methods for accessing private
n data and perform the required functionality
e like GetData(), Display Data() which
N in turn calls ComputeGrade().
os
.
1
0,
21
&
2
8:
Li declares a public function public String
n Compute Grade(double totalMarks)
e that takes an argument called totalMarks
N and computes and returns grade of String data
o. type in Line No. 34.
2
8:
Li define a public method as public void
n GetData() {………}.
e
N
os
.
1
0
to
2
0:
Li use try and catch block since GetData() uses
n stream objects and there is a likelihood of
e error/exception taking place. Catch block
N catches Exception Object ‘e’ at Line No. 19.
os
.
11
&
19
:
Li BufferedReader input = new
n BufferedReader (new
e InputStreamReader(System.in)); We
N are creating an object of BufferedReader
o. called input, that is an instance of
12 InputStreamReader. Observe that
:
System.in represents keyboard.
Li read a string from keyboard. Whereas Line
n Nos. 15 and 16 read a primitive data integer
e from keyboard. We have used
N Integer.parseInt() to read data from
os keyboard. Similarly, other data type can also
. be inputted.
13
&
14
:
Li DisplayData() calls a method Compute
n Grade()
e System.out.println(“Grade:” +
N ComputeGrade());
o.
2
6:
Li creates a class called Student3Demo. This is
n our main class to act as driver for Student3.
e This class contains public static void
N main(String[] args){……}. At Line 40, we
o.
have created an object of Student3 with the
3
7:
statement : Student3 Gautam = new
Student3();
Li show how to invoke methods with the object
n created.
e
N
os
.
41
&
4:
18.5.3 Math Class of Java
In our next example, we will show all the
concepts we have discussed so far through a
class declaration called Polar. In this
program, you will learn the concept of class
and object and public accessory functions.
The class we will consider is vector in
Cartesian form denoted by real number a
and an imaginary component b. In Polar
coordinates, the same can be represented by
vector whose magnitude is r given by the
formula r = √ (a2 + b2) and the direction is
given by θ = tan – (b/a). Our program will
accept the real value a and imaginary
component b through a public accessory
function called GetData() and convert it to
Polar form with magnitude r and angle θ
through a public accessory function called
ConvertToPolar() and display the result
through a function called
DisplayPolar(). A word or two about
the way we will declare and define functions.
In the next example, we will show how we
can use math function. Java defines a Math
class. Some of the important and widely
used methods are shown in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1 Math class of Java – some widely used methods
Method Description
static double Returns sine cosine and tan
sin(double arg) of argument in radian
//cos & tan also
available
static double Returns angle whose tan()
atan(double arg) is argument
//asin() and acos
available
static double Returns hyperbolic sine of
sinh(double arg) angle given by argument.
//cosh & tanh also
available
static double pow Returns y^x
(double y, double x)
static double Returns square root of x
sqrt(double x)
static double Returns e^x
exp(double x)
static double Returns natural log of x
log(double x)
static double Returns log base 10 of x
log10(double x)
static double abs(
double x)
static double ceil( Returns smallest whole
double x) number >= x
static double floor( Returns largest whole
double x) number <= x
static double rint( Returns integer nearest to x.
double x)
Example 18.4: Polar1Demo.java A
Program to Accept Data for
Cartesian Vector a + j b and Display
the Result in Polar Form r Angle
Theta
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Polar1{
4. // all member data is declared as
private
5. private double r; // magnitude
6. private double t; // angle theeta
7. private double a; // real
8. private double b; // imaginary
9. // public accessory functions
10. public void GetData(){
11. try{
12. BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new
InputStreamReader(System.in));
13. System.out.println(“Enter
Cartesian <real number a>:”);
14. a =
Double.parseDouble(input.readLine());
15. System.out.println(“Enter
Imaginary <b> :”);
16. b=
Double.parseDouble(input.readLine());
17. System.out.println(“Enter
magnitude <r> :”);
18. r=t=0.0; // in side a member
method.r & t can be accessed d
19. }catch( Exception e){}
20. }
21. public void ConvertToPolar(){
22. double x=0.0;
23. r=Math.sqrt(a*a + b*b);
24. x=Math.atan(b/a); // x is in
radians, b/a in radians
25. t= (7.0/22.0)*180.0*x; // PI
radians equals 180 degrees
26. t=Math.toDegrees(x); //conver
to degrees
27. } // to convert to polar form
28. public void DisplayPolar(){
29. System.out.println(“Inside the
classes member function .”);
30. /*We can directly use r and t
because it is inside the
31. member function of the class
thus equal to public*/
32.
System.out.println(«magnitude<r>:» + r +
«Angle<t>» + t);
33. } // to display in polar and
cartesian forms
34. }// end of class Polar1
35. class Polar1Demo {
36. public static void
main(String[] args) {
37. // create an object of class
Polar1
38. Polar1 pol1 = new Polar1();
39. pol1.GetData();
40. pol1.ConvertToPolar();
41. pol1.DisplayPolar();
42. }
43. }// end of Polar1Demo
Output: Enter Cartesian form Vector
Details <real number a>: 3
Enter Imaginary <b> : 4
Enter magnitude <r> :
Inside the classes member function .
magnitude <r>
:12.5Angle<t>53.13010235415598
Line declare the attributes as private and type
Nos. double.
5 to
8:
Line defines a method for GetData() that
Nos. obtains data from keyboard using Biffered
10 to Reader at Line No. 12. It also uses try and
20: catch blocks at Line Nos. 11 and 19.
Line use Math class methods like sqrt, atan
Nos. and toDegrees
23,
24
and
26:
Notice that when we refer to private data
a,b,r,t inside a method like
ConverPolar() and the method is invoked
by the object, then these private variables
can be accessed directly like we have done at
Line No. 31 and we do not need public
accessory methods.
System.out.println("magnitude<r>:" + r +
"Angle<t>" + t);
18.5.4 Call by Value and Call by Reference
18.5.4.1 Call by Value
Mode of data transfer between calling
method and called method is carried out by
copying variables listed as arguments into
called method stack area, and subsequently,
returning the value by called function to
calling function by copying the result into
stack area of the main method. This is called
call by value. Note that as copying of the
variables, both for forward transfer and
return transactions are involved, it is
efficient only if values to be transferred are
small in number and of basic data type.
Accordingly, Java uses call by value for
transferring all primitive data types.
As only copies are forwarded to method,
the changes made to these variables by
called method are local changes and are not
reflected back to calling method.
Example
18.5: PassByValDemo.java –
Passing Arguments by Call by Value
//PassByValDemo.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class CallByVal{
4. public void SwapData(int x, int y)
{
5. System.out.println(“Inside
SwapDataBefore Swap………”);
6. System.out.println(“x:” + x +
“y:”+y);
7. int temp=x;x=y;y=temp;
8. System.out.println(“Inside
SwapData, After Swap”);
9. System.out.println(“x:” + x +
“y:”+y); }
10. }// end of class callBy Val
11. class PassByValDemo {
12. public static void main(String[]
args) {
13. int x=10;int y=100;
14. CallByVal val = new CallByVal();
15. val.SwapData(x,y);
16. System.out.println(“Inside main
:return from SwapData, “);
17. System.out.println(“x:” + x +
“y:”+y);}
18. }
Output: Inside SwapDataBefore Swap………
x:10y:100
Inside SwapData, After Swap ……….
x:100y:10
Inside main on return from SwapData,
x:10y:100
Line we have passed data by call by value. Line
No. Nos. 8 and 9 show that values inside
15: Swapdata have indeed been swapped.
These are local changes.
Line show that values of x and y remain
Nos. unchanged after return from SwapData.
16 This is characteristic of Call by Value.
and
17:
18.5.4.2 Call by Reference
For large data items occupying large
memory space like objects, overheads like
memory and access times, etc., become very
high. Hence, we do not pass values as in call
by value; instead, we pass the address to the
function. Note that once the method receives
a data item by reference, it acts on data item
and the changes made to the data item also
reflects on the calling function. This is like
passing the address of the original document
and not a photocopy. Therefore, changes
made on the original document apply to the
owner of the document as well.
Java passes objects only by reference.
When an instance of object is created, we are
creating the reference to object. As reference
of the objects is passed, changes made to
these objects by called program are reflected
back to the calling program as well. Please
make a note that reference itself is passed by
call by value.
18.5.5 Passing and Returning of Objects To
and From Methods
We can pass objects as arguments to a
method and receive object from a method
through return statement. In the example
that follows, a method called StdGrade
receives the object called Student as
argument and computes the grade and
returns the object to calling methods.
Example 18.6: StdGradeDemo.java
A Program that Passes and Receives
Objects To and From a Method
//StdGradedemo.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class StdGrade{
4. // member data or attributes
5. String name=””; // name of the
student
6. int rollNo;
7. double totalMarks;
8. String grade=””;
9. public void DisplayData() {
10. System.out.println(“Students
Details are………”);
11. System.out.println(“Roll
Number:” + rollNo);
12. System.out.println(“Name:” +
name);
13. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + totalMarks);
14. System.out.println(”Grade:“ +
grade);
15. }
16. public StdGrade
ComputeGrade(StdGrade std) {
17. String grade=””;
18. if( totalMarks >=80.0)
std.grade=”A”;
19. else if (totalMarks>= 60.0)
grade=”B”;
20. else if (totalMarks>= 50.0)
grade=”C”;
21. else grade=”D”;
22. return std;
23. }
24. }
25. class StdGradeDemo {
26. public static void
main(String[] args) {
27. // create an object of class
Student3
28. StdGrade std1 = new StdGrade();
29. std1.name=”Gautam”;
30. std1.rollNo=6274;
31. std1.totalMarks=98.78;
32. //compute grade by passing
object and receiving back object
33. std1= std1.ComputeGrade(std1);
34. std1.DisplayData();
35. }
36. }// end of StudentDemo
Output: Students Details are………
Roll Number:6274 Name:Gautam Total
Marks:98.78 Grade:A
L shows the function StdGrade( StdGrade
i std) receiving the object and Line No. 22
n returns the object. Please note that this transfer
e of the object is by Pass by Reference and hence
changes made inside a method are reflected
N back to the calling program.
o
.
1
6
:
As a second example of object passing, let us
consider a case wherein we pass object to a
constructor. We pass object to a constructor
when we need a clone(copy) of the object
initially.
Student std 1 = new Student (
“Ramesh”,50595,98.7,”A”) //
name,no,total,grade
Student std2 = new Student(std1); //
std2 is a clone of std1
Example 18.7: PassObjConst.java A
Program for Showing Overloaded
Methods
//PassObjConst.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Polar4{
4. private double a; // real
5. private double b; // imaginary
6. public void Setab(double ad,
double bd){a=ad;b=bd;}
7. //parameterized constructor
8. Polar4(double a, double b)
{Setab(a,b);}
9. // public accessory functions
10. Polar4(Polar4 pol){ a=
pol.a;b=pol.b;}//pass object
11. public void DisplayPolar(){
12. System.out.println(“Inside
DisplayPolar .”);
13. System.out.println(“Real <a> :”
+ a + “Imag <b>” + b);
14. } // to display in cartesian
form
15. }//end of class
16. class PassObjConst {
17. public static void main(String[]
args) {
18. Polar4 pol4 = new
Polar4(3.0,4.0); // 3 + J4
19. System.out.println(“Given Vector
in Cartesian form .”);
20. pol4.DisplayPolar();
21. Polar4 pol4a = new Polar4(pol4);
// we have passed pol4 object to make a
clone of pol4
22. System.out.println(“Cloned
Vector pol4a Cartesian form .”);
23. pol4a.DisplayPolar();
24. }
25. }// end of PassObjConst
Output: Polar4 parameterized(a & b)
constructor………….
Given Vector in Cartesian form .
Inside DisplayPolar .
Real <a> :3.0Imag <b>4.0
Cloned Vector pol4 in Cartesian form
.
Inside DisplayPolar .
Real <a> :3.0Imag <b>4.0
L Polar4(Polar4 pol){ a=
i pol.a;b=pol.b;} and statement 21
n Polar4 pol4a = new Polar4(pol4);
e shows passing of the object to a constructor.
N Pol4a ia clone of pol4
o
.
1
0
:
18.5.6 Method Overloading
The same name for the method but with
different number of arguments or different
type of arguments, we can say methods are
overloaded. Overloaded methods can have
different types of return types. When the
signature of the method, i.e. name and
arguments, match, Java loads the particular
version of the method into primary area.
While there can be several versions of a
method compiled, they are loaded at run
time as per arguments supplied by the user,
thus saving the primary memory. Consider
the following examples of overloading
because name is the same but there are
different number of arguments.
public double Find(double side){ return
side*side;}//Area of square
public double Find(double l, double b ){
return l*b;}//rectangle area
public double Find( double l , double b
, double h){ return l*b*h;}
// cube vol
A second set of examples are for different
types of arguments for overloaded methods
public int Find( int a , int b){ return
( a<b) ? a:b);}// smaller of a & b
integers
public double Find( double a , double b)
{ return ( a<b) ? a:b);}// smaller
of a & b double
Once you have declared the above
overloaded methods, the following
statements are not overloaded methods and
lead to error. Why?
public float Find(double l, double b)
{return l*b;}//rectangle area
public short Find( int a, int b){ return
( a<b) ? a:b);}// smaller of
a & b integers
Example 18.8: Find.Java To Show
Overloaded Methods
//FindDemo.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class OverLoadedFind{ // over
loaded Find for square, rect, cube
4. public double Find( double
side){ return side*side;}
5. public double Find( double l ,
double b ){ return l*b;}
6. public double Find(double l,
double b, double h){return l*b*h;}
7. }
8. class FindDemo {
9. public static void
main(String[] args) {
10. OverLoadedFind ovrfind = new
OverLoadedFind();
11. System.out.println(“ Area of a
square: “ + ovrfind.Find(10.0));
12. System.out.println(“Area of a
rect”+ ovrfind.Find(10.0,20.0));
13. System.out.println(“ Vol
ofCube:”+ovrfind.Find(10.0,20.0,30. 0));
14. }
15. }// end of FindDemo.java
Output: Area of a square: 100.0
Area of a rectangle: 200.0 Vol of a
Cube: 6000.0
Line define overloaded methods to determine
Nos. area of square, rectangle and volume of the
4, 5 & cube.
6:
Line use overloaded Find. Note that Java
Nos. automatically understands the data types
11, 12 as we have declared prototypes in
& 13: statements 4 to 6.
18.5.7 Recursion
Recursion is an advanced feature supported
by Java language. Recursion means a
method calling itself. Consider the problem
of finding a factorial of a number. In the
example, we can clearly see that Fact (5)
is calling Fact(4) and so on.
Fact(5) = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 5 × Fact(4)
= 5 × 4 × Fact(3)
= 5 × 4 × 3× Fact(2)
= 5 × 4 × 3× 2 × Fact(1)
= 5 × 4 × 3× 2 × 1 × Fact(0)
= 5 × 4 × 3× 2 × 1 (Fact(0)
=1)
Example 18.9: RecursionFact.Java
To Calculate Factorial Using
Recursion
1. //RecursionFact.java
2. package com.oops.chap19;
3. class Factorial{
4. public long factrecur(int
a)//function definition*/
5. { long ans;
6. if(a<=0) return(1); // fact(0) = 1
by definition
7. else ans =a*factrecur(a-1);
//method call with recursion*/
8. return(ans); //returns the value
of fact to main*/
9. } //end of function fact*/
10. }// end of class Factorial
11. class RecursionFact{
12. public static void
main(String[] args) {
13. Factorial fact = new
Factorial();
14. System.out.println(“ Fact of 5
: “+ fact.factrecur(5));
15. System.out.println(“ Fact of 7
: “ + fact.factrecur(7));
16. System.out.println(“ Fact of 10
: “ + fact.factrecur(10));
17. }
18. }//end of recursionFact
Output : Factorial of 5 : 120
Factorial of 7 : 5040
Factorial of 10 : 3628800
L defines factrecur(int a) to find the
i factorial by recursion. If you call the method
n with argiment 1, it will return 1 else it returns
e factrecur(a-1)*a. This means that we now
call factrecur with a-1 as argument, i.e. the
N method calls itself.
o
.
4
:
18.6 Usage of this Keyword
We are aware that memory management of
Java allocates separate memory area called
code section for your code. Accordingly,
your method code will be in this area. But we
also know that variables are stored in stack
area. When a method is invoked by an
object, there is a need to link up method that
is called with the objects data. Therefore, the
object is forwarded to method as an
argument to that method. But this
argument, i.e. address of the object invoking
the method, is not visible like ordinary
formal arguments and it is hidden. This
hidden address is called this object. It is
called this because it points this object, that
is, the object that has invoked the method.
In a method if you use this keyword
explicitly, then it refers to object member
data. Note that we can get the same effect by
using the object instead. But note that this
has all the advantages of instant and fast
access to object. Line No. 22 in the next
example shows this feature.
A second use of keyword this is to resolve
naming conflicts. For example, if our
method had the following definition: public
void Setr( double r){ r=r;}, there is
naming conflict. Keyword this comes to the
rescue. We could write the method as:
public void Setr(double r)
{this.r=r;} Line Nos. 8 to 11 show this
feature. Look at the program in Example
18.5 rewritten using this operator.
Example 18.10: PolarThis.java To
Show the Uses of this Operator.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Polar3{
4. private double r; // magnitude
5. private double t; // angle theeta
6. private double a; // real
7. private double b; // imaginary
8. public void Setr(double r)
{this.r=r;}
9. public void Sett(double t)
{this.t=t;}
10. public void Seta(double a)
{this.a=a;}
11. public void Setb(double b)
{this.b=b;}
12. //constructors Default
Constructor
13. Polar3() {
14. System.out.println(“Polar3
Default const..”);
15.
Setr(0.0);Sett(0.0);Seta(0.0);Setb(0.0);
}
16. Polar3(double a, double b){
17.
System.out.println(“parameterized(a & b)
const…”);
18.
Setr(0.0);Sett(0.0);Seta(a);Setb(b);}
19. // public accessory functions
20. public void ConvertToPolar()
{double x=0.0;
21. r=(a*a + b*b)*0.5;
x=Math.atan(b/a);//x in radians
22. t=Math.toDegrees(x);
23. } // to convert to polar form
24. public void DisplayPolar(){
25. System.out.println(“Inside
DisplayPolar .”);
26. System.out.println(“mag<r> :”+
this.r +”Angle<t>”+ this.t);
27. } // to display in polar and
cartesian forms
28. }// end of class Polar1
29. class PolarThis1Demo {
30. public static void
main(String[] args) {
31. Polar3 pol3a = new
Polar3(3.0,4.0); // 3 + J4
32. pol3a.ConvertToPolar();
33. pol3a.DisplayPolar();
34. }
35. }// end of Polar2Demo
Output: Inside Polar3 parameterized(a
& b) constructor………..
Inside DisplayPolar.
magnitude <r> :12.5Angle<t>53.13
18.7 Garbage Collection
Java resorts to automatic memory release
for objects no more needed. Java uses
automatic garbage collector to manage
memory. So what is automatic garbage
collector?
Garbage collector is a software program
that runs in the background and picks up
and clears memory space occupied by the
dead objects. It follows a predetermined
algorithm to decide which objects have no
remaining reference, i.e. they are no longer
referred and frees the memory
automatically. This process will happen
when the program is idle or when there is
insufficient free memory to be allotted.
18.8 Finalizer and Finalize() Methods
Java Run Time Environment calls
Finalize() method just before the object
is freed. An object may be holding several
resources line handler to window and files,
etc. We need to release these resources prior
to the object's release. This job is done when
Garbage collector handles the object and it
automatically calls finalize() method.
protected finalize() {//write all the
code for release of software}
Make a note that the time of execution of
finalize() is not known as it is executed
whenever Garbage collector calls for it and
Garbage collectors follows random
algorithm to release the object. Keyword
protected to ensure code is not available
outside the class.
18.9 Final Variable
Many a time, we need variables to hold a
constant value and this does not change
during the execution of the program. Then
we need to use final specifier. For example,
consider private final double PI =
3.141517; this means that we have
declared a private variable PI which holds a
double data type 3.141517. We want this
value to be constant. Hence, we use the
qualifier final.
18.10 Access Control and Accessing Class
Members
The security access specifiers are public,
private, protected, and default specifier
package. Protected specifier is applicable in
case of inheritance relationship.
Public: Member functions and data if any
declared as public can be accessed outside
the class member functions. This means that
public member can be accessed by any other
code. For example, we have defined main()
as public, as it is called by Java outside the
program.
package (default): You can access this
from any other class in the same directory.
Note that when no access specifier is
specified, default is public up to package
level, but private to members outside the
package. We can refer to these default or
public member data directly without the
help of public function defined in the class.
Private: Member data declared as private
can only be accessed within the class
member methods and data is hidden from
outside. We cannot access private members
directly. Instead, we need public accessory
methods to access these data.
Protected: Member data and member
functions declared as protected is private
to outsiders and public to descendants of the
class in inheritance relationship. You will
learn more about this in the inheritance
chapter that follows.
Example 18.11: AccessControl.java.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
//EmpAccess.java.
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class Employee{
3. String name; // default access .
Package level
4. public int rollNo; // public to
all
5. public String dept; // public
6. private double sal; //private
7. public double GetSal(){ return
sal;}
8. public void SetSal(double s){ sal
= s;}
9. }// end of class
10. class EmpAccess{
11. public static void
main(String[] args) {
12. Employee emp = new Employee();
13. emp.name=”Ramesh”; // allowed
since name is default
14. emp.rollNo=50595; // allowed
since rollNo is public
15. //emp.sal=10000.00; // Not
allowed since its private
16. // use public function like
SetSal() and GetSal()
17. emp.SetSal(15000.00);
18. System.out.println(“Emp
name:”+emp.name);//package default
19. System.out.println(“Emp id No:”
+emp.rollNo);//public
20. System.out.println(“Emp Salary
Set:”+emp.GetSal());//public method
21. }
22. }//end of RecursionFib
Output: Employess name: Ramesh
Employess id No: 50595
Employess Salary Set: 15000.0
Li String name. Default public to package
ne members. Hence Line Nos. 13 & 18 are ok and
N allowed.
o.
3:
Li declare public variables. Hence, Line Nos. 14
ne & 18 are ok.
N
os
.4
&
5:
Li declares sal as private. Hence, it is an error if
ne you try to access like in Line No. 15 directly.
N Instead, you have to use public accessory
o. method like we have done in Line Nos. 17 &
6: 20.
18.11 Static Members
Many a time, you will need a member of a
class that is independent of any object of the
class. For example, you need to keep a count
of number of instances that are created.
Variable declared as static, though residing
inside a class, can keep track of the objects
being created. This means that it is
accessible to all instances of the class. We
can say that static data belongs to class and
not to an object.
One important advantage of static
declaration is that once a member is
declared static, it can be called before the
object is created. For example, when we
have declared void main() as public
static void main( String[] args
), Java Run Time Environment calls the
main() function before creation of any
object.
Static variables are global variables.
Whenever an instance of object is created,
no resource is allocated to static variables.
All instances of the class can have access to
static variables. We can also declare a block
as static block, in which case it can handle
only static members.
Member methods can also be declared as
static methods. But the rules of usage are as
shown below:
A static method can only call a static method
Once a method is declared as static, all data being
handled by the method also needs to be static
Keywords super in case of inheritance and this operator
cannot be used with static methods
Example 18.12: EmpStatic.java A
Program to Demonstrate the Use of
Static. Constructors and
Destructors of a Class
//EmpStatic.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class EmpStatic{
3. static int countEmp;
4. static int mcount;
5. static int fcount;
6. static boolean mf;
7. static double totalSal;
8. // static block initilization
9. static
10. {System.out.println( “block
initializes all static:”);
11.
countEmp=0;mcount=0;fcount=0;mf=true;tot
alSal=0.0; }
12. static void Counts(boolean mf,
double s)
13. {if (mf==true) ++mcount;
14. else ++fcount;
15. totalSal+=s;
16. ++countEmp;}
17. static void Display()
18. {System.out.println(“Total
Sal:”+EmpStatic.totalSal);
19. System.out.println(“Total emp
:”+ EmpStatic.countEmp);
20. System.out.println(“Male
employess :”+ EmpStatic.mcount);
21. System.out.println(“Female
employess :”+EmpStatic.fcount);}
22. public static void
main(String[] args) {
23. EmpStatic.Counts(true,
10000.00);
24. EmpStatic.Counts(false,
12000.00);
25. EmpStatic.Display();}
26. }// end of EmpStatic class
Output: block initializes all static
variable :
Total Sal:22000.0
Totall No of employess:2
No of male employess:1
No of female employess :1
After EmpStatic is run, the first thing that
happens is that all the static statements are
executed. Line No. 10 Static block is
executed and all static variables are
initialized.
L As a next step void main() is executed.
i Main() in turns calls Count() at line Nos. 24
n and 25 and Display() at Line No. 26 which
e displays the count of employees and total salary
N dispersed.
o
.
2
3
:
A second important use of static
declaration is that we can use static
members outside the class in which they are
declared. For this, you need to specify class
name followed by dot. For example,
StaticOutClass.totalSal; note that
there is no need to use the object followed by
dot, as we do for normal variables. Example
18.14 demonstrates this concept.
Example 18.13: EmpStatic2.java A
Program to Demonstrate the Use of
Static Outside the Class.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
//EmpStatic2.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class StaticOutClass{
3. static int countEmp;
4. static int mcount;
5. static int fcount;
6. static boolean mf;
7. static double totalSal;
8. // static block initilization
9. static
10. {System.out.println( “block
initializes static vars :”);
11.
countEmp=0;mcount=0;fcount=0;mf=true;tot
alSal=0.0;}
12. static void Counts(boolean mf,
double s)
13. { if (mf==true) ++mcount;
14. else ++fcount;
15. totalSal+=s;
16. ++countEmp;}
17. static void Display(){
18. System.out.println(“total
Sal:”+StaticOutClass.totalSal);
19. System.out.println(“Total empl:”+
StaticOutClass.countEmp);
20. System.out.println(“male emp:”+
StaticOutClass.mcount);
21. System.out.println(“female
emp:”+StaticOutClass.fcount);}
22. }
23. class EmpStatic2{
24. public static void main(String[]
args) {
25. StaticOutClass.Counts(true,
10000.00);
26. StaticOutClass.Counts(false,
12000.00);
27. StaticOutClass.Display();
28. // enter more
29. StaticOutClass.Counts(true,
20000.00);
30. System.out.println( “Display
static vars outside class”);
31. System.out.println(“total
Sal:”+StaticOutClass.totalSal);
32. System.out.println(“Total empl:”+
StaticOutClass.countEmp);
33. System.out.println(“male emp:”+
StaticOutClass.mcount);
34. System.out.println(“female
emp:”+StaticOutClass.fcount);
35. }
36. }// end of EmpStatic2 class
Output: block initializes all static
variable :
total employess salary :22000.0
Total No of employess :2
No of male employess :1
No of female employess :1
Display static variable directly
outside class
total employess salary :42000.0
Total No of employess :3
No of male employess :2
No of female employess :1
Line show use of static variables directly by
Nos. mentioning the class name,
30 to StaticOutClass, without using the
34: object.
18.12 Factory Methods
What does a factory do? It simply produces
an output depending on the customers’
choice. Factory methods in Java are
designed to produce objects to the class to
which factory method belongs. Factory
methods are static methods. This means that
they can be called directly without creating
object.
The advantage of factory method is that it
accepts arguments and returns the object of
users’ choice; thus factory method removes
the need to create several constructors and
overload them.
As an example we will consider format()
method and NumberFormat class provided
by java.text package. The steps involved are:
Create an object NumberFormat class through usage of
getNumberInstance() method
Decide the format using
setMaximumIntegerDigits()
osetMinimumIntegerDigits() or
setMaximumFractionDigits() or
setMinimumFractionDigits()
Fix the format using format() method
Example 18.14: FactoryDemo.java
To Show the Use of Factory Method
and Numberformat Class.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
//FactoryDemo.java Factory Method usage
package com.oops.chap19;
import java.io.*;
import java.text.NumberFormat;
import java.util.*;
class FactoryDemo{
public static void main(String[] args)
{ final double PI = 3.1415197;
Scanner si = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print(“Enter angle in
degrees:”);
double degrees =si.nextDouble();
double degrad = (degrees * PI)/180.0;
System.out.println(“Degrees in radians
with outFormatting:” + degrad);
NumberFormat numfrmt =
NumberFormat.getNumberInstance();
// format the number
numfrmt.setMaximumIntegerDigits(2);
numfrmt.setMaximumFractionDigits(2);
//convert to to string and display
String stg = numfrmt.format(degrad);
System.out.println(“Degrees in radians
with Formatting using “+stg);
}
}//end of FactoryDemo
Output: Enter angle in degrees:180
Degrees in radians with out Number
Formatting:3.1415196999999995
Degrees in radians with Formatting using
Factory Method3.14
18.13 Nested Classes
Nested class means class within a class, also
called container class in the literature.
Container class is one of the techniques
provided by Java to achieve reusability of
the code. Inheritance is another powerful
feature for reusability which we will explore
in the chapter on inheritance.
Container class means a class containing
another class or more than one class. For
example, a computer has a microprocessor
in it. Further, a Student class can have a data
member belonging to String class. Then we
would say that String class is contained in
Student class. In other words, it can also be
called composition or aggregation of
String class. The advantage of containment
is that we can use String class within
Student class to store the details of name
and address, etc., belonging to String class.
Similarly, if we define a class called Date
with day, month and year information, we
can define object of Date within the class
called Student and define Date-related data
such as DOB, DOJ, etc.
Composition is a “has”-type of
relation. For the example we have given
above, Student has name of string class and
DOB of Date class. If class Date is defined
inside a class called Student, we can call
Date as inner class and Student as outer
class. Rules of usage are as follows:
Inner class is visible only in outer class and not outside
the outer class.
Nested class or inner class can access all members
including private members of the outer class.
Outer class does not have access to members of inner
class.
The nested classes can be divided into static
and non-static as shown in Figure 18.2.
Figure 18.2 Nested classes
18.14 Inner Classes
Class within a Class – Inner Class:
Inner class is one of the techniques provided
by Java to achieve reusability of the code.
Inner class means a class containing another
class or more than one class. Inner classes
cannot be declared as static. There are four
kinds of inner classes:
Member class: This is defined just like a variable of a
class. It has the same access specifiers as that of
variables.
Static member class: Though it is defined inside a
class with keyword static, it is actually outside the class.
To refer to the static inner class from a class outside the
containing class, use the syntax:
outerClassName.InnerClassName. A static
member class may contain static fields and methods.
Local inner class: A class defined within a method is
called a local inner class. All rules regarding scope of
variables of local variables also apply to this class. Local
inner class cannot refer to non-local methods or
variables.
Anonymous inner class: A class created as
parameter to a method that can either extend a class or
implement an interface. The syntax is: new
Super(parameters){methods}
Example 18.15: DateStudent.java
Student Class Contains Date Class.
Constructors and Destructors of a
Class
//StdNested.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class StdNested{
4. // member data or attributes
5. String name=”Ramesh”; // name of
the student
6. int rollNo=50595;
7. double totalMarks=98.5;
8. String grade=”A”;
9. void UseInner() {
10. DateInner dateinner=new
DateInner();
11. dateinner.DataDisplay();}
12. //Now define inner class
DateInner
13. class DateInner{
14. int dd=15;int mm=10;int yy=10;
15. void DataDisplay(){
16. System.out.println(“Students
Detail : outer class are………”);
17. System.out.println(“Roll
Number:” + rollNo);
18. System.out.println(“Name:” +
name);
19. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + totalMarks);
20. System.out.println(”Grade:“ +
grade);
21. System.out.println(“DOJ from
inner class ………”);
22. System.out.println(“DOJ
:”+dd+”/”+mm+”/”+yy);
23. } //end of DataDisplay()
24. }// End of class Dateinner
25. }//end of class StdNested
26. class StdNestedDemo {
27. public static void
main(String[] args) {
28. StdNested stdouter = new
StdNested();
29. stdouter.UseInner(); }
30. }// end of StdNestedDemo
Output: Students Details from outer
class are………
Roll Number:50595
Name:Ramesh
Total Marks:98.5
Grade:A
DOJ from inner class ………
DOJ :15/10/10
18.15 Summary
1. Java is a pure object-oriented language and hence all
programming is enclosed in classes.
2. Class: A collection of objects or an array of instances
objects.
3. Object: An object is an entity.
4. Methods of a class are common to all instances of the
object; each instance of an object has its own set of
attributes. Member data is also called instance variables.
5. Java's access specifiers are Public, Private, protected and
default specifier packages.
6. When a class is declared and an object is created, the
constructor for the class is called. Its job is to create the
object, allocate memory for the data members and
initialize them with initial values if supplied by the user.
7. Constructor will have the same name as that of the class
but no return value.
8. Constructor is always treated as public by default.
Whenever an object is created, the constructor is
automatically called. Constructors are called
parameterized when we pass initial values at the time of
creation of the object.
9. There are two ways for forwarding data as arguments to
methods. Call by Value and Call by reference. In Call by
Value, parameters are copied on to called function area.
Changes made to variables by called method are local
and are not reflected into calling method. Java uses call
by value for transferring all primitive data types.
10. In Call by Reference, addresses are passed to called
methods. Changes made are reflected to calling method.
Java uses Call by Reference to transfer objects as
arguments to Methods.
11. Same name for the method but different number of
arguments or different types of arguments, we can say
methods are overloaded. Overloaded methods can have
different types of return type.
12. Recursion is an advanced feature supported by Java
language. Recursion means a method calling itself.
13. This operator refers to object that has invoked the
method. It is also used to resolve naming conflicts.
14. Java resorts to automatic memory release for objects no
more needed. Java uses automatic garbage collector to
manage memory.
15. Java Run Time Environment calls finalize() method
just before the object is freed.
16. Final keyword is specified to hold a constant value and
does allow variable to change its value during the
execution of the program.
17. Final keyword for a method is used when we want to
prevent derived class overriding a base class method.
18. Public: Member functions and data if any declared as
public can be accessed outside the class member
functions. This means that public member can be
accessed by any other code.
19. Package (default): You can access this from any other
class in the same directory. Note that when no access
specifier is specified, default is public up to package
level, but private to members outside the package.
20. Private: Member data declared as private can only be
accessed within the class member methods and data is
hidden from outside.
21. We cannot access private members directly. Instead, we
need public accessory methods to access these data.
22. Protected: Member data and member functions
declared as protected is private to outsiders and public
to descendants of the class in inheritance relationship.
23. Variable declared as static, though residing inside a
class, can keep track of the objects being created. Static
variables are global variables.
24. Advantage of static declaration is that once a member is
declared static, it can be called before the object is
created.
25. A static method can only call a static method. Once a
method is declared as static, all data being handled by
the method also needs to be static. Keywords super in
case of inheritance and this operator cannot be used
with static methods.
26. Nested class means class within a class, also called
container class.
27. Non-static Nested classes or Inner classes. Can refer to
all Members of outer class without using objects of the
outer class. The life of inner class is that of the outer
class.
28. Static Nested classes use keyword static. Hence, outside
class members can only be referred to by using the
object of outer class.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to access specifiers of Java?
1. Default specifier in Java is private.
2. Default specifier is public.
3. Default specifier is public to package.
4. private outside the class, public inside the class.
2. Every class that is declared as public in Java is required
to be stored in a file whose name is identical to the class
name and with extension .java TRUE/FALSE
3. Which of the statements are true with respect to object
creation using new keyword.
1. Object of class is created
2. Memory resources are allotted
3. Constructor is called
4. All of these
4. Which of the statements are true with respect to
constructors?
1. Constructors have the same name
2. Constructors can return void
3. Constructors return no value
4. Constructors are private by default
1. i, ii and iv
2. i and ii
3. i and iii
4. i and iv
5. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to recursive calls?
1. A method calls itself
2. Memory Overhead in the form of stack handling is present
3. Each recursive call creates own stack space
4. No overheads are present
1. i, ii and iii
2. i and ii
3. i and iv
4. i, ii and iv
6. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to Garbage collector?
1. It runs in the background and releases objects no longer required
2. It is invoked by finalize() method
3. It runs on algorithm at fixed intervals and calls finalize method
4. Runs whenever memory available is insufficient
1. i, ii and iii
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. i and iv
4. i, ii and iv
7. Which of the following statements are false?
1. Final variables are constant during run of the program
2. Final classes cannot be inherited
3. Final Methods can be inherited
4. Final variables can be inherited
1. i, ii and iii
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. i and ii
4. i, ii and iv
8. Which of the following statements are false with respect
to private and protected specifiers?
1. Protected variables can be inherited
2. Protected variables are public to package
3. Protected variables are private to non-inherited classes
4. Protected variables are public to own class
1. ii and iv
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. i and ii
4. i, ii and iv
9. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to static declaration?
1. Methods declared as static require objects to invoke them
2. Static Methods can be invoked directly using a class name and a
dot operator.
3. Static variables reside in a class and belong to a class. Scope is
local.
4. Static methods can only call static variables.
1. i, ii and iv
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. ii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
10. Which of the following statements are true with respect
to static declaration? Which of the following statements
are true with respect to inner class declarations?
1. Inner class is public to outer class
2. Inner class can access all private members of outer class
3. Life of inner class life of outer class.
4. Anonymous inner class is a class created as parameter to a method
1. i, ii and iv
2. i, ii, iii and iv
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i and iv
Short-answer Questions
11. What are Java access specifiers? Explain default access
specifier package.
12. What is default constructor? Is it the same as
constructor with nil arguments?
13. Explain constructor overloading.
14. Which is better: call by value or call by reference?
15. Distinguish instance methods and constructors.
16. What is a mutator method?
17. Java does not support forwarding of addresses. Then
how is call by reference achieved?
18. What are the uses of this operator in Java?
19. Discuss the functioning of Garbage collector.
20. What does finalize() method achieve?
21. What are static methods?
22. How does a static block differ from an ordinary block?
23. Explain the difference between class methods and
instance methods.
24. What are the restrictions applicable to static methods?
25. What is an inner class?
26. Does out class have access to inner class variable? Why
or why not?
27. What is an anonymous inner class?
Long-answer Questions
28. Explain how Java achieves encapsulation, data hiding
and polymorphism. Explain with suitable examples.
29. Show how a class is defined in Java. Explain how
instances of objects are created. What is the role of the
new operator in the creation of instance of objects.
30. Explain method overloading with examples.
31. Explain Final keyword when used with variables,
methods and classes with suitable examples.
32. Explain access control mechanism of Java.
33. Explain the working of nested classes in Java. What
special restrictions apply to inner classes?
34. How are polymorphism and method overloading
related? Discuss.
35. Explain the working of static methods, variables and
block. What restrictions apply?
Assignment Questions
36. Write a Java program to accept the data of Student viz.
name, roll no, branch through command line
arguments and bifurcate the student as section A id his
roll no<61 else as Section B. Use Swing components
and Dialog boxes to display the result.
37. Write a program to check if the given year is a leap year
or not. Display the result in dialog boxes. Use swing
components.
38. Write a Java program to add two matrices.
39. Write a Java program to multiply two matrices.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. c
2. True
3. d
4. c
5. a
6. d
7. c
8. a
9. c
10. c
19
Inheritance: Packages: Interfaces
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able
to understand and use concepts and
programs relating to
Extending a class from an existing class, concepts in
multilevel inheritance.
Super- and subclass and overriding of superclass
methods.
Run-time polymorphism and abstract class.
Packages and their usage.
Interfaces.
19.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces you to one of the
most powerful features of any objective-
oriented language, i.e. inheritance.
Inheritance is a tool offered by Java to create
another class from an existing class. We call
this creation as extending a class. In the
literature, the class that is a starting point or
source of extension is called base class. Java
calls this a superclass. The class that is
extended is called derived class. In Java,
derived class is called subclass. A subclass
can inherit all the members, both methods
and attributes, and also can implement its
own methods. Further, a subclass can
override superclass methods. We also
introduce you to concepts of abstract class
and interfaces which are part of Java's
concepts for extending from existing classes.
19.2 Basic Concepts of Inheritance
Inheritance class hierarchy shown in Figure
19.1. Student and Athlete derive qualities
from base class person. We say these
subclasses have inherited from Person. Class
Person is called base class and in Java it is
called Super, while Student and Athlete are
called Subclasses. What can be inherited?
Both member functions and member data
can be inherited.
Figure 19.1 Inheritance hierarchy
Inheritance can be incorporated into our
program by using a keyword extends. The
following program shows a base class Super
and a subclass Student.
Example 19.1a: Write a Java
Program to Create a Super Class
Person for and a Subclass Called
Student and Show Simple
Inheritance Concept.
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class Person {
3. // member data or attributes
4. String name; // name of the
student
5. int idNo;
6. //access and mutator methods
7. int GetIdNo(){ return idNo;}
8. void SetIdNo(int id){ idNo=id;}
9. String GetName(){ return name;}
10. void SetName(String nm){
name=nm;}
11. public void DisplayData() {
12. System.out.println(“Basic
Details are………”);
13. System.out.println(“Id Number:”
+ idNo);
14. System.out.println(“Name:” +
name);}
15. }//end of class Person
Line defines our project package name as
No. com.oops.chap19.
1:
Line define a base class Person. Line Nos. 4 and
Nos. 5 declare two attributes of Person viz.
2 to String name and int idNo.
15:
Line are accessor methods and Line Nos. 8 and
Nos. 10 are mutator methods.
7&
9:
Line defines a method called DisplayData()
No. for displaying the basic data of person.
11:
Compile the source file Person.java
and store the class file Person.class in
bin Directory. Refer to Chapter 15 for
comprehensive compilation and execution
instructions both for Java and eclipse
environments.
Now, another team member would like to
reuse the code we have developed for class
Person. He is aware of attributes and
methods of class Person. In order to reuse
he has to perform three tasks as shown in
Example 19.1b:
Indicate his own package details: package
com.oops.chap19; Line No. 1
Import the class mentioning the package: import
com.oops.chap19.Person. Line No. 2
Create a new class called Student from person by using
the keyword extends: class Student extends Person
as shown in Line No. 3:
Example 19.1b: Student1Demo.java
A program to show single
inheritance from class Person in
Example 19.1.
