electronics

Article
Robust Predictive Control Scheme for Permanent-Magnet
Synchronous Generators Based Modern Wind Turbines
Mohamed Abdelrahem 1,2, * , Christoph Hackl 3 and Ralph Kennel 2

1 Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, Assiut 71516, Egypt
2 Institute for Electrical Drive Systems and Power Electronics (EAL), Technische Universität München (TUM),
80333 Munich, Germany; [email protected]
3 Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Munich University of Applied Sciences,
80335 München, Germany; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract: In this article, a deadbeat predictive control (DB-PC) strategy for permanent-magnet
synchronous generators (PMSGs)-based modern wind turbines is proposed. The main advantages of
the DB-PC technique are its excellent dynamics and its constant switching frequency. However, the
main idea of DB-PC is obtaining the actuation voltage for the next sample from the mathematical
model of the generator. Therefore, the DB-PC is highly sensitive to mismatches in the parameters
of the PMSG. In order to obviate this problem, a disturbance estimator (extended Kalman filter
(EKF)) is employed in this work to enhance the robustness of the proposed DB-PC scheme by





 estimating the total disturbance due to parameter mismatches and adding it to the calculation of the
actuation voltage. Furthermore, the same EKF observe the rotor speed and position of the PMSG, i.e.,
Citation: Abdelrahem, M.; Hackl, C.;
mechanical sensors are not required. Moreover, the EKF is able to reduce the harmonic distortion
Kennel, R. Robust Predictive Control
Scheme for Permanent-Magnet
in the stator currents of the PMSG. The proposed DB-PC strategy is implemented in the laboratory.
Synchronous Generators Based The experimental results proved the superiority of the proposed DB-PC strategy over the traditional
Modern Wind Turbines. Electronics DB-PC technique.
2021, 10, 1596. https://doi.org/
10.3390/electronics10131596 Keywords: predictive control; permanent-magnet synchronous generator; constant switching
frequency; disturbance estimator; robustness
Academic Editors: Emilio
Gomez-Lazaro, Andres
Honrubia-Escribano and
Giampaolo Buticchi 1. Introduction
Currently, the whole world is facing the problem of global warming. The high emission
Received: 28 May 2021
Accepted: 30 June 2021
of carbon-dioxide CO2 is one of the reasons for this phenomena. Therefore, the generation
Published: 2 July 2021
of electricity by burning fossil fuels must be stopped. The alternative solution is the use
of clean and renewable energy systems, such as wind energy, photovoltaic arrays, wave
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
energy, etc. In fact, the installation of wind turbines has remarkably increased in most of the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
countries around the world [1–4]. The first version of wind turbines was of a fixed-speed
published maps and institutional affil- with an induction generator. However, due to its disadvantages, such as lower efficiency,
iations. need for reactive power, and higher sensitivity to voltage dips or faults in the grid, modern
wind turbines are variable-speed ones [5–7].
In the current wind market, two generators are the most used: the doubly-fed induc-
tion generator (DFIG) and the permanent-magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) [1–3]. In
the DFIG topology, a reduced-scale of the back-to-back (BtB) power electronics converter is
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
utilized, which reduces the cost of the wind generation system. However, the variation of
This article is an open access article
the shaft speed is limited to ±30% around the synchronous speed [8]. Furthermore, the
distributed under the terms and stator of this DFIG is tied directly to the point of common coupling (i.e., the grid). Accord-
conditions of the Creative Commons ingly, the wind generation system with DFIG is sensitive to abnormal conditions in the grid.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// In the PMSG topology, the stator terminals are interfaced with the grid, using a full-scale
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ BtB power electronics converter [9], i.e., the cost of the BtB converter is higher than in the
4.0/). case of DFIGs. However, due to this decoupling between the generator terminals and grid,

