MT1001 Applied Calculus

1 Functions

1.1 Functions and Their Graphs

Instructor: Mukhtar Ullah

1
Functions; Domain and Range
x f f(x) A function 𝑓 from a set 𝐷 to a set 𝑌 is a rule that assigns a
Input Output
(domain) (range) unique value 𝑓(𝑥) in 𝑌 to each 𝑥 in 𝐷 .
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 (equation form)
x 𝑥 ↦ 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 (mapping notation)
f (a) f (x)
a Domain (𝑓) = 𝐷 (natural domain)
D = domain set Y = set containing Range (𝑓) = 𝑓 (𝐷) = {𝑓 (𝑥) ∣ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷}
EXAMPLE 1 Verify the natural domairanfunc-tions. The domains in each case are the
the range
values
EXAMPLE 1 of x for which
Verify the formula
the natural domainsmakes
andsense.
associated ranges of the functions in the table.

Function f Domain (f) Range (f)

y = x2 (-q, q) 3 0, q)
y = 1>x (-q, 0) ∪ (0, q) (-q, 0) ∪ (0, q)
y = 2x 3 0, q) 3 0, q)
y = 24 - x (-q, 44 3 0, q)
2
y = 21 - x 3 -1, 14 3 0, 14

2
EXERCISES 1.1 Find the domain and range of each function.
√ 2
3. 𝐹 (𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 10 6. 𝐺 (𝑡) =
𝑡2 − 16
Graphs of Functions
y

The graph of a function 𝑓 consists of the points in the Cartesian

plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for 𝑓
f(1)
Graph (𝑓) = {(𝑥, 𝑓 (𝑥)) ∣ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷} ⊆ 𝐷 × 𝑌
f(2) No units allowed The coordinates in a Cartesian plane must
x
be pure numbers without (any physical) units.
x
0 1 2 How to remove units? 𝑥 could represent time 𝑡 expressed in
f (x)
min and 𝑦 could represent speed 𝑣 expressed in ft ⁄ min:
(x, y) 𝑡 𝑣
𝑥= , 𝑦=
min ft ⁄ min

3
EXAMPLE 2 Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval [−2, 2].
y
x y = x2
-2 4 (- 2, 4)
4
(2, 4)

-1 1 y = x2
3
0 0 3 9
a2 , 4b
1 1 2

3 9 (- 1, 1) 1 (1, 1)
2 4
x
2 4 -2 -1 0 1 2

How do we know that the graph doesn’t look like one of these curves?
y y

y = x 2? y = x 2?

x x

4
Representing a Function Numerically
EXAMPLE 3 Scatterplot and (approximate) graph of musical notes (pressure waves in the air).
μ
Time (sec) Pressure (μPa) Time (sec) Pressure (μPa)

5
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
No vertical line can intersect the graph of a function more than once. A circle, for example, cannot
be the graph of a function, since some vertical lines intersect the circle twice. The circle, however,
contains the graphs of two functions.
y y y

-1 1
x x x
-1 0 1 -1 0 1 0

(a) x 2 + y 2 = 1 (b) y = "1 - x 2 (c) y = - "1 - x 2

6
EXERCISES 1.1
7. Which of the graphs are graphs of functions, and which are not?
y b. y

• If not a function, what does the graph

of an equation represent?

• Is square root a function? If your

answer is a no, what does the radical
x x
√
0 0
represent?

9. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a function of its side length 𝑥 .
√
12. A point 𝑃 in the first quadrant lies on the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. Express the
coordinates of 𝑃 as functions of the slope of the line joining 𝑃 to the origin.
𝑥+3
21. Find the natural domain of, and graph, the function 𝑦 = √ .
2
4− 𝑥 −9

7
Piecewise-Defined
y
Functions
y = 0x0
y=-x 3 The absolute value function
y=x
2
𝑥 𝑥≥0
1 |𝑥| = {
−𝑥 𝑥 < 0
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y
EXAMPLE 4 The function
y=-x y = f(x)
2 ⎧−𝑥 𝑥 < 0
1
y=1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
⎨
y = x2
x ⎩1 𝑥>1
-2 -1 0 1 2