//Student1Demo.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import com.oops.chap19.Person;
3. class Student1 extends Person {
4. // member data or attributes
5. private double totalMarks;
6. private String grade;
7. //access and mutator methods
8. double GetMarks(){ return
totalMarks;}
9. void SetMarks(double mks ){
totalMarks=mks;}
10. String GetGrade(){ return
grade;}
11. void SetGrade(String gd){
grade=gd;}
12. //public method
13. public Student1
ComputeGrade(Student1 std) {
14. if( totalMarks >=80.0)
std.grade=”A”;
15. else if (totalMarks>= 60.0)
grade=”B”;
16. else if (totalMarks>= 50.0)
grade=”C”;
17. else grade=”D”;
18. return std;
19. }
20. }//end of class Student
21. // Driver class
22. class Student1Demo{
23. public static void
main(String[] args){
24. // create an object of Student
25. Student1 std = new Student1();
26. std.SetMarks(97.8);
27. std.SetName(“Ramesh”); // we
have called super method
28. std.SetIdNo(50595);
29. std=std.ComputeGrade(std);
30. std.DisplayData();
31. System.out.println(“Details of
Subclass Student: “);
32. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + std.GetMarks());
33. System.out.println(”Grade:“ +
std.GetGrade());}
34. }//end of class Student1Demo
Output: Basic Details are………
Id Number:50595
Name:Ramesh
Details from Sub class Student:
Total Marks:97.8
Grade:A
L define private member data. Note that we do
i not expect further inheritance from
n Student1. If inheritance further to next level
e is planned, we should declare them as
N protected. Accordingly, we have used accessor
o methods in Line Nos 32 and 33 to display these
s private variables.
.
5
&
6
:
L declared public method ComputeGrade().
i Line No 30 classes it with std object. Also this
n method takes std1 object as argument and
e returns std1 object.
N
o
.
1
3
:
L calls method belonging to superclass Person
i :std.DisplayData(). This is the real power
n of Inheritance. Student1 has not written code
e for DisplayData() but it is using the code of
N super.
o
.
3
0
:
19.3 Member Access Rules
Access specifiers play an important role in
inheritance relationships. We have learnt
that if we foresee inheritance and we need to
allow subclass to access the super's
members, we need to declare them as
protected.
If we declare the members as private, then
they are visible inside a class only. They are
not visible to subclasses or outside the class.
Default access specifiers means they are
public to package. This mean that all the
classes in the package can access them as if
they are public.
Public specifier means they are accessible
to all outside members.
Example 19.2a: Person2.java With
Protected and Private Data
Members.
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class Person2 {
3. // member data or attributes
4. protected String name; //protected
5. protected int idNo;
6. private double salary;
7. //access and mutator methods
8. int GetIdNo(){ return idNo;}
9. void SetIdNo(int id){ idNo=id;}
10. String GetName(){ return name;}
11. void SetName(String nm){
name=nm;}
12. double GetSal(){ return
salary;}
13. void SetSal(double sl){
salary=sl;}
14. public void DisplayData() {
15. System.out.println(“Person
Details are………”);
16. System.out.println(“Id Number:”
+ idNo);
17. System.out.println(“Name:” +
name);
18. }
19. public void DisplaySal(){
20. System.out.println(“Salary:” +
salary);}
21. }//end of class Person
Compile it as Person2.java
Li we have declared as protected because we
ne expect derived class to have access to the
No protected variables. Note that protected
s. members are public to derived class and
4 private to others.
&
5:
Li we find no difficulty in directly accessing
ne protected members because they are public to
No own class members.
s.
15
–
17:
Li we had to refer to private member salary only
ne through a public method called
No DisplaySal().
s
19
&
21:
In the example that follows, we will show
you Student2Demo class inheriting
protected members and defining its own
private data members. Private data
members are not visible outside the class.
Example 19.2b: Student2Demo.java
Inheriting From Super Person2
//Student2Demo.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import com.oops.chap19.Person2;
3. class Student2 extends Person2 {
4. // member data or attributes
5. private double totalMarks;
6. private String grade;
7. //access and mutator methods
8. double GetMarks(){ return
totalMarks;}
9. void SetMarks(double mks ){
totalMarks=mks;}
10. String GetGrade(){ return grade;}
11. void SetGrade(String gd){
grade=gd;}
12. //public method
13. public Student2
ComputeGrade(Student2 std) {
14. if( totalMarks >=80.0)
std.grade=”A”;
15. else if (totalMarks>= 60.0)
grade=”B”;
16. else if (totalMarks>= 50.0)
grade=”C”;
17. else grade=”D”;
18. return std;
19. }
20. }//end of class Student
21. // Driver class
22. class Student2Demo{
23. public static void
main(String[] args){
24. // create an object of Student
25. Student2 std = new Student2();
26. std.SetMarks(97.8);
27. std.SetName(“Ramesh”); // we
have called super method
28. std.SetIdNo(50595);
29. //std.salary=19000.00;// error.
salary is private in person2
30. std.SetSal(30000.00);//ok as we
are using Set method
31. std=std.ComputeGrade(std);
32. std.DisplayData();
33. System.out.println(“Details
from Sub class Student: “);
34. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + std.GetMarks());
35. System.out.println(”Grade:“ +
std.GetGrade());
36. //System.out.println(”Salary“+
std.salary);//Error. salary not visible
37. System.out.println(“Salary : “+
std.GetSal());}
38. }//end of class Student2Demo
Output: Person Details are………
Id Number:50595
Name:Ramesh
Details from Sub class Student:
Total Marks:97.8
Grade:A
Salary : 30000.0
L //std.salary=19000.00;// error Since
i salary is private and is not visible outside the
n class> However, Line No 30
e std.SetSal(30000.00);//ok as we are
N using Set method. The same concept holds good
o for Line No 37as well.
.
2
9
:
L is calling DisplayData() of super and basic
i data is displayed. However, for display of
n member data belonging to Student2, use is
e made of public accessory methods GetMarks()
N and GetSal(), etc., as shown in Line No 37.
o
.
3
2
:
19.4 Using Super Class
In the examples we have covered so far, we
have used mutator methods like
SetSalry() to set the private member
data. But we know that the best way to
initialize the object is by using constructors.
A constructor can set the member data and
initialize the object. But when inheritance
relationship is involved and when we want
to create an instance of subclass, we need to
constructor of super first, so that super's
constructor can make its part of the object
and then subclass constructor completes its
work of initialization with its part and then
only the complete object is ready. Then how
to call super's constructor. By simply using
super keyword. The next example highlights
the usage of keyword super.
Example 19.3a: Person2b.java A
Super Class for Demonstrating Use
of Super
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class Person2b {
3. // member data or attributes
4. protected String name; //protected
5. protected int idNo;
6. //Over loaded constructors
7. Person2b()
8. {System.out.println(“Super Default
Const called “);
9. name=”NoName”;idNo=0;}
10. Person2b(String nm, int id)
11.
{System.out.println(“Super(name,idNO)
called”);
12. name=nm;idNo=id;}
13. Person2b(Person2b per)
14.
{System.out.println(“Super(object) Const
called “);
15. name=per.name;idNo=per.idNo;}
16. //access and mutator methods
17. public void DisplayData() {
18. System.out.println(“Person
Details are………”);
19. System.out.println(“Id Number:”
+ idNo);
20. System.out.println(“Name:” +
name);
21. }
22. }//end of class Person
Lin are constructors defined by Person2b.
e These are overloaded constructors and will
Nos be called by class that is inheriting from
. 6, Person2b using the keyword super.
9&
12:
Example 19.3b:
Student2bDemo.java To Show
Calling of Super Constructors
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import com.oops.chap19.Person2b;
3. class Student2b extends Person2b {
4. // member data or attributes
5. private double totalMarks;
6. private String grade;
7. //create object of Student2b by
calling super constructor
8. Student2b(Student2b std2b){
9. super(std2b);
10. totalMarks=std2b.totalMarks;
11. grade=std2b.grade;
12. }
13. //constructor with all
parameters given
14. Student2b(String nm, int rn,
double tm, String gd){
15. super(nm,rn);
16. totalMarks=tm;
17. grade=gd;
18. }
19. //access and mutator methods
20. double GetMarks(){ return
totalMarks;}
21. void SetMarks(double mks ){
totalMarks=mks;}
22. String GetGrade(){ return
grade;}
23. void SetGrade(String gd){
grade=gd;}
24. //public method
25. public Student2b
ComputeGrade(Student2b std) {
26. if( totalMarks >=80.0)
std.grade=”A”;
27. else if (totalMarks>= 60.0)
grade=”B”;
28. else if (totalMarks>= 50.0)
grade=”C”;
29. else grade=”D”;
30. return std;
31. }
32. public void
DisplayData(Student2b std) {
33. super.DisplayData();
34. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + std.GetMarks());
35. System.out.println(”Grade:“ +
std.GetGrade());
36. }//end of class Student
37. }
38. // Driver class
39. class Student2bDemo{
40. public static void
main(String[] args){
41. // create an object of Student
42. Student2b std1 = new
Student2b(“Ramesh”,50595,97.8,”X”);
43. std1.ComputeGrade(std1);
44. std1.DisplayData(std1);
45. System.out.println(“Total
Marks:” + std1.GetMarks());
46. System.out.println(”Grade:“ +
std1.GetGrade());
47. }
48. }//end of class Student2bDemo
L shows that Student2b extends to Person2b.
i This means that it has access to all public and
n protected members like protected String name,
e protected int idNo and method
N DisplayData() of Person2b.
o
.
2
:
L declare Student2b private data and Line Nos.
i 19–23 define mutator and accessor methods for
n these private variables.
e
N Interesting and new points in this program are
o in Line Nos. 8 to 18 that show overloaded
s constructors for Student2b Line No. 8
. Student2b(Student2b std2b) receives
4 std2b an object as parameter and calls
&
super(std2) in Line No. 9. Remember super of
5
Student2b is Person2b and accordingly
:
Person(per object) as shown in Line No.
12 of Example 19.3a will be called. So
Person2b(per) will set name and id number
in Line No. 11 and constructor of Student2b
will set totalMarks and grade in Line No. 10
and 11 of Example 19.3b.
L creates an object of Student2b by supplying
i all the arguments like name, idNo, total
n Marks, and grade. Line No 43 calculates
e grade.
N
o
.
4
2
:
L calls DisplayData() that in turn calls
i super.Display() data to display data
n pertaining to Person2b such as name and
e idNo as shown at Line Nos. 16–19 (19.3a) and
N
local private variables like totalMarks and
o
grade to accessor methods shown in Line Nos
.
19 and 22.
4
4
:
19.5 Methods Overriding
Inheritance relationship allows a subclass to
inherit all the protected members of a
superclass. Importantly, it can decide to
override them and implement its own
version. This is like, your daddy has a car. As
a descendant, you have the privilege to use
Daddy's car or buy a scooter for your
exclusive movement. When you call for a
transport, obviously you will get a scooter.
What is overriding: Superclass method
overriding means the same name and return
type in the subclass as that defined in the
superclass. But the base class will have
different implementations. For example,
superclass Person defines two methods,
namely, Work() and Learn():
public void Learn()
{ System.out.println(“\n Persons
learn general subjects…”;}
public void Work()
{ System.out.println(“\n Persons work
at work spots………..…”;}
Subclass, if it does not define these
functions once again, it can use superclass
learn() or Work(). But if it wants its own
implementation, different from base class, it
can define these methods in its class
definition.
public void Learn()
{System.out.println(“\n Students learn
professional subjects…”;}
public void Work()
{System.out.println(“\n Students work
at college laboratories…”;}
When subclass object calls these
functions, it will get derived class
functionality only but NOT the base class
functionality. The concepts are shown in our
next example.
Example 19.3c: A Program to Show
Super Class Methods Overriding by
Subclass
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. public class Person3 {
3. public void Learn(){
System.out.println(“Persons Learn “);}
4. public void Work()
{System.out.println(“Persons work at
work spots”);}
5. }//end of class Person3
Compile it as Person3.java
Line No. declare two public methods called
3 & 4: Learn() and Work()
Student3 Class and StudentDemo
To Show Overriding of Super Methods
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import com.oops.chap19.Person3;
3. class Student3 extends Person3 {
4. //public method
5. public void Learn()
6. {System.out.println(“Students
Learn at college”);}
7. public void Work()
8. {System.out.println(“Students work
at college labs”);}
9. public void Play()
10. {System.out.println(“Students
play at college grounds”);}
11. }//end of class Student3
12. // Driver class
13. class StudentDemo3{
14. public static void
main(String[] args){
15. // create an object of Student
16. Student3 std = new Student3();
17. System.out.println(“sub class
calls over ridden methods”);
18. std.Learn();
19. std.Work();
20. System.out.println(“sub class
calls its own method”);
21. std.Play();
22. }
23. }//end of class Student1Demo
Output: sub class calls over ridden
methods
Students Learn at college
Students work at college labs
sub class calls its own method
Students play at college grounds
L shows that Student3 extends to Person3.
i Accordingly, we have imported Student3 in
n Line No 2. Line No. 9 shows that subclass can
e define its own method called Play() and use it
in Line No 21. In Line Nos. 5 and 7, subclass
N Student3 overrides base class methods with its
o
own implementations. So when Student3
.
object std calls Learn() and Play() in Line
3
: Nos. 18 and 19, its own methods are called and
supermethods are overridden.
19.6 Multilevel Inheritance
Examples 19.1 to 19.3 have shown single
inheritance. We can also have multilevel
inheritance. This means that Student can
derive from Person and Athlete can then be
derived from Student. It is like Grandfather,
Father and Son relationship. When such
multilevel inheritances are planned,
remember that all subclasses can have
access to all the superclasses. This means
that the Son can have access to protected
and public members of both Father and
Grandfather. We have shown the multilevel
inheritance at Figure 19.2 between the
superclass Person and multilevel inheritance
as Student and Athlete.
Figure 19.2 Multilevel inheritance
We have already developed code for
Person2b and Student2b. We now want
to create a new class called Athlete2b
from Student2b. This means that we want
to create a new class by extending an
existing class. There is no need to write or
duplicate the code for Strudent2b or
Person2b again. We can simply import
these classes and create a new class by
extending, as shown in our next example.
This is the power of inheritance and
demonstration of the reuse feature of Java.
Example
19.4: Athlete2bDemo.java
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. import com.oops.chap19.Student2b;
3. class Athlete2b extends Student2b
{
4. // member data or attributes
5. private String sport;
6. private String level; // S/N/I for
state and N for national
7. //create object of Athlete2b by
calling super constructor
8. Athlete2b (Athlete2b ath2b){
9. super(ath2b);
10. sport=ath2b.sport;
11. level=ath2b.level;
12. }
13. //constructor with all
parameters given
14. Athlete2b (String nm, int rn,
double tm, String gd, String sp,String
lv){
15. super(nm,rn,tm,gd);
16. sport=sp;
17. level=lv;
18. }
19. //access and mutator methods
20. public String GetSport(){
return sport;}
21. public String GetLevel(){return
level;}
22. //public method
23. public void
DisplayData(Athlete2b ath2b) {
24. super.DisplayData(ath2b);
25. System.out.println(“Details
from Athlete2b are :”);
26. System.out.println(“Sport:” +
ath2b.GetSport());
27. System.out.println(“Level:” +
ath2b.GetLevel());
28. }//end of class Student
29. }
30. // Driver class
31. class Athlete2bDemo{
32. public static void
main(String[] args){
33. // create an object of Athlet
34. Athlete2b ath1 = new Athlete2b
(“Ramesh”,50595,97.8,”X”,”FootBall”,”S”)
;
35. ath1.ComputeGrade(ath1);
36. ath1.DisplayData(ath1);
37. }
38. }//end of class Athlete2bDemo
Output: Super(name,idNO) called
Person Details are…… Id Number:50595
Name:Ramesh
Details from Student2b are : Total
Marks:97.8 Grade:A
Details from Athlete2b are :
Sport:FootBall Level:S
Li we are importing class Student2b. Class
n Student2b in turn imports from Person2.
e In Line No. 3, Athlete2b extends to
N Student2b. Hence, we have access to both
o.
Student2b and Person2b.
2:
Li declare private variables of athlete2b and
n Line Nos. 19 and 21 define accessor methods
e for private variables.
N
o
s.
5
&
6:
Li are constructors overloaded with object as
n argument and also all data as arguments.
e Notice that Athlet2b constructor call super,
N i.e. Student2b constructor, and that in turn
o calls Person2b constructor thus making the
s. picture (object) complete.
8
&
1
4:
Li call DisplayData() of super, i.e.
n Student2b, by supplying ath2b object.
e Student2b in turn calls Displaydata() of
N Person2b. Thus, each code segment displays
o
its part of data.
s.
3
6
&
2
3:
Li computes grade by calling ComputeGrade()
n method of super class Student2b.
e
N
o.
3
5:
19.7 Run-time Polymorphism
Hitherto, what we have shown is overriding
of super methods by Java's subclasses. This
feature is exploited by Java to give
programmers a powerful tool to resolve the
method overriding at run time rather than at
compile time. A reference made to super can
refer to any one of the overridden subclass
methods. But which overridden method is to
be called? Java simply decides this based on
the type of the object referred to at run time.
Therefore, we can say that whichever type
of object is referred to by reference to super
class, that object's particular overridden
method is called. We will explain this with a
simple program. Refer to Figure 19.3. There
is a super class called Shape, and two
subclasses derived from Shape are Circle
and Triangle. Super declares a method void
FindArea() which is overridden by both
Circle and Triangle with their own
implementation. Our next example shows
how we can use run-time polymorphism
feature and call the implementation based
on the type of object at run time.
Figure 19.3 Run time polymorphism
Example 19.5: RunTimePoly.java
To Demonstrate Run-time
Polymorphism Feature of Java.
//RunTimePoly.java a programme to
shown run time ploy morphism
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class Shape{
3. void FindArea(){
4. System.out.println(“Inside Shape.
No definite Area”);}
5. }// end of Shape
6. class Circle extends Shape{
7. void FindArea(){
8. System.out.println(“Inside Circle.
Area=PI*r*r”);}
9. }// end of Circle
10. class Triangle extends Shape{
11. void FindArea(){
12. System.out.println(“Inside
Triangle. Area=0.5*base*alt”);}
13. } // end of class Triangle
14. class RunTimePoly {
15. public static void
main(String[] args) {
16. // create object to classes
17. Shape shp = new
Shape();//object of Shape
18. Circle circ = new
Circle();//object of Circle
19. Triangle trg = new
Triangle();//object of Triangle
20. System.out.println(“A ref to
super can refer to sub class over ridden
Methods”);
21. System.out.println(“Therefore
create a ref to super”);
22. Shape refsuper; // reference to
super class Shape
23. System.out.println(“A refrence
to super “);
24. refsuper=shp; // refsuper
refers to Shape object
25. refsuper.FindArea();
26. System.out.println(“A refrence
to Circle “);
27. refsuper=circ; // refsuper
refers to Circle object
28. refsuper.FindArea();
29. System.out.println(“A refrence
to Triangle “);
30. refsuper=trg; // refsuper
refers to Triangle object
31. refsuper.FindArea();}
32. }// end of runtime poly
Output: A refrence to super can refer
to sub class over ridden Methods
Therefore create a referecne to super
A refrence to super
Inside Shape. No definite Area
A refrence to Circle
Inside Circle. Area=PI*r*r
A refrence to Triangle
Inside Triangle. Area=0.5*base*alt
L create objects to classes Shape, Circle and
i Triangle. Shape is super class and Circle and
n triangle are subclasses, as shown in Line Nos. 6
e and 10. Each subclass Circle and Triangle has
N overridden super method FindArea() in Line
o Nos. 8 and 11.
s.
1
7
–
1
9
:
L obtains a reference to super class object. Line
i Nos. 24, 27 and 30 show that reference is made
n to refer to objects of Shape, Circle and Triangle.
e Therefore, in Line Nos. 25, 28 and 31, the
N corresponding overridden methods are called.
o
.
2
2
:
19.8 Abstract Classes
When we need to ensure that all subclasses
have to share common methods but at the
same time have their own implementations,
we use abstract class. Abstract class will
have one or more abstract methods. An
abstract need not have any abstract method
at all.
An abstract method is a method that is
declared but not defined. It is declared with
the keyword abstract, and has a header like
any other method, but ends with a
semicolon and contains no method body.
The syntax is: abstract type Method
Name (arguments);
A non-abstract class is sometimes called a
concrete class.
An abstract class cannot be instantiated
because it contains abstract methods.
However, subclasses derived from abstract
class can have their own implementations.
Let us revisit our example at 19.5, but this
time we would declare Shape as abstract
class.
Example 19.6: Abstract.java A
Program to Show Abstract Class and
Methods Usage
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. abstract class Shape1{
3. abstract void FindArea(); //
abstract method
4. public void DisplayCommon(){
5. System.out.println(“Inside Shape.
Exiting the Shape1 common message”);
6. }
7. }//end of class Shape1
8. class Circle1 extends Shape1{
9. void FindArea(){
10. System.out.println(“Inside
Circle1. Area=PI*r*r”);
11. super.DisplayCommon();//
display common message thru super
abstract class
12. }
13. }// end of Circle1
14. class Triangle1 extends Shape1{
15. void FindArea(){
16. System.out.println(“Inside
Triangle1. Area=0.5*base*alt”);
17. super.DisplayCommon();
18. }
19. }//end of Triangle1
20. class AbstractDemo{
21. public static void
main(String[] args) {
22. // create object to classes
23. //Shape1 shp = new
Shape1();//error.can’t instantiate
abstract class
24. Circle1 circ1 = new
Circle1();//object of Circle
25. Triangle1 trg1 = new
Triangle1();//object of Triangle
26. System.out.println(“A ref to
super calls sub class over ridden
Methods”);
27. System.out.println(“create a
ref to super”);
28. Shape1 refsuper; // reference
to super class Shape
29. System.out.println(“A ref to
super : refsuper is created”);
30. System.out.println(“ref to
refer to object of Circle1 “);
31. refsuper=circ1;
32. refsuper.FindArea();
33. System.out.println(“ref to
refer to object of Triangle “);
34. refsuper=trg1;
35. refsuper.FindArea();
36. }
37. }
Output: A refrence to super can refer
to sub class over ridden Methods
Therefore create a referecne to super
A refrence to super : refsuper is
created
refrence made to refer to object of
Circle1
Inside Circle1. Area=PI*r*r
Inside Shape. Exiting the Shape1
common message
refrence made to refer to object of
Triangle
Inside Triangle1. Area=0.5*base*alt
Inside Shape. Exiting the Shape1
common message
L declares an abstract class. It is declared as
i abstract because it has one abstract method
n defined in Line No. 3, only name and no body:
e abstract void FindArea();
N
o
.
2
:
L declares a non-abstract method: public void
i DisplayCommon() that is used to implement
n a common functionality to all derived
e subclasses. What is common to all, it is better to
N implement it at abstract class level instead of at
o each subclass.
.
4
:
L declare and define concrete methods in classes
i Circle1 and Triangle1. Note how at the
n end of specialized method called FindArea()
e these methods are invoking common
N functionality, an exit routine we can say by
o calling super.DisplayCommon(); in Line
s Nos. 11 and 17.
.
8
t
o
1
9
:
Refsuper is a reference created in Line
No. 28 and it is made to refer to object of
Circle1 and Triangle1 in Line Nos. 31
and 34.
19.9 Using Final with Inheritance
In the previous chapter, we have shown how
final keyword can be used to define variables
and maintain their values constant and
unchanged during the running of the
program.
19.9.1 Final Method
Final qualifier can be used with methods
also. You are aware that in inheritance, the
derived class can override base class
methods with its own implementation.
When we do not want such a thing to
happen, we need to declare the method in
base class as final. For example:
Example 19.7: Java Code Segment
to Show the Use of Final Qualifier
for a Method. Constructors and
Destructors of a Class
class Person {
final void Update() { //update code
here. Final Methods. Cannot be
inherited}
} // end of person
class Student extends Person {
void update() { // Error cannot be
inherited}
} // end of student
19.9.2 Final Classes
When we do not want a class to be inherited
we declare a class as final. As class cannot be
inherited, then automatically by default all
the members inside a final class are
considered as final and hence cannot be
inherited.
Example 19.8: Java Code Segment
to Show the Use of Final Qualifier
for a Class. Constructors and
Destructors of a Class
final class Person {
void Update() { //update code here.
Final Methods. Can not be inherited}
} // end of person
class Student extends Person { //
error Student cannot extend to
Person(final class)
Void update() { // Error cannot be
inherited}
} // end of student
19.10 Object Class
By now, we appreciate the power of run-time
polymorphism and reuse of code already
written. The objects we create are
automatically treated as subclasses for the
class called Object in java.lang package.
What is the advantage gained by this?
The Object class contains several useful
static methods that can be used directly
without creating object. Now that all object
user creates are treated as subclasses, all
user-created objects will get access to the
static method in meta class Object in
package java.lang. The methods with final
specifier cannot be overridden. Methods
supported by the object class are given in
Table 19.1.
Table 19.1 Static and final methods of object class
Static Method Remarks
boolean Compares the two objects by checking if
equals() reference is same. If same returns true,
else returns false.
String Returns a String describing the object.
toString() It is automatically invoked along with
println statement used with object.
int Returns hash code linked to objects
hashCode() invoking.
void Called before clearing of object no
finalize() longer required by Garbage Collector.
final void Resumes highest priority thread/all
notify()/noti thread waiting on the invoking object.
fyAll()
Object Creates a clone, i.e. a new object that is
clone() same as that of object being cloned.
final void Waits on specified thread (not under
wait()/wait(m execution) for specified time.
s)/wait(ms,ns
)
final Class Obtains class name of object at run
getClass() time.
Example 19.9: ObjectDemo.java A
Java Program to Show the Use of
Static Method of Object Class
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. class Person4 implements
Cloneable{
3. String name;
4. Person4(String nm){name=nm;}
5. public String Getname() {return
name;}
6. public void DisplayData() {
7. System.out.println(“Person Details
are………”);
8. System.out.println(“overriden
toString() Method:” + toString());
9. System.out.println(“Obj Details
from static method hashcode()”);
10. System.out.println(“Object Hash
Code :” + hashCode());}
11. public String toString()
12. {String stg;
13. stg = “Name :” + Getname();
14. return stg;}
15. public void
CompareObjects(Person4 per2){
16. System.out.println(“ using
equals(obj) static method”);
17. if (this.equals(per2))
18. System.out.println(“Per1& Per2
are same.”);
19. else System.out.println(“Per1 &
Per2 are NOT same.”);}
20. public Object CloneObj()throws
CloneNotSupportedException
21. {return super.clone();}
22. }//end of class Person
23. public class ObjectDemo {
24. public static void
main(String[] args) throws
CloneNotSupportedException
25. {
26. //Two different objects. Their
references are NOT same
27. // But Content same
28. System.out.println(“Two objects
per1&2 with same content”);
29. Person4 per1 = new
Person4(“Salman”);
30. Person4 per2 = new
Person4(“Salman”);
31. per1.CompareObjects(per2);
32. System.out.println(“Displaying
per1 data”);
33. per1.DisplayData();
34. System.out.println(“Clone per1
object to per3”);
35. Person4 per3 =
(Person4)per1.CloneObj();
36. System.out.println(“Displaying
per3 data”);
37. per3.DisplayData();
38. }
39. }
Output: Creating two objects per1 and
per2 with same content using equals(obj)
static method
Per1 & Per2 are NOT same.
Displaying per1 data
Person Details are………
Using overriden toString()
Method:Name :Salman
Object Details from static method
hashcode() of Object class are………
Hash Code of Object:1671711
Clone per1 object to per3
Displaying per3 data
Person Details are………
Using overriden toString()
Method:Name :Salman
Object Details from static method
hashcode() of Object class are………
Hash Code of Object:11394033
L declares a class Person4 implementing an
i interface called Cloneable. Cloneable is called
n interface. More details about the interface in
e succeeding sections. All the methods described
N by interface are available to Person4.
o
.
2
:
L is a constructor that assigns data to name as per
i argument supplied.
n
e
N
o
.
4
:
L overrides the static method toString()
i method. Hence when you call toString() as
n in Line No. 8, own overridden method is called.
e
N
o
.
1
0
:
L defines the overridden tostring() method.
i Line No. 15 is about Object
n CompareObjject(Person4 obj) that takes
e in object and compares the argument object
N with object that is invoking the object. It checks
o the reference of both objects and if they are
. equal, returns true and else returns false.
1
1
:
L public Object CloneObj()throws
i CloneNotSupportedException is a public
n method CloneObj()that returns clone using
e clone() method of Object class.
N
o
.
1
9
:
L throws Clone Not Supported Exception Line
i No. 17 this refers to object that has invoked the
n method CompareObjects()
e
N
o
.
1
9
&
2
4
:
19.11 Packages
As a developer, you would like to keep all
your work together so that you can reuse
them in future if needed. We would like to
keep all our work as a “package”. Suppose
you are working in a company called
“oops.com”, then it is customary to create
package as “com.oops”. Now we are
writing programs for Chapter 19. Hence, we
will name our package as
“com.oops.chap19”. Refer to Figure
15.7. Path variable will link up to
c:\Oopajava\example\src. It is your
package statement, package
com.oops.chap19; which will link
to com.oops.chap19.
So what is a package? A package is
collection of all related class files into a
group so that they can be reused by
importing them into other classes and thus
aid in enhancing
Ease of handling complex project development
Develop reusable classes and components
19.11.1 Reusable Classes
The concepts and commands to be used for
package and path and class path have been
dealt in detail in Chapter 15 and Section
15.5. The user is strongly advised to go
through the concepts and examples to get
practice. Here, we concentrate only on
amplification of a few relevant concepts like
reusability, etc.
Add suitable package name at the top of the class :
package com.oops.chap19.
Save the source file in appropriate package directory like
C:\Oopsjava\examples\src\com\oops\chap19\
edit Date1.java. Note that Oopsjava is a directory.
Examples is a workspaceand src directory to store all
our source files. The package name com.oops.chap19
reqires that our source code be placed in
C:\Oopsjava\examples\src\com\oops\chap19.
This placement is done automatically if your
development platform is Eclipse, etc.
Declare the class as public so that it is accessible by all
other classes.
Compile the class and place it in an appropriate
directory. For example:
C:\OopsJava\examples\src\com\oops\chap19>
javac -d c:\Oopsjava\examples\bin
Date1.java
Now go to bin directory and type the
command to execute java program giving
full package path.
C:\OopsJava\examples\bin>java
com/oops/chap19/Date1
Note that since it's a simple program, we
have executed it from bin directory. For
large programs or programs with several
classes, we would write a driver program
and place the class program in directory
TestDriver. Then we need to execute java
command from TestDriver directory.
Chapter 15 gives you details of setting the
path and class path.
19.12 Path and Classpath
Chapter 15 (Section 15.6.2) gives full details
and settings required for path and class path
variables. Setting path is essential if we want
to run java executables from any directory
without stating full path name each time.
Class path, on the other hand, is a message
from you to Java environment, where to
search for your class files.
19.13 Importing of Packages
Package means grouping all relevant classes
so that they can be reused. Therefore, all the
class files in the same package are public up
to package level and hence need not be
imported. However, class files belonging to
outside packages are required to be
imported. For example, we need to import
java.util.*; to get access to class file in
package java.util.
Example 19.10a: Date1.java A
Program to Develop Reusable Class
Date1 Using Package and Import of
Class
/* Date1.java Date1 class shows date
in dd:mm:yy format & converts to
dd:mmm:yy format*/
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. public class Date1 {
3. private int dd;
4. private int mm;
5. private int yy;
6. //constructor for Date1
7. Date1(int d, int m,int y)
{dd=d;mm=m;yy=y;}
8. //validate date
9. public void validateDate(int d,int
m,int y)
10. {dd= ((d>=0 && d<=31 )?d:0);
11. mm= ((m>=0 && d<=12 )?m:0);
12. yy= ((y>=1900 && d<=1999)?y:0
);
13. }// end of validateDate()
14. // change date format to dd-
mmm-1910 Ex 01:Jan:10 format
15. public String ConverttoMMM(int
mm){
16. String mmm=””;
17. switch(mm)
18. { case 1 : mmm=”JAN”;break;case
2 : mmm=”FEB”;break;
19. case 3 : mmm=”MAR”;break;case 4
: mmm=”APR”;break;
20. case 5 : mmm=”MAY”;break;case 6
: mmm=”JUN”;break;
21. case 7 : mmm=”JUL”;break;case 8
: mmm=”AUG”;break;
22. case 9 : mmm=”SEP”;break;case
10 : mmm=”OCT”;break;
23. case 11: mmm=”NOV”;break;case
12 : mmm=”DEC”;break;
24. }
25. return mmm;
26. }
27. public String toDDMMMYYString()
28. {return
String.format(“%d:%s:%d”,dd,ConverttoMMM
(mm),yy);}
29. public String toString()
30. {return
String.format(“%d:%d:%d”,dd,mm,yy);}
31. }// end of Date1
L declares package as com.oops.chap19;
i
n
e
N
o
.
1
:
L shows that any reusable class is to be declared as
i public. Line Nos. 3–5 declare private variables.
n
e
N
o
.
2
:
L declares a constructor.. Line Nos. 9–13 validate
i the month, day and year
n
e
N
o
.
6
:
L define a public method public String
i ConverttoMMM(int mm) to convert Date from
n dd:mm:yy format to dd:mmm:yy format
e
N
o
s
.
1
5
–
2
6
:
L public String toDDMMMYYString()
i converts to dd:mmm:yy format. For this,
n it uses a method ConverttoMMM(mm) in Line
e No. 27. Also note that the method
toDDMMMYYString() uses String.format
N
method by specifying the format to make a
o
string. Here c like formatting is used. %d for
.
integers and %s for strings are used.
2
7
:
Example 19.10b: Datetester.java A
Driver Program to Test Date1 at
Example 19.10a
1. package com.oops.chap19;
//import com.oops.chap19.Date1;
Need not be imported because same
package
2. public class Date1tester{
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. // intialize the Date1 object
5. Date1 date = new Date1(19,11,10);
6. System.out.println(“date
in<dd:mm:yy>format”+ date.toString());
7. System.out.println();
8. System.out.println(“date
in<dd:mm:yy>format”+ date.toString());
9. System.out.println(“date
in<dd:mmm:yy>format”+ date.toDDMMMYY
String());
10. }
11. }//end of Date1tester class
Output : The Given Date is …….
date in<dd:mm:yy>format19:11:10
date in<dd:mmm:yy>format19:NOV:10
Both Datetester and date1 belong to the
same package. Hence, Date1 need not be
imported. Hence, we have commented it
out.
Line delcares our driver class Datetester
No.
2:
Line creates an object date of Date1 by calling
No. the constructor of Date1. This is how we
4: will achieve reusability.
Line call methods
Nos. date.toString()&date.toDDMMMYYSt
8& ring()of Date1 to display date in two
9: different formats.
19.14 Access Specifiers Revisited for
Packages
The access specifiers are public, private,
protected and default also called friendly,
i.e. public up to package level. These
specifiers act on classes, subclasses and
packages. Java allows a special definition
called private protected to give visibility to
all subclasses ,wherever they are present
independent of packages. The visibility is
specified in Table 19.2. OK stands for visible.
NO stand for not visible.
Table 19.2 Access privileges
Note that Java allows a special access
specifier in private protected, when we want
to provide access to subclass anywhere,
independent of package.
19.15 Interfaces
In Section 19.8, we have shown you the
power of dynamic polymorphism offered by
java. It provided a facility wherein a
reference to super can refer to any one of the
subclass overridden methods based on the
type of object. We have further dealt with
abstract classes that contain abstract
methods. Abstract methods will have only
the head terminated by a semicolon, but no
body showing the implementation. We have
also learnt that an abstract class cannot be
instantiated since it has abstract methods.
However, a reference to abstract class can be
created that can then be made to refer to
objects of subclasses.
Java permits only single inheritance and
multilevel inheritance. A subclass can have
only one super. Then how will java solve the
problems wherein more than one super is
required? The solution is a powerful tool
provided by Java called interface. A class in
Java can extend only to one super, but it can
implement several Interfaces.
Refer to Figure 19.4. It shows a situation
wherein super, called interface rather than a
class, has abstract methods. Subclasses
called Circle and Triangle implement all
abstract methods. Also note that the dotted
arrow pointing to interface rather than a
solid arrow. This is notation as per
modelling language UML.
Figure 19.4 Interface in Java
A second feature of interface is that it
solves ambiguity problems associated with
inheriting from more than one super. Java
does not support multiple inheritances,
meaning that it does not support extending
to more than one super at a time to avoid
ambiguities in Inheritance relationships.
This problem is solved by Java by allowing
multiple implementations. A class can
extend to only one super, but it can
implement several interfaces. This situation
is shown in Figure 19.5. The syntax is:
Figure 19.5 Box class extends to shape, but can implement
several interfaces
class Class extends Superclass
implementsInterface1, Interface2
Example : class BoxShape
extends Shpe implements Volume, Area
19.15.1 What and Why of Interfaces
An interface is declared with the keyword
interface instead of the keyword class. An
interface may contain only abstract methods
and definitions of constants (i.e., final
variables). The keyword abstract before
each method is optional.
When a class extends an interface, it may
implement (define) some or all of the
inherited abstract methods. A class must
itself be declared abstract if it inherits
abstract methods that it does not define.
19.15.2 Defining and Implementing
Interfaces
Interface definition starts with keyword
interface instead of class. Ex public
interface Shape. Interface can be public or
default specifier. Interface can hold only
method name and no implementation. This
means that all the methods are abstract
methods. However, there is no need to use
the keyword abstract in front of interface.
An interface can also define final and static
declarations. For example, we show three
abstract methods in an interface called
Shape in Example 19.11a. The concept
diagram is shown in Figure 19.6.
Figure 19.6 Circle and triangle classes implement shape
interface
Example 19.11a: Shape.java
Interface Shape With Only Abstract
Methods
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. public interface Shape {
3. final static double PI = 3.141519;
4. // abstract methods. Only Head no
body.
5. //Using key word abstract is
optional
6. double ComputeArea(double x);
7. double ComputePerimeter(double x);
8. void DrawShape();
}// end of interface shape
Example 19.11b: ShapeTest.java
Circle and Square classes
implement interface
1. package com.oops.chap19;
2. // Circle
3. class Circle2 implements Shape
4. {public double ComputeArea(double
radius){
5. double area=0; area =
PI*radius*radius;
6. return area;
7. }
8. public double
ComputePerimeter(double radius){
9. double perim=0;perim =
2*PI*radius;return perim;}
10. public void DrawShape(){
11. System.out.println(“Draw Circle
Shape here!”);}
12. }// end of class Circle1
13. class Square implements Shape
14. {public double
ComputeArea(double side){
15. double area=0; area =
side*side;return area;}
16. public double
ComputePerimeter(double side){
17. double perim=0;perim =
4*side;return perim;}
18. public void DrawShape(){
19. System.out.println(“Draw Square
Shape here!”); }
20. }// end of class Square
21. class ShapeTest{
22. public static void
main(String[] args){
23. //Create a reference to
Interface Shape
24. Shape shp;
25. //Create objects of sub classes
26. Circle2 circ = new Circle2();
27. Square sqr = new Square();
28. // make ref to refer to Circle
29. shp=circ;
30. System.out.println(“Area of
Circle”+ shp.ComputeArea(10.0));
31. System.out.println(“Perim of
Circle”+ shp.ComputePerimeter (10.0));
32. shp.DrawShape();
33. System.out.println(); //blank
line
34. shp=sqr;
35. System.out.println(“Area of
Square”+ shp.ComputeArea(10.0));
36. System.out.println(“Perim of
Square”+ shp.ComputePerimeter (10.0));
37. shp.DrawShape();
38. }
39. }
As interface Shape and implementing
classes belong to the same package, there is
no need to import the Shape interface.
L class Circle2 implements Shape shows
i that Circle2 implements Shape. Line Nos. 4–
n 7 show that Circle2 implements abstract
e method of Shape. Similarly, Line Nos. 8 to 12
N show that Circle2 implements two other
o
abstract methods Computeperimeter() and
.
DrawShape().
3
:
L show the implementation details of Square
i class.
n
e
N
o
s
.
1
3
t
o
1
9
:
L Shape shp; creates a reference to interface.
i Line No. 29 makes shp to refer to circ object.
n Line Nos. 30, 31 and 32 show that shp calls the
e solid methods of circle2 and executes them.
N
o
.
2
4
:
L makes shp to refer to object of Square. The
i succeeding lines show implementation of
n Square methods.
e
N
o
.
3
:
19.16 Summary
1. Inheritance is a facility provided to create a new class
from existing classes. Existing class is called super and
new class is called subclass.
2. The access specifiers allowed for members are public,
private, protected, private protected, and default access
that is public up to package level.
3. If we declare the members as private, then they are
visible inside a class only. They are not visible to
subclasses or outside the class.
4. Protected is an access specifier that allows subclass to
derive members by subclass. Protected is visible to own
class and subclass and private to others.
5. Private Protected means that it is visible to any subclass
independent of package, even if they do not belong to
the same package.
6. Set methods are called mutator methods and Get
methods are called accessor methods.
7. Super's constructor can be called by using super()
8. Super classes method overriding means thesame name
and return type in the subclass as that defined in super
class. But base class will have different implementations.
9. Java allows only single inheritance and multilevel
inheritances. Java does not support multiple
inheritances.
10. Abstract Method contains only heading and no body. An
abstract class is one which contains abstract methods.
Since abstract class has abstract methods, object cannot
be instantiated.
11. A reference can be created to super abstract class and
this reference can be made to refer to any one of the
subclass objects at run time. Thus, a reference can refer
to any one of the subclass methods at run time. This is
called run time polymorphism.
12. A non-abstract class is called concrete class.
13. A method declared as final cannot be overridden by
subclass.
14. A class declared as final cannot be inherited.
15. A variable declared as final cannot change its value
during running of the program.
16. java.util package contains a class called Object class that
defines static methods. All the user-created objects are
treated as descendants of Object class. Hence, all static
methods declared in Object class can be directly called
by all objects.
17. Package is a collection of all related classes in a single
directory with a view to afford reusability of classes.
18. Setting path affords using of java executables like exe
files from any directory without the need to specify
complete the path every time.
19. Setting class path is an indication as to where to find
classes. Dot (.) means current working directory.
20. Importing is carried out by import statement to facilitate
using the externally defined class. The classes in the
same package need not be imported.