Electronics 2021, 10, 1596. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10131596 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 2 of 19

the wind generation system with PMSG offers better fault ride through (FRT) capability
than the DFIGs. Furthermore, the range of shaft speed variations is bigger than in the case
of DFIGs. Finally, the PMSG is directly coupled to the wind turbine, i.e., no gear-box is
required, like in case of the DFIG.
Usually, the field-oriented control (FOC) with proportional-integrators (PIs) is used
to control the PMSG-based modern wind turbines [10]. The PI controllers produce good
steady-state and transient response. However, the selection of the PI parameters is not
an easy task. Furthermore, in the case of achieving quick dynamic performance with
the PI controllers, very high overshoot is produced. Therefore, the researchers proposed
several other control techniques for electrical machines, such as sliding-mode, fuzzy logic,
predictive control, etc.
In the last few years, predictive control techniques have been widely applied for power
electronics circuits, electrical machines, micro-grids, and others. The well-known strategies
of the predictive control are as follows: continuous-set predictive control (CS-PC) [11,12],
finite-set predictive control (FS-PC) [13,14], and deadbeat predictive control (DB-PC) [15,16].
The CS-PC is characterized by its constant switching frequency, non-linearity, ability to
include constraints, etc. However, due to the very high calculation burden, part of the
CS-PC algorithm is implemented offline, which is not preferred for power electronics
circuits and electrical machines. The algorithm of the FS-PC can be completely online
implemented due to the use of only the discrete states of the power converter. Furthermore,
constraints and non-linearities can be considered in the design of the FS-PC. However, the
steady-state response of the FS-PC is not good, due to the application of only one voltage
vector per sample. Furthermore, the switching frequency of the FS-PC is variable.
The DB-PC is featured by its fixed switching frequency, due to the use of a modulator
to generate the switching signals of the power converter. Moreover, its steady-state and
dynamic performance are excellent. The basic idea of the DB-PC is calculation of the refer-
ence voltage vector from the machine model and the reference variables [15,16]. Therefore,
it is sensitive to any mismatches in the model parameters of the machine under control.
To cope with this problem, online observation of the machine’s parameters improves the
robustness of the DB-PC. In [17], an extended Kalman filter (EKF) is employed to estimate
the stator inductance of the PMSG. However, the stator resistance and permanent-magnet
flux linkage are assumed to be constants, which is not true in practice. In [18], the model
reference adaptive system (MRAS) observer is utilized to estimate the model inductance of
an active front end (AFE) rectifier. However, the model resistance is defined as a constant.
Online and offline estimation methods for the stator resistance, stator inductance and rotor
flux linkage of an IPM motor are proposed in [19]. However, offline methods are not
preferred for electrical drive systems. In [20], a new method is proposed to estimate the
stator resistance and inductance of a PMSM. However, the permanent-magnet flux linkage
is considered to be a constant. In [21], a novel online inductance estimation method is
proposed for grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) inverters. However, the model resistance is
not estimated.
In the above online estimation methods, the effects of any un-modeled dynamics
or non-linearities are always neglected. Therefore, the other solution to improve the ro-
bustness of the DB-PC technique is observing the total disturbance caused by parameter
variations and including this total disturbance in the controller design. In [22], the time-
delay control approach is employed to estimate the total disturbance for PMSGs. The
robustness of the used DB-PC in this work (i.e., [22]) is significantly improved in compari-
son with the classical DB-PC. However, low-pass filters (LPFs) to filter the signals of the
total disturbances before sending them to the controller are required. LPFs change the
amplitude and phase of the original signals. In [23], a sliding mode observer is presented
for observing those total disturbances. However, the chattering phenomena of the sliding
mode observer is the main problem. An interval-varying multi-innovation least squares
algorithm is presented in [24]. However, the complexity of the whole control scheme is
increased. In [25,26], a new compensation method to avoid the effect of parameter varia-
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 3 of 19

tions on the DB-PC is presented. This method is based on adding integral part to the main
controller. However, selection of the integrator gain is not an easy task.
Normally, the control system of the PMSG is implemented in the rotating-reference
frame dq. Therefore, measurement of the rotor position and speed is essential [27]. Me-
chanical sensors, such as incremental encoders or speed transducers, can do this job.
However, the failure rate of these mechanical sensors is significantly higher than the elec-
trical ones [28]. Therefore, in the case of failure, the whole control of the PMSG does not
work, i.e., no active and reactive power can be injected by this unit, which might affect
the grid. Accordingly, estimation of the rotor speed and position of the PMSG is highly
required to enhance the reliability of the whole system [27,28].
In this paper, a robust deadbeat predictive control (DB-PC) for permanent-magnet
synchronous generators (PMSGs) without mechanical sensors is proposed. The DB-PC
algorithm computes the actuation voltage based on the mathematical model of the PMSG
and reference variables. Therefore, any variations in the parameters of the PMSG will
highly deteriorate the performance of the controller. Hence, an extended Kalman filter
(EKF) is designed in this work to compensate for the effect of parameters mismatches
and any other disturbances by estimating the total disturbance and including it in the
calculation of the actuation voltage. Moreover, the same EKF is employed to estimate
the rotor position and speed of the PMSG, which enhances the reliability of the proposed
DB-PC technique. Furthermore, EKF is able to reduce the harmonic distortion in the stator
currents of the PMSG, which reduces the ripples in the torque. Finally, experimental results
are given to prove the feasibility of the proposed controller.
This paper is organized as follows: the mathematical models of the variable-speed
wind turbine and PMSG are derived in Section 2. The traditional DB-PC technique is
explained in Section 3, while the proposed DB-PC is detailed in Section 4. The experimental
results and discussion are given in Section 5, and finally, the conclusion is given in Section 6.