8
EXAMPLE 5 The greatest integer function, or the integer floor function, is the greatest integer
less than or equal to 𝑥 .
y
y=x
⎧⋮ ⋮
3
⎪
2 ⎪2 2≤𝑥<3
y = :x; ⎪
1 ⎪1 1≤𝑥<2
-2 -1 1 2 3
x ⌊𝑥⌋ = max (−∞, 𝑥] ∩ ℤ = 0 0≤𝑥<1
⎨
⎪−1 −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
⎪
-2 ⎪−2 −2 ≤ 𝑥 < −1
⎪
⋮ ⋮
⎩
Useful observation
⌊𝑥⌋ ≤ 𝑥 < ⌊𝑥⌋ + 1

9
EXAMPLE 6 The least integer function, or the integer ceiling function, is the smallest integer
greater than or equal to 𝑥 .
y

y=x ⎧⋮ ⋮
3
⎪
2 ⎪2 1<𝑥≤2
y = <x= ⎪
1 ⎪1 0<𝑥≤1
x ⌈𝑥⌉ = min [𝑥, ∞) ∩ ℤ = 0 −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 0
-2 -1 1 2 3 ⎨
-1 ⎪−1 −2 < 𝑥 ≤ −1
⎪
-2 ⎪−2 −3 < 𝑥 ≤ −2
⎪
⋮ ⋮
⎩
Useful observation
⌈𝑥⌉ − 1 < 𝑥 ≤ ⌈𝑥⌉

10
EXERCISES 1.1
1−𝑥 0≤𝑥 ≤1
26. Graph the function 𝑔(𝑥) = {
2−𝑥 1<𝑥 ≤2
31. Find a formula for the functions graphed
y b. y
(- 1, 1) (1, 1) 2
1
x
3 x
1
(- 2, - 1) (1, - 1) (3, - 1)

34. What real numbers 𝑥 satisfy the equation ⌈𝑥⌉ = ⌊𝑥⌋?

35. Does ⌈−𝑥⌉ = − ⌊𝑥⌋ hold for all real 𝑥 ? Give reasons for your answer.

11
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Let 𝑓 be a function defined on an interval 𝐼 and let 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 be two distinct points in 𝐼 .

• If 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) > 𝑓 (𝑥1 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , then 𝑓 is said to be increasing on 𝐼 .

• If 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) < 𝑓 (𝑥1 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , then 𝑓 is said to be deccreasing on 𝐼 .

The inequalities in the definitions must be satisfied for every pair of points in 𝐼 .
y EXAMPLE 7 The function graphed in the figure on the left is
y=-x y = f(x) decreasing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on (0, 1). The function
2
is neither increasing nor decreasing on the interval (1, ∞)
y=1
1 because the function is constant on that interval, and hence the
y = x2
strict inequalities in the definition of increasing or decreasing
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 are not satisfied on (1, ∞).

EXERCISES 1.1
39. Graph the function 𝑦 = −1 ⁄ 𝑥 . What symmetries, if any, does the graph have? Specify the
intervals over which the function is increasing and the intervals where it is decreasing.
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Even Functions and Odd Functions: Parity ↔ Symmetry
y
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is an
y = x2 even function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥),
(- x, y) (x, y) odd function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥),
x for every 𝑥 (and obviously −𝑥 ) in the function’s domain.
0
The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
y The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
y = x3 EXAMPLE 8 Here are several functions illustrating the parity.
(x, y)

x 𝑓 Parity(𝑓)
0
𝑥 ↦ 𝑥2 even
(- x, - y)
𝑥 ↦ 𝑥2 + 1 even
𝑥 ↦𝑥 odd
EXERCISES 1.1 𝑥 ↦𝑥+1 undefined
1
53. Say whether the function 𝑔 (𝑥) = is even, odd, or neither. Give reasons for your answer.
𝑥2 − 1
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Common Functions
y 𝑚 and 𝑏 are constants.
m=-3 m=2
y = 2x
Affine Functions
y = - 3x
m=-1 m=1 y
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Linear Functions
y=x
m=
1 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥
y=-x 2 2 y =3
1 2 Identidy Functions
y= x
0 2 1
x
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥
x
0 1 2 Constant Functions
(a) (b) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑏
In a first course of calculus, linear functions also include affine functions.
Two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are
proportional (to one another) if 𝑦 ⁄ 𝑥 is always a constant.
inversely proportional (to one another) if 𝑥𝑦 is always a constant.
Thus, if 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 , the function 𝑓 is linear but the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are proportional.
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 y
y
Common Functions y = 1x y = 12
x
Power Functions 1