21. Interface is a powerful tool provided by Java for
dynamic polymorphism. An interface class uses a
keyword interface rather than a class.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Members that can be inherited in Java are
1. public
2. private
3. private protected
4. protected
5. default
1. i and ii
2. i and iii
3. i, iii, iv and v
4. ii, iv and iv
2. Super class constructor can be called by using
1. super()
2. super.Class Name
3. Class Name
4. super(Class Name)
3. Java supports the following types of inheritance
relationships:
1. Multiple
2. Multilevel
3. Single Level
4. Virtual
1. i and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii and iii
4. iii and iv
4. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
calling constructors by objects of subclass?
1. Subclass constructor followed by super
2. Super constructor
3. Sub class
4. Super followed by subclass constructor
5. Overriding of methods means
1. Same name and same return type as that of super by subclass.
2. Defining more than one method with the same name but different
arguments by subclass.
3. Defining more than one method with the same name but different
arguments by super.
4. Defining more than one method with the same name and
arguments by subclass.
6. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
abstract classes?
1. Contains all abstract methods only
2. Can contain non-abstract method
3. Can contain NIL abstract methods
4. Object can be instantiated
1. ii, iii and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
7. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
run-time polymorphism provided by Java?
1. A reference can be created to abstract class.
2. Calling subclass methods by reference is based on type of
reference.
3. Calling subclass methods by reference is based on type of Object.
4. Reference to super can refer to any one of the methods of
subclasses.
1. ii, iii and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. iii and iv
8. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
abstract classes?
1. A reference can be created to abstract class.
2. Abstract classes are also called concrete classes.
3. Calling subclasses methods by reference is based on type of Object.
4. Reference to abstract class can refer to any one of the methods of
subclasses.
1. i, iii and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
9. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
final keyword?
1. Final variables can change its values in subclasses.
2. Final methods can be inherited.
3. Final methods cannot be overridden.
4. Final classes can be inherited.
1. i, iii and iv
2. ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
10. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Object class?
1. It is a super class for all user-created objects.
2. final method declared in Object class can be overridden by user
objects.
3. All methods of Object class are static methods.
4. Methods of Object class can be called directly by user-created
objects.
1. i, iii and iv
2. ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iv
11. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Interface of Java?
1. It is super class with all member methods as abstract methods.
2. It can contain non-abstract methods.
3. Interface cannot be instantiated but a reference can be created.
4. Reference to interface can call any object methods.
1. i, iii and iv
2. ii and iii
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i, iii and iv
12. Interface can contain final static variable
declarations TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
13. What are the types of inheritance supported by Java?
14. Distinguish private and protected members.
15. Distinguish protected and private protected access
specifiers.
16. What is a super class?
17. What is method overriding?
18. What is a final method?
19. What is an Object class?
20. What is final class?
21. Explain the abstract class.
22. What is run-time polymorphism?
23. What is an Interface?
Long-answer Questions
24. Explain the access specifiers in Java with suitable
examples.
25. Explain the uses of super class with examples.
26. Explain how method overriding helps in achieving run-
time polymorphism.
27. How does Java solve the problem of multiple
inheritance, considering that Java does not support
multiple inheritance.
28. Explain run-time polymorphism feature of Java.
29. Distinguish abstract class and interface.
30. Explain the uses of Final with respect to inheritance.
31. Explain how Object class is supporting reusability
feature.
32. What is a package? Provide the syntax for setting path
and CLASSPATH. State the Directories being used.
33. Explain why Interfaces are required and their
contribution to reusability feature by Java.
Assignment Questions
34. Explain the role of abstract classes in achieving
polymorphism in Java. Explain how polymorphism
helps to achieve reusability of code.
35. Discuss the environment variables settings and package
concept to achieve the reusability of classes developed.
Comment specifically why we have to choose a particular
access specifier like public or default, etc.
36. Distinguish the abstract class and Interface. When the
former is achieving the polymorphism why are
interfaces further developed?
37. Implement an interface called PayOut with methods
like GetData() ComputeCredits() and
GetDebits(), etc. Let class Employee implement the
interface PayBill. Assume necessary fields.
38. Let a class called Invoice implement two interfaces
called Quotation with methods like DispalyItem() to
display quotation details such as cost, number of items
and total cost. Invoice also implements interface called
PayOut at Problem 4 to decide the amount payable to
the supplier.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. c
2. a
3. c
4. d
5. a
6. b
7. d
8. a
9. b
10. a
11. d
12. True
20
Errors and Exceptions in Java and
Multithreaded Programming
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able
to understand and use
Errors and exceptions of Java.
How and where they are generated and how they are
handled.
Create your own exception class.
Understand the underlying concepts in
multithreaded programs.
Understand the problems of racing and solution of
synchronization of methods.
20.1 Introduction
Many of you would have come across a pop-
up while you are using the Internet or
operating system, wherein the pop message
would say “OS or Browser has experienced a
serious problem and needs to be closed
down. Error reporting is in process”. Indeed,
an error has occurred. Despite elaborate
testing prior to delivery, errors cannot be
prevented, but they can be minimized. In
this chapter, we will study the mechanism of
Java to handle errors and exceptions.
An important and innovative feature of
Java programming is multithreaded
programming. Just as Operating System
manages several processes concurrently and
schedules the next process CPU should
handle, Java provides multithreaded
programming wherein we can create several
concurrent threads and manage thread
scheduling at programmer's level. The
advantage is that more than one thread
process can be running at the same time
albeit with different priorities.
20.2 Errors and Exceptions
20.2.1 Errors
Errors that crop up in a program are of three
types:
Syntactical Errors: Can be easily detected and
corrected by compilers.
Logical Errors: Arise due to the programmer not
understanding flow of logic. This can be corrected by
extensive testing.
Bugs: These can be fixed by the programmer using
assert() macros and debuggers available.
20.2.2 Exceptions
Exceptions, on the other hand, are unusual
conditions that occur at run time and can
lead to errors that can crash a program. The
exceptions can be classified as:
20.2.2.1 Synchronous
Synchronous are those that can be
predicted. For example, array index going
outside the permissible values can be easily
detected because such errors occur only
when you have executed the statement
involving array index. The synchronous
exception can occur at any one or more of
the following situations:
Memory allocation exception.
IO handling exception.
Maths handling exception like division by zero.
20.2.2.2 Asynchronous Exceptions
Asynchronous exceptions are those that
cannot be predicted. Generally, the
resources required for the program are
allocated at the very beginning of the
program and resources are demanded at run
time. Thus, it is likely that our program may
exceed the initial allotment. As an example,
consider allocated memory for an array.
When such an exception occurs, we need a
mechanism to carry such information to an
area where recourses are allocated so that
we can take corrective actions and prevent
the program from crashing.
20.2.2.3 Checked Exceptions
The exceptions that are checked by compiler
are called checked exceptions. Example:
public static void main(String
[] args) throws IOException.
20.2.2.4 Unchecked Exceptions
The exceptions checked by JVM at run time
are called unchecked exceptions. All
exceptions and errors are objects in Java.
These objects are derived from the package
java.lang. Throwable shown in Figure
20.1.
Figure 20.1 Exception class hierarchy
Figure 20.2 Try and catch blocks in exception handling
mechanism
20.2.2.5 Exceptions in Java
The most likely area for exceptions to occur
is where resources are allocated or where
input and output programming is involved.
These are listed in Table 20.1.
Table 20.1 Java exceptions
Java Exception Remarks
Arithmetic Divide by zero and other
Exceptions mathematical exceptions
ArrayIndexOutOfBou Index going out of originally
ndsException defined dimension
FileNotFoundExcept File not existing
ion
IOException Caused by IO statements
NullPointerExcepti Reference to a null object
on
NumberFormatExcept Occurs when conversion from
ion number to String fails
OutOfMemoryExcepti Memory limits exceeded
on
StackOverFlowExcep Stack over flow
tion
StringOutOfBoundsE Occurs when limit of String
xception definition is exceeded
20.3 Try and Catch Blocks
Java raises an exception object. For it to do
so, we need to use a try block wherever we
expect likely exception. Catch block that
follows the try block catches the exception
object and takes remedial action.
Example 20.1: Use of Try and Catch
Block. Allocation of Memory for a
Two-dimensional Matrix
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. import java.util.*;
3. class MatrixAlloc {
4. void ReadMat(int A[][],int rows,
int cols){
5. //input matrix related data using
scanner
6. Scanner scn=new
Scanner(System.in);
7. for ( int i=0;i<rows;i++)
8. for ( int j=0;j<cols;j++)
9. A[i][j]=scn.nextInt();
10. }
11. void DisplayMatrix(int A[][],int
rows, int cols){
12. for ( int i=0;i<rows;i++)
13. {for ( int j=0;j<cols;j++)
14. { System.out.print( A[i][j] +”
“);}
15. System.out.print( “\n”);}
16. }//end of DisplayMatrix
17. void AddMat(int A[][],int B[]
[],int rows, int cols){
18. for ( int i=0;i<rows;i++)
19. {for ( int j=0;j<cols;j++)
20. System.out.print( (A[i][j]+B[i]
[j]) +” “);
21. System.out.print( “\n”);}
22. }//end of TranspMat
23. }//end of MatrixAlloc
24. class TwoDMatrix{
25. public static void main(String[]
args)
26. {try{
27. Scanner scn = new
Scanner(System.in);
28. MatrixAlloc obj=new
MatrixAlloc();
29. System.out.print(“Enter no of
rows & columns:”);
30. int rows= scn.nextInt();
31. int cols= scn.nextInt();
32. int A[][]= new int[rows][cols];
33. int B[][]= new int[rows][cols];
34. MatrixAlloc mat = new
MatrixAlloc();
35. System.out.println(“Enter Data
for Matrix A”);
36. obj.ReadMat( A ,rows,cols);
37. System.out.println(“Enter Data
for Matrix B”);
38. obj.ReadMat( B ,rows,cols);
39. System.out.println(“Addition of
two Matrices”);
40. mat.AddMat(A,B,rows, cols);
41. } catch( Exception e){};
42. }
43. } //end of MatTranspose
OUTPUT : Enter no of rows & columns:2
2
Enter Data for Matrix A 10 20 30 40
Enter Data for Matrix B 10 20 30 40
Addition of two Matrices
20 40
60 80
L shows that we have included try { block which
i will extend up to Line No. 41 which is catch
n block. We have put a try block because we have
e memory allocation at Line Nos. 27 & 28 :
Scanner scn = new
N Scanner(System.in);MatrixAlloc
o obj=new MatrixAlloc(); Line No. 32 & 33
. allocate memory to matrices A and B.
2
6
:
L catches Exception e. Of course no further action
i is planned as indicated by {}
n
e
N
o
.
4
1
:
In our next example, we will show
Arithmetic type of exception called divide by
zero exception.
Example 20.2: DiveByZero.java A
Program to Show Divide by Zero
Exception
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. import java.util.*;
3. public class DivideByZero {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. double
mass,radius,height,area,density=0.0;
6. boolean yesno=true;
7. Scanner scn = new
Scanner(System.in);
8. System.out.println(“Enter mass of
cylinder”);
9. mass=scn.nextDouble();
10. System.out.println(“Enter height
of cylinder “);
11. height=scn.nextDouble();
12. System.out.println(“ Enter radius
of cylinder<0 to test divide by zero and
exit”);
13. radius=scn.nextDouble();
14. while(yesno){
15. try
16. { if( radius ==0.0) throw new
ArithmeticException(“Divide By Zero”);
17. else
18. { area = 2*(22/7)*radius*
(radius+height);
19. density=mass/area;
20. System.out.println(“\n Density :
“+ density);
21. System.out.println(“ Enter radius
of cylinder<0 to test divide by zero”);
22. radius=scn.nextDouble();
23. }
24. }catch(ArithmeticException e)
25. {System.out.println(“\n Divide By
Zero Exception Occured”); yesno=false;}
26. }// end of while
27. }// end of main
28. }// end of DivideByZero
OUTPUT : Enter mass of cylinder 200
Enter height of cylinder 20
Enter radius of cylinder<0 to test
divide by zero and exit 10
Density : 0.1111111111111111
Enter radius of cylinder<0 to test
divide by zero and exit0
Divide By Zero Exception Occured
Exiting the program
L obtains the data for finding out density of
i cylinder using the formula density = mass/area
n at Line No. 19
e
N
o
s
.
8
t
o
1
3
:
L is a try block and Line No. 23 is a corresponding
i catch block that catches
n ArithmeticDivideByZero exception. We
e are simply informing the user and exiting the
N while loop and programme by making
o yesno=false.
.
1
5
:
L { if( radius ==0.0) throw new
i ArithmeticException (“Divide By
n Zero”); throw an exception when radius is
e zero. Thereafter catch block catches the
N exception. Note that we are using the
o parameterized constructor of
. ArithmeticException class. More
1
importantly it is us who are throwing the
6
exception by calling new new
:
ArithmeticException() parameterized
constructor.
20.4 Handling of Multiple Exceptions by Try
and Catch Blocks
A try block can be made to initiate several
exception objects. Accordingly catch blocks
can catch multiple exception objects. The
syntax and an example is shown in the next
example.
Example 20.3: A Try block can
Catch Multiple Exceptions Like
IOexception, Index Out of Bouns
Exception, etc. A Catch Block can
Catch Multiple Exceptions Like
IOexception , IndexOutOfBounds
Exception, etc.
try
{ // allocation code here
public void DisplayNumbers() throws
NumberFormatException{
//display code here that uses number
formatting }
public int FindMaxArray( int a[] ,
int n) throws ArrayOutOfBoundsexception{
//FindMaxArray code here that uses
Array processing
}
catch (NumberFormatException e1){ }
catch ( ArrayOutOfBoundsexception e2) {
}
A try block can be nested just like for
loop.
Example 20.4: Nesting of Try
Blocks
try // outer try
{ // allocation code here
try{ // inner try
// inner try block code here
that uses File IO Statement}
public void HandleFile()
throws FileNotFoundException{
// file handling code here
that uses opening of file}
} catch
(FileNotFoundException object) { }
}
catch (IOException object){ }
20.5 Using Finally Block
Usually when an exception occurs, the
exception handling code may initiate retrun
to system or calling program. At that instant
of time, there are several actions to be
performed like closing of all open files,
restoring the state to a state prior to
occurring of the exception, etc. This is
accomplished by using the finally(), as
shown in the next example. It is included
after the last catch block.
Example 20.5: Using of Finally
Block
try
{ // allocation code here
public void DisplayNumbers() throws
NumberFormatException{
//display code here that uses number
formatting }
public int FindMaxArray( int a[] ,
int n) throws ArrayOutOfBounds
exception{
//FindMaxArray code here that uses
Array processing
}
catch (NumberFormatException e1){ }
catch ( ArrayOutOfBoundsexception e2) {
}
finally { // finally block
/* includes all house keeping code like
saving current state ,closing of all
open
objects and file and restoring the state
to a state that existed prior to
occurring of the
problem*/
} // end of finally block
20.6 Throw Exceptions
A programmer can explicitly throw an
exception. Throw can be for any of the
exceptions provided by
java.lang.Exception package or user-
defined exception class. In the example that
follows, we will show the user throwing an
exception object for
ArithmeticException class.
Example
20.6: MultiCatchFinally.java A
Program to Show Multiple Catch
Statements and Finally Block
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. import java.util.*;
3. public class MultiCatchFinally {
4. public static void main(String[]
args){
5. double mass,area,density=0.0;
6. boolean yesno=true;
7. try{ // create arrays for mass
,area,density
8. double [] massArray = new double[]
{200.00, 300.00,400.00,500.00};
9. double [] areaArray = new double
[]{ 20.0,30.0,40,0,0.0};
10. double [] densityArray = new
double [massArray. length];
11. int len = massArray.length;
12. //for( int i=0; i<len+1;i++){
13. for( int i=0; i<len;i++){
14. if( areaArray[i]==0) throw new
ArithmeticException(“Divide By Zero”);
15. else
16.
densityArray[i]=massArray[i]/areaArray[i
];}
17. System.out.println(“\n\t
mass\tarea\tdensity”);
18. for( int i=0; i<len;i++){
19.
System.out.println(“\t”+massArray[i]+”\t
”+areaArray[i]+”\t”+densityArray[i]);}
20. }catch(ArithmeticException e)
21. {System.out.println(“Divide By
Zero Exception has occurred ….”);}
22.
catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e)
23. {System.out.println(“Array out
of Bounds Exception has occured ….”);}
24. finally{
25. System.out.println(“We are
inside finally block & exiting the
programme…….”);}
26. }// end of main
27. }//end of class
Run 1 We have commented out Line No.
12 to test array
//index out of bounds exception
OUTPUT1 :Divide By Zero Exception has
occurred ….
We are inside finally block &
exiting the programme…….
Run 2 We have commented out Line No.
13,14,and 15 to test Divide
//By Zero exception i.e
ArithmeticException
OUTPUT2: Divide By Zero Exception has
occured ….
We are inside finally block &
exiting the programme…….
L is try block and multiple catch blocks are at line
i Nos. 20 & 22.
n
e
N
o
.
7
:
L we have purposely defined areaArray[3]
i =0.0 to simulate the divide by zero Error.
n
e
N
o
.
9
:
L for( int i=0; i<len+1;i++){ shows that
i we rae trying to go beyond the array size i.e
n len. It will trigger
e ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.
N
o
.
1
2
:
L checks if( areaArray[i]==0)and if true
i throw new ArithmeticException. The
n exception object is caught by catch block at line
e no. 20. This is user thrown exception object. The
Exception class is provided by
N java.lang.Exception pakage.
o
.
1
4
:
20.7 Throws Exceptions
There is another variation called throws
provided by java. We have been using this
feature in all our IO related programs like
public static void main(String []
args) throws IOException{. All checked
exceptions, i.e., all checked exceptions are
required to be handled by the user.
However, if the user does not want to handle
the exception, then he has to throw out
using throws clause.
Example
20.7: MultiCatchFinally.java a
Program to Show Multiple Catch
Statements and Finally Block
package com.oops.chap20;
import java.io.*;
import com.oops.chap20.OurOwnException;
import java.lang.Exception;
import java.util.*;
class CheckCredits extends
OurOwnException{
public void FindBal(String id,double
trAmt) throws OurOwnException{
double[] BanBal=new double[]
{2000.0,5000.00,900.00,90000.0};
String[] EmpIdNo=new String[]{
“50595”,”50596”,”50597”,”50598”};
for(int i=0;i<EmpIdNo.length;i++){
if( EmpIdNo[i].compareTo(id)==0)
{ System.out.println(“Bank balance”
+BanBal[i]);System.out.
println(“Trnsaction Amount “ +trAmt
);
if ( BanBal[i]- trAmt <1000.00)
throw new
OurOwnException(“Sorry Transaction can
not be
processed Bal<1000.00”);
else System.out.println(“Successful”);
}
else continue;
}// end of for
}// end of FindBal
}// end of CheckCredits class
class MyException {
public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException{
String idNo, amt; boolean yesno=true;
double transAmt;// variables for input
data
BufferedReader input = new
BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader
(System.in));
System.out.println(“Enter id number of
Employee”);
String stg =
input.readLine();stg.trim();
System.out.print(“Enter Transaction
amount :”);
amt=input.readLine();amt.trim();
transAmt=Double.parseDouble(amt);
// make an object of CheckCredits class
CheckCredits obj=new CheckCredits();
// call FindBal
try{
obj.FindBal(stg,transAmt);
}catch(OurOwnException e){
System.out.println(“Inside catch block
- Our Own Exception”);
System.out.println(e.getMessage());}
}// end of main
}// end of class MyException
OUTPUT : Enter id number of Employee
50596
Enter Transaction amount :25000.00
Bank balance5000.0 Trnsaction Amount
25000.0
Inside catch block - Our Own Exception
Sorry Transaction cannot be processed
Bal<1000.00
20.8 Re-throwing of An Exception
Suppose an exception occurs at some
method but the corrective mechanism is
placed at some other method, say
main()method, then the exception caught
by catch block of called method can re
thrown, so that main() will catch the re-
thrown exception and carry out the
correcting mechanism. Example 1 and 2
show how to catch re-thrown exceptions for
String and Array.
20.9 Defining Our Own Exception
On many occasions, we need to define our
own exception handlers in project
development work like exception during
data validations, data validations, etc. We
need to throw exception object and then
write a catch block to capture this exception.
Exception class is super for all exceptions
that occur. The class hierarchy for Exception
classes is shown in Figure 20.1.
20.9.1 Procedure for Throwing Our Own
Exceptions
Step 1: import Exception class : import
java.lang.Exception;
Step 2: Make your own class extend to Exception
class: class OurOwnException extends
Exception.
Step 3: Define constructor for our class.
OurOwnException(String stg){super(stg);}
Step 4: Create a try block where exception
likely to occur
Step 5: If exception occurs throw our own
exception by creating exception object:
throw new OurOwnException(“Sorry
Transaction can not be processed. Bal is
<1000.00”);
Step 6: Use catch block to capture the exception object
thrown: catch(OurOwnException e)
{System.out.println(“Inside a catch
block- OurOwnException”);
Step 7: Get the exception message :
System.out.println(e.getMessage());}
Example 20.8: OwnException.java
A Program to Show How to Throw
Our Own Exception
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. import java.lang.Exception;
3. class OurOwnException extends
Exception{
4. OurOwnException(){} // default
constructor
5. OurOwnException(String stg)
{super(stg);} // constructor with arg
6. }// end of own exception
7. class OwnException1{
8. public static void main(String[]
args) {
9. double credits = 20000.00;
10. double debits = 19900.00;
11. try{
12. if ( ( credits-debits)<1000.00 )
13. throw new OurOwnException(“Sorry
Transaction can not be processed. Bal is
<1000.00”);
14. else
15. System.out.println(“Transaction
sucessful”);
16. }catch(OurOwnException e)
17. {System.out.println(“Inside a
catch block- OurOwnException”);
18.
System.out.println(e.getMessage());}
19. }//end of main
20. }// end of ownException1
OUTPUT : Inside a catch block-
OurOwnException
Sorry Transaction can not be
processed. Bal is <1000.00
Li class OurOwnException extends
ne Exception{ shows OurOwn exception class
No extending to java.lang.Exception
. class.
3:
20.10 Concepts of Multithreading
You are familiar with picture in picture
facility provided by television wherein while
the newsreader is presenting the news, a
small window appears with a totally
different news item or amplification of what
the newsreader is presenting, probably
cricketing action. How is this possible?
Surely you need two independent
executions.
What is a thread? Simply put, thread to
Java is the same as process to an operating
system. Thread is a sequence of instructions
that will be executed when the CPU is
scheduled to handle the thread. The void
main() programs so far we have been
executing were indeed executed by Java on a
single thread. This concept is shown in
Figure 20.3.
Figure 20.3 Multithreaded program
20.10.1 Multithreaded Program
When more than one thread is executing
independent processes, it is called a
multithreaded program. Why is
multithreaded programming required?
Multithreading is useful in any situation
where a programmer requires more than
one task to be handled at the same time.
Situations like games programming,
foreground and background jobs, concurrent
handling of multiple outputs, etc., are ideally
suited for multithreaded programming.
Threaded and multithreaded programs are
ideally suited for client server programs
wherein the server handles clients residing
on several threads.
20.11 Process vs Threads
20.11.1 Process
A process is a job in hand. We can also say
that this is a simple sequence of instructions
to be executed by the CPU. Operating system
creates several processes. CPU is then
scheduled to handle different processes
based on the priorities of the processes by
OS. OS switches CPU amongst processes
and allocates CPU time and completes all
the tasks. When process shifting takes place,
it is necessary to save the context of the
current execution like stack, variables,
status, etc. As context switching is involved,
processes are called heavyweight processes.
20.11.2 Threads
Java brings concurrent processing, not
parallel, just like OS does with its processes,
within the preview of programmers by
innovative and unique feature called
multithreaded programming. In
multithreaded programs, the main program
is run on a main thread but the main
program creates threads that run
independent and concurrent program flows.
It is the main program that creates and
starts the other three threads, as shown in
Figure 20.3. Once started, the three
subthreads run independently as per
priorities set and as per scheduling of CPU
concurrently sharing CPU time and other
common resources.
Threads are also called light weight
because they consume less memory
resources. Why because there is no context
switching involved in multithreaded
programming.
20.12 How to Create and Run the Threads?
By default, our main program is running on
the main thread. To create our own threads,
the following steps are used:
Step 1: A thread can be created either by extending to
Thread class or implementing the Runnable Interface.
Example: class ThreadTest extends Thread or
Class ThreadTest implements Runnable
Step 2: Inside the class define run() method. In side
run method, we can implement thread functionality.
Run() method is automatically recognized and executed
by the thread.
class ThreadTest extends
Thread{ or
class ThreadTest extends
implements Runnable{
public void run()
{……………..}
Note that run method is where the entire action for the
thread will take place. It is like the main() method. It
can declare its own variables, instantiate other classes.
Run is the entry point for any new thread that is created.
The Thread created ends when the run() ends.
Step 3: Create an object of ThreadTest in main().
This object is used to invoke the run method
class ThreadTestDemo{
public static void main(
String[] args) {
ThreadTest obj =new
ThreadTest();
Step 4: Create the thread in main and attach thread to
the object.
Thread thrd = new
Thread(obj); OR
Thread thrd = new Thread( obj
, “threadname”);
Step 5: Run the thread by calling start method on the
thread
Thrd.start();
We can suspend the thread from
execution for a specified period of time by
using sleep() method. The syntax is:
static void sleep(milliseconds)
throws InterruptedException or static
void sleep (milliseconds,
nanoseconds) throws
InterruptedException. As sleep is a static
method, we can invoke directly as:
Thread.sleep(ms); During the time
thread is suspended, CPU is allocated to
other threads.
Thread class also provides getName()
and setName() methods, for example,
Thread.getname() and
Thread.setName(“name”). The methods
by Thread class and Runnable interface are
shown in Table 20.2.
Table 20.2 Methods of thread class and runnable interface
Method Remarks
getName Obtain and set names for the threads
();
setName
(stg);
getPrio Get & set methods to obtain and set Priorities
rity()
setPrio
rity()
isAlive To check if thread is still running
()
It throws InterruptedException. Calling
join() thread waits till specified thread joins it.
sleep(m Suspend execution of thread for ms duration
s) Suspend execution of thread for ms & nano sec
duration
sleep(m
sec,nse
c)
We implement the creation of threads
using extends method in Example 20.8. We
show the implementation using Runnable
interface in Ex 20.4. Runnable is an
interface provided to create the threads. The
programmer has to execute overridden
run() to create and run the thread.
Example
20.9: FirstThreademo.java A
Program to Show How to Create and
Run Thread. Use Extends Feature to
Create Threads
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. class FirstThread extends Thread{
3. public void run(){
4. // Thread executes the sequence
5. try{
6. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
7. {System.out.println(“ thread1 :” +
i + “ : “);
8. Thread.sleep(600);
9. }
10.} catch(InterruptedException e )
11. {System.out.println(“thread1
interrupted”);}
12. System.out.println(“Exiting from
thread1”);
13. }//end of run
14. }//end of FirstThread
15. class SecondThread extends
Thread{
16. public void run(){
17. try{
18. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
19. { System.out.println(“ thread2
:” + i + “ : “);
20. Thread.sleep(600);
21. }
22. }catch(InterruptedException e )
23. {System.out.println(“thread2
interrupted”);}
24. System.out.println(“Exiting from
thread2”);
25. }//end of run
26. }//end of SecondThread
27. public class FirstThreadDemo {
28. public static void main(String[]
args) {
29. //create an object of
FirstThread & SecondThread
30. FirstThread obj1 = new
FirstThread();
31. SecondThread obj2 = new
SecondThread();
32. //create the Thread and attach
it to object
33. Thread thread1 = new Thread(
obj1);
34. Thread thread2 = new Thread(
obj2);
35. //Run the thread by calling
start() which calls run()
36. thread1.start();
37. thread2.start();
38. try{
39. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
40. { System.out.println(“
threadMain :” + i + “ : “);
41. Thread.sleep(1200);
42. }
43. }catch(InterruptedException e )
44. {System.out.println(“main thread
interrupted”);}
45. System.out.println(“Exiting from
main thread”);
46. }//end of main
47. }//end of FirstThreadDemo
Output: threadMain :0 :
thread1 :0 : thread2 :0 : thread2 :1
: thread1 :1 : threadMain :1
thread2 :2 : thread1 :2 : thread1 :3
: thread2 :3 : th readMain :2
Exiting from thread1 Exiting from
thread2 threadMain :3 :
Exiting from main thread
Li instantiate FirstThread and
ne SecondThread. These threads extend to
N Thread class.
os
.
30
&
31
:
Li create the Thread objects and attach them
ne with objects: Thread thread1 = new
N Thread( obj1);
os
.
33
&
34
:
Li starts the thread which in turn call the
ne run()method. Both thread1 and thread2
N start running.
os
.
36
&
37
:
Li describe main thread. Note that at line no: 41
ne sleep(1200) ensures that main thread
N sleeps for 1200 seconds. During this time
os other threads are handled by CPU.
.
38
–
45
:
Li FirstThread in side run() methods
ne executes a for loop as part of its programme.
N After each loop, the thread goes to sleep for
o. 600 ms to facilitate SecondThread and
6: MainThread to get their share of CPU.
Li declare a class SecondThread identical to
ne FirstThread.
N
os
.
15
–
26
:
Note that both threads wait only for 600
ms and main thread waits for 1200ms . his
timings are deliberately chosen to ensure
that main thread finishes last.
20.12.1 Which is Better: Extends Thread or
Implements Runnable?
Use Inheritance extends Thread method if
you have anything new to add in subclass.
Else implementing Runnable is a better
option. In our next example, we will
introduce constructors to create threads. We
will use Runnable interface:
Example
20.10: SecondThreadDemo.java A
Program to Show How to Create and
Run Thread. Use Extends Feature to
Create Threads
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. class FirstThread2 implements
Runnable{
3. Thread thrd1;
4. FirstThread2(){
5. System.out.println(“Creating
FirstThread2”);
6. thrd1 = new
Thread(this,”FirstThread2”);
7. System.out.println(“Creating
FirstThread2”+ thrd1);
8. thrd1.start();
9. }
10. public void run(){
11. // FirstThread2 executes the
sequence
12. try{
13. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
14. {System.out.println(“ thread1 :”
+ i + “ : “);
15. Thread.sleep(600);}
16. }catch(InterruptedException e )
17. {System.out.println(“thread1
interrupted”);}
18. System.out.println(“Exiting from
thread1”);
19. }//end of run
20. }//end of FirstThread
21. class SecondThread2 implements
Runnable{
22. Thread thrd2;
23. SecondThread2(){
24. System.out.println(“Creating
SecondThread2”);
25. thrd2 = new
Thread(this,”FirstThread2”);
26. System.out.println(“Creating
SecondThread2”+ thrd2);
27. thrd2.start();
28. }
29. public void run(){
30. System.out.println(“thread1
Details”);
31. System.out.println(“Name
:”+thrd2.getName());
32. System.out.println(“Priority
:”+thrd2.getPriority());
33. try{
34. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
35. { System.out.println(“ thread2
:” + i + “ : “);
36. Thread.sleep(600);
37. }
38. }catch(InterruptedException e )
39. {System.out.println(“thread2
interrupted”);}
40. System.out.println(“Exiting from
thread2”);
41. }//end of run
42. }//end of SecondThread
43. public class ThreadsConstDemo {
44. public static void main(String[]
args) {
45. //create an object of
FirstThread2 & SecondThread2
46. new FirstThread2();
47. new SecondThread2();
48. try{
49. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
50. { System.out.println(“
threadMain :” + i + “ : “);
51. Thread.sleep(1200);
52. }
53. }catch(InterruptedException e )
54. {System.out.println(“main thread
interrupted”);}
55. System.out.println(“Exiting from
main thread”);
56. }//end of main
57. }// end of ThreadRunnableDemo
Output: Creating FirstThread2
Creating
FirstThread2Thread[FirstThread2,5,main]
thread1 :0 :
Creating SecondThread2
Creating
SecondThread2Thread[FirstThread2,5,main]
threadMain :0 :
thread1 Details
Name :FirstThread2
Priority :5
thread2 :0 : thread1 :1 : thread2 :1
: thread1 :2 :
threadMain :1 : thread2 :2 : thread1
:3 : thread2 :3 :
Exiting from thread1 threadMain :2 :
Exiting from thread2
threadMain :3 : Exiting from main
thread
Line creates new thread by : new
Nos. FirstThread2();new Second
46 & Thread2();
47:
Line thrd1 = new
No. Thread(this,”FirstThread2”);
6: attaches new thread created with this (
current thread) and names it as
FirstThread2
Line starts the thread1. Yhread enter run()
No. method.
8:
Line gets you thread details
Nos.
30–
32:
System.out.println(“thread1 Details”);
System.out.println(“Name
:”+thrd2.getName()); System.out.println
(“Priority :”+thrd2.getPriority());
20.12.2 Use of isAlive() and join()
Methods
The sleep() method introduced suspends
a thread for duration specified and CPU is
shifted to other waiting threads. The
selection of duration is arbitrary and CPU is
forcibly pulled out from thread after time
duration. This is not a satisfactory solution.
Java provides: final boolean
isAlive() method to test if the thread is
alive. Java also provides a more elegant
method called final void join() throws
InterruptedException. This is a non-
greedy method and it waits till the thread on
which it is called is terminated. Here the
calling thread waits till the specified thread
joins it.
Example
20.11: IsAliveJoinDemo.java A
Program to Show How to Create and
Run Thread. Use Extends Feature to
Create Threads
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. import
com.oops.chap20.FirstThread2;
3. import1
com.oops.chap20.SecondThread2;
4. public class IsAliveJoinDemo {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. FirstThread2 obj1= new
FirstThread2();
7. SecondThread2 obj2 =new
SecondThread2();
8. // check if threads are alive.
thrd1&2 is objects of
First/SecondThread2
9.
System.out.println(obj1.thrd1.isAlive())
; //thrd1 is object of
FirstThread2
10.
System.out.println(obj2.thrd2.isAlive())
;
11. // wait for threads to finish.
Use join method
12. try{
13. System.out.println(“\nwaiting
for threads to finish”);
14. obj1.thrd1.join();
15. obj2.thrd2.join();
16. }catch(InterruptedException e )
17. {System.out.println(“main thread
interrupted”);}
18. System.out.println(“Exiting from
main thread”);
19. }//end of main
20. }// end of ThreadRunnableDemo
Output: Creating FirstThread2
Creating
FirstThread2Thread[FirstThread2,5,main]
thread1 :0 : Creating SecondThread2
Creating
SecondThread2Thread[FirstThread2,5,main]
True true
thread1 Details waiting for threads
to finish
Name :FirstThread2 Priority :5
thread2 :0 : thread1 :1 : thread2 :1
: thread1 :2 : thread2 :2 :
thread1 :3 : thread2 :3 : Exiting
from thread1Exiting from thread2
Exiting from main thread
20.13 Life Cycle of Thread
There are five states for thread to be in. They
are: NewBorn), Runnable, Running,
Blocked, and Dead State. A running
thread can be stopped by stop() method. A
thread can be blocked by any one of the
following methods:
sleep()
suspend() . //deprecated . Cannot be used
due to inherent problems. Instead Java
recommends using of IsAlive(0 and join()
methods.
wait() ; A thread is blocked until certain conditions
prevail
A newborn thread goes to either Runnable
state or Dead State. With start() method
the thread goes to Runnable state. Runnable
state means that the thread is ready and
waiting in the queue to be serviced by CPU.
Depending on the priority or on the basis of
round robin the threads are scheduled to be
serviced by CPU. The thread then goes to the
running state.
Now sleep() or suspended() or
wait() takes the thread to a blocked state.
Blocked state is one which will not be
handled by a CPU. Resume or notify() or
notifyall() will take the thread to
runnable state. Notify() and
notifyall() are methods invoked by
thread that has completed its job with CPU
and issues notify() or notifyall().
Depending on the priority, the thread with
the highest priority gets CPU's attention.
Figure 20.4 The states that a newborn thread goes through
thrd.notify() : releases the object and informs the
thread waiting in a queue that object is available.
Thrd.notifyAll(): Releases the object and sends
notification to all waiting threads
Obj.wait(): Thread waits till it receives notify() or
notifyAll() methods.
20.14 Thread Priorities
Thread priority decides the order of
scheduling of thread waiting. Thread
priority is from No. 1 to 10. We can set the
priority with:
ThreadName.setPriority(int );
or ThreadName.setPriority(NORM
_PRIORITY );
Int can be any number between 1 and 10.
MIN_PRIORITY =1 : NORM _PRIORITY =5
MAX _PRIORITY =10
Java executes the highest priority thread
first. The lower priority thread gets CPU
attention when higher priority thread is
stopped or sleep() is used or wait() is
executed. When a thread is running if higher
priority thread arrives, it preempts the
running thread and schedules the higher
priority thread. The running thread goes to
Runnable state.
Example 20.12: Priority.java: A
program to Show How to Set
Priorities to the Threads
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. class MaxPriority implements
Runnable{
3. Thread thrd1;
4. MaxPriority(){
5. System.out.println(“Creating
MaxPriority”);
6. thrd1 = new
Thread(this,”MaxPriority”);
7.
thrd1.setPriority(Thread.MAX_PRIORITY);
8. System.out.println(“Creating
MaxPriority”+ thrd1);
9. thrd1.start();
10. }
11. public void run(){
12. System.out.println(“Maximum
Thread Details”);
13. System.out.println(“Name
:”+thrd1.getName());
14. System.out.println(“Priority
:”+thrd1.getPriority());
15. // MaxPriority executes the
sequence
16. try{
17. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
18. {System.out.println(“ thread1 :”
+ i + “ : “);
19. Thread.sleep(600);}
20. }catch(InterruptedException e )
21. {System.out.println(“thread1
interrupted”);}
22. System.out.println(“Exiting from
thread1”);
23. }//end of run
24. }//end of FirstThread
25. class MinPriority implements
Runnable{
26. Thread thrd2;
27. MinPriority(){
28. System.out.println(“Creating
MinPriority”);
29. thrd2 = new
Threadthis,”FirstThread2”);
30.
thrd2.setPriority(Thread.MIN_PRIORITY+2)
;
31. System.out.println(“Creating
MinPriority”+ thrd2);
32. thrd2.start();
33. }
34. public void run(){
35. System.out.println(“minimum
thread Details”);
36. System.out.println(“Name
:”+thrd2.getName());
37. System.out.println(“Priority
:”+thrd2.getPriority());
38. try{
39. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
40. { System.out.println(“ thread2
:” + i + “ : “);
41. Thread.sleep(600);
42. }
43. }catch(InterruptedException e )
44. {System.out.println(“thread2
interrupted”);}
45. System.out.println(“Exiting from
thread2”);
46. }//end of run
47. }//end of SecondThread
48. public class Priority {
49. public static void main(String[]
args) {
50. //create an object ofMaxPriority
& MinPriority
51. new MaxPriority();
52. new MinPriority();
53. try{
54. for (int i=0;i<4;i++)
55. { System.out.println(“
threadMain :” + i + “ : “);
56. Thread.sleep(600);
57. }
58. }catch(InterruptedException e )
59. {System.out.println(“main thread
interrupted”);}
60. System.out.println(“Exiting from
main thread”);
61. }//end of main
62. }// end of Priority.java
Output: Creating MaxPriority
Creating
MaxPriorityThread[MaxPriority,10,main]
Maximum Thread Details
Name :MaxPriority
Priority :10
thread1 :0 :
Creating MinPriority
Creating
MinPriorityThread[FirstThread2,3,main]
threadMain :0 :
minimum thread Details
Name :FirstThread2 Priority :3
thread2 :0 : thread1 :1 : thread2 :1
: thread1 :2 : threadMain :1 : thread2
:2 : thread1 :3 : thread2 :3 : Exiting
from th read1
threadMain :2 : Exiting from thread2
threadMain :3 :
Exiting from main thread
Line create two threads called
Nos. 51 & MacPriority and MinPriority.
52:
Line No. Constructor allocates priority as
7: MAX_PRIORITY i.e. 10 to thrd1
Line No. Constructor allocates priority as
30: MIN_PRIORITY+2, i.e., 3 to thread
2
Line provide the details of thread1 such as
Nos. 12 name, priority, etc.
to 14:
As per priorities set, if you observe the
output thread1 with priority of 10 is
completed First. The main thread by default
has NORM _PRIORITY =5 which is higher
than Thread2 priority which is
MIN_PRIORIT +2, i.e., 3. Hence the main
thread completes before thread2.
20.15 Synchronization
When multiple threads act on different
objects, we would call it multitasking. As per
priorities allocated and as per CPU
scheduling, the threads execute different
objects and produce results. There is no
problem in this case.
Suppose multiple threads act on the same
object. This could lead to problems. Let us
say that there are two threads, thread1 &
thread2, acting on the object, i.e., they will
concurrently execute the same run()
command. Each thread has only one job,
that of incrementing the counter and
sending it to the printer for printing. The
output we are expecting is: thread1
1001,thread2: 1001; thread:1002,
thread2: 1002 and so on. Remember
thread is on CPU and speed of execution is
of the order of nanoseconds and the printer
is a slow device. Let us say that counter has
an initial value of 1000. After incrementing
by thread1 to 1001 and before the count has
been printed, i.e., 1001, the control may pass
to thread2 due to sleep() or wait(),
etc., which will increment the counter to
1002. The printer will look for count and
print 1002 instead of 1001 which we
normally expect, thus leading to erroneous
results. A second scenario is that after
printing 1001, if the CPU is still with
thread1, it will increment once again and
print 1002, thus leading again to erroneous
results. Multiple threads working
independently on a single object and
plausible problems that can arise are shown
in Ex 20.6.
Figure 20.5 Multiple objects on a single object
Java has provided a feature called
synchronization that helps us to solve the
problems of multiple threads sharing
common resources and using the same
object like printer. For example, we could
use: synchronized void
UpDateCount(){ // code to be
synchronized here….}
Java creates a monitor for the
UpDateCount() and hands its over to
thread that has entered the object. It is like a
key. The other objects join a queue waiting
for their turn to enter the Member method
UpDateCount(). Thus there is no conflict.
But what is the price of synchronization?
Simply the process has become serial
handling of the thread rather than
concurrent handling. It is similar to Railway
trains waiting at the platform to cross a
bridge that has only one track. A second
train cannot enter the bridge section until
and unless the train completes the bridge
section and notifies signal) it to that effect.
operations.