2. Modeling of the Wind Turbine and PMSG

The structure of the variable-speed modern wind energy conversion system with
PMSG is illustrated in Figure 1. It can be observed that the wind turbine and the PMSG are
directly coupled without the use of a gearbox. Therefore, the output voltage and frequency
from the PMSG are not constant. Hence, a full-scale back-to-back power converter (B2B-PC)
is essential to tie the system with the grid. The B2B-PC consists of a machine-side converter
(MSC), DC-Link, and grid-side converter (GSC). The focus of this work is the control of
the MSC. Therefore, only the model of the wind turbine and the PMSG are explained in
this work.

i abc Lf
isabc MSC DC-link GSC f R
f uoabc
vw Shaft Im Ig
PMSG Cdc udc
Wind
Wind Turbine usabc u abc
f Filter
abc abc Grid
s
m s f

Figure 1. Structure of modern wind turbines with permanent-magnet synchronous generator.

2.1. Modeling of the Wind Turbine

The main job of the wind turbine is to convert wind energy to mechanical energy,
which can be calculated by the following [29]:

1
pt = c p ρπrt2 v3w , (1)
2
where ρ is the density of the air, rt is wind turbine radius, c p is the power coefficient, and
vw is the wind speed.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 4 of 19

The power coefficient c p can be expressed as follows [30]:

  −21
116 λi
cp = 0.5176 − 0.4β − 5 + 0.0068λ
λi
1 1 0.035
:= − 3 . (2)
λi λ + 0.08β β +1

In (2), β is the pitch angle and λ is the tip speed ration and can be expressed as follows:
ωm rt
λ= (3)
vw

Normally, the wind turbine operates in four regions based on the speed of the
wind [29]; see Figure 2. Those four regions are as follows:
• Region I: In this region, the speed of the wind is lower than the cut-in value vw < vw,cut−in
of the wind turbine. Accordingly, the wind turbine does not work in this region and the
generated power is zero (i.e., pt = 0).
• Region II: In this zone, the velocity of the wind is higher than the cut-in value
vw,cut−in and lower than the rated wind speed vw,rated , i.e., vw,cut−in < vw < vw,rated .
Subsequently, the wind turbine works in this region. Furthermore, an algorithm is
utilized to produce the maximum power from the wind turbine by operating at the
optimal tip speed ratio λ? . Accordingly, the power coefficient has its maximum value
c?p and β = 0, see Figure 3. In this conditions, the generated power can be written
as follows:
1
p?t := c?p ρπrt2 v3w . (4)
2
Based on Equation (3), p?t can be expressed as follows:
 ? 3
1 ? 2 ωm rt
p?t := c p ρπrt . (5)
2 λ?

Subsequently, the optimum mechanical torque is written as follows:

p?t 1 c?p
Tm? = ?
= k?p (ωm
? 2
) , k?p := ρπrt5 ? 3 (6)
ωm 2 (λ )

The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is realized by the nonlinear speed con-
troller as follows:
Te? = −k?p ωm
2
, (7)
which force the mechanical angular speed ωm of the rotor to achieve the following
!
condition ωvmwrt = λ? . This method is called optimal torque control (OTC).
• Region III: In this zone, the wind speed is higher than the rated value vw,rated and
lower than the cut-out wind speed vw,cut−out of the wind turbine. Therefore, in this
region, the wind turbine generates the rated power pt,rated and torque Te,rated . This is
achieved by increasing the pitch angle β.
• Region IV: In this zone, the velocity of the wind is higher than the cut-out value
vw > vw,cut−out . Increasing the pitch angle is not effective in limiting the output power.
Accordingly, the turbine is shut down and no power is generated (i.e., pt = 0).
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 5 of 19

pt [W]
I II III IV
pt ,rated
vw MPPT Constant vw
too low region torque region too high

pt ,min
vw,cut −in vw,rated vw,cut−out vw [m/s]

Figure 2. Regions of operation for modern variable-speed wind turbines.