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑎 0 1
x
1
Domain: x Z 0 x
where (the exponent) 𝑎 is a constant. Range: y Z 0 0 1
Domain: x Z 0
What is the power in this definition? Range: y 7 0
y y=x y y y y
y = x2 y = x3 y = x4 y = x5

1 1 1 1 1

x x x x x
-1 0 1 -1 0 1 -1 0 1 -1 0 1 -1 0 1
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1

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 Common Functions
𝑛
Let (𝑎𝑖 )𝑖=0 be a sequence of real constants with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0. Note that 𝑛 must be a nonnegative integer.
Polynomials A function 𝑝𝑛 of the form
𝑝𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝑛
is called a degree-𝑛 polynomial with coefficients (𝑎𝑖 )𝑖=1 . Note that Domain (𝑝𝑛 ) = (−∞, ∞).
Special cases: constant functions 𝑝0 , linear functions 𝑝1 , quadratic functions 𝑝2 , cubic functions 𝑝3
3 2
y = x - x - 2x + 1
3 2 3
y
4 y
y y = (x - 2)4(x + 1)3(x - 1)
y= 8x 4 - 14x 3 - 9x 2 + 11x - 1
16
2 2
x
-1 1 2
x -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 x
-1 0 1 2
-6
-2
-8
- 10
- 16
-4 - 12
16
Common Functions
Rational Functions A function 𝑓 of the form
𝑝 (𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥) = , 𝑞 (𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑞 (𝑥)
is called a rational function if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials. Note that Domain (𝑓) = (−∞, ∞)⧵𝑞 −1 (0)
where 𝑞 −1 (0) is the set of all solutions of 𝑞 (𝑥) = 0.
y
y 8
y 2 y = 11x3 + 2
4 y = 5x +2 8x - 3 6 2x - 1
3x + 2
2
2
4
y = 2x - 3 2 Line y = 5
7x + 4 1 3 2

x x x
-4 -2 2 4 -5 0 5 10 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-1 -2
-2
-4
-2
NOT TO SCALE
-4 -6

-8

17
Common Functions
Algebraic Functions are constructed from polynomials using a finite number of algebraic
operations, namely

addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation to rational powers

Exponentiation to irrational powers, however, is not permissible in algebraic functions.

Formally, a function 𝑓 is algebraic if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) satisfies a polynomial equation of the form
𝑝 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.
y y = x 1>3(x - 4)
y y = x(1 - x)2>5
4 y = 3 (x 2 - 1) 2>3
4
3 y
2 1
1
x x x
-1 4 -1 0 1 0 5 1
-1 7
-2 -1
-3

18
Common Functions
Trigonometric Functions also called circular functions, include the two graphed functions,
(co)sine, their reciprocals, (co)secant, and their ratios, (co)tangent.
y y

1 p 1 3p 5p
3p - 2 2 2
x x
-p 0 p 2p 0 p
-1 -1 2

(a) f(x) = sin x (b) f (x) = cos x

y y
Exponential Functions y = 10 x y = 10 -x
12 12
exp𝑎 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥
10 10
with base 𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0 and
8 8
𝑎 ≠ 1. Note that
( ) 6 y = 3 -x 6
Domain exp𝑎 = (−∞, ∞) y = 3x
( ) 4 4
Range exp𝑎 = (0, ∞) 2 2
y = 2x y = 2 -x
More on this in Section 7.3. x x
- 1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1 - 1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1
(a) (b)
19
Common Functions
y y = log 2 x
Logarithmic Functions y = log 3 x
log𝑎 (𝑥) = exp−1
𝑎 (𝑥) , 𝑥 > 0 1
with base 𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1. Just as log𝑎 = exp−1
𝑎 , we
−1 x
have that exp𝑎 = log𝑎 . 0 1
y = log5 x
( )
Domain log𝑎 = (0, ∞) -1 y = log10 x
( )
Range log𝑎 = (−∞, ∞)
y
More on this in Section 7.2.
Transcendental Functions
Classified as non-algebraic, these functions include trigonometric,
inverse trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic and many other
functions such as catenory.
More on this in Section 7.7.
1

x
-1 0 1
20