Example
20.13: SynchronisedDemo.java: A
Program to Show Use of
Synchronized Block for Solving
Problems of Multiple Threads
Acting on Single Object
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. class Sync3 extends Thread{
3. Thread thrd;
4. Sync3(String stg){
5. super(stg);}
6. public void run(){
7. synchronized(this) {
8. try{
9. for(int i=1000;i<1010;i++)
10.
{System.out.println(this.getName() + (i)
+ “ : “);
11. Thread.sleep(500);
12. }
13. }catch(InterruptedException e )
14. {System.out.println(“thread1
interrupted”);}
15. System.out.println(“Exiting from
thread1”+this.getName());
16. }//end of try
17. }//end of run
18. }
19. public class SynchronisedDemo {
20. public static void main(String[]
args) {
21. //create an object ofMaxPriority
& MinPriority
22. Sync3 obj1 =new
Sync3(“Sync1”);obj1.start();
23. Sync3 obj2 = new
Sync3(“Sync2”);obj2.start();
24. }//end of main
25. }// end of class
SynchronisedDemo
Sync11000 : Sync20000 : Sync11001 :
Sync20001 : Sync11002 :
Sync20002 : Sync11003 : Sync20003 :
Sync11004 : Sync20004 :
Sync11005 : Sync20005 : Sync11006 :
Sync20006 : Sync11007 :
Sync20007 : Sync11008 : Sync20008 :
Sync11009 : Sync20009 : Exiting from
thread1Sync1 Exiting from thread1Sync2
L Declares the block as synchronized(this)
i meaning it is synchronizing the object so that
n object holds the monitor and till it relinquishes
e the CPU other threads can not enter this block
N of code.
o
.
7
:
20.16 Inter-thread Communications
Threads need to communicate with one
another either to pass arguments,
synchronize and optimize the performance.
There is definitely a speed mismatch
between producer and consumer.
Consider for example the action of
inputting data from the keyboard into the
computer. The steps involved in this process
include:
Producer, i.e., the keyboard produces at a rate and speed
the data is keyed in by the user. This is a very slow
process because input from the user is involved. The
producer fills up buffer and on completion notifies that
it has finished filling up of the buffer.
Computer is consumer since it picks up the data entered
by the keyboard into the system. This is a very high-
speed device. Hence, we need a buffer and that needs to
be in a synchronized block. This buffer is the same as
that being used by producer. We will use
StringBuffer class object to work as buffer for our
application. Refer to the example provided below.
Example
20.14: ProducerConsumer.java: A
Program to Show the Inter-thread
Communications
1. package com.oops.chap20;
2. class Producer extends Thread{
3. // producer produces data and add
it to buffer based on the signal
4. StringBuffer buffer;
5. Producer(){ // constructor
6. buffer = new StringBuffer();}
7. public void run(){
8. // synchronize the buffer
9. synchronized(buffer)
10. {
11. //produce items
12. for( int i=1;i<=8;i++)
13. { try {
14. buffer.append(“Item”+i + “,”);
15. Thread.sleep(200);
16. System.out.println(“Buffer
Position :”+ i + “ Filled.”);
17. }catch(Exception e){}
18. }//end of for
19. buffer.notify();
20. }// end of synchronized block
21. }//// end of run
22. }// end of Producer
23. class Consumer extends Thread{
24. // Create a reference of
Producer class
25. Producer prod;
26. //Constructor
27. Consumer(Producer prod)
28. { this.prod=prod;}
29. public void run(){
30. synchronized(prod.buffer)
31. {// wait for notification from
Producer
32. try{
33. prod.buffer.wait();
34. }catch(Exception e){}
35. System.out.println(“Displaying
items from Buffer..”);
36. System.out.println(prod.buffer);
37. }//end of sync
38. }// end of run
39. }//end of class Consumer
40. public class
ProducerConsumerDemo extends Thread{
41. public static void main(String[]
args) throws Exception {
42. // create objects of producer
and consumer
43. Producer prod = new Producer();
44. Consumer cons = new
Consumer(prod);
45. // create threads for Producer
and Consumer
46. Thread thrdProd = new
Thread(prod);
47. Thread thrdCons = new
Thread(cons);
48. thrdCons.start();
49. thrdProd.start();
50. }// end of main()
51. }// end of class
ProducerConsumerDemo
Output:
Buffer Position :1 Filled. Buffer
Position :2 Filled.
Buffer Position :3 Filled. Buffer
Position :4 Filled.
Buffer Position :5 Filled. Buffer
Position :6 Filled.
Buffer Position :7 Filled. Buffer
Position :8 Filled.
Displaying items from Buffer.
Item1,Item2,Item3,Item4,Item5,Item6,Item
7,Item8
Line create objects for Producer and
Nos. Consumer.
43 &
44:
Line create new thread objects thrdProd and
Nos. thrdCons.
46 &
47:
Line start the threads.
Nos.
48 &
49:
Line creates StringBuffer object called
No. 4: buffer and constructor at Line No. 6
allocates resources.
Figure 20.6 Producer consumer problem
Producer produces in a for loop
continuously and fills up the buffer through
append statement at Line No. 14. Note that
buffer is in a synchronized block defined at
Line No. 9.
Producer notify(0 at Line No. 19 to the
threads waiting on the object.
Consumer creates an instance of Producer
at Line No. 25 and constructor receives the
reference to Producer as argument and
allocates resource at Line Nos. 27 and 28.
Li block is synchronized with object of Producer
ne buffer .
N
o.
30
:
Li consumer thread is waiting for notify(0 from
ne the producer at Line No. 19. This is achieved
N by wait() command at Line No. 33 :
o. prod.buffer.wait();
33
:
20.17 Deadlock in Multithreaded
Programming
A deadlock will occur if there are two
synchronized objects and if two threads
working independently on these
synchronized objects have circular
dependency. Suppose there are two
synchronized objects, i.e., each object has a
monitor. Let the objects be Obj1 and Obj2.
Let there be two threads, thread1 and
thread2, created which enter the respective
monitors on Obj1 and Obj2. Now Obj1
calls any synchronized method on Obj2, the
thread1 will be blocked because thread2
has the monitor. So far so good.
Now what happens if thread2 calls a
method on Obj1? Surely it will be blocked
because thread1 has the monitor on obj1.
Thus, we can see a circular dependency on
a pair of synchronized objects. A deadlock
occurs. For a deadlock to occur, the
following conditions are a must:
Two synchronized objects.
Two or more threads with monitor on the objects and a
circular dependency.
A deadlock cannot be prevented but its
occurrence can be minimized. When a
deadlock occurs, the threads are
immediately stopped, resources are released
and processes are restarted.
20.18 Summary
1. Errors are of three types, viz., syntactical errors, logical
errors, and bugs. Syntactical errors can be caught by
compiler. Bugs can be fixed by assert statements and
debugging.
2. Exceptions on the other hand are unusual conditions
that occur at run time and can lead to errors that can
crash a program.
3. Exceptions can be synchronous exceptions like
IOException. These can be predicted.
4. Exceptions can be asynchronous exceptions like
OutOfMemoryException that cannot be predicted.
5. Checked Exception are those that can be handled by
compiler and need to be handled by the user. In case it is
not handled, exception is to be thrown using throws
clause.
6. A try block creates exception object and catch block
catches the exception. Try block can be nested. A try
block can initiate several exceptions.
7. A catch block can capture several exceptions.
8. Finally, block is placed after all catch blocks and can be
used to do all housekeeping tasks such as closing all
open files and saving status and displaying common
essential messages before leaving try & catch blocks.
9. Throw exceptions: A programmer can explicitly throw
an exception. Throw can be for any of the Exceptions
provided by java.lang.Exception package or user-
defined exception class.
10. Thread is a sequence of instructions that will be
executed when CPU is scheduled for handling of the
thread. Simply put, thread to Java is the same as process
to an operating system.
11. Threads can be created using Runnable interface or by
extending to Thread class. Runnable is used when
nothing new is planned.
12. When more than one thread is executing independent
processes, it is called multithreaded programs.
13. Process: A process is a job in hand. As context switching
is involved, processes are called heavyweight processes.
14. Java provides: final boolean is Alive() method to test
if the thread is alive.
15. Method called final void join() throws
InterruptedException. This is a non-greedy method and
it waits till the thread on which it is called is terminated.
Here the calling thread waits till the specified thread
joins it.
16. There are five states for the thread to be in. They are:
NewBorn), Runnable, Running, Blocked, and
Dead State.
17. A thread can be blocked by any one of the following
methods: sleep(), suspend(), and block().
18. thrd.notify(): releases the object and informs the
thread waiting in a queue that object is available.
19. Thrd.notifyAll(): Releases the object and sends
notification to all waiting threads
20. Obj.wait(): Thread waits till it receives notify()
or notifyAll() methods.
21. Thread priority decides the order of scheduling of thread
waiting. MIN_PRIORITY =1 : NORM _PRIORITY =5
MAX _PRIORITY =10.
22. Java has provided a feature called synchronization that
helps us to solve the problems of multiple threads
sharing common resource and using the same object like
printer.
23. Inter-thread communication is provided with the help of
synchronization. A better technique is by using wait()
and notify() commands. This feature is useful for
passing arguments between the threads.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Errors and Exceptions of Java?
1. Exceptions occur at compile time
2. Logical errors can be detected by compiler
3. Syntactical errors can be detected by compiler
4. Bugs can be detected by compiler
1. i, ii and iii
2. iii
3. ii and iii
4. ii and iii
2. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Exceptions of Java?
1. Synchronous exception cannot be predicted
2. Asynchronous exceptions cannot be predicted
3. IOException is synchronous exception
4. ArrayIndexOutOfBounds is asynchronous exception
1. i, ii and iii
2. iii
3. ii and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
3. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
finally block of Java?
1. Finally closes all open objects
2. Finally block can be used to close all open files
3. Placed after try block
4. Placed after all catch blocks
1. i and iii
2. iii
3. ii and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
4. Try block can be nested
TRUE/FALSE
5. Catch block can be nested
TRUE/FALSE
6. All checked exceptions are required to be handled by
user Or throw out the exception using throws clause
TRUE/FALSE
7. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Threads of Java?
1. Process is job in hand for OS
2. Thread to Java is what process is to OS
3. Thread is a heavyweight process
4. Shift of CPU from a thread involves saving of context
1. i and ii
2. iii
3. ii and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
8. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Threads commands of Java?
1. IsAlive() checks if thread is still running
2. join() throws InterruptedException
3. when join() is used calling thread waits till specified thread joins
it
4. join() is a static method
1. i, ii and iii
2. i, iii and iv
3. ii and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
9. Which of the following statements are true in respect to
synchronization of Java?
1. Block of statements can be synchronized and methods cannot be
synchronized
2. Erroneous results may occur when there is a speed mismatch of
resources of threads
3. Only one thread can enter a synchronized block
4. Java creates and handover a monitor to thread entering
synchronized block
1. i, ii and iii
2. i, iii and iv
3. i and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
Short-answer Questions
10. What are errors?
11. What are exceptions?
12. How can bugs be removed?
13. Distinguish synchronous and asynchronous exceptions.
14. Distinguish checked and unchecked exceptions.
15. Explain throws and throw clause of exception
mechanism.
16. Explain finally block usage.
17. Distinguish thread and Process.
18. Why is thread called a lightweight process?
19. In how many ways can a thread be created?
20. What is the entry point method for Thread execution?
21. Distinguish suspend() and Stop() methods.
22. join() and wait() are better than suspend() and
sleep(). Why?
23. When do we use extends Thread method and
implements Runnable interface?
Long-answer Questions
24. Explain the working of java Errors and Exception
detecting and correcting mechanism.
25. Explain uses of Try block, catch block and finally block
with suitable examples.
26. Explain how you can deploy your own exception class.
27. How can Thread be created and run using extend clause
and implementing runnable interface?
28. Explain the complete life cycle of thread.
29. What is synchronization? What is the price one pays if
one uses synchronization?
30. What is Inter-thread communications? Why is this
feature required and how is it achieved?
31. Explain the methodology of using join(), wait (),
notify() and notifyall() to solve the problems
associated with multithreaded programming.
Assignment Questions
32. Define an Exception called wrongDateException that
is thrown when the date entered by the user is within
permissible range such as dd 1 to 31, mm 1 to 12
and yy >=2000 and <=2010.
33. Develop a String class that incorporates an exception
StringNotSame that is triggered when a string is NOT
equal to inputted String.
34. Develop Stack class with Exception thrown for
StackFullException and StackEmptyException.
35. Explain the conditions in which a thread goes to a
blocked state. Explain how a thread can return to
Runnable state.
36. Rewrite Producer and Consumer Problem discussed
with the help of a buffer and synchronization of block.
Use sleep() or wait() / notify(0 to achieve the
result.
37. Develop an application to show multithreaded program
to show hours, minutes and seconds on separate
threads.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. b
2. d
3. c
4. True
5. False
6. True
7. a
8. a
9. d
21
Java IO Files
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, you will be able
to understand and program
Concepts of Streams and Stream classes.
Use InputStream and OutputStream.
Random file handling.
File IO and Errors and Exception in File IO.
Handling of primitive data types with
DataInputStreams & DataOutputStreams.
Read objects from and write objects on to a file.
Object Streams and Piped Streams.
21.1 Introduction
We have all heard about streams of water;
we call them springs flowing from top of
hills to plains. In Java, flow of data from
output device to computer system and
computer to any one of the output devices is
called Stream or IO streams.
This chapter will introduce you to
concepts of IOStreaming and stream
classes like ByteStream and Character
Stream classes. We will introduce you to the
concept of Random File IO. This chapter
also discusses in detail File IO and Errors
and Exceptions that are encountered while
dealing with file. The topics on file handling
presented includes input and output of
characters, Bytes, primitive data types and
Data Streams, and object Streams.
21.2 IO Streaming
In Java, IO streams are flow of bytes from
one input device to Memory and vice versa.
A stream is like a pipe. It can carry anything
in the pipe, be it primitive data, objects, etc.
Refer to Figure 21.1.
Figure 21.1 Streams – a concept
The diagram on the left-hand part shows a
water tank with input pipe and an output
pipe. The diagram on the right-hand part
shows input stream from CD drive and
output stream to monitor.
Figure 21.1 takes a closer look at IO. For
example, Java source is required to be
converted by JRE to suit Input devices such
as computer system. Hence input from IO
devices are buffered first, then picked up by
the computer system. Similarly, output from
computer is buffered first and then picked
up by slow-speed devices like printer,
memory, etc. Figure 21.2 provides a more
detailed view of IO-streaming.
Figure 21.2 IO Streaming – a close look
As an example, consider the case of
inputting from keyboard. To read the data
from the keyboard, we need to attach
InputStreamreader to accept the input
data from keyboard and to place it on buffer
we need BufferedReader.
DataInputStreamReader accepts the
data from keyboard and System.in
represents keyboard. Therefore, we can
write
DataInputStremReader input = new
DataInputStremReader(System.in);
Figure 21.3 shows IO StreamReader for
input from keyboard. System has three fields
representing three different devices. They
are:
Figure 21.3 Input from keyboard
System.in: Standard input is from keyboard. This
represents inputStream Object.
System.out: Console is represented by System.out.
This represents PrintStream object.
System.err: Java handles stream objects for input
and output and hence is likely to encounter errors or
exceptions. System.err is used to log errors that occur
while handling streams.
21.3 Java IO Stream Classes
Before we go into details of IO Streaming, it
is necessary to review files. We would come
across files everywhere we go. For example,
colleges keep a file for each of their students.
Similarly municipality holds files containing
details of taxes to be paid by citizens. Indeed
files are so common in our lives; Java
language and other languages support files.
What is a file? A file is a collection of
records.
Java.io package contains stream classes
for handling File IO. Stream Files can be
divided into two types: ByteStream classes
and Text Files, also known as
CharacterStream classes. These two
streams are derived form Java's Object class,
as shown in Figure 21.4. Table 21.1 gives
details of classes. These Stream classes read
from source and write to destination. The
source and destinations are: Memory, pipe,
and File. Pipes are used for handling threads
in Java.
Figure 21.4 Hierarchy of input and output stream classes
Table 21.1 Java stream classes
ByteStream CharacterStream Classes Text
Classes Files
FileInputStream FileReader
FileOutputStream FileWriter
BufferedInputStream BufferedReader
BufferedOutputStream BufferedWriter
21.3.1 Classification of ByteStream
Classes
The data is represented as byte ( 8 bits). All
text files, and audio and video files that need
to be transmitted using Internet, are stored
using ByteStream Classes. Table 21.2
provides details of input stream and output
stream classes. Table 21.3 provides details of
member methods Java
InputStream/OutputStream classes.
Table 21.2 Java ByteStream classes – classification
Table 21.3 Members of java inputstream/outputstream
classes
InputStream Methods OutputStream Methods
read() : Read a byte write():write a byte
read( byte[ ] a) :Read write ( byte[ ] a) :
an array b write an array b
read( byte[ ] b , int write ( byte[ ] b ,
n ,int s ) : Read int n ,int s ) :
an array b n bytes write an array b n
from s. bytes from s.
available() : Returns close( ) : closes
no of bytes output stream file
skip(m) : Skips m flush( ) : flushes
bytes from input output stream file
stream
reset() : Goes to beg ------------------
of file
close() : Closes the
stream file
21.3.2 Classification of CharacterStream
Classes or Text Classes
The data is represented by character, i.e.,
two bytes. They are best suited to handle all
text files. The classification of
CharacterStream classes are shown in
Table 21.4.
Table 21.4 Java characterstream classes – classification
Reader Writer
BufferedReader BufferedWriter
CharArrayReader CharArrayWriter
FilterReader : Filter Writer:
PushbackReader PrintWriter
InputStreamReader OutputStreamWriter
FileReader FileWriter
PipedReader PipedWriter
StringReader StringWriter
Note that DataInputStream is a very
useful class for reading primitive data. It
extends to FilterInputStream and
implements DataInput. Accordingly it
supports: readShort(), read Int(),
readDouble(), readLong(),
readLine(), readLong(),
readFloat(), readChar(),
readBoolean(), and a unified
text format called readUTF().
Refer to Figure 21.5.
Figure 21.5 Input from keyboard output to a file using
FileOutputStream
Note further that dataOutputStream is
a class for outputting primitive data. It
extends to implements DataOnput.
Accordingly, it supports writeShort(),
write Int(), writeDouble(),
writeLong(), writeLine(),
writeFloat(), writeChar(),
writeBoolean(), and a unified text
format called writeUTF().
21.3.3 DataInput and DataOutputStream
FileInput and FileOutputStream
DataInputStream of InputStream class
and FileOutputStream of
OutputStream class are shown in Figure
21.5. In this problem, the user can enter
statements line by line. When he wants to
stop, he can enter a dot to stop the program.
Be advised and remember that
FileInputStream and
FileOutputStream handle byte bases (8
bits) data. FileReader and FileWriter
handle 16 bit, i.e., character data type.
Example 21.1: CharByChar.Java A
Program to Copy a File Character by
Character. It Uses FileInputStream
and FileOutputStream
Let us attempt a problem. We will read
character by character and write on to a file
called File1. Then we would copy the
content of File1 to File2 character by
character. Display the copied file File2.
1. package com.oops.chap21;
2. import java.io.*;
3. public class CharByChar {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException{
5. DataInputStream input = new
DataInputStream(System.in);
6. FileOutputStream fos1 = new
FileOutputStream(“File1.dat”);
7. FileOutputStream fos2 = new
FileOutputStream(“File2.dat”);
8. System.out.println(“Enter text <
enter . at end>”);
9. int ch;
10. while( (ch=
(char)input.read())!=’.’){
11. fos1.write(ch); }
12. fos1.close();
13. // copy fos1 to fos2 character
by character
14. FileInputStream fis = new
FileInputStream(“File1.dat”);
15. System.out.println(“Copyinf
from File1 & File2…..”);
16. while((ch=fis.read())!=-1)
17. fos2.write(ch);
18. fis.close();
19. fos2.close();
20. //Now open the fos2 i.e.
FIle2.dat and display the result
21. fis=new
FileInputStream(“File2.dat”);
22. System.out.println(“Displaying
the details from File2…..”);
23. while((ch=fis.read())!=-1)
24. System.out.println((char)ch);
25. }// end of main
26. }// end of clss CharByChar
Output : Enter text < enter . at end>
I Love India!
I love World.
Copyinf details from File1 & File2…..
Displaying the details from File2…..
I Love India!
I love World
Lin creates object of DataInputStream input
e and attaches the keyboard (System.in)
No.
5:
Lin FileOutputStream fos1/fos2 = new
e FileOutputStream (“File1/2.dat”);
No creates object for FileOutputStream and
s. 6 names the file as File1/2.dat.
&
7:
Lin reads character from key board and write to
e file File1.dat. This process continues till
No user enters a dot(.)
s.
8–
11:
Lin closes fos1.
e
No.
12:
Lin creates object called fis for reading from
e File1: FileInputStream fis = new
No. FileInputStream(“File1.dat”);
14:
Lin reads from object fis (i.e. File1.dat) and
e copies to fos2 (i.e. File2.dat). Line No.
No 23 and 24 display the File2 contents.
s.
16
&
17:
21.3.4 FileReader and FileWriter
In the example so far we have handled, we
have used Byte-based IO, i.e.,
FileInputStream and
FileOutputStream and they use 8 bits (1
byte). Our next example shows copying a file
using character streams that use 16 bits (2
bytes), i.e., FileReader and
FileWriter. Note that FileReader
converts 8 bit character to 16 bit UTF
character. The 16 bit character will be
returned as int. So there will be no
difference between the usage. Only the
underlying representation of the character is
different:
Example
21.2: FileReaderWriter.Java A
Program to Copy a File Using
Character Streams. Obtain the
Input and Output File Names
Interactively from Keyboard. Use
Scanner Class
1. package com.oops.chap21;
2. import java.io.*;
3. import java.util.Scanner;
4. public class FileReaderWriter {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. String filename1,filename2;
7. Scanner scn=new
Scanner(System.in);
8. DataInputStream input = new
DataInputStream(System.in);
9. System.out.println(“Enter output
FileName :”);
10. filename1=scn.next();
11. System.out.println(“Enter
FileName for copy file :”);
12. filename2=scn.next();
13. try{
14. FileWriter fw1 = new
FileWriter(filename1);
15. FileWriter fw2 = new
FileWriter(filename2);
16. System.out.println(“Enter text <
enter . at end>”);
17. int ch;
18. while( (ch=
(char)input.read())!=’.’){
19. fw1.write(ch);
20. }
21. fw1.close();
22. FileReader fr1 = new
FileReader(filename1);
23. while((ch=fr1.read())!=-1)
24. fw2.write(ch);
25. fr1.close();
26. fw2.close();
27. //Now open filename3 and dispaly
the result
28. fr1=new FileReader(filename2);
29. System.out.println(“Displaying
the details from “+filename2);
30. while((ch=fr1.read())!=-1)
31. System.out.println((char)ch);
32. }catch(IOException e){}
33. }
34. }
Output : Enter output FileName
:citynames
Enter FileName for copy file
:citnamescopy
Enter text < enter . to end>
Hello India.
Displaying the details from
citnamescopy
Hello India
Lin defines filename1 and filename2 as
e String data type to accept the file names
No. interactively from the user.
6:
Lin defines a Scanner object scn to read the data
e from keyboard.
No.
7:
Lin defines DataInputStream object and
e attaches keyboard (System.in)
No.
8:
Lin Accept file names from the user.
e
No
s.
9–
12:
Lin create objects fw1 & fw2 for FileWriter class.
e
No
s.
14
&
15:
Lin are statements for reading from keyboard
e and writing on to output file denoted by
No filename1.
s.
16–
21:
Lin FileReader fr1 = new
e FileReader(filename1); creates an
No. object fr1 for filenam1. Line Nos. 23–26
21: copies the content from filename1 to
filename2.
Lin display the content of copied file
e filename2.
No
s.
28
–
31:
21.4 IO Errors and Exceptions
Basic IO operations are likely to throw
exceptions. All checked IO exceptions have
to be handled by the user using try and catch
blocks. If any exception is not being
handled, then the user has to throw the
exception like: public static void
main(String [] args) throws
IOException. The exceptions likely are
listed in Table 21.5.
Table 21.5 IO Errors and exceptions
Input IO Remarks
EOFException End of file marker
FileNotFoundException File not found
InterruptedIOException IO interrupted
IOException General IO Exception
21.5 FilterInputStream and
FilterOutputStreams
Filter streams basically alter the output to
suit a specified need. For example, it can be
wrapped around DataInputStream or
BufferedInputStream. The steps
involved in using FilterStream are as
follows:
Create Stream associated with data source and data
destination.
Attach suitable Filter Stream with the stream created.
Finally use FilteredStream object to read or write
data rather than original stream.
The following examples make things clear:
1 DataInputStream input = new
DataInputStream(System.in);
while( (ch=(char)input.read())!=’.’){
Note that DataInputstream has been
derived from filterInput-stream
2. FileOutputStream fileout = new
FileOutputStream(“DisDos”);
DataOutputStream dosfile= new
DataOutputStream(fileout);
21.6 Using BufferedInput and
BufferedOutput Streams
CPU is a fast device and memory is a slow
device compared to CPU. Therefore, when
we are trying to copy character on to file, the
Operating System is called to coordinate the
transfer from CPU to memory. This is slow
and inefficient. Instead if we can provide a
buffer, a temporary memory space, so that
the system can write on to buffer and once
buffer is filled, then OS writes to memory all
at once. This is the Producer–Consumer
problem we have discussed in Chapter 20.
Java provides this functionality through
BufferedInputStream and
BufferedOutputStream, thus enhancing
the efficiency of IO operations. Example 21.4
deals with the method of writing data using
BufferedOutputStream and reading data
using BufferedInputStream. Figure 21.6a
and 21.6b shows the concepts involved.
Figure 21.6a BufferedOutputStream
Figure 21.6b BufferedInputStream
21.7 Writing Primitive Data Types to File:
DataInputStream/DataOutputStream
FileInputStream,
FileOutputStream, FileReader and
FileWriter classes are provided by Java to
cater to byte and character types. But what
do we do in case we want input and output
of basic primitive data types like int,
char, float, etc. DataInputStream
and DataOutputStreams wrap
FileInput and FileOutputStreams and
allow us to deal with basic data types. Figure
21.7 shows the concept involved for
DataOutputStream:
Figure 21.7 DataOutputStream
Example 21.3: DisDos.Java A
Program to Show Use of
DataInputStream and
DataOutputStream Using Scanner
Class
1. package com.oops.chap21;
2. import java.util.*;
3. import java.io.*;
4. import javax.swing.JOptionPane;
5. public class DisDos {
6. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException{
7. int idNo;
8. double credits,debits,netPay;
9. System.out.println(“Enter Emp
idNo,credits,debits separated by
spaces”);
10. Scanner scn = new
Scanner(System.in);
11. idNo=scn.nextInt();
12. credits =scn.nextDouble();
13. debits=scn.nextDouble();
14. netPay=credits-debits;
15. FileOutputStream fileout = new
FileOutputStream(“DisDos”);
16. DataOutputStream dosfile= new
DataOutputStream(fileout);
17. dosfile.writeInt(idNo);
18. dosfile.writeDouble(credits);
19. dosfile.writeDouble(debits);
20. dosfile.writeDouble(netPay);
21. dosfile.close();
22. fileout.close();
23. //Now red data from DisDos file
24. FileInputStream filein = new
FileInputStream(“DisDos”);
25. DataInputStream disfile= new
DataInputStream(filein);
26.
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null,” Id
Number :” +disfile.readInt() +”\nCredits
:” +
27. disfile.readDouble()+”\t Debits
“ + disfile.readDouble() +”\t Net Pay
:”+
28. disfile.readDouble(),”Employee
Pay Bill”,JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE);
29. }
30. }
Output: Enter Emp idNo,credits,debits
separated by spaces
50595 25000.00 5000.00
Lin capture input data from keyboard using
e scanner class.
No
s.
10
–
14:
Lin wrap around DataOutputStream object
e dosfile on to FileOutputStream object
No fileout created at Line No. 15. This is how
s. FilterOutputStream works.
15–
16:
Line similarly use DataInputStream
Nos. wrapped around FileInputStream.
24–25:
Line use swing components to display
Nos. output through message box.
26–28:
21.8 File Class
File class helps us in creating files and
directories. It has all housekeeping methods
related to files such as creating, opening,
closing, deleting , getting name and size of
the file, renaming the file, etc.
We have been using FileInputStream
and FileOutputStream by throwing
IOException. Program comes to a halt. But
is there a better way to check if the file could
be opened or not? File class and object of
File can test if the file is actually allocated
and other jobs such as listing of directories,
etc. A file is created using a string file name
and can then be tested to see different
methods offered by File class. The methods
offered by File class are shown in Table 21.6.
Table 21.6 File methods
Method Functionality
boolean isFile() Returns true if it is a file
boolean isDirectory() Returns true if it is a
directory
boolean canRead() Returns true if file object is
readable
boolean canWrite() Returns true if file object is
writable
boolean exists() Returns true if file/dir
exists
String getParent() Returns parent directory
String getPath() Returns path
Strng Returns absolute path from
getAbsolutePath() root dir
long length() Returns size of file in bytes
boolean delete() Deletes the file
boolean Creates a new file if file does
createNewFile() not exist
boolean mkdir() Makes directory
boolean rename(File Renames the file
filename)
String[] list() Returns a list of file and
directories
Example 21.4: FileDemo.Java A
Program to Show Use Java's File
Class
1. package com.oops.chap21;
2. import java.io.*;
3. public class FileDirectory {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) throws IOException{
5. System.out.println(“ Getting File
Details……”);
6. File fobj = new
File(“/”,”Oopsjava/workspace/oopstech2/s
rc/com/chap21/DisDos.java”);
7. System.out.println(“File Name :” +
fobj.getName());
8. System.out.println(“File Absolute
path :” + fobj.getAbsolutePath());
9. System.out.println(“Parent:” +
fobj.getParent());
10. System.out.println(“File exists
or not:” + fobj.exists());
11.
if(fobj.isFile())System.out.println(“
Length “ + fobj.length());
12. System.out.println(“is
directory?” + fobj.isDirectory());
13. System.out.println(“ Getting
Directory Details……”);
14. File fobj2 = new
File(“/”,”Oopsjava/workspace/oopstech2/s
rc/com/chap21”);
15. if(fobj.exists())
16. { // get the listing of a
directory into a array
17. String arrList[] = fobj2.list();
18. int len=arrList.length;
19. System.out.println(“Displying the
Directory Listing……..”);
20. for ( int i=0; i<len;i++)
21. { System.out.println(arrList[i]);
22. File ftemp=new
File(“/Oopsjava/workspace/oopstech2/src/
com/chap21”,arrList[i]);
23. if ( ftemp.isFile())
24. System.out.println(“File :”+
ftemp.getName() + “length :” +
ftemp.length());
25. else System.out.println(“**”);
26. }//end of for
27. }// end of if
28. }//end of main
29. }//end of class
Output: Getting File Details……
File Name :DisDos.java
File Absolute path
:C:\Oopsjava\workspace\oopstech2\src\com
\chap21 \DisDos.java
Parent:\Oopsjava\workspace\oopstech2\src
\com\chap21
File exists or not:true
Length 1127
is directory?false
Getting Directory Details……
Displying the Directory Listing……..
FOS.java
File :FOS.javalength :715
CharByChar.java
File :CharByChar.javalength :976
ByteByByte.java
File :ByteByByte.javalength :178
Li shows the creation of File object: Observe that
n we have to give full directory of file such as:
e File fobj = new
N File(“/”,”Oopsjava/workspace/oopst
o. ech2/src/com/chap21/DisDos.java”);
6:
Li show usage of several File class method such as
n isFile(), isDirectory() And
e
N getAbsolutePath(), and getparent(),
os etc.
.
7
–
12
:
Li checks if specified file or directory exists by:
n fobj.exists() method.
e
N
o.
1
0:
Li String arrList[] = fobj2.list(); gets
n the files and directories and allocates them to
e String arrList[]
N
o.
17
:
Li attaches arrList[i] with a File object and
n gets length and name at Line No. 24.
e
N
o.
21
:
21.9 Random Access Files
In this mode of access, a record is accessed
using index maintained for this purpose. It
is like going to a chapter and within the
chapter to a page of interest, using the Index
provided at the end of the book. The file can
be accessed from any location. It
implements both DataInput and
DataOutput interfaces and extends to
Java's base class Object. The syntax for
using random files in Java is
RandomAccessFile( File obj , String
Access Specifier);
RandomAccessFile( String filename ,
String Access Specifier);
Access specifier is a mode that determines
the mode of operation of Random Access
File. “r” indicates for read only and “rw”
indicates both for read and write. Further,
there is a method called seek() that can be
used to set the current position in the file.
Seek() method justifies the name Random
File. The syntax for seek() is: void
seek(long pos) throws IOException.
There is also a provision to set the length
of the Random file: void
setlength(long n) throws
IOException, sets the length of random
files. If there are additional entries, they are
ignored.
Example 21.5: RandomAccess.Java
A Program to Show Use Java's File
Class
1. package com.oops.chap21;
2. import java.io.*;
3. public class RandomAccess {
4. public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
5. //create the object for RandomFile
6. RandomAccessFile randfile = new
RandomAccessFile(“raf.dat ”,”rw”);
7. try {
8. int idNo=50595;float sal
=20000.00F;boolean malefemale= true;
9. char cadre = ‘S’;
10. randfile.writeInt(idNo);
11. randfile.writeDouble(sal);
12. randfile.writeChar(cadre);
13. // go to beginning of file
14. randfile.seek(0);
15. System.out.println(“idno :”+
randfile.readInt());
16. System.out.println(“Salary :”+
randfile.readDouble());
17. System.out.println(“Cadre :”+
randfile.readChar());
18.
randfile.seek(randfile.length());//go to
end of file
19.
randfile.writeBoolean(malefemale);
20. randfile.seek(3);
21. System.out.println(“Malefemale
:”+ randfile.readBoolean());
22. randfile.close();
23. }catch( IOException e){}
24. }// end of main
25. }// end of class
Output : id no :50595
Salary :20000.0
Cadre :S
Malefemale :true
Line RandomAccessFile randfile = new
No. RandomAccessFile(“raf.dat”,”rw”)
6: ; opens random file in read write mode.
Line write int, char an double data on to Random
Nos. file by randfile.write method
10–
12:
Line display the data written on to random file
Nos. by read command.
15–
17:
Line randfile.seek(randfile.length())
No. ;// go to end of file
18:
21.10 Serialization of Objects and Object
Streams
Serialization means storing objects on to file.
De-serialization means the reverse of
serialization and it means getting objects
from file to class object in memory. The file
to be serialized has to implement an
interface called Serializable. Storing an
object in a file and reading back object
involves object Streams such as
ObjectOutputStream and
ObjectInputStream. The steps involved
are shown below.
21.10.1 Serialization
Step define a class & create an object class
1: Student implements Serializable{{private
: idNo; String name;} Student
std=new Student()
Step Use FileOutputStream:
2: FileOutputStream fosobj= new
FileOutputStream(“std,dat”)
Step Use ObjectOutputStream :
3: ObjectOutputStream objoutstream
= new ObjectOutputStream(
fosobj);
Step Write on to file using writeObject()
4: method of FileOutputStream
Note that Serializable interface has no
methods at all. It is used by Java to mark the
file as Serializable, i.e., file to be written on
to file. Static variables cannot be serialized.
21.10.2 De-serialization
Step define a class & create an object class
1: Student implements
Serializable{{private : idNo;
String name;} Student std=new
Student()
Step Use FileInputStream:
2: FileInputStream fisobj= new
FileinputStream(“std.dat”)
Step Use ObjectInputStream:
3: ObjectInputStream objinstream =
new ObjectInputStream(fisobj)
Step Read file using readObject() method of
4: FileInputStream Student std = (
Student)
objinstream.readObject()
Example
21.6: SerializableDemo.Java A
Program to Show Serialization and
Deserialization of Objects
1. package com.oops.chap21;
2. import java.io.*;
3. class Student implements
Serializable {
4. // member data or attributes
5. private int idNo = 50595;
6. private double totalMarks=990.0;
7. private String grade=”A”;
8. public double getMarks(){ return
totalMarks;}
9. public int getIdNo(){ return
idNo;}
10. public String getGrade(){ return
grade;}
11. public void DisplayData(Student
std) {
12. System.out.println(“Details from
Student are :”);
13. System.out.println(“idNo:” +
std.getIdNo());
14. System.out.println(“Total Marks:”
+ std.getMarks());
15. System.out.println(„Grade:“ +
std.getGrade());
16. }//end DisplayData
17. }// end of class
18. // Driver class
19. class SerializableDemo {
20. public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException{
21. // create an object of Student
22. Student std = new Student();
23. System.out.println(“Displaying
Data from Student class…..”);
24. std.DisplayData(std);
25. FileOutputStream fosobj= new
FileOutputStream(“Stdobj.dat”);
26. ObjectOutputStream objoutstream =
new ObjectOutputStream (fosobj);
27. objoutstream.writeObject(std);
28. objoutstream.close();
29. System.out.println(“Reading from
Serialized Object Student….”);
30. FileInputStream fisobj= new
FileInputStream(“Stdobj.dat”);
31. ObjectInputStream objinstream =
new ObjectInputStream (fisobj);
32. try{
33. std =
(Student)objinstream.readObject();
34. }catch(ClassNotFoundException e)
{}
35. std.DisplayData(std);
36. objinstream.close();
37. }
38. }//end of class Student2bDemo
Output : Displaying Data from Student
class…..
Details from Student are : idNo:50595
Total Marks:990.0 Grade:A
Reading from Serialized Object
Student….
Details from Student are : idNo:50595
Total Marks:990.0 Grade:A
Lin shows the Student file implementing
e Serializable interface. This implantation is
No mandatory.
. 6:
Lin FileOutputStream fosobj= new
e FileOutputStream (“Stdobj.dat”);
No Creates FileOutputStream object.
.
25:
Lin ObjectOutputStream objoutstream =
e new ObjectOutputStream(fosobj);
No creates object for ObjectOutputStrema.
This is FilterOutputStream at work.
.
26:
Lin objoutstream.writeObject(std);
e writes to file
No
.
27:
Lin show the reverse, i.e., de-serialization.
e
No
s.
30
–
35:
21.11 Summary
1. IO streaming means flow of data from input device to
memory and vice versa.
2. Buffering is used whenever movement of data is
between the devices with large differences in their
speeds of operation.
3. For reading from keyboard to computer system,
InputStreamreader and BufferedReader are used.
DataInputStreamReader accepts the data from
keyboard and System.in represents keyboard.
4. System.in: Standard input is from keyboard. This
represents inputStream Object
5. System.out: Console is represented by System.out.
This represents PrintStream object.
6. System.err is used to log errors that occur while
handling streams.
7. File is a collection of records. A record, in turn, contains
fields.
8. Java.io package contains stream classes for handling
File IO. Stream Files can be divided into two types:
ByteStream classes and CharacterStream
classes. These Stream classes read from source and
write to destination. The source and destinations are:
Memory, pipe and File.
9. Both InputStream and OutputStream classes are
derived from Java's Object class.
10. ByteStream classes are FileInputStream,
FileOutputStream, BufferedInputStream, and
BufferedOutputStream.
11. CharacterStream Classes are FileReader,
FileWriter, BufferedReader, and
BufferedWriter.
12. ByteStream Classes. The data is represented as byte
(8 bits). All text files and audio and video files that need
to be transmitted using Internet are stored using
ByteStream Classes.
13. CharacterStream Classes. The data is represented by
character, i.e., two bytes. They are best suited to handle
all text files.
14. DataInputStream is a very useful class for reading
primitive data. It extends to FilterInputStream and
implements DataInput.
15. DataOutputStream is a class for outputting primitive
data. It extends to implements DataOnput.
16. FileInputStream and FileOutputStream handle
byte bases (8 bits) data.
17. FileInputStream fis = new
FileInputStream(“File1.dat”);
18. FileOutputStream fos = new
FileOutputStream(“File1.dat”);
19. FileReader and FileWriter handle 16 bit, i.e.,
character data type. FileReader converts 8-bit
character to 16-bit UTF character. The 16 bit character
will be returned as int.
20. All checked IO exceptions have to be handled by the user
using try and catch blocks. If any exception is not being
handled, then the user has to throw the exception like
public static void main(String [] args) throws
IOException.
21. Errors and Exceptions during InputStream operations
are EOFException, FileNotFoundException,
InterruptedIOException, and IOException.
22. BufferedInputStream and
BufferedOutputStream enhance the efficiency of IO
operations.
23. DataInputStream and DataOutputStreams wrap
FileInput and FileOutputStreams and allow us to
deal with basic data types.
24. File class helps us in creating files and directories. It has
all housekeeping methods related to files such as
creating, opening, closing, deleting, getting name and
size of the file, renaming the file, etc.
25. Random Access Files. The access to file can be from any
location. It implements both DataInput and
DataOutput interfaces and extends to Java's base
class Object.
26. Access specifier is a mode that determines the mode of
operation of Random Access File. “r” indicates for read
only and “rw” indicates both for read and write.
27. A method called seek() that can be used to set current
position in the file. Seek() method justifies the name
Random File. The syntax for seek() is :void
seek(long pos) throws IOException.
28. Serialization means storing objects on to file. De-
serialization means reverse of serialization and it means
getting objects from file to class object in memory. The
file to be serialized has to implement an interface called
Serializable.
29. Storing an object in a file and reading back object
involves object Streams such as ObjectOutputStream
and ObjectInputStream.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are true?
1. The smallest unit a file can handle is called bit.
2. Byte Stream handles IO streaming with 16 bits.
3. Character Stream handles data with 16 bits.
4. Text files are best handled by byte stream.
1. i and iv
2. iii and iv
3. i and ii
4. i and iii
2. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
IO Stream files?
1. InputStream and OutputStream are descendants of Object
class.
2. IO Stream can handle threads.
3. BufferedReader is used to handle byte data.
4. Buffered Streams enhance the efficiency of file handling.
1. i and iv
2. iii and iv
3. i, ii and iv
4. i and iii
3. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
DataInput/DataOutput class
1. Filter streams basically alter the output to suit a specified need
2. dosfile.writeString(stg) is a valid statement
3. FilterOutputStream can be wrapped around
DataOutputStream
4. DataInputStream is derived from FileInputStream
1. i, ii and iv
2. i, iii and iv
3. i and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
4. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Fileclass?
1. File object can be used to check if file exists
2. String getPath() gets the path from root
3. String[] list() lists list of files and directories
4. boolean createNewFile() overwrites if file already exists
1. i, ii and iv
2. i and iii
3. i and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
5. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Random Access File?
1. readInt() is a valid method to read input from specified stream
2. seek(m) sets the current position starting at m+1 byte
3. “a” opens Random file in append mode
4. Random access file can have variable length records
1. i, ii and iv
2. i and iii
3. i and iii
4. ii, iii and iv
6. A random access file if opened in “rw” mode can be
used for append by using statement
seek(fin.length()) where fin is the object of
Random Access File. TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
7. What are files, records and fields?
8. What is IO Stream?
9. How are Streaming classes classified?
10. What types of files are best suited for ByteStream
classes?
11. What types of files are best suited for
CharacterStream classes?
12. What are FileReader and FileWriter?
13. What are the classes used for input and output of
primitive data types?
14. What are the modes of operation of Random Access
File?
15. What are serialization and de-serialization?
Long-answer Questions
16. Explain IO Streaming classes with suitable examples.
17. Distinguish InputStream and Reader class and
OutputStream and Writer classes.
18. Explain the utility of File class.
19. Explain the classification of Byte Stream classes.
20. Explain the classification of Character Stream classes.
21. Explain errors and exceptions while handling files with
suitable examples.
22. Explain how end of file marker is checked in Java.
23. How can we read primitive data from keyboard using
scanner class and DataInputStrem? Explain with
suitable code segments.
24. Explain the utility of BuffereInput and
BufferedOutput Streams.
25. Explain Serialization and De-serialization Process.
Assignment Questions
26. Write an Inventory Control Program with Random
Access file with features to addItem(), issueItem()
and updateItem().
27. Write a java program to implement Telephone Directory
wherein given the name, telephone number is output.
Use Object serialization concept for writing on to file.
28. Write a program to simulate Attendance and
Performance Query System which answers students
query on attendance and performance. Assume random
access organization.
29. Develop java program to zip a text file using
InflatorInputStream and
deflatorOutputStream. Hint: use wrapping around
as shown below for Deflator
FileOutputStream fileout = new
FileOutputStream(“data”);
DataOutputStream dosfile= new
DataOutputStream(fileout);
30. Write a java program to convert an input text file to
upper case file. Use
31. Character.toUpper() method.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. b
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. True
22
Networking in Java
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, you will be able
to understand and use
TCP/IP protocols.
Inet addressing mechanism and URL connections.
TCP/IP sockets.
Client server applications.
22.1 Introduction
Java has been specially created for
networking. What do we mean by this? Java
supports a package called java.net which
defines several methods for connecting and
retrieving files by using common web-based
protocols. Java also allows us to create unix-
like sockets and allows us to implement
TCP/IP sockets.
In the previous chapter on Java IO
programming, you have been introduced to
Input and Output Stream. By attaching
those stream files with networking
protocols, you can write to files on the
Internet and retrieve data from files over the
Internet as if you are writing files on to a
disk.
This chapter covers the basics of
networking such as TCP/IP protocols and its
implementation through TCP/IP and
datagrams. URL connections and Inet
addressing mechanisms are also presented.
Client server application employing TCP/IPs
and sockets are discussed.
22.2 Basics of Networking
Networking is the ability to connect to the
Internet from our stand-alone applications
or Applets. The classes required for this
interconnection are available in java.net
package. This package provides methods for
creating sockets and file retrieval from any
other networked cooperating system using
web protocols. By attaching streaming
classes with these network socket classes,
writing and reading data to and from the
Internet becomes easy.
There are two terms closely connected
with java programming: Internet and World
Wide Web (www). They are NOT
synonymous, and they are NOT the same.
Network is a collection of computers that
is either homogenous or heterogeneous.
The Internet is a collection or grouping
together of networks. We can say that the
Internet is a network of networks,
comprising of millions of computers. These
computers communicate with each other
using Internet protocols.
World Wide Web (WWW) is a way of
accessing information on the Internet. It
uses HTTP to exchange data amongst
communicating computers. The services
provided by www uses Internet browsers
such as Internet Explorer (IE), FireFox,
Google Chrome, etc. The information is
exchanged using HTTP and web pages. Web
page is a place where required information
is stored. Web pages are linked through
hyperlinks. www is a method of Internet to
exchange data over Internet.
Computers running on the Internet
communicate with each other using either
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or
the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
22.2.1 TCP/IP
A protocol is a set of rules to be followed by
cooperating systems on the Internet for
transferring data from one system to
another system. TCP/IP, i.e., Transmission
Control Protocol and Internet Protocol, are
standard protocols to be used for
transmission of data.
TCP/IP is a connection-oriented and
reliable service.
Connection oriented means the sender confirms if the
receiver has indeed received the data or not. If not
received, then the retransmission of data takes place.
TCP/IP is a point-to-point reliable communication, i.e.,
it is an acknowledged service that ensures correct
reception of data at receiver. TCP/IP has five layers, as
shown in Figure 22.3.
Java programs written come under Application Layer.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) and Telnet are some of the widely used
protocols at the application layer.
Application Layer receives the data from IO streams of
sender and format data as streams of continuous bytes
and sends them to Transport layer, as shown in Figure
22.1.
Figure 22.1 TCP/UDP functionality
Transport Layer receives these streams of data through
assigned ports and makes a packet (Figure 22.1). A
packet will encompass Port Number and data.
Port numbers vary between 0 and 65535 and are
represented by a 16-bit number. Note that these
numbers are logical and have nothing to do with
physical ports on computer systems. The port numbers
ranging from 0 to 1,022 are restricted; they are reserved
for use by well-known services such as HTTP and FTP
and other system services. Examples of well-known
ports are:
Domain Name System (DNS): 53
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): 21
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): 80
Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP):119
Post Office Protocol (POP3): 110
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): 25
Telnet: 22
IP Layer receives the packet and encapsulates the packet
into envelops called frames (Figure 22.2). A frame will
have source address, destination address, data, and
some bits reserved for error detection and correction
mechanism. For specifying the address, IP address is
specified. An IP address is a 32-bit address which
identifies computers connected to networks uniquely.
For example, 192.167.169.24. This protocol is called IPV
4. A new protocol called IP V 6 has been introduced
which follows 48-bit addressing mechanisms and the
Internet allows both IPs.
Figure 22.2 IP layer encapsulation of packet in a frame
Figure 22.3 TCP/IP model layers
Address of destination can be specified by numeric
address like 192.127.68.24 or by domain name like
www.google.com. The transformation is carried out by
Domain name server which transforms address from
numeric to web site name and vice versa.
Data Link Layer receives the Frame from IP layer and
dispatch the frame to destination computer. This layer
has device drivers and contains Media Access Control
Protocol in Network Card. Network card maps the IP
address into 48-bit unique Network card id number and
transmits based on MAC protocol. MAC protocol simply
tells which is going on the Net next, i.e., it tells the rules
for sharing single transmission medium by multiple
frames.
When the destination computer received the frames, the
formats are decoded based on the protocol used and
frames are handed over to the IP layer. The IP layer
produces packets and hands it over to Transport Layer.
The transport layer hands over data at specified ports, as
shown in Figure 22.3.
22.2.2 User Data Gram Protocol (UDP)
UDP is a connection-less service. It means
communication is not guaranteed between
two applications. Delivery is not important
and is not guaranteed. It is mostly used in
transmission of video and audio, etc., where
elaborate error detection and correction are
not required and little bit of data missing
cannot make perceptible differences.
22.3 Internet Address
We can obtain Internet address of any web
site by using InetAddress class of java.net
package. InetAddress class supports the
following methods:
static InetAddress getByName (String
hostName) throwsUnknownHostException
static InetAddress[] getAllByName
(String hostName)
throwsUnknownHostException returns all
addresses that a particular web site
name is representing.
static InetAddress getLocalHost()
throwsUnknownHostException
Example
22.1: InetAddressDemo.java Write
a Program to Get Inetaddresses
and Local Host Name for a Specified
Web Site
// This program requires Internet
connection
1. package com.oops.chap22;
2. import java.io.*;
3. import java.net.*;
4. import java.util.*;// for scanner
class
5. public class InetAddressDemo {
6. public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
7. String websitename;
8. Scanner scn=new
Scanner(System.in);
9. System.out.print(“Enter WebSite
Name :“);
10. websitename=scn.next();
11. try{
12. InetAddress
ipadd=InetAddress.getByName(websitename)
;
13. System.out.println(“ The IP
address obtained from Internet is : “+
ipadd);
14. }catch(UnknownHostException e)
15. { System.out.println(“Web Site
NOT found”);}
16. }//end of main
17. }//end of class
OUTPUT : Enter WebSite Name
:www.google.com
The IP address obtained from Internet
is : www.google.com/209.85. 221.104
2 nd Run
Enter WebSite Name
:www.vasappanavara.org
The IP address obtained from Internet
is : www.vasappanavara.org/
74.86.158.226
Li obtains the name of the web site by calling
n static method getByName() by creating
e object ipadd to InetAddress class. Line
N No 13 displays the result.
o.
12
:
Li catches (UnknownHostException e)
n
e
N
o.
14
:
22.4 URL and URL Connection
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) has been
created to get the information from the net,
no matter which protocol has been
employed to create it. We are aware that
www is a collection of several protocols like
HTTP/FTP/finger/whois. URL is a modern
way to acquire information from the
Internet. URLa class provides
methodologies to access information using
URL.
URL Constructors
URL (String protocol, String host, int port,
String file) throws MalformedURLException.
URL (String protocol, String host, String
file) throws MalformedURLException.
URL (String urlString) throws
MalformedURLException.
URL Methods
String getFile()
String getHost()
int getPort()
String getProtocol()
URL: How to Set It to Work?
Create URL object that represents resource on www
address
URL myurl = new
URL(“http://www.vasappanavara.org”);
Create an URL connection that can connect to
concerned web site
InputStream inputstream =
myurl.openStream();
Using StreamReader create a buffer, say of data type
byte, for reading stream data from URL connection.
byte buffArray[ ] = new byte[1024];
Use read() method of that URLConnection object and
create InputStream for reading stream of data from
the URL.
while((i =
inputstream.read(buffArray)) != -1) {
System.out.write(buffArray, 0, i);}
These concepts are shown in our next
example.
Example
22.2: InetAddressDemo.java Write
a Program to Get InetAddresses and
Local Host Name for a Specified
Web Site
//This program need Internet
Connection
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.util.*;// for scanner
class
public class URLDemo {
public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
String websitename;
Scanner scn=new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print(“Enter WebSite Name
:”);
websitename=scn.next();
try{
URL myurl = new URL(websitename);
// Obtain input stream
InputStream inputstream =
myurl.openStream();
// Read and display data from URL
byte buffArray[] = new byte[1024];
int i;
while((i =
inputstream.read(buffArray)) != -1) {
System.out.write(buffArray, 0, i);
}
}
catch (Exception e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
}
Output : Enter WebSite Name
:http://www.vasappanavara.org
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC “-//W3C//DTD
HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN”
“http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd”>
<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv=”Content-Type”
content=”text/html; charset=iso-8859-1”>
<title>Prof. Ramesh
Vasappanavara</title>
<style type=”text/css”>
<!−
…………………………………………………
</body>
</html>
22.4.1 URL Connection
With URL class we could import the content
of web site, but could not examine the
content in detail before importing. URL
connection is a class that allows us to
examine the properties prior to
transporting. Methods supported by URL
connection are shown in Table 22.1.
Table 22.1 URLConnection class methods
URLConnection Class Methods Functionality
int Returns size in bytes else -1
getContentLength()
long getDate() Returns response time and date
in milliseconds after Jan1 1970,
of last modification
long Returns expiration time and date
getExpiration() in milliseconds after Jan1 1970,
of last modification
long Returns time and date in
getLastModified() milliseconds after Jan1 1970, of
last modification
nputStream Returns InputStream of URL
getInputStream()
throws IOException
URLConnection: How to Set It to
Work?
Create URL object that represents resource on www
address
URL myurl = new
URL(“http://www.vasappanavara.org”);
Create an URL connection that can connect to
concerned web site.
Use getInputStream() method of that
URLConnection object and create InputStream for
reading stream of data from the URL.
Using input stream reader, create a BufferedReader
object for reading stream data, i.e., characters from URL
connection.
These concepts are shown in our
next example.
Example
22.3: URLConnectionDemo.Java
Write a Program to Show Usage of
URLConnection Class Methods
//This program need Internet
Connection
1. package com.oops.chap22;
2. import java.io.*;
3. import java.net.*;
4. import java.util.*;// for scanner
class
5. public class URLConnectionDemo {
6. public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
7. String websitename; int ch;
8. Scanner scn=new
Scanner(System.in);
9. System.out.print(“Enter WebSite
Name :”);
10. websitename=scn.next();
11. try{
12. URL myurl = new URL(websitename);
13. URLConnection vrCon =
myurl.openConnection();
14. // get date
15. long dt=vrCon.getDate();
16. System.out.println(“Date :”+ new
Date(dt));
17. // get content length
18. int len=vrCon.getContentLength();
19. System.out.println(“ Size :” +
len);
20. //get last modified date
21. dt=vrCon.getLastModified();
22. System.out.println(“Date lst
modified:”+ new Date(dt));
23. //get the content
24. if (
len==0)System.out.println(“NoContent”);
25. else
26. { InputStream inputstream =
vrCon.getInputStream();
27. while( ( ch =
inputstream.read())!=-1)
28. System.out.print((char)ch);
29. inputstream.close();
30. }
31. }catch (Exception e)
{e.printStackTrace();}
32. }
33. }
Output: Enter WebSite Name
:http://www.vasappanavara.org
Date :Sun Dec 19 19:56:32 IST 2010
Size :16880
Date lst modified:Fri Oct 01 07:04:33
IST 2010
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC “-//W3C//DTD
HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN
……………………………………………………….
</body>
</html>
Li URL myurl = new URL(websitename);
ne URLConnection vrCon =
N myurl.openConnection(); create an
os object of URL called myurl and uses
. openConnection() method of
12
URLConnection class
&
13
:
Li get information about URL such as date,
ne content length , last modified date etc
N
os
.
15
–
21
:
Li InputStream inputstream =
ne vrCon.getInputStream(); while( (
N ch = inputstream.read())! = -1)
os read the input stream and prints content of
. web site character by character
26
&
27
:
22.5 TCP/IP Sockets
You would have noticed power sockets.
Insert a plug and power flows through the
socket and runs your devices. Likewise, a
socket in communications is connecting
point between a server and a client so that a
reliable bidirectional communication can go
on between server and client.
Sockets have unique identification
numbers also called port numbers and take
16 bits (2 bytes). In Section 22.2.1, we have
already discussed port numbers that are
reserved for standard applications such as
http/ftp, etc. Note that whenever a new
socket is created, a new port number must
be allocated to the port.
There are two kinds of sockets: Server
Side socket called ServerSocket, created
using ServerSocket class, and client side
socket called socket Created using a socket
class. A ServerSocket can reside in any
system that has service to offer. For
example, a ServerSocket can be created
on client if it has any services to offer.
22.5.1 ServerSocket Class
ServerSocket, once created, listens
either to local or remote clients and connects
them on particular published ports. This is
accomplished by ServerSocket first
registering itself with the system. The
constructors accept the port number and
queue length, i.e., the maximum number of
clients a server can accept. The constructors
for ServerSocket are listed in Table 22.2.
ServerSocket has a method called
accept() that blocks the server and waits
for client request for connection. A socket
for the client is created by the server
Table 22.2 ServerSocket constructors
ServerSocket Class Constructors Functionality
ServerSocket(int ServerSocket on specified
port) port with default queue
length of 50 is created
ServerSocket(int ServerSocket on specified
port,int len) port with queue length of len
is created
ServerSocket(int ServerSocket on specified
port,int len, port with queue length of len
InetAddress is created
localaddress)
Belonging to local address
system
22.5.2 Server and Socket for
Communications: How to Set them to Work?
At server, create a server socket using ServerSocket
class and allocate a port number: ServerSocket
servskt = new ServerSocket (port number);
Make the server wait for client connection request by
creating a client socket by using
Socket class and by using accept() method
Socket clientskt = serverskt.accept();
Link OutputStream to socket object clientskt just
created by using getOutputStream() which
returns a output stream object. This
object will be
used by clientskt to sent the data to
client.
OutputStream comobj = clientskt.
getOutputStream();
Use PrintStream to transport data to socket:
clientskt
PrintStream prntobj =new
PrintStream(comobj)
Use println or print method to send data
prntobj.println(stg);//stg is a message
At the end of transmission close all sockets:
servskt.close(); clientskt. close(); and
prntobj.close(). Figure 22.4 shows interconnection
of server & client & stream readers & buffers.
Figure 22.4 Input from remote client
22.5.3 Client and Socket for
Communications: How to Set them to Work?
At Client, create a client socket using Socket class and
specify the IPaddress of the server and allocate a port
number :
Socket skt = new Socket (“IPaddress”,
port number);
IPAddress is the IP address of the
server. To know IPAddress of a computer,
goto contl panel lNetworkConnections --
-> Local area connections ---> TCP/IP ---
-> you can see the IPAddress of a
machine.
Link IntputStream to socket object skt just created
by using
getInputStream() which returns an input stream
object. This object will be used by skt object to
receive data from the server. InputStream
comobj = skt. getInputStream();
Use BufferedReader to get the data from socket:
skt
BufferedReader bfrtobj = new
BufferedReader (new
InputStreamReader(comobj));
Use read() or readLine() method to read the data
Stg= bfrobj.readLine(); // stg is a
message
At the end of transmission close all sockets :
skt.clos(); bfrobj.close();. Figure 22.5 shows
the interconnection of server & client & stream readers
& buffers.
Figure 22.5 Input from remoteserver
22.6 Client Server Program
In this section, you will learn client server
programming. As the heading suggests,
there is a server which is running forever
listening for clients on a published port.
Obviously the server has a service to offer
which is of interest to the client. There is a
limit to the number of clients a server can
accept; this limit is called max queue length
of the server. The server uses ServerSocket
class.
Then there is a client who knows the
server's address and port number on which a
particular application is running. Client
sends a service request which will be
accept() method by Server. Accept()
method also returns a ServerSocket
object.
After the connection is established, both
server and client will establish stream
connections and carry out communications.
As a first example, we will establish
connection and pass two string messages to
client.
Example 22.4: SrverDemo1.Java A
Java Program for Server Side
Docket for Passing String Messages
to Client
1. package com.oops.chap22;
2. import java.io.*;
3. import java.net.*;
4. public class SrverDemo1 {
5. public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
6. //server socket
7. ServerSocket servskt = new
ServerSocket (8345);
8. //block the server i.e use
accept()& create client socket at server
9. Socket clientskt =
servskt.accept();
10. // Link OutputStream to socket
object clientskt with getOutputStream()
11. OutputStream comobj = clientskt.
getOutputStream();
12. //Use PrintStream to transport
datas to socket : clientskt
13. PrintStream prntobj =new
PrintStream( comobj);
14. String stg1 = “Welcome client”;
15. String stg2 = “ Networking
program run a great fun!”;
16. //send data
17. prntobj.println(stg1);
18. prntobj.println(stg2);
19. //close all
20. servskt.close();
clientskt.close();
21. }
22. }
Lin creates a ServerSocket object called
e sevskt. Line No. 9 creates an object of
No. Socket class for client and makes
7: ServerSocket call accept() method.
Lin attaches output stream to client socket
e OutputStream comobj = clientskt.
No. getOutputStream();
11:
Lin creates a print stream for sending data to
e client PrintStream prntobj =new
No. PrintStream( comobj); Line No. 17 & 18
12: send the String message to client
Lin send messages to client
e prntobj.println(stg1);
No
s.
17
&
18:
Run the program form command prompt.
Refer to Example 15.5 for necessary
instructions. For simplicity and ease of
execution, you can remove the package class
from all the client server programs and
compile and execute all in one directory, say
c:\oopsjava\workspace\oopstech\src\co\oo
ps\chap22
Exercise problems at the end of the chapter
show the way.
Example 22.5: ClientDemo1.Java A
Client Side Socket Program to
Establish Connection with Server
and Receive Messages from Server
1. package com.oops.chap22;
2. import java.io.*;
3. import java.net.*;
4. public class ClientDemo1 {
5. public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
6. //create a client socket using
Socket class
7. Socket skt = new Socket (
“localhost” ,8345);
8. //Link IntputStream to socket
object skt
9. InputStream comobj = skt.
getInputStream();
10. //Use BufferedReader to get the
data from socket
11. BufferedReader bfrtobj =new
BufferedReader ( new
InputStreamReader(comobj));
12. //Receive messages
13. String stg;
14. while(( stg=bfrtobj.readLine())
!= null)
15. System.out.println(“\n Message
from Server” + stg);
16. //close all
17. skt.close(); bfrtobj.close();
18. }
19. }
Output: Message from Server :Welcome
client
Message from Server Networking
program run a great fun!
22.6.1 Client Server Two-way
Communication Program
In this section, we will handle two-way
communication between a server and a
client. Server stores two arrays. In one array
RollNumbers are stored and in the second
array academic grades are stored. Client
sends roll number and server checks for the
grade and sends them to client. Client then
displays the result. The concept is shown in
Figure 22.6.
Figure 22.6 Client server two-way communications
Example 22.6a: Write Java Client
Server Program Wherein Client
Submits Roll Number and Gets
Grade from Server–Server Side
Programming
package com.oops.chap22;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.net.*;
public class ServerDemo2 {
public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
int id, index=0;String gr;
int []rolls = new int[]
{50595,50596,50597,50598,50599};
String[] grade= new String[]
{“A”,”C”,”B”,”C”,”A”};
try{
//server socket
ServerSocket servskt = new ServerSocket
(5000);
//block the server i.e use accept()&
create client socket at server
Socket clientskt = servskt.accept();
// Create a BufferedReaderStream to get
the data from the client
BufferedReader bufrclient=new
BufferedReader
( new
InputStreamReader(clientskt.getInputStre
am()));
//create buffer writer stream for
sending data to client
PrintWriter prwtr = new
PrintWriter(clientskt.getOutputStream(),
true);
//read from client and send the result.
Server is in a for ever loop
while ( true)
{// read a line create a
StringTokenizer
StringTokenizer stkn = new
StringTokenizer(bufrclient.readLine());
//conver String to Integer
id= new
Integer(stkn.nextToken()).intValue();
System.out.println(“\n id received from
the client” + id);
// find the index number from rolls
array
for( int i=0;i<rolls.length;i++)
{ if( id==rolls[i])
index=i;}
// Get the grade*/
gr=grade[index];
// send grade to client
prwtr.println(gr);
// print on server console too
System.out.println(“Grade of “+ id + “
is :”+ gr);}
}catch(IOException e){}
}
}
Example 22.6b: Write Java Client
Server Program Wherein Client
Submits Roll Number and Gets
Grade from Server–Client Side
Programming
package com.oops.chap22;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.net.*;
public class ClientDemo2 {
public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
int id, index=0;String gr;
//socket to connect to server
Socket skt = new
Socket(“localhost”,5000);
// Create a BufferedInputStream to get
the data from the server
BufferedReader bufrserver=new
BufferedReader
( new
InputStreamReader(skt.getInputStream()))
;
//create buffer writer stream for
sending data to server
PrintWriter prwtr = new
PrintWriter(skt.getOutputStream(),true);
//continuously send roll number and get
grade from the server.
while ( true)
{ Scanner scn= new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println(“\n Enter roll
number< 50595 to 50599>”);
id = scn.nextInt();
// send id to server
prwtr.println(id);
// get grade from the server
StringTokenizer stkn =new
StringTokenizer(bufrserver.readLine());
System.out.println(“Grade received from
server of “+ id + “ is :”+
stkn.nextToken());
}
}
}
22.6.2 Multiple Clients and Server Programs
Using Multithreads
In real life, there will be several clients
wishing to connect to server at the same
tine. For example, when results are declared,
several students rush in to connect to server.
The best way to handle such a situation is to
put each client on a separate thread. The
server can achieve the result by
ServerSocket servskt = new
ServerSocket (6000);
while( true) {
Socket clientskt =
servskt.accept();
Thread thrd = new
Thread(clientskt);}
Each loop will create a new connection on
server socket. New thread handles the
communication between Server and
multiple client.
Our next example shows multiple clients
being handled by thread. The user will send
the server a number and the server returns
Boolean true or false to indicate if the
number of even or odd.
Example 22.8a: Write Java Client
Server Program–Server to Handle
Multiple Clients Using Thread–
Server Side Programming
package com.oops.chap22;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.net.*;
public class MultipleClientServer {
public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
try {
//server socket
ServerSocket servskt = new ServerSocket
(4000);
int count=0; // counting thread
while ( true)
{// listen for a request
Socket clientskt = servskt.accept();
System.out.println(“\n Starting
thread No “+count);
//create a new thread by calling the
constructor of class CommThread
CommThread thrd = new
CommThread(clientskt,count);
thrd.start();
}//end of while
}catch(IOException e){}
}//end of main
}//end of class
class CommThread extends Thread
{ private Socket clientskt ; //
connected
private int count; // count for label
the thread
CommThread(Socket s , int i)
{clientskt=s; count=i;}
public void run()
{ boolean evenodd=true;
try
{ // Create a BufferedReaderStream to
get the data from the client
BufferedReader bufrclient=new
BufferedReader
( new
InputStreamReader(clientskt.getInputStre
am()));
//create buffer writer stream for
sending data to client
PrintWriter prwtr = new
PrintWriter(clientskt.getOutputStream
(),true);
// Serve in a continuous loop
while ( true)
{// receive the string data from
client
StringTokenizer stkn = new
StringTokenizer(bufrclient.readLine());
//get year
int num = new
Integer(stkn.nextToken()).intValue();
System.out.println(“\n Number Received
From Client “+ num);
//check even or odd
if ( num%2!=0)evenodd=false;
else evenodd=true;
//send evenodd to client
prwtr.println(evenodd);
System.out.println(“\n Number “+ num
+” is :”+ evenodd);
}
}catch(IOException e ){}
}
Example 22.8b: Write Java Client
Server Program for Client–Server
to Handle Multiple Clients Using
Thread–Client Side Programming
package com.oops.chap22;
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class MultipleclientsClient {
public static void main(String[]
args)throws IOException {
//socket to connect to server
Socket skt = new
Socket(“localhost”,4000);
// Create a BufferedInputStream to get
the data from the server
BufferedReader bufrserver=new
BufferedReader
( new
InputStreamReader(skt.getInputStream()))
;
//create buffer writer stream for
sending data to server
PrintWriter prwtr = new
PrintWriter(skt.getOutputStream(),true);
//continuously send number and get grade
from the server.
while ( true)
{ Scanner scn= new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println(“\n Enter number<
50595 to 50599>”);
int id = scn.nextInt();
// send id to server
prwtr.println(id);
// get even or odd from the server
StringTokenizer stkn =new
StringTokenizer(bufrserver.readLine());
System.out.println(“EvenOdd received
from server of “+ id + “ is :”+
stkn.nextToken());
}}}
22.6.3 Client Server Program for File
Download from Server
Many a times we need to download a file
located in a server. The solved Example 4a
and 4b shows the technique to download file
from a remote server. As usual at server, we
need a server socket and a client-specific
socket. Then we need BufferedReader to
accept data from the client and
DataOutputStreamReader to send the
data to client.
22.7 Summary
1. Java.net is a package that supports networking
programs and allows us to create unix-like sockets and
implementation of TCP/IP sockets.
2. By attaching those stream files with networking
protocols, you can write to files on the Internet and
retrieving data from files over the Internet as if you are
writing files on to disk.
3. Networking is the ability to connect to Internet from our
stand-alone applications or Applets. Network is a
collection of computers, either homogenous or
heterogeneous.
4. Internet is a collection or grouping together of
networks. We can say that Internet is a network of
networks, comprising of millions of computers. These
computers communicate with each other using Internet
protocols.
5. World Wide Web (WWW) is a way of accessing
information on the Internet. It uses HTTP to exchange
data amongst communicating computers.
6. Computers running on the Internet communicate with
each other using either the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) or the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
7. A protocol is a set of rules to be followed by cooperating
systems on the Internet for transferring data from one
system to another system.
8. TCP/IP, i.e., Transmission Control Protocol and
Internet Protocol, are standard protocols to be used for
transmission of data.
9. TCP/IP is a connection-oriented and reliable service.
10. Connection oriented means the sender confirms if the
receiver has indeed received the data or not. If not
received then retransmission of data takes place.
11. TCP/IP is a point-to-point reliable communication, i.e.,
it is an acknowledged service that ensures correct
reception of data at receiver.
12. TCP/IP has five layers, viz., Application Layer,
Transportation Layer, IP Layer, Data Link Layer and
Physical Layer.
13. Address of destination can be specified by numeric
address like 192.127.68.24 or by domain name like
www.google.com.
14. Domain name server transforms address from numeric
to web site name and vice versa.
15. Data Link Layer receives the Frame from IP layer and
dispatches the frame to destination computer.
16. Network card maps the IP address into 48-bit unique
Network card identification number and transmits
based on MAC protocol.
17. MAC protocol simply tells which is going on the Net
next, i.e., it tells the rules for sharing single transmission
medium by multiple frames.
18. UDP is a connection-less service. This means that
communication is not guaranteed between two
applications. Delivery is not important and is not
guaranteed. It is mostly used in transmission of video
and audio, etc.
19. We can obtain Internet address for any web site by using
InetAddress class of java.net package. Inet class
throws UnknownHostException.
20. URL connection is a class that allows us to examine the
properties prior to transporting.
21. Socket has unique identification number also called port
number and takes 16 bits (2 bytes).
22. ServerSocket created using ServerSocket class
and second is client side socket, called socket created
using a socket class.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Networking classes are included in
1. java.IO.*;
2. java.net.*;
3. java.util.*;
4. java.lang.*;
2. URL stands for
1. Universal Resource Locator
2. Unified Resource Locator
3. Uniform Resource Locator
4. Unique Resource Locator
3. Which of the following classes contain IP Address?
1. Inet class
2. URL class
3. URL Connection class
4. Socket class
4. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
TCP/IP?
1. Connection oriented means acknowledgement from receiver
2. TCP/IP is a point-to-point service
3. There is a separate network layer in TCP/IP
4. TCP/IP is a reliable service means acknowledgement else
retransmission
1. i, ii and iv
2. i, ii and iii
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i and iii
5. Output of transport layer of TCP/IP is
1. continuous stream of bytes
2. frame
3. packet
4. MAC Frame
6. Output of Application layer of TCP/IP is
1. continuous stream of bytes
2. frame
3. packet
4. MAC Frame
7. Port Numbers are represented by
1. 8 bits
2. 16 bits
3. 32 bits
4. 48 bits
8. Port Number for http protocol is
1. 110
2. 60
3. 80
4. 22
9. Port Number for post office protocol (POP) & FTP are
1. 25 and 119
2. 53 and 80
3. 110 and 25
4. 110 and 21
10. Output of IP layer of TCP/IP is
1. continuous stream of bytes
2. frame
3. packet
4. MAC Frame
11. accept() method returns
1. Client socket
2. Server Socket
3. Socket
4. Datagram socket
Short-answer Questions
12. What is a socket?
13. What is a port number?
14. What is an IP Address?
15. When IP Address is available what is the need of port
address also?
16. Explain the role of ServerSocket.
17. Explain the role of socket class for client.
18. Distinguish TCP/IP connection and UDP connection
service.
19. Explain how a server listens for a connection at a port.
Long-answer Questions
20. Explain the function of each layer of TCP/IP Layers.
21. Explain the process of creation of ServerSocket and
socket for client with suitable examples.
22. Explain the steps involved in setting up client server
networking.
23. Explain the role of Stream Readers and Writers and
Buffered Stream in networking programs.
24. How are multiple clients handled by a single server?
25. Explain how a line of text can be obtained from the
server.
26. Explain how primitive data can be exchanged between
server and a client.
Assignment Questions
27. Write a client and server program wherein a student
enters the roll number and server houses random file
that holds student results. Obtain the result and display
on the client console.
28. Write a program for Tic Tac toe server and client. Tic tac
game is the game you would have played at some time or
the other. Hint: Assume two-dimensional matrix display
at both server and client and use two-way
communication model.
29. Rewrite Ex 1 for multiple client paradigm.
30. Modify two-way chat program to handle conference
mode wherein there are three peer systems and
messages are displayed at all terminals as on broadcast.
31. Modify the problem at 4 to cater to sending messages
only to intended clients.
32. Write a client server program wherein
BufferedReader is used for reading in the data and
PrintStream is used for sending data.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. b
2. c
3. a
4. a
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. b
11. a
23
Graphics Using Swing
Components and Applets
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able
to understand
Use of Abstract Window Tool (AWT) kit.
Hierarchy of Graphics Software and their
components and their usage.
Event types and event listeners.
Applets and their usage with swing components.
Converting Applet into Application and vice versa.
23.1 Graphics Programming and Applets
Introduction
The programs we have seen till now had
text-based output. They were uninspiring
and insipid. Today's world is graphics and
client server programs with audio–video
integration programs. Moreover these
applications are all Internet-enabled and
web-based applications. Web applications
use extensively graphical user interfaces
(GUI). This chapter introduces you to these
GUI features like frames, panels, text boxes,
buttons, menus, etc. These are collectively
provided in a toolkit called Advanced
Windowing Tool (AWT) Kit. AWT classes
provide platform-independent interfaces
and their implementations. This chapter
introduces you to the concept of event-
driven programs, frames and panels which
are extensively used in application
development.
Java has been designed to be a networking
language. It can claim so because it supports
Applet. Applets are small java programs
compiled into byte codes and the class can
be transported anywhere in the network
using HTML (Hyper Text Mark Up
Language) Tags. The system receiving this
class runs the class file imported using java
virtual machine and executes the applet
code on a local machine.
Finally java has introduced swing
components with better feel and look than
applets. This chapter handles all interfaces
of AWT using Swing components only.
23.2 Hierarchy of Graphics Software
Graphical User Interface (GUI) development
in JAVA is based on components. Java
components can further be divided into
containers and widgets, as shown in Figure
23.1.
Figure 23.1 Java GUI hierarchy
Containers are further classified as Root
Containers and Intermediate Containers.
Root Containers, also called top-level
containers, are necessary for every GUI
program. Swing provides developers with
three top-level containers: JFrame, JDialog
and JApplet. Intermediate containers are
not mandatory but are used widely as they
help in managing and organizing widgets.
JPanel is the most widely used intermediate
container in Swing.
Widgets are GUI elements which are used
to interact with the user; a typical use of
widgets is to display content to user in the
form of text, images, menus, buttons,
checkboxes and radio buttons. Widgets are
also used to get user inputs. JButton, JLabel,
JScrollBar and JCheckBox are examples of
widgets in Swing.
23.3 Containers in Swing
Every Java GUI application should be
designed with a containment hierarchy, with
the root of the hierarchy being one of the
Root containers, i.e., JFrame, JDialog or
JApplet. For Swing Applications the root is
always JFrame. Figure 23.3 shows details.
Figure 23.2 Swing containment hierarchy
Figure 23.3 Button
Figure 23.2 shows the containment
hierarchy for a program that has just one
JButton widget. In the figure, the
intermediate container JPanel is optional,
but the top-level container is compulsory.
The figure also depicts the creation and
addition of rules; for java GUI programs the
creation is from top to bottom, which means
that we create the JFrame component first
and the JButton component last, while
addition starts from bottom. Example 23.1
illustrates the creation and addition rules for
Java GUI programs.
Example 23.1: Creating JFrame
and Adding GUI Components
1. import javax.swing.*;
2. public class SwingDemo {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. JFrame frame = new JFrame(“Swing
Demo”);
5. JPanel panel = new JPanel();
6. JButton button = new
JButton(“Button”);
7.
8. panel.add(button);
9. frame.setContentPane(panel);
10. frame.setVisible(true);
11. }
12. }
Output
As seen from the example above, we
instantiate the root container frame first in
line 4; we then instantiate the intermediate
container panel in line 5 and finally a button
widget in line 6. That is, we follow the top-
down approach during creation. But during
addition, we add the button to panel first in
line 7 then we add the panel to the frame in
line 8 and finally display the frame in line 9,
thus following the bottom-up approach.
The addition and creation rules will apply
to all programs discussed in this chapter.
23.3.1 JFrame Class
A frame typically provides many services;
some of the more common services include
ability to set the title, set icon image, provide
menu bar services, set height and width of
the frame, and set location of the frame. To
manage the setting of the frame and to make
the code reusable, we create a separate class
for the frame called DisplayFrame. In
DisplayFrame′s constructor we define all
the default settings for our root frame.
Figure 23.3 shows the details.
Example 23.2: Program to
Demonstrate JFrame Class
1. import javax.swing.*;
2. public class SwingDemo {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
5. frame.setVisible(true);
6. }
7. }
8. class DisplayFrame extends JFrame{
9. DisplayFrame(){
10.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
11. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
12. setSize(300, 150);
13. setLocation(100,100);
14. }
15. }
The JFrame class is present in
javax.swing.JFrame. To use this class,
we use the import statement import
javax.swing.*, as shown in line 1. In line
4, we instantiate the DisplayFrame object,
which in turn invokes the constructor
DisplayFrame( ) in line 9. Inside the
constructor we set some of the settings for
our root frame.
The method
setDefaultCloseOperation( ) in line
10 with the parameter
JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE causes the frame
to close whenever the user closes the frame
using the close icon. The method
setTitle( ) in line 11 sets the frame
name. The method setSize ( ) in line 12
sets the width and height for the frame and
finally the method setLocation ( ) in
line 13 sets the x, y location on the screen.
Output is in Figure 23.4.
Figure 23.4 A frame in java swing
23.3.2 JPanel Class
Panels are intermediate containers and as
such not essential for creating Java
graphical user interface programs. But
panels offer a lot of flexibility in managing
widgets so it is always advisable to have
panels in our programs. Similar to the
DisplayFrame class which extends the
basic JFrame class, we create a new class
called DisplayPanel which extends the
JPanel class.
Example 23.3: Program to
Demonstrate JPanel Class
1. import javax.swing.*;
2. public class SwingDemo {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
5. frame.setVisible(true);
6. }
7. }
8. class DisplayFrame extends JFrame{
9. DisplayFrame(){
10.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
11. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
12. setSize(300, 150);
13. setLocation(100,100);
14. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
15. getContentPane().add(panel);
16. }
17. }
18. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
19. DisplayPanel() {
20. //Widgets will be added here
21. }
22. }
The code of Example 23.3 is almost similar
to Example 23.2. In the above example, we
instantiate the DisplayPanel object in line
14. The constructor for DisplayPanel is
presently empty but going forward, as we
will see in subsequent examples, all the
widget creation code will be placed inside
this class. Each JFrame object has a
contentpane to which all the components
you want to display have to be added. Line
15 demonstrates how to get the contentpane
for your frame and add the panel.
23.4 Display Widgets in Swing
Widgets are the components which help us
build the user interfaces. They are the
components that the user actually sees and
interacts with users. Typical examples
include checkboxes, buttons and menus.
Java Swing provides many widgets; in
subsequent sections, we discuss some of the
most frequently used widgets.
23.4.1 JLabel Class
The JLabel object is used to display text,
images or both text and images in Java.
Figure 23.5 shows a typical use case
scenario, wherein the string “Welcome to
Java” is displayed using a JLabel object.
Example 23.4 demonstrates how to create
and display JLabel objects in Java.
Figure 23.5 JLabel
Example 23.4: Program to
Demonstrate JLabel Class
1. import javax.swing.*;
2. public class SwingDemo {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
5. frame.setVisible(true);
6. }
7. }
8. class DisplayFrame extends JFrame{
9. DisplayFrame(){
10.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
11. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
12. setSize(300, 150);
13. setLocation(100,100);
14. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
15. getContentPane().add(panel);
16. }
17. }
18. c DisplayPanel extends JPanel{
19. DisplayPanel() {
20. JLabel label = new JLabel
21. (“Welcome to Java Swing” );
22. add(label);
23. }
24. }
The JLabel class is present in
javax.swing.JLabel. To use this class,
we use the import statement import
javax.swing.*, as shown in line 1. We
instantiate the JLabel object in line 20; the
string to be displayed is passed as a
parameter during instantiation. Finally, we
add the JLabel object label to the panel in
line 22.
23.4.2 JButton
The JButton object is used to display
buttons in Java. Buttons are very useful user
interface elements, which can be used for a
variety of user interactions. Figure 23.6
shows a typical use case scenario, wherein
the button "Click Me" is displayed using a
JButton object. Example 23.5 demonstrates
how to create and display JButton objects in
Java.
Figure 23.6 JButton
Example 23.5: Program to
Demonstrate JButton Class
1. import javax.swing.*;
2. public class SwingDemo {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
5. frame.setVisible(true);
6. }
7. }
8. class DisplayFrame extends JFrame{
9. DisplayFrame(){
10.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
11. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
12. setSize(300, 150);
13. setLocation(100,100);
14. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
15. getContentPane().add(panel);
16. }
17. }
18. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
19. DisplayPanel() {
20. JButton button = new
JButton(“Click Me”);
21. add(button);
22. }
23. }
The JButton class is present in
javax.swing.JButton. To use this class,
we use the import statement import
javax.swing.*, as shown in line 1. We
instantiate the JButton object in line 20.
The string to be displayed is passed as a
parameter during instantiation. Finally, we
add the JButton object button to the panel
in line 21.
23.4.3 JCheckBox
The JCheckBox object is used to display
checkboxes in Java. Checkboxes allow users
to either select or deselect an item; they also
allow multiple items to be selected at the
same time. The figure below shows a typical
use case scenario, wherein three checkboxes
“Cricket”, “Football” and “Volleyball” are
displayed using a JCheckBox object.
Example 23.6 demonstrates how to create
and display JCheckBox objects in Java.
Figure 23.7 shows the output.
Figure 23.7 JCheckbox
Example 23.6: Program to
Demonstrate JCheckBox Class
1. import java.awt.event.KeyEvent;
2. import javax.swing.*;
3. public class SwingDemo {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
6. frame.setVisible(true);
7. }
8. }
9. class DisplayFrame extends JFrame{
10. DisplayFrame(){
11.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
12. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
13. setSize(400, 150);
14. setLocation(100,100);
15. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
16. getContentPane().add(panel);
17. }
18. }
19. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
20. DisplayPanel() {
21. JCheckBox cb1 = new
JCheckBox(“Cricket”);
22.
cb1.setMnemonic(KeyEvent.VK_C);
23. cb1.setSelected(false);
24. JCheckBox cb2 = new
JCheckBox(“Football”);
25. cb2.setMnemonic(KeyEvent.VK_F);
26. cb2.setSelected(false);
27. JCheckBox cb3 = new
JCheckBox(“Volleyball”);
28. cb3.setMnemonic(KeyEvent.VK_V);
29. cb3.setSelected(false);
30. add(cb1);
31. add(cb2);
32. add(cb3);
33. }
34. }
The JCheckBox class is present in
javax.swing.JCheckBox. To use this
class, we use the import statement import
javax.swing.*, as shown in line 2. We
instantiate the JCheckBox object in line 21;
the string to be displayed is passed as a
parameter during instantiation. The method
setMnemonic() allows users to select or
deselect items in checkboxes using keyboard
keys. The statement in line 22 uses the
setMnemonic method, thereby allowing
users to select or deselect the Cricket
checkbox using ALT + C button combination
on the keyboard. The setMnemonic()
function takes a KeyEvent as the input
parameter; KeyEvents are represented using
the syntax VK_*, for example, C is
represented as VK_C. KeyEvents are defined
in java.awt.event.KeyEvent. To use
KeyEvents in our program, we use the
import statement import
java.awt.event.KeyEvent, as shown in line 1.
setSelected () method as seen in line
23 is used to set the initial state for a
checkbox; false indicates that the checkbox
is initially deselected. We follow the same
procedure of instantiating a checkbox and
setting its properties for other checkboxes as
well. Finally, we add the JCheckBox objects
cb1, cb2 and cb3 to the panel in lines 30, 31,
and 32.
23.4.4 JComboBox
The JComboBox object is used to display
checkboxes in Java. Combo boxes in Java
have a button and a drop-down list. The
button is used to activate the drop-down list.
Combo boxes offer the advantage of space
and at the same time provide functionality of
letting the user choose a particular item
from a list of items. The attached figure
shows a typical use case scenario, wherein
on pressing the down arrow button of the
Combo box, a drop-down list containing
names of various cities is displayed to the
user using a JComboBox object. Example
23.7 demonstrates how to create and display
JComboBox objects in Java. Figure 23.8
shows the output.
Figure 23.8 JCombo box
Example 23.7: Program to
Demonstrate JComboBox Class
1. import javax.swing.*;
2. public class SwingDemo {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
5. frame.setVisible(true);
6. }
7. }
8. class DisplayFrame extends JFrame{
9. DisplayFrame(){
10.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
11. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
12. setSize(300, 150);
13. setLocation(100,100);
14. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
15. getContentPane().add(panel);
16. }
17. }
18. class DisplayPanel extends JPa
nel{
19. DisplayPanel() {
20. String[] cities = { “Delhi”,
“London”, “New York”, “Moscow”, “Mumbai”
};
21. JComboBox citylist = new
JComboBox(cities);
22. citylist.setSelectedIndex(2);
23. add(citylist);
24. }
25. }
The JComboBox class is present in
javax.swing.JComboBox. To use this class,
we use the import statement import
javax.swing.*, as shown in line 1. In line 20,
we define cities, an array of Strings, which
contains the names of all the items we would
like to display in our drop-down list. We
instantiate the JComboBox object in line 21;
the array cities is passed as a parameter
during instantiation. The
setSelectedIndex() method in line 22
shows how to set the default display item for
the combo box. We have passed 2 as the
parameter to setSelectedIndex(), so
when the combo box is instantiated, the
default item displayed will be “New York” as
the String New York is present at index 2 in
the array cities. Finally, we add the
JComboBox object citylist to the panel in
line 23.
23.4.5 JMenu Class
Menus in Java are implemented using three
components, namely, JMenuBar, JMenu
and JMenuItems. Menu bar is generally
located at the top of the window; it contains
one or more menus. When we click on the
menu, a list appears which contains user
selectable menu items or in some cases a
submenu. The figure below shows a typical
use case scenario, wherein the menu bar has
two menus, File and Window. The menu
Window has two menu items, New Window
and New Editor, and a submenu called
Options. Example 23.8 demonstrates how to
create and display complete menus using
JMenuBar, JMenu and JMenuItem objects
in Java. Output is shown in Figure 23.9.
Figure 23.9 JMenu
Example 23.8: Program to
Demonstrate JMenu Class
1. import javax.swing.*;
2. public class SwingDemo {
3. public static void main(String[]
args) {
4. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
5. frame.setVisible(true);
6. }
7. }
8. class DisplayFrame extends JFrame{
9. DisplayFrame(){
10.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
11. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
12. setSize(300, 150);
13. setLocation(100,100);
14. JMenuBar MenuBar = new
JMenuBar();
15. JMenu menu = CreateFileMenu();
16. MenuBar.add(menu);
17. menu = CreateWindowMenu();
18. MenuBar.add(menu);
19. setJMenuBar(MenuBar);
20. }
21. private JMenu CreateFileMenu() {
22. JMenu menu = new JMenu(“File”);
23. JMenuItem item = new
JMenuItem("Open");
24. menu.add(item);
25. item = new JMenuItem("Close");
26. menu.add(item);
27. menu.addSeparator();
28. item = new JMenuItem("Exit");
29. menu.add(item);
30. return menu;
31. }
32. private JMenu CreateWindowMenu()
{
33. JMenu menu = new
JMenu("Window");
34. JMenuItem item = new
JMenuItem("New Window");
35. menu.add(item);
36. item = new JMenuItem("New
Editor");
37. menu.add(item);
38. menu.addSeparator();
39. JMenu submenu = new
JMenu(“Options”);
40. item = new
JMenuItem("Default");
41. submenu.add(item);
42. item = new JMenuItem("Delete");
43. submenu.add(item);
44. menu.add(submenu);
45. return menu;
46. }
47. }
The JMenuBar, JMenu and JMenuItem
classes are present in
javax.swing.JMenuBar, javax.swing.JMenu
and javax.swing.JItem, respectively. To use
these classes, we use the import statement
import javax.swing.*, as shown in line 1. We
define two functions CreateFileMenu( )
in line 21 and CreateWindowMenu( ) in
line 32. The function CreateFileMenu( )
instantiates a menu with the name “File” in
line 22; it also creates two menu items
“Close” and “Exit” in lines 25 and 28 and
adds these menu items to the File menu in
lines 26 and 29. The addSeparator( )
method adds a line between the two menu
items in File Menu. The
CreateWindowMenu( ) function creates a
menu “Window” and populates it with two
menu items “New Editor” and “New
Window”. The function also creates a
submenu “Options” in line 39, adds menu
items “Default” and “Delete” and then adds
the submenu to the Window menu in line
44.
Menu bar is instantiated in line 14, the
menus “File” and “Windows” are
instantiated in lines 15 and 17 and added to
the menu bar in lines 16 and 18. The menu
bar differs from other widgets discussed till
now as a menu bar is added to the Frame
rather than to an intermediate panel. The
method setJMenuBar( ) is used to add
the menu bar to the frame, as shown in line
19.
23.5 Layout Managers
Till now we have discussed about creation of
widgets; most of our examples so far have
single widgets. But in real-life scenarios, we
will have multiple widgets on the same
screen and we need some kind of layout
management to manage the placement of
these widgets on the screen. Java Swing
provides us with three Layout managers to
simplify our task. In subsequent sections, we
will have a closer look at these layout
managers.
23.5.1 Border Layout
Border layout divides the panel into five
regions: North, South, East, West and
Center, as shown below. In Border Layout,
the widgets present in the North, South and
Center expand to fill the available width
whereas the widgets in the East and West
regions expand as per the widget contents.
Example 23.9 illustrates how to arrange
widgets in Border Layout. Figure 23.10
shows the output.
Figure 23.10 Border layout
Example 23.9: Program to
Demonstrate Border Layout
1. import java.awt.*;
2. import javax.swing.*;
3. import javax.swing.border.Border;
4. public class SwingDemo {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
7. frame.setVisible(true);
8. }
9. }
10. class DisplayFrame extends
JFrame{
11. DisplayFrame(){
12.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
13. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
14. setSize(400, 150);
15. setLocation(100,100);
16. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
17. getContentPane().add(panel);
18. }
19. }
20. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
21. DisplayPanel() {
22. setLayout(new BorderLayout());
23. add(new newLabel(“NORTH”),
BorderLayout.NORTH);
24. add(new newLabel(“SOUTH”),
BorderLayout.SOUTH);
25. add(new newLabel(“EAST”),
BorderLayout.EAST);
26. add(new newLabel(“WEST”),
BorderLayout.WEST);
27. add(new
newLabel(“CENTER”),BorderLayout.CENTER);
28. }
29. class newLabel extends JLabel {
30. Border black =
BorderFactory.createLineBorder(Color.bla
ck);
31. newLabel(String S){
32. setText(S);
33.
setHorizontalAlignment(CENTER);
34. setBorder(black);
35. }
36. }
37. }
The panel layout is set using the method
setLayout( ) and passing an instance of
the class BorderLayout, as seen in line 22.
We use the add( ) method to populate the
panel with newLabel widgets along with the
location information, as seen in lines 23 to
27. The newLabel widget is an extension of
JLabel with additional properties. It sets the
alignment of text in the label so that the text
appears centered; this is achieved using the
method setHorizontalAlignment( )
and passing the parameter CENTER, as seen
in line 33. We also set a black border for the
label so that the area occupied by the label is
clearly visible. This is achieved using the
method setBorder( ) and passing the
parameter black, as seen in line 34. The
parameter black is of the type Border which
is created in line 30. You can create different
line colours by changing the parameter in
createLineBorder( ).
23.5.2 Grid Layout
Grid Layout divides the screen into specified
rows and columns as seen in the figure
shown below. Grid layout is useful when we
want to create UI similar to windows
desktop wherein the icon is symmetrically
placed in the screen. Figure 23.11 shows the
output.
Figure 23.11 GridLayout
Example 23.10: Program to
Demonstrate Grid Layout
1. import java.awt.*;
2. import javax.swing.*;
3. import javax.swing.border.Border;
4. public class SwingDemo {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
7. frame.setVisible(true);
8. }
9. } Figure 23.11 GridLayout
10. class DisplayFrame extends
JFrame{
11. DisplayFrame(){
12.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
13. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
14. setSize(300, 150);
15. setLocation(100,100);
16. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
17. getContentPane().add(panel);
18. }
19. }
20. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
21. DisplayPanel() {
22. setLayout(new GridLayout(3, 3));
23. for(int i = 1; i <= 9 ; i++ ){
24. add(new
CalcLabel(Integer.toString(i)));
25. }
26. }
27. class CalcLabel extends JLabel {
28. CalcLabel(String S){
29. Border black =
BorderFactory.createLineBorder(Color.BLA
CK);
30. setText(S);
31.
setHorizontalAlignment(CENTER);
32. setBorder(black);
33. }
34. }
35. }
Similar to Example 23.9, the only difference
is in the GridLayout instantiation, as seen in
line 22. We need to specify the number of
rows and columns in our present example;
the number of rows and columns are three.
23.5.3 Flow Layout
Flow layout is the default layout. If you do
not specify any layout using the
setLayout() method, then by default, the
panel will have a Flow layout. In flow layout,
the widgets are arranged form left to right
and then from top to bottom. Flow layout
can be seen in Figure 23.7 wherein all the
checkboxes are arranged from left to right.
23.6 Event Types and Event Listeners
GUI programming in Java involves two
parts. The first part involves creating user
interface using various components,
containers and widgets, whereas the second
part involves handling events that are
generated due to the user interaction. Events
are generated due to user activity and they
can range from key presses, mouse clicks to
selecting/deselecting checkboxes and button
clicks. The Java Abstract windowing Toolkit
(AWT) framework is responsible for
delivering user-generated events to the
applications. AWT also defines the
interfaces for all the event handlers.
Events in Java can be classified into two
types: high-level events and low-level events.
High-level events such as Action events are
specific to certain widgets and are sent to the
application only if those widgets are present
and have registered for the event. In
contrast low-level events such as Keyboard
and Mouse events are sent to all the widgets
which have registered to receive them. In the
subsequent sections, we discuss some of the
most commonly encountered events and
their handling mechanisms.
23.6.1 Action Event Listener
Action events are one of the most common
events in Java. They are generated whenever
the user performs any action on the widget
like pressing a button or choosing an item
from the menu. To enable us to handle
action events, we need to create a class that
implements the ActionListener interface.
The ActionListener interface requires us to
implement just one method
actionPerformed(ActionEvent e).
The function actionPerformed() is
invoked whenever the user performs an
action on the widget. Example 23.12
illustrates how to create an action event
handler and handle action events.
Example 23.11: Program to
Demonstrate Action Event Handling
1. import java.awt.*;
2. import java.awt.event.*;
3. import javax.swing.*;
4. public class SwingDemo {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
7. frame.setVisible(true);
8. }
9. }
10. class DisplayFrame extends
JFrame{
11. DisplayFrame(){
12.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
13. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
14. setSize(300, 150);
15. setLocation(100,100);
16. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
17. getContentPane().add(panel);
18. }
19. }
20. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
21. int count;
22. JLabel label;
23. JButton button;
24. DisplayPanel() {
25. count = 0;
26. button = new JButton(“Click
Me”);
27. label = new JLabel();
28. label.setText(“Count = “
+count);
29. button.addActionListener(new
HandleEvent());
30. add(button);
31. add(label);
32. }
33. class HandleEvent implements
ActionListener{
34. public void
actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
35. count ++;
36. label.setText(“Count = “
+count);
37. }
38. }
39. }
The program above is used to count the
number of times the user has pressed the
button “Click Me”. The count is updated on
the screen, as shown in Figure 23.13. At the
start of the program, the count is 0 after 12
clicks by the user the count shows 12.
Updating the count on button press is done
by the class HandleEvent line 33 which
implements the ActionListener interface. As
discussed above, any class implementing the
ActionListener should implement the
method actionPerformed(). This is done
in line 34. The function
actionPerformed() is invoked whenever
the user presses the button “Click Me”. In
this function, we update the count variable
in line 35 and update the label which
displays the count using JLabels
setText() function call in line 36. We have
implemented the HandleEvent class as an
inner class to DisplayPanel as it needs to use
the variables count and label defined in
DisplayPanel class. Line 29
button.addActionListener (new
HandleEvent()) shows how to bind the
action event handler with the button widget.
Binding widget with event handler as done
in line 29 is absolutely essential else the
events will not be sent to the event handler.
Figure 23.12 Output of Example 23.11
Figure 23.13 Output of Example 23.12
23.6.2 Item Event Listener
Item events are generally fired by
components such as checkboxes, radio
buttons and combo boxes wherein the user
selects or deselects an item. To enable us to
handle item events in our program, we need
to create a class that implements the
ItemListener interface.
The ItemListener interface requires us to
implement one method
itemStateChanged (ItemEvent e).
The function itemStateChanged () is
invoked whenever the user selects or
deselects an item in the widget. Example
23.12 illustrates how to create an item event
handler and handle item events. Figure
23.13 shows the output.
Example 23.12: Program to
Demonstrate Item Event Handling
1. import java.awt.*;
2. import java.awt.event.*;
3. import javax.swing.*;
4. public class SwingDemo {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
7. frame.setVisible(true);
8. }
9. }
10. class DisplayFrame extends
JFrame{
11. DisplayFrame(){
12.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
13. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
14. setSize(400, 150);
15. setLocation(100,100);
16. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
17. getContentPane().add(panel);
18. }
19. }
20. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
21. JLabel label;
22. JCheckBox cb1;
23. JCheckBox cb2;
24. JCheckBox cb3;
25. DisplayPanel() {
26. cb1 = new
JCheckBox(“Cricket”);
27.
cb1.setMnemonic(KeyEvent.VK_C);
28. cb1.setSelected(false);
29. cb2 = new
JCheckBox(“Football”);
30.
cb2.setMnemonic(KeyEvent.VK_F);
31. cb2.setSelected(false);
32. cb3 = new
JCheckBox(“Volleyball”);
33.
cb3.setMnemonic(KeyEvent.VK_V);
34. cb3.setSelected(false);
35. JLabel display_label = new
JLabel();
36. display_label.setText(“Select
Favorite Game”);
37. label = new JLabel();
38. label.setText(“”);
39. HandleItemEvent handler = new
HandleItemEvent();
40. cb1.addItemListener(handler);
41. cb2.addItemListener(handler);
42. cb3.addItemListener(handler);
43. add(display_label);
44. add(cb1);
45. add(cb2);
46. add(cb3);
47. add(label);
48.
49. }
50. class HandleItemEvent implements
ItemListener{
51. public void
itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
52. int index = 0;
53. Object source =
e.getItemSelectable();
54. if (source == cb1) {
55. index = 1;
56. } else if (source == cb2) {
57. index = 2;
58. } else if (source == cb3) {
59. index = 3;
60. }
61. if (e.getStateChange() ==
ItemEvent.DESELECTED) {
62. label.setText(“Game at index:
“ +index + “ Deselected”);
63. }
64. if (e.getStateChange() ==
ItemEvent.SELECTED) {
65. label.setText(“Game at index:
“ +index + “ Selected”);
66. }
67. }
68. }
69. }
The program above is designed to get the
users favourite sport. As it is a checkbox,
multiple selections are possible. The label
below the checkboxes records the index of
the latest selection; index 1 implies cricket.
The label is dynamically updated each time
the user selects or deselects a sport.
Updating the label is done in the class
HandleItemEvent defined in line 50 which
implements the ItemListener interface. The
HandleItemEvent class is instantiated in
line 39 and is bound to the three checkboxes
in lines 40, 41 and 42. The example
demonstrates how a single handler can be
bound to multiple sources. To identify which
checkbox has fired an item event we use the
method getItemSelectable( ), as
shown in line 53. Once we know the source,
we update the index accordingly as seen in
lines 54 to 60. To know whether the item in
the widget has been selected or deselected,
we use the method getStateChange( ).
The return value of this method can be
compared with the SELECTED and
DESELECTED constants defined in
ItemEvent. Both the methods
getItemSelectable( ) and
getStateChange( ) are also defined in
the ItemEvent object that is passed as an
argument to the event handler.
23.6.3 Keyboard Event Listener
Key events are generated whenever the user
presses and releases keys on the keyboard.
As described earlier, key events are low-level
events and all widgets can register for key
events. For widgets to receive key events it is
essential that the widget has focus. To
handle key events, we need to define a class
that implements the KeyListener
interface. The KeyListener interface
defines three functions:
keyPressed(KeyEvent key): This
method is invoked when the user presses
any key on the keyboard.
keyReleased(KeyEvent key): This
method is invoked when the user releases
the pressed key on the keyboard.
keyTyped(KeyEvent key): This method is
invoked whenever the user presses a
printable key such as the characters a,b,c or
symbols such as +, _ , or * on the
keyboard. The difference between
KeyPressed and KeyTyped methods is
that KeyTyped method is invoked only
when user types printable keys while
KeyPressed method is invoked for all the
keys such as function keys F1, F2, HOME,
INSERT and DELETE keys.
Example 23.13 illustrates how to create a
key event handler and handle key events.
The output is shown in Figure 23.14.
Figure 23.14 Keyboard event
Figure 23.15 Output of Example 23.14
Example 23.13: Program to
Demonstrate Key Event Handling
1. import java.awt.*;
2. import java.awt.event.KeyEvent;
3. import java.awt.event.KeyListener;
4. import javax.swing.*;
5. public class SwingDemo {
6. public static void main(String[]
args) {
7. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
8. frame.setVisible(true);
9. }
10. }
11. class DisplayFrame extends
JFrame{
12. DisplayFrame(){
13.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
14. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
15. setSize(300, 150);
16. setLocation(100,100);
17. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
18. getContentPane().add(panel);
19. }
20. }
21. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
22. String msg = “”;
23. JLabel label;
24. DisplayPanel() {
25. label = new JLabel(msg);
26. label.addKeyListener(new
HandleKeyEvent());
27. label.setFocusable(true);
28. JLabel disp_label = new
JLabel(“Enter Text”);
29. add(disp_label);
30. add(label);
31. }
32. class HandleKeyEvent implements
KeyListener{
33. public void keyPressed(KeyEvent
ke) {
34. int key = ke.getKeyCode();
35. switch(key)
36. {
37. case KeyEvent.VK_HOME:
38. msg += “HOME”;
39. break;
40. case KeyEvent.VK_INSERT:
41. msg += “INSERT”;
42. break;
43. case KeyEvent.VK_DELETE:
44. msg += “DELETE”;
45. break;
46. case KeyEvent.VK_END:
47. msg += “END”;
48. break;
49. }
Listener
50. label.setText(msg);
51. }
52. public void
keyReleased(KeyEvent ke)
53. {
54. }
55. public void keyTyped(KeyEvent
ke)
56. { msg += ke.getKeyChar();
57. label.setText(msg);
58. }
59. }
60. }
The application above updates a label
dynamically each time the user enters a key
on the keyboard. Updating the label is done
in the class HandleKeyEvent defined in line
32 which implements the KeyListener
interface. The HandleKeyEvent class is
instantiated and bound to the label in line
26. As discussed earlier, it is mandatory for
widgets wanting to receive key events to
have focus. This is achieved using the
method label.setFocusable(true) in
line 27. In case of a non-printable keys, we
use the method getKeyCode( ) line 34 to
retrieve the key pressed and in the case of
printable keys we retrieve the key using the
method getKeyChar( ) in line 56. Both
the methods are defined in KeyEvent object
which is passed as an argument to the event
handler functions. As seen from the code,
the method getKeyCode returns an integer
constant. We use a switch statement to
identify and process the special keys. The
function keyRelased( ) is a dummy
function but he have to define it as it as
specified in the interface else we will get
compilation errors.
23.6.4 Mouse Event Listener
Mouse events like the key events are low-
level events. To handle the mouse events, we
need to define a class that implements the
MouseListener interface. The
MouseListener interface defines five
functions
mouseEntered(MouseEvent e): This
method is invoked when the cursor enters
the widget area.
mouseExited(MouseEvent e): This
method is invoked when the cursor leaves
the widget area.
mousePressed(MouseEvent e): The
method is invoked when the user presses the
mouse button.
mouseReleased(MouseEvent e): The
method is invoked when the user releases
the mouse button.
mouseClicked(MouseEvent e): The
method is invoked when the user clicks, that
is, presses and releases, the mouse button.
Example 23.14 illustrates how create a
mouse event handler and handle mouse
events. Figure 23.15 shows the output.
Example 23.14: Program to
Demonstrate Mouse Event Handling
1. import java.awt.*;
2. import java.awt.event.*;
3. import javax.swing.*;
4. public class SwingDemo {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. JFrame frame = new
DisplayFrame();
7. frame.setVisible(true);
8. }
9. }
10. class DisplayFrame extends
JFrame{
11. DisplayFrame(){
12.
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_
CLOSE);
13. setTitle(“Swing Demo”);
14. setSize(300, 150);
15. setLocation(100,100);
16. JPanel panel = new
DisplayPanel();
17. getContentPane().add(panel);
18. }
19. }
20. class DisplayPanel extends
JPanel{
21. int count;
22. JLabel label;
23. JButton button;
24.
25. DisplayPanel() {
26. count = 0;
27. button = new JButton(“Click
Me”);
28. label = new JLabel();
29. label.setText(“Count = “
+count);
30. button.addMouseListener(new
HandleMouseEvent());
31. add(button);
32. add(label);
33. setBackground(Color.WHITE);
34. }
35. class HandleMouseEvent implements
MouseListener{
36. public void
mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {
37. count++;
38. label.setText(“Count = “
+count);
39. }
40. public void
mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) {
41.
42. setBackground(Color.YELLOW);
43. }
44. public void
mouseExited(MouseEvent e) {
45. setBackground(Color.WHITE);
46.
47. }
48. public void
mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {
49.
50. }
51. public void
mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) {
52.
53. }
54. }
55. }
In this example, we handle two tasks: one
is count the number of times the user has
clicked the button “Click Me” and the second
involves setting the background colour of
the panel Yellow each time the cursor is in
the button area. To achieve these tasks, we
use a mouse event handler called
HandleMouseEvent which implements the
MouseListener in line 35. The
HandleMouseEvent is instantiated and
bound to the button widget in line 30. As
seen from the code, we update the count and
set the Label in lines 37 and 38. The colour
of the panel is changed using the method
setBackground( ), as seen in lines 42
and 45.
23.7 Applets
Applets are small java programs that are
transported from one computer system on
the network to another system. They cannot
be run independently but they need web
browser or program called appletviewer to
run on the system.
An applet, just like an application, can
perform lot of tasks such as computation,
taking user inputs, passing parameters,
display using Graphics-rich features, play
music and last but not least create
animations. But the beauty is that applet can
travel on computer from one location to
another embedded onto HTML Tags when
user imports them using Internet.
23.7.1 Concepts of Applets
An applet is a java program that requires
another host program to run it, i.e., Applet
program gets embedded in another program
and gets executed. Applets are run from web
browsers such as IE or Google Chrome.
Applet programming is Java's way to
provide the user with excellent graphics and
GUI facilities, in addition to other
conveniences such as distributed and object-
oriented features.
We have Applet class with hierarchy java-
>applet->Applet. So the applet class we are
going to write must extend to package
java.applet.Applet. The details are in Figure
23.16.
Figure 23.16 Class hierarchy of applets in java
23.7.2 Life Cycle of an Applet
There are four states in a life of an applet:
Born, Running, Idle and Dead. They are
explained in the diagram shown in Figure
23.17.
Figure 23.17 Life cycle of an applet
Initialization: Applet when it is born calls
init() method that sets initial conditions
such as create objects needed, set font and
colour and images, set up sizes of window
and set up initial values. Usually we need to
write our own init () method to override
base class init() method.
Running: When an applet is created, it
enters a Running state when it calls for a
start() method. Start() method is
called automatically on initialization of
applet by init() method. An applet which
is in idle state can also be started. Therefore,
we can say that start(0) method can be
called any number of times.
Idle/Stop(). An applet goes to idle state
when a stop(0) method is called. This stop()
is called automatically whenever web page
running the applet is left. If an applet is
running on a thread, then the thread will be
stopped.
Dead state: It is a state when an applet is
removed from the main memory. A method
called destroy() is used to clean up any
memory spaces.
Display state: This occurs when applet
runs paint() method or a panel object is
added to Container object as in the case of
Applets with swing components.
To summarize, the methods that are
invoked when an applet or JApplet is loaded
by any browser, there are four methods
which are automatically initiated by the
browser. They are
Init(): Initiated automatically whenever an Applet is
loaded. It is like a constructor. It initially creates the
applet including initialization of threads.
Start(): Automatic whenever init() is called.
Stop(): Invoked automatically whenever destroy()
method is called.
Destroy(): Invoked automatically whenever browser
is terminated. Threads have to be stopped and removed
in this section.
Paint(Graphics g): Invoked automatically whenever
start() is called.
Update(Graphics g): After paint(), update()
updates the container.
Repaint(Graphics g): invokes update()
which calls paint() which in turn calls
update() to update the container.
23.7.3 Creating an Applet – HelloWorld
Applet
In our first example, we will write an applet
program to highlight the issues and
commands we use to set applet work. Applet
Programming has two distinct stages:
Develop Applet Program and compile just like ordinary
java application. Output will be HelloWorldApplet.class.
Write HTML (Hyper Text Mark Up Language) Tags
shown below in any text editor and name the file as
HelloWorldApplet.html. Embed applet tag in the html
file.
Execute the applet program by using appletviewer or
web browser. Details are shown below.
Example
23.15: HelloWorldApplet.java
With Html Tags Embedded in the
Main Java Programme. This Code
Can Only be Executed with
Appletviewer
1. /* <HTML>
2. <BODY>
3. <Applet
Code=”HelloWorldApplet.class” Height=320
Width=400>
4. </Applet>
5. </BODY>
6. </HTML>
7. */
8. import java.awt.*;
9. import java.applet.*;
10. import java.awt.Graphics.*;
11. public class HelloWorldApplet
extends Applet {
12. public void paint(Graphics g) {
13. g.drawString(«Hello There !This
is how Applets look & feel !», 65 , 95);
14. }
15. }
Compilation: Go to the Directory where
the java file has been entered.
javac HelloWorldApplet.java
Appletviewer
HelloWorldApplet.java Output is
shown in Figure 23.18
Figure 23.18 An applet output
Example
23.16: HelloWorldApplet.java
with HTML File Separately Created
and Class File is Embedded in
HTML File. This Code Can be
Executed with AppletViewer or Web
Browser.
//HelloWorldApplet.java
1. import java.awt.*;
2. import java.applet.*;
3. import java.awt.Graphics.*;
4. public class HelloWorldApplet
extends Applet {
5. public void paint(Graphics g) {
6. g.drawString(“Hello There !This is
how Applets look & feel !”, 65, 95);
7. }
8. }
Compile: javac
HelloWorldApplet.java
In the same directory create a separate
html file called HelloWorldApplet.html
1. <HTML>
2. <BODY>
3. <Applet
Code=”HelloWorldApplet.class” Height=320
Width=400>
4. </Applet>
5. </BODY>
6. </HTML>
Running of program:
Appletviewer
HelloWorldApplet.html
Or go to icon of web browser in the
directory where html file has been created
and double press on the icon.
The import statements direct the Java
compiler to include the java.applet.*
and java.Graphics.* As Applet classes use
extensively the features of windows, we also
need to import a package called awt that
stands for Advanced Windowing ToolKit
(awt).
The Hello class extends Applet class; the
Applet class provides the framework for the
host application to display and control the
lifecycle of the applet. The Applet class
provides the applet with the capability to
display GUI and respond to user events.
The Hello class overrides the
paintComponent(Graphics) method
provide the code to display the applet. The
paint()method is passed a Graphics
object that contains the graphic context used
to display the applet. The
paintComponent() method calls the
graphic context drawString(String,
int, int) method to display the “Hello
there! This is how Applets look and feel”
string at a pixel offset of (65, 95) from the
upper-left corner in the applet's display.
HTML Document: In order to run
HelloWorldApplet, you need another
program called
HelloWorldJApplet.html, which is
essentially a program that contains
HelloWorldJApplet class. HTML stands
for hypertext mark up language. HTML is
the language, called scripting language, that
the browser understands.
A typical HTML Document looks like
this. Call this: HelloWorldApplet.html
<html>
<head>
<title>Hello World Applet</title>
</head>
<body>
<applet code=”HelloWorldApplet”
width=”200” height=”200”>
</applet>
</body>
</html>
An applet is placed in an HTML document
using the <applet> HTML element. The
applet tag has three attributes set:
code=”HelloWorldApplet” specifies the
name of the Applet class and width=”200”
height=”200” sets the pixel width and
height of the applet.
The host application, typically a Web
browser, instantiates the
HelloWorldApplet applet and creates an
AppletContext for the applet. Once the
applet has initialized itself, it is added to the
AWT display hierarchy. The paint() method
is called by the AWT whenever the display
needs the applet to draw itself.
23.7.4 JApplets – Applets with Swing
Components: Better Look and Feel
Java has introduced the latest Java Swing
Components with class hierarchy: java-
>applet->Applet->JApplet. In order to
get better and “feel good” features, it is
better we make our Applet class to extend to
JApplet instead of Applet. As most of the
Applets use Window features, we need to
import advanced windowing tool kit
provided by Java and within package: java.
awt. Swing components are provided by
javax (x stands for java extended) to provide
rich libraries so that GUI/Interfaces, etc.,
are easily implemented.
We can clearly see in Figure 23.19 that
JApplet extends Panel that in turn extends
to Container class. Therefore, we need to
add components to JApplet class.
Figure 23.19 Class hierarchy of JApplet class
Example
23.17: HelloWorldJApplet.java:
Java Applet with Swing
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
public class HelloWorldJApplet extends
JApplet {
public void init() {
//First Get Container object
Container
myContentPane=getContentPane();
// we have set the layout. we will use
flow layout
myContentPane.setLayout(new
FlowLayout());
//Prepare the lable to post on
myContentPane
JLabel message = new JLabel(“Welcome to
swing components in Java”);
//add label to myContentpane
myContentPane.add(message);
}
}
Lin defines an object of Container class called
e myContentpane. getContentPane()
No. returns object of Container.
7:
Lin is setting the layout to FlowLayou()
e
No.
9:
Lin creates an object of JLabel and passes a Tring
e for display.
No.
11:
Lin Just adds message to Container.
e
No
13:
To obtain the output, compile the
program to get HelloWorld.class. If you
are using eclipse IDE you can directly
execute the program to get the output. Or
create an HTML document as explained in
the previous section. The output is shown in
Figure 23.20.
Figure 23.20 JApplet output
Example
23.18: HelloWorldJApplet.html:
Html Script for
HelloWorldJApplet.java
<html>
<title>HelloWorldJApplet</title>
<body>
<applet code=”HelloWorldJApplet.class”
width=400 height = 200>
</applet>
</body>
</html>
Create the above program by name
HelloWorldJApplet.html in the
directory
c:\oopsjava\workspace\oopstech2\
src\com\oops\chap23 or any other
directory you have been working.
appletviewer.exe is the program supplied by
java to test applets.
C:\Oopsjava\examples\bin\>
appletviewer
HelloWorldJApplet.java will produce
the output shown above. Alternatively, you
can also create separate html file and use
web browser like IE to get the same output
by simply double clicking on
HelloWorldJApplet.html file to invoke
the web browser.
The import statements direct the Java
compiler to include the javax.swing.JApplet
and java.Graphics.* As JApplet classes
use extensively the features of windows, we
also need to import a package called awt.
The Hello class extends JApplet class; the
JApplet class provides the framework for the
host application to display and control the
lifecycle of the applet. The JApplet class
provides the applet with the capability to
display GUI and respond to user events.
Which is better Applet or JApplet in terms
of look and feel? Refer to Figures 23.18 and
23.20. You will agree that applets with swing
components offer much better look and feel.
Hence we will use swing components with
Applets. From now on we will not be writing
HTML Tags. It is understood that you will be
able to understand and execute your applet
programs.
23.7.5 Applets vs. Stand-alone Applications
Stand-Alone Applications
The programs we did so far are called stand-
alone programs. The signature of stand-
alone applications is that it will have a
main() method. Stand-alone application in
java is similar to application development
using c++ and contains all features of
language.
Applets
Applets are run by web browsers. They are designed to
work on the Internet.
The signature of applet is that it will not have main()
methods. Instead it will have init() methods.
Applets cannot be run independently. They need to be
embedded into HTML tags. HTML stands for Hyper
Text Mark Up Language.
Due to security restrictions, applets cannot read form
local files/disks or write to a disk.
Applets do not have any access to any other programs
residing in local computers.
23.7.6 Passing Arguments to Applets
The applet tag we have used to embed out
class in HTML tags is shown below:
<applet
code=”HelloWorldApplet”
width=”200” height=”200”>
</applet>. This is a simple tag. We will
now introduce you to a full-fledged HTML
file.
Example 23.19: An Example HTML
Full Fledged File
<APPLET
[CODEBASE = codebase_URL] //
directory of html file
CODE= “Applet class name” // for
example ”HelloWorldJApplet.class”
[ ALT = alternate_text]
[ NAME = applet _instance_name]
WIDTH=no of pixels
HEIGHT = no of pixels
[ ALLIGN = alignment] //TOP BOTTOM,
LEFT,RIGHT,MIDDLE etc
[VSPACE]= pixels] // used when align
LEFT or RIGHT is used
[HSPACE]=pixels] //used when TOP or
BOTTOM are used
>
[PARAM NAME = name1 VALUE = value1> ]
// used for parameters passing
[PARAM NAME = name2 VALUE = value2> ]
</APPLET>
Let us attempt an example wherein we
pass arguments to applet. We will pass
colour and text to be displayed by the applet.
In addition, we will pass two numbers and
operations to be performed by the applet.
Let us see the result.
Example 23.20: Write a Swing-
based Applet to Accept String Value
as Parameter From Html Tag File.
The Program to Display Hello India!
If There is Input India From the Tag
File. Else it Has to Display Hello
Delhi!
//: HTMLParam.java
1. /*<HTML><BODY><Applet
Code=”HTMLParam.class”
2. width=400 height =200> <PARAM NAME
= “String”VALUE= “India!” >
3. </Applet></BODY></HTML> */
4. import javax.swing.*;
5. import java.awt.*;
6. public class HTMLParam extends
JApplet {
7. String stg;
8. public void init() {
9. //Get the String to be displayed
10. stg=getParameter(“String”);
11. if ( stg==null)
12. stg=”Delhi!”;
13. stg=”Hello “+stg;
14. //First Get Container object
15. Container
myContentPane=getContentPane();
16. // we have set the layout. we
will use flow layout
17. myContentPane.setLayout(new
FlowLayout());
18. //Prepare the lable to post on
myContentPane
19. JLabel message = new JLabel(stg);
20. //add label to myContentpane
21. myContentPane.add(message);
22. }
23. }
Example
23.22: InputToApplet.java A
Program to Accept Bank Account
and Transaction Amount and Applet
Will Return Bank Balance After
Transaction
/*<HTML><BODY><Applet
Code=”InputToApplet.class” width=800
height =800></Applet></BODY></HTML> */
1. package com.oops.chap23;
2. import javax.swing.*;
3. import java.awt.*;
4. import java.awt.event.*;// for
action listener interface
5. public class SwingInputs extends
JApplet{
6. public void init() {
7. //First Get Container object
8. Container
myContentPane=getContentPane();
9. // we have set the layout. we will
use flow layout
10. myContentPane.setLayout(new
GridLayout(1,1));
11. //Prepare the lable to post on
myContentPane
12. JPanel panel = new
SwingPanel();
13. myContentPane.add(panel);
14. }
15. }
16. class SwingPanel extends
JPanel implements ActionListener{
17. String val1,val2,stg;
18. double bal=20000.00;
19. JTextField jtf1,jtf2,jtf3;
20. SwingPanel(){
21. JLabel label =new
JLabel(“Enter accountNo :”);
22. add(label);
23. jtf1=new JTextField(10);
24. jtf1.addActionListener(this);
25. add(jtf1); // converts jtf1 to
component
26. setLocation(100,100);
27. label =new JLabel(“Enter
Transaction Amount : “);add(label);
28. jtf2=new JTextField(10);
29. jtf2.addActionListener(this);
30. add(jtf2);
31. label =new JLabel(“\nBank
Balance “);add(label);
32. jtf3=new JTextField(10);
33. stg=String.valueOf(bal);
34. jtf3.setText(stg);
35. add(jtf3);
36. label = new JLabel(“Have a
Great Day ahead!”);
37. add(label);
38. }
39. public void
actionPerformed(ActionEvent e){
40. int
acn=Integer.parseInt(jtf1.getText());
41. double
amt=Double.parseDouble(jtf2.getText());
42. double banbal=bal-amt;
43. String
stg=String.valueOf(banbal);
44. jtf3.setText(stg);
45. }
46. }
Li imports java.awt.event.*;// for action
n listener interface
e
N
o.
4:
Li defines myContentpane as object of Container.
n
e
N
o.
8:
Li defines a JPanel object called panel. We can
n add components now to this panel.
e
N
o.
12
:
Li class SwingPanel extends JPanel implements
n ActionListener{ Implements action listeners
e for attaching action listeners events to widgets
N inside the class.
o.
16
:
Li declares three JText fields ; JTextField
n jtf1,jtf2,jtf3;
e
N
o.
19
:
Li is a constructor SwingPanel. Line No. 21 to 38
n are used to define the text fields and attach
e action Listeners by using the method
N addActionListeners like
o. jtf1.addActionListener(this); at Line
2 No. 23.
0:
Li defines a mandatory method called public void
n action Performed(ActionEvent e){
e
N
o.
3
9:
Li int
n acn=Integer.parseInt(jtf1.getText(
e )); double
N amt=Double.parseDouble(jtf2.getTex
os
t()); are used to get the text in String format
.
and convert them to basic data type using
4
parseInt and parseDouble.
0
&
41
:
Li displays the amount by converting basic data
n type to String type . It uses valueOf()
e method
N
o.
4
2:
23.8 Summary
1. Graphical User Interface (GUI) development in JAVA is
based on components. Java components can further be
divided into containers and widgets.
2. Containers are further classified as Root Containers and
Intermediate Containers.
3. Containers also called as Top level containers are
necessary for every GUI program. Examples are three
top-level containers: JFrame, JDialog and JApplet.
4. Intermediate containers are not mandatory but are used
widely as they help in managing and organizing widgets.
JPanel is the most widely used intermediate container in
Swing.
5. Widgets are GUI elements which are used to interact
with the user. Widgets are also used to get user inputs.
JButton, JLabel, JScrollBar and JCheckBox are
examples of widgets in Swing.
6. For Swing Applications, the root is always JFrame.
7. Panels are intermediate containers and as such not
essential for creating Java graphical user interface
programs.
8. Widgets are the components which help us to build user
interfaces. They are the components that the user
actually sees and interacts with users.
9. The JLabel object is used to display text, images or both
text and images in Java.
10. The JButton object is used to display buttons in Java.
Buttons are very useful user interface elements, which
can be used for a variety of user interactions.
11. The JCheckBox object is used to display checkboxes in
Java. Checkboxes allow users to either select or deselect
an item; they also allow multiple items to be selected at
the same time.
12. The JComboBox in Java has a button and a drop-down
list.
13. Menus in Java are implemented using three
components, namely, JMenuBar, JMenu and
JMenuItems.
14. Border layout divides the panel into five regions North,
South, East, West and Center, as shown below.
15. Grid Layout divides the screen into specified rows and
columns. Grid layout is useful when we want to create
UI similar to windows desktop wherein icon is
symmetrically placed in the screen.
16. Flow layout is the default layout. If you do not specify
any layout using the setLayout() method, then by
default the panel will have Flow layout. In flow layout,
the widgets are arranged from left to right and then from
top to bottom.
17. Events are generated due to user activity and they can
range from key presses, mouse clicks, to
selecting/deselecting checkboxes and button clicks.
18. Toolkit (AWT) framework is responsible for delivering
user-generated events to the applications. AWT also
defines the interfaces for all the event handlers.
19. Events in Java can be classified into two types: high-
level events and low-level events.
20. High-level events such as Action events are specific to
certain widgets and are sent to the application only if
those widgets are present and have registered for the
event.
21. Low-level events such as Keyboard and Mouse events
are sent to all the widgets which have registered to
receive them.
22. Action events are generated whenever the user performs
any action on the widget like pressing a button or
choosing an item from the menu.
23. To enable us to handle action events, we need to create a
class that implements the ActionListener interface. The
ActionListener interface requires us to implement just
one method actionPerformed(ActionEvent e).
24. Item events are generally fired by components such as
checkboxes, radio buttons and combo boxes wherein the
user selects or deselects an item.
25. ItemListener interface requires us to implement one
method itemStateChanged (ItemEvent e).
26. Key events are generated whenever the user presses and
releases keys on the Keyboard. The events are:
keyPressed(KeyEvent key):
keyReleased(KeyEvent key):
keyTyped(KeyEvent key).
27. Mouse events like the key events are low-level events.
They are mouseEntered (MouseEvent e):
mouseExited(MouseEvent e):
mousePressed(MouseEvent e):
mouseReleased(MouseEvent e):
mouseClicked(MouseEvent e).
28. Applets are small java programs that are transported
from one computer system on the network to another
system. They cannot be run independently but they need
web browser or program called appletviewer to run on
the system.
29. Applet class hierarchy is: java->applet->Applet.
So the applet class must extend to package
java.applet.Applet.
30. When applets are loaded web browser automatically
calls the methods init(),Start() : Stop() :
Destroy():Paint(Graphics g) :
Update(Graphics g).
31. Java has introduced the latest Java Swing Components
with class hierarchy: java->applet->Applet-
>JApplet. In order to get better and “feel good”
features.
32. Applets cannot be run independently. They need to be
embedded into HTML tags. HTML stands for Hyper
Text Mark Up Language.
33. Due to security restrictions, applets cannot read from
local files/disks or write to a disk. Applets do not have
any access to any other programs residing on local
computers.
34. When local disks need to be handled, applications
supported by JFrame provide excellent graphics
facilities.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which component is not part of root containers?
1. JDialog
2. JApplet
3. JFrame
4. JPanel
2. Which of the following are not part of widgets?
1. JPanel
2. JButton
3. JTextField
4. JMenu
3. JFrame is a
1. Top-level container
2. Intermediate container
3. A widget
4. Component
4. Which of the following are not mandatory?
1. top-level container
2. intermediate
3. widget
4. components
5. Which of the following are offered by JFrame?
1. title
2. icon
3. set height width and location
4. add widgets directly
1. i and ii
2. ii, iii and iv
3. i, ii, iii and iv
4. i, ii and iii
6. JPanel is a container belonging to
1. top level
2. bottom level
3. widget
4. intermediate level
7. The component used for displaying the text in a window
1. JPanel
2. JLabel
3. JTextField
4. JFrame
8. The layout to be used when we need rows and columns
on screen is a
1. Flow layout
2. Grid layout
3. Border layout
4. Matrix layout
9. Action Listeners needs actionPerformed() method to be
executed.
TRUE/FALSE
10. ItemListener requires the following method to be
implemented:
1. itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e)
2. addActionListener(new HandleEvent())
3. actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
4. getItemSelectable( )
Short-answer Questions
11. What are the two packages required to do multimedia
programming in java?
12. What are high-level containers?
13. What are widgets?
14. What are intermediate containers?
15. Distinguish Applet and JApplets.
16. Distinguish Action Listeners and Item Listeners?
17. Explain the states of n Applet.
18. Explain Applet Tag and mandatory tags.
19. Explain how parameters are passed to Applet through
HTML files.
20. Distinguish Applets and Stand-alone applications.
Long-answer Questions
21. Distinguish between Component and Container.
22. Explain the class hierarchy of Applet and JApplet.
23. Explain the methods in Keyboard event listeners.
24. Explain the methods in Mouse Event listeners.
25. Explain how an applet program can be converted into
application Program.
Assignment Questions
26. Develop an application program with swing components
for recording of students results on a remote computer
(Server). The data obtained through a form needs to be
submitted online for the server to record it on to its
random file.
27. Modify the above program so that a student can submit
his roll number and he is informed about his result. Use
Applet with swing components for developing interface.
28. Develop an interface wherein a customer can select his
choice of items in a restaurant using JCheckBoxes and a
Button and he is informed of the cost of his selection.
29. Write a program to implement calculator with basic
arithmetic operation.
30. Write a multithreaded Applet for analog clock second,
minutes and hour handles.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. d
2. a
3. a
4. b
5. c
6. d
7. c
8. b
9. True
10. a
16. b
24
Collections and Software
Development Using Java
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able
to understand
Collections offered by Java through collection class
interfaces such as Set<T>, List<T>,
Queue<T>, and Map<k,s>.
Understand Java database connectivity and tools and
drivers offered by Java and other vendors such as
Microsoft, MySql.com, and Oracle.
Develop applications using Oracle, MySql, and access
databases.
Understand and deploy the concepts underlying
Servlets in Client Server programming of Java.
Understand and deploy the concepts underlying Java
Beans in Client Server programming of Java.
24.1 Introduction
While well-designed algorithms improve the
efficiency of programs, the data structures
will allow a programmer to use the
underlying hardware and supporting
language features to enhance the throughput
of the programmers. J2SE 5.0 and later
versions have provided collection framework
that provides several interfaces such as
Set<T>, List<T>, Queue<T>, and
Map<k,s>. This chapter introduces you to
these concepts so that you can deliver
programs by efficiently using collections
rather than developing programs yourself,
thereby enhancing productivity.
In industry, databases are used
extensively because of ease with which they
provide answers to queries without resorting
to elaborate programming through a
software called sql query. The most popular
databases in the industry are Oracle, MySql
(open source by MySql.com), and, of course,
MS Access that is within easy reach through
all prevalent MS Office. This chapter shows
you ways to handle these databases through
Java programs by using drivers such as
JDBC, JDBC-ODBC, and MySql connectivity
tools. Servlets are important
implementation in Java to handle client
server programs. Servlets extend the
functionality of web servers to any user on
the net just like applets extend the
functionality of the web browser. Java Beans
is designed for reusability. In this chapter,
you will learn the procedures to deploy java
beans.
This chapter will put you through various
skills that are required to become highly
productive and make you ready to take up a
job in the industry or enhance your skills.
We teach you the methodologies through
step-by-step procedures and programs and
reflect these steps thereby making learning
permanent and easy.
24.2 Collection Framework of Java
How do we store a group of objects in an
array? J2SE 5.0 has provided a collection
framework. Collection framework provides
an API that makes programming using data
structures easy and thereby enhances the
productivity of the programmer. This is
somewhat similar to the container of C++
but has quite a number of differences.
Collection framework is implemented in
java.util package. The concept is make a
collection object, store group of objects in
collection object. The collection framework
of Java is shown in Figure 24.1
Figure 24.1 Collection class of java util
Collection class provides several interfaces
such as Collection, Map, and Iterator. These
are shown in Figure 24.2.
Figure 24.2 Interfaces provided by java collection
The Collection Framework classes and
interfaces have been derived from meta class
Object provided by Java. The hierarchy of
classes of Collection framework is shown in
Figure 24.3.
Figure 24.3 Class hierarchy of collection framework classes
Interfaces and their implementing class
are shown in Table 24.1.
Table 24.1 Collection class interfaces and implementing
classes
Interface Implementing Class Description
Lis ArrayLis Implementation based on resizable
t t array
Lis LinkedLi Implementation based on linked list
t st
Set HashSet Implementation based on Hash table
Set TreeSet Implementation based on balanced
binary tree
Map HashMap Implementation based on Hash table
Map TreeMap Implementation based on balanced
binary tree
24.3 Collection Interface
The Collection Interface is the main
interface from which the List and Set
Interfaces are derived. It specifies the
methods that are common to all Collections.
The methods defined in the Collection
Interface and their descriptions are listed in
Table 24.2.
Table 24.2 Collection Interface and their descriptions
Method Remark
boolean Add a new object
add(Object o)
boolean Usage: t.addAll(c) Mimics union
addAll(Collect operation.
ion c)
Result: Collection t contains all the
objects in both t and c
void clear() Remove All elements in the collection
boolean Checks if object is present in
contains(Objec collection
t o)
boolean Usage: t.containsAll(c) Mimics
containsAll(Co subset operation
llection c)
Result: returns true if Collection c is
subset collection t
boolean Returns true if collection is empty
isEmpty()
Iterator Used to traverse the collection
iterator()
boolean Remove object from collection
remove(Object
o)
boolean Usage: t.removeAll(c)
removeAll(Coll
ection c) Result: All objects in Collection t
which are also contained in collection
c are removed
boolean Usage: t.retainAll(c) Mimics
retainAll(Coll intersection operation.
ection c)
Result: Collection t has objects
common to both t and t
int size() Number of objects in the collection
Object[] The array operations allow the
toArray() contents of a Collection to be
translated into an array
Object[]
toArray(Object
[] a))
24.4 Set Interface
Important features of Set interface are as
follows:
Defined in java.util.Set
Set extends the Collection Interface but does not add
any new methods
The interface models the mathematical set abstraction
Set cannot contain duplicate elements
Collection framework provides two implementations of
Set Interface: HashSet and TreeSet
We demonstrate some basic set
operations in Example 24.1 using the
HashSet implementation of the Set
interface.
Example 24.1: Program to
Demonstrate Basic Set Operations
1. import java.util.Set;
2. import java.util.HashSet;
3. public class SetDemo {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. Set<String> PoolA=new HashSet<String>
();
6. PoolA.add(“India”);
7. PoolA.add(“Australia”);
8. PoolA.add(“South Africa”);
9. System.out.println(“PoolA: “ +PoolA);
10. Set<String> PoolB=new
HashSet<String>();
11. PoolB.add(“England”);
12. PoolB.add(“India”);
13. PoolB.add(“New Zealand”);
14. System.out.println(“PoolB: “
+PoolB);
15.
16. PoolA.retainAll(PoolB);
17. System.out.println(“Intersection
Operation PoolA: “ +PoolA);
18. PoolA.addAll(PoolB);
19. System.out.println(“Union Operation
PoolA: “ +PoolA);
20. System.out.println(“Subset
Operation: “
21. +PoolA.containsAll(PoolB));
22. }
23. }
24. /* Output
25. PoolA: [Australia, South Africa,
India]
26. PoolB: [England, New Zealand, India]
27. Intersection Opeartion PoolA:
[India]
28. Union Operation PoolA: [England, New
Zealand, India]
29. Subset Operation: true
30. */
Lines import Set and HashSet defined in the
Nos. java.util package. Line 5 defines a set
1 & 2: of strings called PoolA.
Lines show how to populate the Set PoolA using
Nos. the add method.
6, 7 &
8:
Line demonstrates how we can print the
No. elements to PoolA on the console.
9:
Lines create a new Set PoolB and populate them
Nos. with elements.
11–
15:
Line demonstrates the intersection operation
No. between sets, Line 19 union operations
17: and Lines 21–22 the subset operations.
24.5 Iterators
Iterator allows us to iterate over a collection
such as Set. The iterator interface is defined
in java.util.Iterator. The interface
defines three methods as seen below:
public interface Iterator {
public boolean hasNext();
public object next();
public void remove();
}
The hasNext( ) method returns true is the
iteration has more elements. The next( )
method returns the next element in the
collection and the remove( ) method is
used to remove the last element returned by
the iterator. Example 24.2 demonstrates
usage of an iterator on a Set
Example 24.2: Program to
Demonstrate Usage of Iterator
import java.util.Set;
import java.util.HashSet;
import java.util.Iterator;
public class SetDemo {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Set<String> set=new HashSet<String>
();
set.add(“Gautam”);
set.add(“Ramesh”);
set.add(“Anand”);
System.out.println(“HashSet Output”);
for(Iterator it = set.iterator();
it.hasNext(); ){
System.out.println(“String: “ +
it.next());
}
}
}
/*Output
HashSet Output String: Gautam String:
Ramesh String: Anand */
L shows how to obtain an iterator for the Set using
i the iterator( ) methods. We use the
n hasNext( ) method as the breaking condition
e for the loop as shown in Line 12. To get the value
of the element we use the next( ) method as
N shown in Line 13.
o
.
1
2
:
24.6 List Interface
Important features of List interface are as
follows:
Defined in java.util.List
List extends the Collection Interface and adds a few new
methods
The elements are stored in a linear fashion with a
beginning and an end.
List can contain duplicate elements
Collection framework provides two implementations of
List Interface: ArrayList and LinkedList
Lists have the capability to expand to accommodate the
addition of new elements
Table 24.3 describes the additional methods
defined by the List interface
Table 24.3 Additional methods defined by List Interface
Method Remark
E get(int Returns element at given index
index)
E set(int Replace value at given index with new
index, E element
element)
boolean Adds element at the end of the list
add(E
element)
void Adds element at the given index
add(int
index, E
element)
E Removes element at the given index
remove(in
t index)
int Returns index of object o in the list
indexOf(O
bject o)
int Returns index of last found occurrence of
lastIndex Object o
Of(Object
o)
ListItera List Iterator extends the iterator it has ability
tor<E> to traverse the list in both directions, modify
listItera the list and provide positional information
tor() such as current index
List<E> Returns a view of the list between indices
subList(i from (inclusive) and to (excluded). Changes
nt from, done in the sublist are reflected in the main
int to) list
We demonstrate some of the important
methods of the List Interface and also usage
of the List Iterator in Example 24.3:
Example 24.3: Program to
Demonstrate Usage of List Interface
and List Iterator
1. import java.util.ArrayList;
2. import java.util.LinkedList;
3. import java.util.ListIterator;
4. public class ListDemo {
5. public static void main(String[]
args) {
6. ArrayList<String> AList = new
ArrayList<String>();
7. LinkedList<String> LList = new
LinkedList<String>();
8. AList.add(new String(“Ramesh”));
9. AList.add(new String(“Anand”));
10. AList.add(new String(“Gautam”));
11. System.out.println(“ArrayList: “
+AList);
12. DemoArrayList(AList);
13. LList.add(new String(“Ramesh”));
14. LList.addFirst(new String(“Anand”));
15. LList.addLast(new String(“Gautam”));
16. System.out.println(“LinkedList: “
+LList);
17. System.out.print(”Reversed
LinkedList: ”);
18. ListIterator<String> it =
LList.listIterator(LList.size());
19. while(it.hasPrevious())
20. System.out.println(it.previous());
21. }
22. private static void
DemoArrayList(ArrayList<String> list){
23. String s = new String(”Gautam“);
24. System.out.println(”index: ”
+list.indexOf(s));
25. list.remove(s);
26. System.out.println(”ArrayList: ”
+list);
27. list.set(0, ”Thunder“);
28. System.out.println(”ArrayList: ”
+list);
29. }
30. }
31. /* Output
32. ArrayList: [Ramesh, Anand, Gautam]
33. index: 2
34. ArrayList: [Ramesh, Anand]
35. ArrayList: [Thunder, Anand]
36. LinkedList: [Anand, Ramesh, Gautam]
37. Reversed LinkedList: Gautam Ramesh
Anand
38. */
We instantiate two lists one is of the type
ArrayList(AList) and the other is of the
type LinkedList(LList) in Lines 6 and
7. Both the Lists hold Strings. Lines 9, 10,
and 11 demonstrate how to add elements to
an ArrayList. The function
DemoArrayList( ) further demonstrates
some of the important methods of the List
Interface. Lines 15, 16, and 17 show the
methods that can be used to add elements to
a LinkedList as seen in addition to the
add method LinkedList provides the
addFirst( ) and addLast( ) methods
which enable us to add elements to the
starting and ending of the list easily. Line 21
shows how to create a List iterator and set to
the last element in the list by passing the
LList.size( ) parameter during
instantiation. Lines 22 and 23 show how to
iterate backwards.
24.7 Collection Algorithms
Java platform provides a number of useful
algorithms. The algorithms are implemented
as static methods in the Collections class.
Many of the algorithms can be used only
with Lists while some can be used with all
the Collections. The algorithms are
polymorphic in nature, i.e., the same
method can be used on different
implementations of a Collection interface.
The algorithms can be used by importing the
java.util.Collections class. In
Table 24.4, we list some of the most widely
used algorithms present in the collection
class.
Table 24.4 Collection algorithms description
Algorithm Remark
sort Sorts the input list using an optimized merge sort
algorithm. Worst case time complexity is nlog(n).
bina The binarySearch algorithm searches for a specified
rySe element in a List. The input list must be sorted before
arch using the binaryserach algorithm
shuf Shuffles the order of elements in the list
fle
reve Reverses the order of elements in a List
rse
fill Fills the List with the specified value.
cop Copies elements in a source list to a destination list.
y The size of the destination list must be equal or
greater than the source list.
swa Swaps the elements at the specified positions in a List
p
add Adds all the specified elements to a Collection.
All Generally elements are appended to the end of the
Collection
freq Returns the number of instances of a specified
uen element in a collection
cy
disj Used to determine if two collections have no elements
oint in common
We demonstrate the usage of some the
algorithms in Example 24.4.
Example 24.4: Program to
Demonstrate Usage of Collection
Algorithms
1. import java.util.Collections;
2. import java.util.ArrayList;
3. public class ListAlgorithmDemo {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) {
5. ArrayList<Integer> IList = new
ArrayList<Integer>();
6. ArrayList<String> SList = new
ArrayList<String>();
7. IList.add(new Integer(7));
8. IList.add(new Integer(5));
9. IList.add(new Integer(9));
10. Collections.sort(IList);
11. System.out.println(“Ascending Order:
“ +IList);
12. System.out.println(“Index of Integer
9 in sorted list: “
13. +Collections.binarySearch(IList,
9));
14. Collections.reverse(IList);
15. System.out.println(“Descending
Order: “ +IList);
16. Collections.shuffle(IList);
17. System.out.println(“Shuffled List: “
+IList);
18. System.out.println(“Min: “
+Collections.min(IList));
19. System.out.println(“Max: “
+Collections.max(IList));
20. SList.add(new String(“Ramesh”));
21. SList.add(new String(“Anand”));
22. SList.add(new String(“Gautam”));
23. Collections.sort(SList);
24. System.out.println(“Ascending Order:
“ +SList);
25. }
26. }
27. /* Output
28. Ascending Order: [5, 7, 9]
29. Index of Integer 9 in sorted list: 2
30. Descending Order: [9, 7, 5]
31. Shuffled List: [5, 9, 7]
32. Min: 5
33. Max: 9
34. Ascending Order: [Anand, Gautam,
Ramesh]
35. */
Line create two List objects: one of Integer type
Nos. and the other of String type.
5 & 6:
Lines populate the Integer list.
Nos.
8, 9,
& 10:
Line demonstrates how to apply sort algorithm
No. on Integer list.
12:
Lines demonstrate binarysearch. Please note
Nos. that binarysearch works only on sorted
14 & lists so we call it only after sorting the
15: integer list.
Lines demonstrate usage of shuffle and reverse
Nos. algorithms.
16 &
18:
Lines sort algorithm on string list.
Nos.
23–
28:
24.8 Map Interface
Important features of Map interface are as
follows:
Map is similar to a dictionary.
Each entry in the Map involves a pair of elements called
keys and values. They are collectively referred to as key–
value pairs.
Each key maps to a particular value. For example, the
roll number (key) maps to a name (value) in an
attendance register.
Map cannot contain duplicate keys, but can contain
duplicate values.
The association between key and value is one to one, i.e.,
each key should map to only one value.
Collection framework provides two implementations of
Map Interface: HashMap and TreeMap.
Table 24.5 describes the methods defined in
the Map interface.
Table 24.5 Map Interface description
Method Remark
V put(K Create a new map for key and value
key, V
value)
V Returns the value associated with key
get(Obje
ct key)
V Removes the mapping for key
remove(O
bject
key)
boolean Checks if collection contains a mapping for
contains key
Key(Obje
ct key)
boolean Checks if collection contains a mapping to
contains value
Value(Ob
ject
value)
int Returns the number of key–value pairs
size() present in the collection
boolean Returns true if collection is empty
isEmpty()
void Clears all the mappings in the collection
clear()
Set<K> The method returns a Set which contains all
keySet() the keys in the Map
Collecti The method returns a Collection which
on<V> contains all the values in the Map. The
values() method returns Collection and not a Set as
values can be duplicate whereas Keys are
unique
Set<Map. The method returns a Set which is populated
Entry<K, with Map. Entry objects, key–value pairs can
V>> be obtained simultaneously by using methods
entrySet defined in Map. Entry objects
()
24.9 Collection View of Map
It is not possible to attach an iterator
directly to a Map. So in order to iterate over
a Map, the Map interface provides methods
which allow the Map to be viewed as a
Collection. Example 24.5 demonstrates two
such methods: keySet() and values().
Please note that Map stores only object
references so it is not possible to use
primitive data types like double or int.
Instead we can use wrapper class such as
Integer or Double.
Example 24.5: Program to
Demonstrate Collection View of
Map
1. import java.util.Collection;
2. import java.util.Map;
3. import java.util.HashMap;
4. import java.util.Iterator;
5. import java.util.Set;
6. public class MapDemo{
7. public static void main(String[]
args){
8. Map<Object,String> map=new
HashMap<Object,String>();
9. map.put(new Integer(120400),
“Ramesh”);
10. map.put(new Integer(120401),
“Anand”);
11. map.put(new Integer(120402),
“Gautam”);
12. System.out.println(“Printing Keys:
“);
13. Set s = map.keySet();
14. for(Iterator itr =
s.iterator();itr.hasNext();)
15. System.out.println(itr.next());
16. System.out.println(“Printing Values:
“);
17. Collection c = map.values();
18. for(Iterator itr =
c.iterator();itr.hasNext();)
19. System.out.println(itr.next());
20. }
21. }
22. /* Output
23. Printing Keys: 120401 120400 120402
24. Printing Values: Anand Ramesh Gautam
25. */
Li instantiates a Map object with Keys defined as
ne Objects and Values defined as Strings. The
No Map uses the HashMap implementation.
. 8:
Li populate the Map with an Integer object and
ne String.
No
s.
9,
10,
&
11:
Li demonstrates how to use the keyset( )
ne method to get a Collection view of the keys.
No We use the Set Interface as Set cannot have
. duplicates like keys. Similarly, Line 19 shows
14: how to get a collection view of Values.
Sometimes, we would like to modify the
value associated with a key during iteration.
Map interface provides a method
entrySet() and a nested interface called
Map.Entry to accomplish this. The method
entrySet () returns a collection view of
all the key–value pairs present in the Map.
The nested interface Map.Entry is defined
as follows:
public interface Entry {
K getKey(); V getValue(); V setValue(V
value);}
As seen from the above, the interface
provides methods through which we can
access and modify the Value associated with
a key. Example 24.6 demonstrated how to
use method entrySet() and Map.Entry
to iterate and access values associated with
keys.
Example 24.6: Program to
Demonstrate Collection View of
Map
1. import java.util.Map;
2. import java.util.HashMap;
3. import java.util.Set;
4. import java.util.Iterator;
5. public class MapDemo {
6. public static void main(String[]
args) {
7. Map<Object,String> map=new
HashMap<Object,String>();
8. map.put(new Integer(120400),
“Ramesh”);
9. map.put(new Integer(120401),
“Anand”);
10. map.put(new Integer(120402),
“Gautam”);
11. Set s=map.entrySet();
12. for(Iterator
it=s.iterator();it.hasNext();){
13. Map.Entry m =
(Map.Entry)it.next();
14. int rollno=(Integer)m.getKey();
15. String name=(String)m.getValue();
16. System.out.println(“Roll No:”+
rollno + “ Name:” +name );
17. }
18. }
19. }
20. /* Output
21. Roll No:120401 Name:Anand
22. Roll No:120400 Name:Ramesh
23. Roll No:120402 Name:Gautam
24. */
L creates a Set s that contains all the key–value
i pairs contained in the map. We associate an
n iterator to the Set in Line 13. Line 14
e demonstrates how to create a Map.Entry
object. Lines 15 and 16 show how to get the key
N and value using the Map.Entry methods. The
o for loop used in the program can be simplified
. using a for each loop as follows:
1
2
:
for (Map.Entry< Object, String > e :
map.entrySet()){
System.out.println(“Roll No:”+
e.getKey() + “ Name:” +e.getValue());
}
When using the above for loop line 12 Set
s=map.entrySet() is also not required.
24.10 JDBC Database Connectivity
In order to connect to a database you will
need Drivers. Firstly, as you will be
requesting connection from Java program,
you will need JDBC Manager to act as
interface between Java components such as
Applet or Application and Drivers.
Then to work with databases such as
Oracle, MS Access, and MySQL which are
third party database you will need drivers
such as ODBC (Open Database Connectivity)
which takes calls supplied by JDBC and
converts them into formats suitable for
proprietary databases such as MS Access
and Oracle 10g, etc. This means that
Database and ODBC must be available in
your machine. ODBC is shipped along with
Windows OS. JDBC is a part of JDK which
we have installed. Finally, MySQL also
provides a connector mysql-connector-java-
5.1.3 and mysql-5.1.51-win32.msi. First
download these databases as per your choice
and install them. Paths are to be set by you
in case it has not prompted you during
installation. Procedure for setting path is
provided in Section 16.6.2. Figure 24.4
describes this arrangement. Applet and
application are from client side and
Database is from the server side. The server
side also can reside in the same machine for
testing in which case its called local host.
Figure 24.4 JDBC framework
Type 1: JDBC-ODBC Driver: Receives
JDBC calls and hands over to ODBC driver.
ODBC hands over these calls to
manufacturers to library. This type is most
widely used since ODBC drivers are
available for almost all databases. This
connector is a general connector and
applicable to a wide variety of databases.
Type 2: Same as Type 1 but connector
connects to a specific database. Hence, it is a
specific connector. These are not popular
since they are vendor specific.
Type 3: This is a net-based Data
Connector in which JDBC converts the calls
into middle tier server calls and, based on
the actual server, the middle tier calls are
converted to specific server. Obviously, as
there is an additional conversion, this type is
a slow connector.
Type 4: This is a pure Java driver that
converts to vendor-specific database
directly. It is machine independent since it is
a pure Java product but the disadvantage is
that you will need vendor-specific drivers.
24.11 Access Database Records Using MS
Access Database
MS Access is the most popular and easily
available database available along with MS
office package. Students have easy access to
MS Access and can gain knowledge of the
process involved and easily migrate to
Oracle and MySql. The application we will
select is to create a database with fields
idNum, Name, and Dept and Salary of
Employees. Once the database is created, we
will use Sql query to access the records and
display the result. There are three distinct
phases for retrieving data from MS Access
Database using JDBC-ODBC Bridge. They
are:
Phase 1 : Create the MS Access database File
Phase 2 : Create Data Source Name(DSN)
Phase 3 : Write Java Application to access the MS Access
database
Phase 1: Create MS Access database Table
called oopsemp
Step 0: Start --- MicroSoft Office----
MS Access- create a new file- Blank
Database enter filename to save as
oops.mdb create in The Directory you are
working. For example
c:\oopsjava\workspace\oopstech2\com\oops\ch
ap24
Step 1: Choose option 3 i.e. create table by entering
data
Step 2: Right click on field and select rename column
and change field names to id, name, dept, salary. Then
enter data in the relevant fields
Step 3: File save as oopsemp24.mdb
ok. Click no for entering primary key
Step 4: Create Data Source Navigator DSN for JDBC
ODBC connectivity Start settings control
panel Administrative Tools Data
Sources(ODBC) MS Access DataBases Add
Step 5: Select the database for which we want to create
DSN
Step 6: Enter data Source Name as oopsemp and
description oopstech company employees. Press ok.
Step 7: Select the file form your directory, i.e.,
oops.mdb and press ok
Step 8: The control will return to ODBC Microsoft
Access screen at Step 6. Press ok
Step 9: The control will return to ODBC Data Source
Administrator screen at Step 4 - press ok.
DSN has been created. Now we are ready
for phase 3, i.e., write a Java program.
Phase 3: Write Java Program
We will show the methodology in steps
Step 0: import java.sql.*;
Step 1: Load and register the Driver by using
Class.forName()
Class.forName(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDri
ver”);
Step 2: Establish connection to a database
Connection con =
DriverManager.getConnection
(“jdbc:odbc:oopsemp”,””,””);
oopsemp is the data
source name we have selected while
creating access table. User Name and
Pass word field are empty strings.
Step 3: Create a statement : Statement stmt =
con.createStatement();
Step 4: Execute the statement : ResultSet rs =
stmt.executeQuery (“select * from oopsemp24”);
Step 5: Work on ResultSet
while (( rs.next()))
{
System.out.print(rs.getInt(reccount)+”
“);
System.out.print(rs.getString(reccount+1
)+ “ “);
System.out.print(rs.getString(reccount+2
)+” “);
System.out.println(rs.getFloat(reccount+
3)+” “);
}
In our next example, we will put all the
above steps into practice.
Example 24.7: AccessJDBCODBC.java
A Program to Access Database File
and Display the Fields
1. package com.oops.chap24;
2. import java.sql.*;
3. public class AccessJDBCODBC {
4. public static void main(String[]
args) throws SQLException {
5. int reccount=1;
6. //Register the Driver
7. try{
8.
Class.forName(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDri
ver”);
9. }catch ( Exception e )
{System.out.println(“Unable to load
Driver”);}
10. Connection con =
DriverManager.getConnection(“jdbc:odbc:o
opsemp”,””,””);
11. //create sql statement
12. Statement stmt =
con.createStatement();
13. ResultSet rs =
stmt.executeQuery(“select * from
oopsemp24”);
14. System.out.println(“\nid name
Dept Salary”);
15. while (( rs.next()))
16.
{System.out.print(rs.getInt(reccount)+”
“);
17.
System.out.print(rs.getString(reccount+1
)+ “ “);
18.
System.out.print(rs.getString(reccount+2
)+” “);
19.
System.out.println(rs.getFloat(reccount+
3)+” “);
20. }
21. }
22. }
Output: id name Salary
id name Dept Salary
50595 Ramesh laptops 24000.0
50596 Usha internet 22000.0
50597 Anand automobile 80000.0
50598 gautam cellphones 75000.0
24.12 Access Database Records Using
MySql Open Source Database
The reason for choosing MySql is free and
open source being provided by MySql.com.
For running the JDBC connectivity using
MySql, you will need mysql-5.1.51-
win32.msi and mysql-connector-
java-5.1.13. These are software for
using mysql and connecting to databases
through Java programs. Let us say that you
have installed them in Directory
d:\Directory sql. The path is
automatically set by installer. In this case
also, we would follow a two-step strategy:
Phase 1: Create the mysql database File
Phase 2: Use JDBC connector and Write Java
Application to access the MySql database
Phase 1: Create the mysql database File
Step 1:To create database file : Start
programs- MySql Server 5.1 >MySql command
line client <enter> Enter password mysql
command prompt appears.
mysql> show databases; command shows
databases available
To see what tables are available in
oopsemp2:
mysql> use oopsemp2; Database changed
mysql> show tables;
+--------------------+
| Tables_in_oopsemp2 |
+--------------------+
| oopsemp2 |
| oopsemp3 |
+--------------------+
2 rows in set (0.06 sec)
To create a table called: oopsemp4 :
mysql> create table oopsemp4 ( id
int,name char(10),dept char(10),salary
float);
uery OK, 0 rows affected (0.17 sec)
To verify the field created: mysql> desc
oopsemp4;
+--------+----------+------+-----+------
---+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default |
Extra |
+--------+----------+------+-----+------
---+-------+
| id | int(11) | YES | | NULL | |
| name | char(10) | YES | | NULL | |
| dept | char(10) | YES | | NULL | |
| salary | float | YES | | NULL | |
+--------+----------+------+-----+------
---+-------+
To enter data in to table oopsemp4
mysql> insert into oopsemp4 values
(50595,”Ramesh”,”laptops”,20000.00);
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.09 sec).
Enter further records as required.
To see the records we have just entered:
mysql> select * from oopsemp4;
+-------+------------+---------------+--
--------+
| id | name | dept | salary |
+-------+--------+-------------------+--
--------+
| 50595 | Ramesh | Laptops | 20,000 |
| 50596 | Usha | Internet | 20,000 |
| 50597 | Anand | Automobiles | 80,000 |
| 50597 | Gautam | Cell phones | 80,000
|
+-------+--------+------------+--------+
4 rows in set (0.05 sec)
To set a query: to see id and names of
employees whose salary is more than
20000.00
mysql> select name from oopsemp4 where
salary >20000.00;
+----------+
| name |
+----------+
| Anand |
| Gautam|
+--------+
You have seen that we set queries and got
the answers. Now will write a java program
to connect to database and get the same
answers.
Phase 2: Use JDBC connector and access
the MySql database
Example 24.8: connect.java A
Program to Access MySql Database
File and Display
1. package com.oops.chap24;
2. import java.sql.*;
3. public class Connect{
4. public static void main(String
args[]){
5. try{
6. String userName = “”;
7. String password = “”;
8. String url =
“jdbc:mysql://localhost/oopsemp2”;
//database name
9. Class.forName
(“com.mysql.jdbc.Driver”).newInstance
();
10. Connection
conn=DriverManager.getConnection (url,
userName, password);
11. System.out.println (“Database
connection established”);
12. Statement st =
conn.createStatement();
13. ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery(“select
* from oopsemp3”);// table name
14. System.out.println(“\n output from
table :oopsemp3…”);
15. System.out.print(“------------------
--------\n”);
16. System.out.println(“| Sur Name |
Last Name |”);
17. System.out.println(“----------------
----------”);
18. while(rs.next())
19. {
20. String username=rs.getString(1);
21. String password2=rs.getString(2);
22. System.out.print(“\n| “+username);
23. System.out.print(“ | “+password2);
24. System.out.print(“ | “);
25. } // while
26. System.out.println(“\n--------------
------------”);
27. //Handle oopsemp4 table
28. rs=st.executeQuery(“select id,name
from oopsemp4 where salary>20000.0”);//
table name
29. System.out.println(“\n id & name for
salary>20000.00 from table :oopsemp4…”);
30. System.out.print(“------------------
--------\n”);
31. System.out.println(“|Employee id no
| Name |”);
32. System.out.println(“----------------
----------”);
33. while(rs.next())
34. {int userid=rs.getInt(1);
35. String name =rs.getString(2);
36. System.out.print(“\n| “+userid);
37. System.out.print(“ | “+name);
38. System.out.print(“ | “);
39. } // end of while
40. System.out.println(“\n--------------
------------”);
41. } catch(Exception ex)
{ex.printStackTrace();}
42. } //main
43. } // class
Output : Database connection established
output from table :oopsemp3…
--------------------------
| Sur Name | Last Name |
--------------------------
| ramesh | vasappanavara |
| Usha | vasappanavara |
| Anand | vasappanavara |
| Gautam | vasappanavara |
--------------------------
id & name for salary>20000.00 from table
:oopsemp4…
--------------------------
|Employee id no | Name |
--------------------------
| 50597 | Anand |
| 50597 | Gautam |
--------------------------
24.13 Access Database Records Using
Oracle Database
There are three distinct phases for retrieving
data from Oracle database using JDBC-
ODBC Bridge. They are:
Phase 1: Create the Oracle database File
Phase 2: Create Data Source Name (DSN)
Phase 3: Write Java Application to access the MS Access
database
Phase 1: Create Oracle database file
We are assuming that you have Oracle
installed in your computer system and
SQL>prompt is available. We will show only
in command prompt usage, while web-based
approach is also allowed by Oracle 10 and
later versions. All Oracle databases file in
Oracle 10g and later will have User name:
system and password: oracle. Other older
oracle versions use username: scott and
password: tiger. Get SQL prompt on the
screen.
SQL> connect system; Enter
password:oracle<enter> Connected. SQL>
SQL> select * from cat ; will list
out all tables in system
-------------------------------------
----
PRODUCT_USER_PROFILE SYNONYM
HELP TABLE
OOPSEMP5 TABLE
179 rows selected.
SQL>
SQL> SQL> create table oopsemp6( idNum
int, name varchar2(10),dept
varchar2(10),salary float);
Table created.
OOPSEMP6 TABLE
OOPSEMP5 TABLE
180 rows selected.
SQL> desc oopsemp6; will show the field
in table oopsemp6
Name Null? Type
-------------------------------------
-------------------------
IDNUM NUMBER(38)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY FLOAT(126)
SQL> insert into oopsemp6
values(&idNum,’&name’,’&dept’,&salary);
Enter value for idnum: 50595
Enter value for name: Ramesh
Enter value for dept: laptops
Enter value for salary: 20000.00
old 1: insert into oopsemp6
values(&idNum,’&name’,’&dept’,&salary)
new 1: insert into oopsemp6
values(50595,’Ramesh’,’laptops’,20000.00
)
1 row created.
We can create further records.
SQL > SELECT * FROM OOPSEMP6; will
show you the data we have entered
IDNUM NAME DEPT SALARY
-------------------------------------
---
50595 Ramesh laptops 20000
50596 Usha Internet 22000
Now we are ready to proceed to Phase
2
Phase 2: Create a Data Source Name
(DSN)
Step 1: Create Data Source Navigator DSN for JDBC
ODBC connectivity
Start- settings - control
panel Administrative Tools Data
Sources(ODBC)- Add
Step 2: Select the database for which we want to create
DSN-Press Finish.
Step 3: Enter data Source Name as oopsempdsn and
description oops employees. Description system and Press
ok.
Step 4: The control will return to ODBC Data Source
Administrator screen at Step 1 you can see oopsempdsn1
listed press ok.
DSN has been created. Now we are ready
for phase 3, i.e., write a Java program.
Phase 3: Write Java Application to
access the Oracle database
Example 24.9: AccessOracle.java A
program to Access Oracle Database
1. package com.oops.chap24;
2. import java.sql.*;
3. public class accessoracle{
4. public static void main(String
args[]){
5. try{
6. String userName = “system”;
7. String password = “oracle”;
8. String url = “jdbc:odbc:oopsempdsn”;
//database name
9. Class.forName
(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
10. Connection
conn=DriverManager.getConnection
(url,userName,password);
11. System.out.println (“Database
connection established”);
12. Statement st =
conn.createStatement();
13. //Handle oopsemp5 table
14. ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery(“select
idNo ,name from oopsemp5 where
15. salary>20000.0”);// table name
16. System.out.println(“\n idNo & name
for salary>20000.00 from table
:oopsemp5…”);
17. System.out.print(“------------------
--------\n”);
18. System.out.println(“|Employee id no
| Name |”);
19. System.out.println(“----------------
----------”);
20. while(rs.next())
21. { int userid=rs.getInt(1);
22. String name =rs.getString(2);
23. System.out.print(“\n| “+userid);
24. System.out.print(“ | “+name);
25. System.out.print(“ | “);
26. } // end of while
27. System.out.println(“\n--------------
------------”);
28. } catch(Exception ex)
{ex.printStackTrace();}
29. } //main
30. } // class
Output : Database connection established
idNo & name for salary>20000.00 from
table :oopsemp5…
------------------------------
|Employee id no | Name |
-------------------------------
| 50596 | Usha |
| 50597 | Anand |
| 50599 | Gautam |
-------------------------------
Example 24.10: Inserting Records
into a Database
1. package com.oops.chap24;
2. import java.sql.*;
3. public class InsertDB{
4. public static void main(String
args[]){
5. try{String userName = “system”;
6. String password = “oracle”;
7. String url = “jdbc:odbc:oopsempdsn”;
//database name
8. Class.forName
(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
9. Connection conn =
DriverManager.getConnection (url,
userName, password);
10. System.out.println (“Database
connection established”);
11. Statement st =
conn.createStatement();
12. //Handle oopsemp5 table
13. System.out.println(“\n Inserting a
record in to database”);
14. st.executeUpdate(“insert into
oopsemp5
values(50600,’Prahlad’,’Toys’,40000.00)”
);
15. ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery(“select
idNo ,name from oopsemp5”);// table name
16. System.out.println(“\n idNo & name
from table :oopsemp5…”);
17. System.out.print(“------------------
--------\n”);
18. System.out.println(“|Employee id no
| Name |”);
19. System.out.println(“----------------
----------”);
20. while(rs.next())
21. {int userid=rs.getInt(1);
22. String name =rs.getString(2);
23. System.out.print(“\n| “+userid);
24. System.out.print(“ | “+name);
25. System.out.print(“ | “);
26. } // end of while
27. System.out.println(“\n--------------
------------”);
28. } catch(Exception ex)
{ex.printStackTrace();}
29. } //main
30. } // class
Output : Database connection established
Inserting a record in to database
idNo & name from table :oopsemp5…
--------------------------
|Employee id no | Name |
--------------------------
| 550595 | ramesh |
| 50596 | Usha |
| 50597 | Anand |
| 50599 | Gautam |
| 50600 | Prahlad |
--------------------------
Example 24.11: Updating a Field in
a Records in a Database
package com.oops.chap24;
import java.sql.*;
public class UpdateDB{
public static void main(String args[]){
try{
String userName = “system”;
String password = “oracle”;
String url = “jdbc:odbc:oopsempdsn”;
//database name
Class.forName
(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
Connection conn =
DriverManager.getConnection (url,
userName, password);
System.out.println (“Database connection
established”);
Statement st = conn.createStatement();
//Handle oopsemp5 table
System.out.println(“\n Updating a record
in to database”);
st.executeUpdate(“update oopsemp5 set
salary = 35000 where idNo=50595”);
ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery(“select
idNo ,name, salary from oopsemp5”);//
table name
System.out.println(“\n idNo&name&salary
from table :oopsemp5…”);
System.out.print(“----------------------
------------------\n”);
System.out.println(“|Employee id no |
Name | Salary |”);
System.out.println(“--------------------
------------------”);
while(rs.next())
{int userid=rs.getInt(1);
String name =rs.getString(2);
float sal = rs.getFloat(3);
System.out.print(“\n| “+userid);
System.out.print(“ | “+name);
System.out.print(“ | “+ sal);
} // end of while
System.out.println(“\n------------------
--------”);
} catch(Exception ex)
{ex.printStackTrace();}
} //main
} // class
Output: Database connection established
Updating a record in to database
idNo & name from table :oopsemp5…
----------------------------------------
|Emp idno | Name | Salary |
----------------------------------------
| 50595 | ramesh | 35000.0 |
| 50596 | Usha | 22000.0 |
| 50597 | Anand | 80000.0 |
| 50599 | Gautam | 85000.0 |
| 50600 | Prahlad | 40000.0 |
---------------------------------------
Example 24.12: Deletion Database
Record
package com.oops.chap24;
import java.sql.*;
public class DeleteDB{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try{String userName = “system”;
String password = “oracle”;
String url = “jdbc:odbc:oopsempdsn”;
//database name
Class.forName
(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
Connection conn =
DriverManager.getConnection (url,
userName, password);
System.out.println (“Database connection
established”);
Statement st = conn.createStatement();
//Handle oopsemp5 table
System.out.println(“\n Deleting records
to database”);
st.executeUpdate(“delete oopsemp5 where
idNo=50600”);
} catch(Exception ex)
{ex.printStackTrace();}
}
}
You can use module presented at Ex1 to view
the database records. You can observe that
records with idNo=50600 have been
deleted.
24.14 Prepared Statement and Callable
Statements
We have used Statement Object: Statement
st = conn.createStatement(); where conn is
an object : Connection conn =
DriverManager.getConnection (url,
userName, password);
Finally we have used st :
st.executeUpdate(“delete oopsemp5 where
idNo=50600”);
24.14.1 PreparedStatement
Statement carries out parsing every time
statement gets executed. So far there are no
repetitions of statements. What is if there is
loop in which a statement gets executed
several times thus wasting compiler time.
PreparedStatement, on the other
hand, is a pre-parsed and compiled
statement that needs not be compiled every
time a statement gets executed. Thus, it is
beneficial to use PreparedStatement if
multiple executions are expected.
//Handle oopsemp5 table
PreparedStatement st =
conn.prepareStatement (“update oopsemp5
set salary=? where idNo=?”);
System.out.println(“\n Updating a
record in to database”);
st.setFloat(1,50000.00f); // applies
to first ? mark
st.setInt(2,50595); // applies to
second ?
st.executeUpdate(“update oopsemp5 set
salary = 35000 where idNo=50595”);
Example 24.13: PreparedDB.java A
Program to Show the Usage of
PreparedStatement
1. package com.oops.chap24;
2. import java.sql.*;
3. public class PreparedDB{
4. public static void main(String
args[]){
5. try{
6. a. String userName = “system”;
7. String password = “oracle”;
8. String url = “jdbc:odbc:oopsempdsn”;
//database name
9. Class.forName
(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
10. Connection conn =
DriverManager.getConnection (url,
userName, password);
11. System.out.println (“Database
connection established”);
12. //Handle oopsemp5 table
13. System.out.println(“Updating a
record in to database”);
14. PreparedStatement st =
conn.prepareStatement(“update oopsemp5
set salary = ? where idNo = ?”);
15. st.setFloat(1,50000); // applies to
first ? mark
16. st.setInt(2,50595); // applies to
second ?
17. st.executeUpdate();
18. Statement st1 =
conn.createStatement();
19. ResultSet
rs=st1.executeQuery(“select idNo ,name
,salary from oopsemp5”);// table name
20. System.out.println(“idNo & name &
salary :oopsemp5…”);
21. System.out.print(“------------------
------------------\n”);
22. System.out.println(“|Employee id no
| Name |Salary |”);
23. System.out.println(“----------------
--------------------”);
24. while(rs.next())
25. {
26. int userid=rs.getInt(1);
27. String name =rs.getString(2);
28. float sal = rs.getFloat(3);
29. System.out.print(“\n| “+userid);
30. System.out.print(“ | “+name);
31. System.out.print(“ | “+ sal);
32. } // end of while
33. System.out.println(“\n--------------
------------”);
34. } catch(Exception ex)
{ex.printStackTrace();}
35. } //main
36. } // class
Output: Database connection established
Updating a record in to database
idNo & name & salary from table
:oopsemp5…
----------------------------------------
|Employee id no | Name | Salary |
--------------------------------------
| 50595 | ramesh | 50000.0
| 50596 | Usha | 22000.0
| 50597 | Anand | 80000.0
| 50599 | Gautam | 85000.0
24.14.2 Callable Statements
Callable statements are statements in a Java
program that call a stored procedures and
functions. Stored procedures are a set of
statements executed on database and the
result is sent to calling Java program.
Step 0: We have to create a stored procedure say
sutti.sql. Go to sql prompt and enter
SQL> select * from oopsemp7;
IDNO NAME SALARY
------------------------------
50595 Ramesh 20,000
50596 Usha 22,000
Step 1: Enter at SQL Prompt
SQL> create or replace procedure
sutti( no in int, pay out float) as sal
float;
2 begin
3 select salary into sal from
oopsemp7 where idno=no;
4 pay:=sal+10000;
5 end;
6 / press enter
Procedure created.
SQL>
Alternatively, you can open notebook
anywhere, enter the program, and save it as
sutti.sql. The contents can be :
create or replace procedure sutti1(no in
int, pay out float) as sal float;
begin
select salary into sal from oopsemp5
where idNo=no;
pay := sal + 10000; // observe it is :=
end;
/ // after pasting code in SQL prompt
press enter
Copy the content of file using copy and
paste it on to SQL> prompt line. It will
appear as
SQL> create or replace procedure sutti1
2 (no in int, pay out float) as sal
float;
3 begin
4 select salary into sal from oopsemp5
where idNo=no;
5 pay := sal + 10000;
6 end;
7 /
Press Enter. You will see procedure
created message on the sql prompt
screen. You are ready.
Example 24.14: StoredDB.java A
Program to Show the Usage of
CallableStatement
package com.oops.chap24;
import java.sql.*;
public class StoredDB{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try{String userName = “system”;
String password = “oracle”;
String url = “jdbc:odbc:oopsempdsn”;
//database name
Class.forName
(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
Connection conn =
DriverManager.getConnection (url,
userName, password);
System.out.println (“Database connection
established”);
//Handle oopsemp5 table
System.out.println(“Using a callable
statement”);
CallableStatement st2 =
conn.prepareCall(“{ call sutti(?,?)}”);
st2.setInt(1,50596); // applies to first
? mark
//Register the output as float data type
st2.registerOutParameter(2,Types.FLOAT);
st2.execute();
float incrPay = st2.getFloat(2);
System.out.println(“\n enhanced pay “ +
incrPay);
conn.close();
} catch(Exception ex)
{ex.printStackTrace();}
} //main
} // class
Output : Database connection established
Using a callable statement
enhanced pay 32000.0
How to update fields in a record of
database?
In the above example , the stored procedure
did not update the record; instead it
returned up dated salary to calling
procedure. What should we do in case we
need to update the database. Ex 4 at the end
of the chapter gives the program.
24.15 Servlets
We are aware that applets are dynamic and
that they reside embedded on to web
browser and can extend the functionality of
the web browser across the Internet.
Servlets like applets are small server side
programs that reside on the web servers and
extend the web servers functionality across
the Internet. Hence, the name Servlets. As
an example, consider a server is hosting an
application for centralized inventory control
system for its multi-country multi-location
branches. The company provides
information about Inventory on real time
through web pages to all its branch offices.
The information must reflect the latest
position of the stock in the database.
Servlets offer best possible means to extend
the web server to client and in addition
provide advantages such as platform
independency, ability to interact with
applets, databases and sockets, etc.
What environment we need to put
Servlets to work?
To host a servlet you need a server. The best
server widely used in industry is Tomcat
Apache Server. This software can be
downloaded :Jakarta.apache.org and can be
downloaded to: C:\Program Files\ Apache
Soft Foundation\Tomcat 5.0. To start the
server go to bin directory and click on
C:\Program Files\Apache Software
Foundation\Tomcat 6.0\bin> tomcat6.exe.
You will also be able to start the tomcat
server by using start programs Tomcat6.0-
tomcat6 or by permanently setting tomcat
server to be worked each time you switch on
the system by selecting tomcat6 by running
config command from start run config
Servlet libraries-servlet-api.jar: Note
that Servlets is not part of pure java. Hence,
you need to include servlet-api.jar which is
present c:\Program Files\Apache
Software Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\common\lib\server.jar file as part
of class path. The procedure for doing so is:
start settings controlpanel system
advanced environment variables select
class path from bottom- edit enter the
class path shown above press ok
S Write servlet code ServletWelcome.java in
t the directory called Demo1 and place the
e directory Demo1 C:\Program Files\Apache
p Software Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps. The content of directory Demo1
0 should be as shown in Figure 24.5.
:
Figure 24.5 Where to house Servlet programs?−Organization
Example 24.15: ServletWelcome.java
A program to Show the Usage of
Servlet
1. import java.io.*;
2. import javax.servlet.*;
3. public class ServletWelcome extends
GenericServlet {
4. public void service(ServletRequest
req,ServletResponse res) throws i.
ServletException,IOException{
5. res.setContentType(“text/html”);
6. PrintWriter pw = res.getWriter();
7. pw.println(“<B>Hello Students!
Welcome to Servlet Chapter”);
8. }
9. }
Compile javac ServletWelcome.java
into C:\Program Files\Apache
Software Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps\demo1\WEB-
INF\classes. Note that loading class file
into the specified directory is mandatory for
Tomcat to pick up the class file.
Step 1: Add servlet name and mapping to
web.xml file in the following C:\Program
Files\Apache Software
Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps\demo1\WEB-
INF.Web.xml file can be opened by
notepad or wordpad for editing. Servlets are
embedded onto web.xml file. A typical
web.xml file would look like:
Example 24.16: A typical web.xml
File for ServletDemo Servlet
<?xml version=”1.0” encoding=”ISO-8859-
1”?>
<!DOCTYPE web-app
PUBLIC “-//Sun Microsystems, Inc.//DTD
Web Application 2.3//EN”
“http://java.sun.com/dtd/web-
app_2_3.dtd”>
<web-app>
<servlet>
<servlet-
name>ServletWelcome</servlet-name>
<servlet-
class>ServletWelcome</servlet-class>
</servlet>
<servlet-mapping>
<servlet-
name>ServletWelcome</servlet-name>
<url-pattern>/ServletWelcome</url-
pattern>
</servlet-mapping>
</web-app>
Step 2: Start the tomcat server
Step 3: Send request on web browser
http://localhost:8080/demo1/ServletWelco
me
Output: Hello Students! Welcome to
Servlet Chapter
L imports javax.servlet.* ; a package essential to
i run servlet programs. Make sure you have
n included Servlets-api.jar file in your class
e path.
N
o
.
:
2
L creates a class ServletWelcome as subclass of
i GenericServlet. That provides init(),
n destroy() methods. We will override
e service() method for our own
N implementation. Service() method takes care of
o clients requests by accepting ServletRequest
. object res and gives out ServletResponse object
3 res.
:
L sets the content type to html/text. It is an
i indication that browser to interpret the data in
n html.
e
N
o
.
5
:
L use getWriter() that obtains PrintWriter
i object pw. In Line No. 7, the object pw
n writes the string to web browser to display the
e message.
N
o
s
.
6
&
7
:
24.15.1 Servlets API and javax.servlet
Package
Servelt API contains javax.servlet and
javax.setvlet.http. These are part of
Tomcat wservlet-api.jar and not part
of J2SE 5. javx.servlet package
supplies all the interfaces required for the
implementation and is shown in Table 24.6,
while the important classes in the package
are shown at Table 24.7. Interfaces are
shown in Table 24.8.
Table 24.6 Interfaces provided javax.servlet package
Javax.servlet package interfaces Remarks
Servlet Life cycle methods of servlets included
ServletReque Gets data from the client request
st
ServletRespo Sends data to client request
nse
ServletConfi Initial params are set
g
ServletConte Servlets can log events & can get
xt environment info
Table 24.7 Classes provided javx.servlet package
Javax.servlet package Classes Remarks
GenericServelet Implements servlets * config
interfaces
ServletInputStream InputStreamfor the client
request
ServletOutputStream OutputStream for sending
data
ServletException Servlet error
ServletUnavailableEx Servlet unavailable
ception
Table 24.8 Servlet interface−Methods
Javax.servlet interface Methods Remarks
void Attends request from
service(ServiceRequest client and sends the
req, ServiceResonse res) response
throws Sevlet
Exception,IOException
void init( ServletConfig Initialization params
config) are set
ServletConfig Servlets config
getServletConfig() information &
ServletsContext for
accessing environment
params
String getServletInfo() Returns servlet author
7version
void destroy() Called when servlet is
unloaded
ServletException Servlet error
ServletUnavailableExcepti Servlet unavailable
on
ServletRequest and ServletResponse
interphases shown above receive the request
object from client and prepares response to
be sent. Servlet packages define two types of
abstract classes. One is GenericServlet
belonging to javax.servlet and the other is
HttpServlet belonging to package
javax.servlet.http. In our next example, we
will show a program extending to
GenericServlet. In this example, we would
read the parameter names and values
contained in clients request by copying them
into object enm of Enumeration class of
Javas Utility Package.
Example 24.16: PostParam.java A
Program to Show Extending to
GenericServlet.
1. import java.io.*;
2. import java.util.*;
3. import javax.servlet.*;
4. public class PostParamServlet extends
GenericServlet {
5. public void service(ServletRequest
req , ServletResponse res)
6. throws ServletException,IOException{
7. // print writer
8. PrintWriter pwtr = res.getWriter();
9. Enumeration enm =
req.getParameterNames();
10. // Display Parameter names and
values
11. while( enm.hasMoreElements()){
12. String stg = (String)
enm.nextElement();
13. pwtr.print(stg + “ = “);
14. String pval= req.getParameter(stg);
15. pwtr.println(pval);
16. }
17. pwtr.close();
18. }
19. }
Step1: Compile javac PostParamServlet.java
into C:\Program Files\Apache
Software Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps\demo2\WEB-INF\classes.
Load the html file
PostParamServlet.html also in the same
directory.
Li shows that PostParamServlet extends to
ne GenericServlet class.
N
o.
5:
Li creates a PrintWriter Object pwtr to send
ne data to client
N
o.
9:
Li Enumeration enm =
ne req.getParameterNames(); pushes the
N names and values contained in client message
o. into enumeration object enm. Using Line No.
10 12: while( enm.hasMoreElements()){
:
Li send name and roll number to client through
ne pwtr object
N
os
.
14
&
15
:
HTML File: PostParamServlet
<html>
<body>
<center>
<form name=”Form1”
method =”post”
action
=”http://localhost:8080/demo2/PostParamS
ervlet”>
<table>
<tr>
<td><B>StudentName</td>
<td><input type = textbox
name=”studentname” size=”24” value =””>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><B>RollNumBer</td>
<td><input type=textbox
name=”studentnumber” size=”24” value
=””></td>
</tr>
</table>
<input type=”submit” value = “Submit”>
</body>
</html>
Web.xml: As shown in Example 24.16b
Step 2: Start the Tomcat Server
Step 3: Send request on web browser
http://localhost:8080/demo2/PostParamSer
vlet
OUTPUT from server
studentname = ShraddaPandey
studentnumber = 50596
24.15.2 HttpServletRequest
Out of the two abstract classes, namely,
GenericServlet and HTTPServlet,
HttpServlet provides better interface and
is widely used. The important methods are:
Service() receives ServletRequest and
ServletResponse object that provide access to stream
inputs of type character based or byte based.
Service requests for HttpServlet are get and post. Get
request gets the information from the server and post
sends data to a server such as information from form or
authentication details, etc. HttpServelet defines
doGet() and doPost() methods which are called by
service() method. Interfaces HttpServletrequest
and HttpservletResponse handle doGet() and
DoPost() and organize client server interaction.
Whenever doGet() or doPost() methods
are called, object of HttpServletRequest is
created by the server and passed on to
service() method as an argument. The
service() method executes the service
request and makes the response ready for
dispatch to client. A few of the important
methods supported by HttpServletRequest
interface are shown in Table 24.9.
Table 24.9 HttpServletRequest interface
HttpServletRequest interface Remarks
String getName() Gets the argument sent to servlet
byget or post requests
Enumeration Returns manes of all parameters
getParameterNames
()
String[] Names of all parameters sent to
getParameterValue servlet
s( String names)
Cookie[] Return an array of cookie object
getCookies()
HttpSession Returns current session of the
getSession(boolea client. Helps in unique
n create) identification of the client
24.15.3 HttpServletResponse
The main job of HttpServletResponse is
to prepare the response to be sent to the
client on receipt of HttpServletRequest
Object. The web servers that is executing the
servlet makes an object of
HttpServletResponse and hands it over
to service() method. A few of the
important methods are presented in Table
24.10.
Table 24.10 HttpServletRequest methods interface
HttpServletResponse interface Remarks
ServletOutputStr Gets a Byte-based output stream to
eam be sent to client
getOutputStream(
)
PrintWriter Gets a character-based output
getWriter() stream for sending text data
void Sets Multipurpose Internet Mail
setContentType Extensions (MIME) type. Ex
“text/html”
void Returns an array of cookie object
addCookie(cookie
cookie)
HttpSession Returns current session of the
getSession(boole client. Helps in unique
an create) identification of the client
24.15.4 HttpServlet Class−Get Request with
Data from Client
HttpServlet class provides several
methods to perform tasks of receiving client
request and sending servers response. The
important methods are doGet() and
doPost(). The other methods include
doDelete(), doPut() and, of course,
service() method. These methods all
handle HTTP functions. In our next
example, we will show Http Get Request. In
this model, we present a form for the user to
select his favourite subject by offering
options and a submit button. The action
statement in the html file links the servlet to
be called by the server. Server calls the
prescribed servlet and prepares the response
and sends them to client. The client selects a
preferred subject and submits the choice to
servlet at server. The Http request is
received by the servlet and prepares the
response.
Example 24.18:
SubjectGetServlet.java A Program to
Show Usage of HTTP Get Request
Step 1: Create HTML File:
SubjectGetServlet.html in the Directory
C:\PROGRA~1\APACHE~1\TOMCAT~1.0\
webapps\Demo3\WEB-INF\classes>
1. <html>
2. <body>
3. <center>
4. <form name=”Form1”
5.
action=”http://localhost:8080/Demo3/Subj
ectGetServlet”>
6. <B>Subject:</B>
7. <select name=”subject” size=”1”>
8. <option
value=”Maths”>Mathematics</option>
9. <option
value=”Physics”>Physics</option>
10. <option
value=”Chemistry”>Chemistry</option>
11. </select>
12. <br><br>
13. <input type=submit
value=”Submit”>
14. </form>
15. </body>
16. </html>
DropDown List. User selects any one
subject from options at Line Nos. 7, 8, and 9.
Step 2: Create Servlet program
SubjectGetServlet.java in the directory:
C:\PROGRA~1\APACHE~1\TOMCAT~1.0\
webapps\Demo3\WEB-INF\classes>
1. import java.io.*;
2. import javax.servlet.*;
3. import javax.servlet.http.*;
4. public class SubjectGetServlet
extends HttpServlet {
5. public void doGet(HttpServletRequest
req,HttpServletResponse res)
6. throws ServletException, IOException
{
7. String
subject=req.getParameter(“subject”);
8. res.setContentType(“text/html”);
9. PrintWriter pwtr=res.getWriter();
10. pwtr.println(“<B>The selected
subject is: “);
11. pwtr.println(subject);
12. pwtr.close();
13. }
14. }
L shows SubjectGetServlet extending to
i HttpServlet
n
e
N
o.
4:
L uses doGet() with arguments
i HttpServletRequest req,
n HttpServletResponseres.
e
N
o.
5:
L uses getParameter() method with “subject”
i being passed as argument from html file. The
n program will receive mathematics or physics or
e chemistry as argument.
N
o.
7:
L sets the content as html and Line Nos. 9, 10, 11
i send the response to client
n
e
N
o.
8
:
Step 3: Compile the code:
C:\PROGRA~1\APACHE~1\TOMCAT~1.0\webapps\
Demo3\WEB-INF\classes>javac
SubjectGetServlet.java
Step 4: create web.xml file in the directory: As per
example, 24.16b
Step 5: Start the Tomcat server C:\Program
Files\Apache Software Foundation\Tomcat 6.0\bin
Step 6: Send request on web browser by double clicking
on the html icon
Servlet OUTPUT: The selected
subject is: Mathematics
24.15.5 HTTP Post Requests
We have seen doGet() method by
HttpServlet which is used to get the client
request. In this section, we will study
doPost() method which is used just like
doGet() when fetching input through
Form. Html file SubjectPost.html and
HttpServlet program called
SubjectPostServlet.java. Post request is
identical to Get Request except that Form
method will have “post” specified explicitly.
Example 24.19: Apcode.java A
Program to Show Usage Post
Method in HttpPost Request
The program uses Post method to send
client request and receive response from the
server. The application is a simple coding of
text in which capital letter is added 13 to get
a new character. For example, character ‘A’
will be coded as 65 + 13 =78, i.e., character
‘B’. If the resultant character goes beyond
‘Z’, then 26 is subtracted. These values are
so chosen that characters wrap around when
they overflow beyond ‘Z’. Further, observe
that we would also shape the response using
html document as shown in Apcode.java so
that result is displayed using the same form
format. We have included coding only for
capital letters. There are three distinct files.
One is an html file, Apcode.html, and the
second file is Apcode.java. These files are
created in the directory: C:\Program
Files\Apache Software
Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps\examples\ WEB-
INF\classes
Web.xml file is in Directory:
Files\Apache Software
Foundation\Tomcat 6.0\ webapps\
examples\ WEB-INF
Step 1: Create Apcode.html file in directory
C:\Program Files\Apache Software
Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps\examples\ WEB-
INF\classes
1. <html>
2. <body>
3. <head><title>Apcode Coder</title>
</head>
4. <h1>Apcode Coder</h1>
5. <p>Text to code:
6. <form name=”Form1”
7. method=”post”
8.
action=”http://localhost:8080/examples/A
pcode”>
9. <textarea name=”text” rows=”8”
cols=”55”>
10. </textarea>
11. <p><input type=submit value =
“code”>
12. </form>
13. </body>
14. </html>
Li indicates that we are using post method. The
ne action part of the form specifies that the
N Servlet resource is at examples/web-
o. inf/classes.
7:
Step 2: Create Servlet program Apcode.java
in the directory: C:\Program Files\Apache
Software Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps\examples\ WEB-INF\classes
Apcode.java
1. import java.io.*;
2. import javax.servlet.*;
3. import javax.servlet.http.*;
4. public class Apcode extends
HttpServlet {
5. public void doPost(HttpServletRequest
req, HttpServletResponse res)
6. throws ServletException, IOException
{
7. String text =
req.getParameter(“text”);
8. String translation = translate(text);
9. res.setContentType(“text/html”);
10. ServletOutputStream out =
res.getOutputStream();
11. out.println(“<html>”);
12. out.println(“<body>”);
13. out.println(“<head><title>Apcode
Coder</title></head>”);
14. out.println(“<h1>Apcode
Coder</h1>”);
15. out.println(“<p>Text to code:”);
16. out.println(“<form action=\”Apcode\”
method=\”post\”>”);
17. out.println(“<textarea name=\”text\”
ROWS=8 COLS=55>”);
18. out.println(translation);
19. out.println(“</textarea>”);
20. out.println(“<p><input
type=\”submit\” value=\”code\”>”);
21. out.println(“</form>”);
22. out.println(“</body>”);
23. out.println(“</html>”);
24. }
25. public void doGet(HttpServletRequest
req, HttpServletResponse res)
26. throws ServletException, IOException
{
27. doPost(req, res);
28. }
29. String translate(String input) {
30. StringBuffer output = new
StringBuffer();
31. if (input!= null) {
32. for (int i = 0; i < input.length();
i++) {
33. char inChar = input.charAt(i);
34. if ((inChar >= ‘A’) & (inChar <=
‘Z’)) {
35. inChar += 13;
36. if (inChar > ‘Z’)
37. inChar -= 26;
38. }
39. output.append(inChar);
40. }
41. }
42. return output.toString();
43. }
44. }
Lin specifies that Apcode extends to
e HttpServlet interface.
No.
4:
Lin shows that doPost() method is used to get
e the request of the client and send the
No. response.
5:
Lin shows usage of
e req.getParameter(“text”); to get the
No. client request.
7:
Lin sets the content to text / html type.
e
No.
9:
Lin obtains ServletOutputStream object out
e for sending response to client.
No.
10:
Lin show that we are sending response to client
e using out object and in the same format as
Nos that used by Apcode.html
. 11
to
23:
Lin Shows use of escape character for setting up
e of action part of response
No. out.println(“<form
16: action=\”Apcode\”
method=\”post\”>”);
Lin uses doGet()method and which in turn
e calls doPost() method at Line No. 27
No.
24:
Step 3: Compile the code : C:\Program
Files\Apache Software
Foundation\Tomcat
6.0\webapps\examples\WEB-
INF\classes >javac
SubjectPostServlet.java
Step 4: create web.xml file in the directory:
As per example, at 24.16b
Step 5: Start the Tomcat server from
C:\Program Files\Apache Software
Foundation\Tomcat 6.0\bin
directory.
Step 6: Send request on web browser by
double clicking on the html icon
OUTPUT form Servlet Apcode:
24.16 Java Beans
Java's strong point is its reusability feature
and java beans is a feature available in Java
for providing this feature. Java bean is a
portable, platform-independent component
model to facilitate writing highly reusable
components. For this, we would use Java
Beans API. Once these components are
developed, we can embed them in applets or
applications. Java beans can be visual or
non-visual components. Beans are dynamic
in that they can be changed or customized.
We can use property of beans component to
customize the bean and save the bean using
the bean's persistence property.
Introspection
A Java program can discover the beans property through
a process known as introspection.
A class called Introspector uses core reflection API For
introspection to work; we need to follow certain naming
conventions and some specific rules so that
introspection can identify these properties.
A bean information class implements the BeanInfo
interface. ABeanInfo class explicitly lists those bean
features that are to be exposed to application builder
tools.
Properties are the appearance and behaviour
characteristics of a bean. Beans expose properties so
they can be customized at design time. Properties can be
changed at design time by customizers or property
editors.
Bean events can be used for communication between
bean components. A listener bean receiving information
has to register with source bean.
Persistence enables beans to save and restore their state.
Java Bean API and Important Classes
and Interfaces
Class Introspector provides interface and method such
as getBeanInfo(Class<type> bean) throws
IntrospectionException.
PropertyDescriptor class describes the property of the
bean. It supports methods such as getName().
EventSetDescriptor class describes events
associated with the bean. It supports methods such as
getAddListenerMethod() to get names of all
addlisteners that bean supports.getName() gets you
the name of the event.
MethodDescriptor class gives data about methods and
supports such as Method getMethod().
Normally, several beans are developed by
programmers and the third part by
developers. In order to reuse them in your
applications, you need to know these
properties. Hence, these are provided. We
can summarize the java beans as:
Java beans is like a java class.
Java beans will have properties. In such cases, only the
bean class must have get() and set() methods.
Java beans must be serializable.
As beans are part of server side programming, the bean
need not be a visual component at client side.
Let us attempt our first bean example. In
this example, the instructor welcomes the
class. For this, he calls the beans adds, his
own message, and fires the beans. It is a
traditional welcome students example, used
here to highlight the procedures involved.
For executing beans programs you will need
a good builder toll like NetBeans 6.1, free
downloadable from the net or enterprise
version of eclips that supports beans
components. For our example, we have
chosen NetBeans 6.1. The concept diagram
is shown in Figure 24.6.
Example 24.20:
Welcomebean.java A Java Beans
Example to Demonstrate the Use of
NetBeans and Beans Components
We have to use jsp connection because html
file is not allowed to call any server
components like beans directly. JSP in turn
calls for Bean component registered with
server like WelcomeBean class.
WelcomeBean class is from a normal java
class program.
In an application that does not require
any input from html form from the user, you
can directly start with jsp module and call
class file.
Step 0: install NetBean 6.9 version from
the net on to your system. Choose the
version with full features.
Step 1: Create a new project
File New- javaWeb-- webapplication1
next next- GlashFishServer next-
Finish.
Step 2: Create Welcome.html file
WebApplication1 webpage Rightclick-
new htmlfile enter in name field :Welcome
- finish
1. <html>
2. <body>
3. <form method=post action=Welcome.jsp>
4. <input type=text name=’text1’>
5. <input type=submit>
6. </form>
7. </body>
8. </html>
Line No. 3: html file calls Welcome.jsp.
Output of html
Step 3: Create a jsp file
WebApplication1 webpage Rightclick-
new JSP enter in name field
:Welcome - finish.
Welcome.jsp
1. <%--
2. Document : Welcome
3. Created on : 14 Jan, 2011, 6:28:39
4. Author : Ramesh
5. --%>
6. <%@page contentType=”text/html”
pageEncoding=”UTF-8”%>
7. <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC “-//W3C//DTD
HTML 01 Transitional//EN”
8. “http://www.worg/TR/html4/loose.dtd”>
9. <html>
10. <head>
11. <meta http-equiv=”Content-Type”
content=”text/html; charset= UTF-8”>
12. <title>JSP Page</title>
13. </head>
14. <body>
15. <jsp:useBean id=”Welcomebean”
class=”jchap24beans.Welcombean” />
16. <%
17. String stg =
request.getParameter(“text1”);
18. String addlstg =
Welcomebean.welcomeStudents(s);
19. out.println(addlstg);
20. %>
21. </body>
22. </html>
Lin are NetBeans generated system document
e information.
Nos
. 1–
14:
Lin Enter user bean id as :”Welcomebean”
e class = “jchap24beans.Welcombean”
No. />
15:
Lin uses getParameter(String msg) format
e to obtain the request of the client and stores
No. it in String stg.
17:
Lin attaches additional string to the String object
e addlstg by calling a method
No. welcomeStudents(stg) method of
18: Welcomebean class.
Lin sends out addlstg which is concatenated
e strings comprising clients request +
No. response i.e. Welcome to Java Beans
19: Students!
Step 4: Create Package
WEB-INF new- java package jchap24beans
save
Step 5: create class
Jchap24beans new- java class-
Welcomebean- finish
1. package jchap24beans;
2. public class Welcomebean
3. {
4. public Welcomebean() { }
5. public String WelcomeStudents(String
s)
6. {return “Welcome to Java Beans First
Programme….”+s; }
7. }
Welcome to Java Beans.Students!
Line No. Nil argument constructor
4:
Line No. defines a bean method:
5: WelcomeStudents()
Step 6: Save and compile the files in the
package.
Step 7: Select Welcome.html file --
rightclick- run the file Output on
the browser screen: Welcome to Java Beans
Students!
24.17 Summary
1. J2SE 5.0 has provided a collection framework.
Collection framework is implemented in java.util
package.
2. Collection class provides several interfaces such as
Collection, Map, and Iterator.
3. The Collection Interface is the main interface from
which the List and Set Interfaces are derived. It specifies
the methods that are common to all the Collections.
4. Set is defined in java.util.Set. Set cannot contain
duplicate elements.
5. Iterator allows us to iterate over a collection such as Set.
6. List can contain duplicate elements. It supports
ArrayList and LinkedList.
7. The algorithms are implemented as static methods in
the Collections class.
8. Each entry in the Map involves a pair of elements called
keys and values. They are collectively referred to as key–
value pairs.
9. Map cannot contain duplicate keys, but can contain
duplicate valuesCollection framework providing two
implementations.
10. JDBC Manager acts as interface between Java programs
and database.
11. ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) is provided by
Microsoft Corporation. ODBC is shipped along with
windows OS. JDBC is a part of JDK which we have
installed. It takes calls supplied by JDBC and converts it
into formats suitable for proprietary databases such as
MS Access and Oracle 10g.
12. MySQL also provides a connector mysql-connector-
java-5.1.3 and mysql- 5.1.51-win32.msi.
13. DSN stands for Data Source Navigator. The
programmers need to create a DSN name to facilitate
access to database using ODBC-JDBC Bridge.
14. Oracle database also uses ODBC-JDBC bridge and hence
DSN needs to be created.
15. PreparedStatement is a pre-parsed and compiled
statement that need not be compiled every time
statement gets executed. Thus, it is beneficial to use
PreparedStatement if multiple executions are
expected.
16. Callable statements are statements in a java program
that call stored procedures. Stored procedures are a set
of statements executed on database and results are sent
to calling Java program.
17. Servlets like applets are small server side programs that
reside on the web servers and extend the web servers
functionality across the Internet.
18. Servelt API contains javax.servlet and
javax.setvlet.http. These are part of Tomcat
servlet-api.jar.
19. ServletRequest and ServletResponse interphases
shown above receive the request object from client and
prepares response to be sent.
20. Servlet packages define two types of abstract classes:
One is GenericServlet belonging to
javax.servlet and the other is HttpServlet
belonging to package javax.servlet.http.
21. Java beans is a feature available in java for providing
this feature. Java bean is a portable, platform-
independent component model to facilitate writing
highly reusable components.
22. A Java program can discover the beans property through
a process known as introspection.
23. A bean information class implements the BeanInfo
interface. A BeanInfo class explicitly lists those bean
features that are to be exposed to application builder
tools.
24. Properties are the appearance and behaviour
characteristics of a bean.
25. Bean events can be used for communication between
bean components.
26. Persistence enables beans to save and restore their state.
27. Java beans must be serializable.
Exercise Questions
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
JDBC Connectivity?
1. JDBC-ODBC bridge is required to connect java program to third
party databases like MS Access, Oracle, etc.
2. JDBC-ODBC bridge works for MySql database.
3. JDBC-ODBC Bridge is a type 2 Driver
4. Connectivity classes and interfaces are provided by JDBC API
1. i and ii
2. i and iii
3. i and iv
4. iii and iv
2. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
JDBC Driver types?
1. Type 1 are vendor specific
2. JDBC-ODBC is a type 2 and vendor independent
3. mysql connector is a type 2 and vendor specific
4. type 4 is a pure java driver and connects directly to database
1. i and ii
2. i and iii
3. i and iv
4. iii and iv
3. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
JDBC Driver types?
1. java.sql package contains interfaces and classes for databases
2. Connection Object manages connection between java and database
3. Connection object is used to submit the query
4. Object of statement is used to obtain the result
1. i and ii
2. i and iii
3. i and iv
4. iii and iv
4. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
JDBC statements?
1. If repetitive and multiple execution is involved, statement object is
inefficient.
2. Prepared statement obviates the need to compile every time in a
loop.
3. Callable statement calls procedures and not functions.
4. output by callable statement needs to be registered in order to use
it
1. i and ii
2. i, ii and iv
3. i and iv
4. iii and iv
5. Which of the following methods is used by
HttpResponse interface to dispatch the response to
client.
1. doPost()
2. getWriter()
3. doGet()
4. getResponse()
6. The action parameter in Form attribute specifies
1. Method at server
2. A procedure at server
3. Servlets at server
4. Applet at server
7. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Java Beans?
1. Platform independent
2. Client side components
3. Server side components
4. Uses JSP (java server pages)
1. i, ii and iii
2. i, ii and iv
3. ii, iii and iv
4. i, iii and iv
8. Which of the following statements are true in respect of
Collection Framework of Java?
1. Collection framework has been included in java.lang package
2. Collection framework has been included in java.util package
3. Iterator is an interface provided by Collections class
4. Collection classes are derived from Collection Object which is
derived from Collection class
1. i and ii
2. i and iii
3. i and iv
4. ii, iii and iv
9. Set interface can contain duplicates TRUE/FALSE
Short-answer Questions
10. What is ODBC–JDBC Bridge Driver?
11. Distinguish JDBC net driver and pure java driver.
12. Why are type 3 connectors called slow connectors?
13. What is the role of DSN for JDBC-ODBC Connector?
14. Give Java statement for loading and registering Driver
by using Class.forName().
15. Give Java statement for establishing the connection.
16. Give an example statement to execute a query.
17. Give Java program statement to insert a record into
database.
18. Give java program statement to update a record into
database.
19. Give syntax for PreparedStatement.
20. Give syntax of callable statement.
21. Distinguish the Statement and Prepared Statement.
22. Distinguish a Servlet and an Applet.
23. What are the major interfaces of servlet package?
24. What are added to web.xml regarding a servlet?
25. What are the interfaces provided by javax.servlet
interface?
26. If java bean file is required to be serializable then what
conditions are to be met?
27. What are the features of java beans?
28. What are java beans?
29. What are the features of Set interface?
30. What are Iterators?
31. What are the methods supported by List interface?
32. Explain the Map interface.
Long-answer Questions
33. Explain the JDBC framework. Explain the usage of
various types of database drivers. With explanation,
which type is best suited for which type of database?
34. Explain the procedure for creating a DSN for any
database like MS Access or Oracles.
35. Explain with Java statements the procedures for loading
the Driver, establishing the connection, getting the
result through ResultSet.
36. Explain the java statements for accessing MySql
databases.
37. Explain the JDBC statements required to insert, update,
and delete records from Oracle database.
38. Explain the procedure to use Prepared statement.
39. Explain with suitable examples for using callable
statements.
40. Explain HttpServletRequest and
HttpServletResponse interfaces provided by
javax.servlet.http package.
41. Explain the procedure for obtaining database
connection in respect of servlet.
42. Explain the differences and similarities between java
class file and beans file.
43. What are the requirements for java bean file?
44. Give out the procedure for executing a java bean.
45. Explain the class and interface and methods of
Collection framework of java.
46. What are the important methods supported by
Collection Interface?
47. Explain Algorithms interface provided by Collection
framework.
Assignment Questions
48. Write a JDBC connectivity program to connect to
Students database at server. The client HTML interface
obtains the rollNo from the user and approaches the
server. Server to formulate the result marks sheet
comprising name Roll No, college name and college
code, student name and subject marks.
49. Write a java connectivity program, in which a teacher
updates the attendance particulars of the class. A table
at Server called attendance has the attendance detail
against roll No of the student such as name and dates on
which attendance is being taken. The teacher to be able
to record attendance either by noting only absentees or
by not noting those who are present. The output to be as
per format:
Class Subject Name
subject Code
Teacher Code Teacher Name
Roll No Student Name date1
date2 date3……………………date60
50. Modify the problem at 1 for handling the problem with
the use of HttpServlet Request and Response.
51. Write a program with JDBC Connectivity using Servlet
to obtain the marks in two sessional examinations and
attendance percentage as on particular date. The
program to accept roll no from the client and send back
response in html document.
52. Write a program with servlet connectivity to display
phone book in which client enters the idNo and gets
name, number, class, branch , and cell number, email
number of both students and parents.
53. Write a servlet-based program to facilitate student
registration for a semester. On entering the roll number,
program to validate the eligibility and payment of fees
and then offer subjects both mandatory and optional
and complete the formalities.
54. Write a java beans application in which the user can
enter the data about rollNo, name, semester, and server
to return registration detail. Use java application.
55. Write a Java program to show the usage of search
algorithms provided by Collection framework.
56. Write a program to accept the url from the user. While
sourcing the urls, look for other link web pages listed in
the url. Store these in the stack and visit each url in turn.
Store all the urls visited in a Hash File in the local disk.
On demand from the user, perform hash search and
provide the url from local HashTable.
Solutions to Objective Questions
1. c
2. d
3. a
4. b
5. b
6. c
7. d
8. d
9. False
Appendix A
ASCII Table
First read the row, say row No. 6 and then
the column, say column No. 5, then the
decimal number is 65. From the table
intersection, 6 and 5 shows Hex = 41, Oct
101, and character = A.
Appendix B
Number Systems
Introduction
Decimal System: We use the decimal
system in our daily lives. The allowable
digits in decimal system are:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9. The base is 10. The lowest
number = 0 ; the highest number = 9. The
counting goes 0...99, 100 and so on.
Binary System: The computer uses the
binary system for its internal representation.
The digits allowed are: 0 1. The base is 2.
The lowest number = 0 ; the highest number
= 1. The counting goes: 0 1 10 11 100 101 110
111 1000... The count is shown in Table B.1.
Table B.l Decimal numbers and their binary equivalents
Computer uses two other representations,
namely Octal and Hexa decimal system for
addressing mechanisms, storage and display
the results to users if required.
Octal System: Base is 8. This is
equivalent to 23. Therefore, 3 digits are
required for octal representation. The lowest
number = 0; the highest number = 7. The
counting is shown below in Table B.2.
Table B.2 Octal numbers and their binary equivalents
Hexa decimal System: Base is 16. This is
equivalent to 24. Therefore, 4 digits are
required for Hexa-decimal representation.
The lowest number = 0; the highest number
= 15. The counting is shown below in Table
B.3.
Table B.3 Hexa-decimal numbers and their binary equivalents
Appendix C
Appendix C
NetBeans IDE
Installation
Netbeans 6.9 is an open source and is
available at several locations on the Internet.
One such location is www.netbeans.org.
Down-load and install it on your computer.
Step 1: The first screen that opens on
execution of Netbeans package is as shown
below:
Step 2: File new java java Application
Step 3: Select Project Name, Location and
folder and select Create Main Class and Set
Main Project.
Step 4: Enter the java code in the program
template provided by Netbeans:
Step 5: Select run command from the task
bar:
Acknowledgements
We highly appreciate and express our thanks
to our colleagues at Shree Ganpati Institute
of Technology for assisting us in testing our
solutions. Chiefly, we would like to thank
our colleagues Mr Manish Verma, Mr
Manish Kumar, Ms Swapna, Mr K. Vishal
and Ms Deepika. We are highly indebted to
teachers, both from the past and the present,
for their valuable suggestions and their
painstaking efforts to make this subject
easier for students.
We are thankful to Dr M. N.
Seetaramnath, formerly, Professor,
Computer Science Department, IIT
Kharagpur and Andhra University who has
taught computer science to us and has been
a source of encouragement throughout.
Our special thanks to the Management of
Shree Ganpati Institute of Technology
headed by Shri. Susheel Kasana and Shri. S.
N. Aggarwal for their encouragement during
this project.
We thank the editorial team at Pearson
Education—Sojan Jose, S. Shankari, M. E.
Sethurajan and Jennifer Sargunar. We
highly appreciate the pains they have taken
to bring out this high-quality book.
We express our thanks to V. Usha Ramesh
for being a tower of support to us. We also
thank V. Aparna for her contributions.
Finally, we thank Prahlad Jr. for de-
stressing us with his playful antics.
Ramesh Vasappanavara
Anand Vasappanavara
Gautam Vasappanavara
Copyright © 2011 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any
manner whatsoever without the publisher's prior written
consent.
This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of
the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove
any material in this eBook at any time.
ISBN 9788131754559
ePub ISBN 9789332512030
Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th
Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park,
New Delhi 110 017, India
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