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Figure 3. Curve of the power coefficient c p at β = 0.

2.2. Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

Usually, a surface-mounted PMSG is employed in wind generation systems, where
the permanent magnets are placed on the rotor surface separated by non-ferrite materials
between two adjacent magnets [31]. The permeability of the magnets is almost the same as
that of the non-ferrite materials. Accordingly, the effective air gap between the rotor and
stator is uniform. Based on this fact, the d- and q-axis inductance are approximately equal
q
(i.e., Lds = Ls =: Ls no anisotropy). Therefore, the stator voltage of the PMSG in the abc
reference frame can be written as follows [7]:

d a
usa = Rs isa + ψ ,
dt s
d
ubs = Rs isb + ψsb , (8)
dt
d
us = Rs is + ψsc ,
c c
dt
where
d a d
ψs = Ls isa + esa ,
dt dt
d b d
ψ = Ls isb + esb , (9)
dt s dt
d c d
ψ = Ls isc + esc .
dt s dt
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 6 of 19

In the above equations, usa , ubs , and ucs are the stator voltages of the PMSG. The stator
currents are isa , isb , and isc . ψsa , ψsb and ψsc are the stator fluxes of the PMSG. The back
electro-motive forces are esa , esb , and esc . Rs and Ls are the stator resistance and inductance,
respectively.
By the help of Clarke transformation [7], the stator voltages of the PMSG are written
in the stationary reference frame as follows:

d α
uαs = Rs isα + ψ , (10)
dt s
β β d β
us = Rs is + ψs .
dt
Subsequently, using Park transformation, the stator voltages of the PMSG are written
in the rotating reference frame as follows:

d d q
uds = Rs isd + ψ − ωr ψs ,
dt s
q q d q
us = Rs is + ψs + ωr ψsd . (11)
dt
The PMSG flux in the dq frame can be expressed as follows:
q q
ψsd = Ls isd + ψ p , ψs = Ls is . (12)

The dynamics of the mechanics of the wind turbine system are given by the following:
 
dωm 1
= Tm − Te , (13)
dt Θ

where
q
Te (t) = 23 n p ψ p is (14)
is the electro-magnetic machine torque and Tm is the mechanical torque. Θ is the rotor
inertia and n p is the pole pair number.
Inserting Equation (12) into Equation (11) gives the following:

d d q
uds = Rs isd + Ls i − ωr L s i s ,
dt s
q q d q
us = Rs is + Ls is + ωr Ls isd + ωr ψ p . (15)
dt
In order to design the DB-PC, the discrete-time model is essential. Hence, by using
the forward Euler method, the discrete-time model is written as follows:

isd [k + 1] − isd [k ] q
uds [k] = Rs isd [k] + Ls − ωr [ k ] L s i s [ k ],
Ts
q q
q q i [ k + 1] − i s [ k ]
us [k ] = Rs is [k ] + Ls s + ωr [k] Ls isd [k] + ωr [k]ψ p . (16)
Ts

In (16), Ts is the sampling time and the current sample is k.

3. Traditional Deadbeat Predictive Control

In the above model of the PMSG, the values of Rs , Ls , and ψ p are taken from the
data-sheet of the machine, or measured in the laboratory. However, due to the change in
operation conditions, frequency, temperature, etc., the values of those parameters vary. In
the traditional deadbeat predictive control (DB-PC), the effect of variations of the PMSG
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 7 of 19

parameters is neglected. Based on the principles of DB-PC and taking the one sample delay
into consideration, the actuation voltage of the next sample is computed as follows [7]:
d d
is,re f [ k + 2] − i s [ k + 1] q
uds,re f [k + 1] = Rs isd [k + 1] + Ls − ωr [ k + 1 ] L s i s [ k + 1 ], (17)
Ts
q q
q q
is,re f [k + 2] − is [k + 1]
us,re f [k + 1] = R s i s [ k + 1] + L s + ωr [k + 1] Ls isd [k + 1] + ωr ψ p .
Ts
q
In (17), the currents isd [k + 1] and is [k + 1] are obtained from (16) as follows:

Ts Rs d q Ts
isd [k + 1] = (1 − )i [k] + Ts ωr [k]is [k] + uds [k],
Ls s Ls
q Ts Rs q q Ts q
i s [ k + 1] = (1 − )is [k] − Ts ωr [k]is [k] − Ts ωr [k]ψ p + us [k]. (18)
Ls Ls

It can be observed from Equations (17) and (18) that the calculation of the reference
voltage is highly dependent on the parameters of the PMSG. Subsequently, the traditional
DB-PC is not a robust controller. The block-diagram of the traditional DB-PC is illustrated
in Figure 4.

udc
udc
Rs Ls ψp φr [k]
isd, ref [k + 2] usd,ref [k +1]
Conventional dq
DB-PC SVM
isq,ref [k + 2] usq,ref [k +1]
Method αβ

isq[k + 1] isd [k +1]

isd [k]
dq isa
Delay
compensation isq[k] abc
isb
isc
ωr [k] φr [k]
PMSG

Figure 4. Traditional deadbeat predictive control technique for PMSGs.

The reference q-axis current is obtained from the optimum torque Te? (see (7)) by
q
using Equation (14), i.e., is,re f [k] = 3n p2ψ p Te? [k ]. The reference value of the d-axis current
q
is set to zero to achieve the maximum torque per ampere, i.e., is,re f [k] = 0. Subsequently,
by the help of Lagrange extrapolation, the reference currents in the sample k + 2 can be
computed as follows:
d d d d
is,re f [ k + 2] = 3is,re f [ k ] − 3is,re f [ k − 1] + is,re f [ k − 2],
q q q q
is,re f [k + 2] = 3is,re f [k] − 3is,re f [k − 1] + is,re f [k − 2]. (19)

4. Proposed Deadbeat Predictive Control

Based on the fact that the parameters of the PMSG are varying, Equation (16) can be
rewritten as follows:

isd [k + 1] − isd [k] q

uds [k ] = ( Rs + ∆Rs )isd [k] + ( Ls + ∆Ls ) − ωr [k]( Ls + ∆Ls )is [k] + εds [k],
Ts
q q
q q i s [ k + 1] − i s [ k ] q
us [k] = ( Rs + ∆Rs )is [k] + ( Ls + ∆Ls ) + ωr [k]( Ls + ∆Ls )isd [k] + ωr [k](ψ p + ∆ψ p ) + ε s [k], (20)
Ts
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 8 of 19

where ∆Rs , ∆Ls , and ∆ψ p represent the variation in the parameters of the PMSG. εds and
q
ε s represent any un-modeled dynamics or uncertainties. Equation (20) can be written
as follows:

isd [k + 1] − isd [k] q

uds [k] = Rs isd [k ] + Ls − ωr [k] Ls is [k] + $ds ,
Ts
q q
q q i [ k + 1] − i s [ k ] q
us [k ] = Rs is [k ] + Ls s + ωr [k] Ls isd [k] + ωr [k]ψ p + $s , (21)
Ts

where

isd [k + 1] − isd [k] q

$ds = ∆Rs isd [k] + ∆Ls − ωr [k]∆Ls is [k] + εds ,
Ts
q q
q q i [ k + 1] − i s [ k ] q
$s = ∆Rs is [k] + ∆Ls s + ωr [k]∆Ls isd [k] + ωr [k]∆ψ p + ε s , (22)
Ts
q
The values of $ds and $s are unknown and must be estimated.
In the proposed DB-PC scheme, the effect of variations of the PMSG parameters is
considered in the calculation of the reference voltage for the next sample. Accordingly, the
reference voltage is computed as follows:
d d
is,re f [ k + 2] − îs [ k + 1] q
uds,re f [k + 1] = Rs îsd [k + 1] + Ls − ω̂r [k + 1] Ls îs [k + 1] + $̂ds , (23)
Ts
q q
q q
is,re f [k + 2] − îs [k + 1] q
us,re f [k + 1] = Rs îs [k + 1] + Ls + ω̂r [k + 1] Ls îsd [k + 1] + ω̂r ψ p + $̂s .
Ts

In Equation (23), $̂ds and $̂ds are added to the reference voltage calculation to compensate
for parameter mismatches of the PMSG. Those values are estimated by the help of an
q
extended Kalman filter (EKF). Furthermore, îsd [k + 1], îs [k + 1], ω̂r [k + 1], and φ̂r [k + 1] are
also estimated by the same EKF.Accordingly, the proposed DB-PC is robust to mismatches
in the parameters of the PMSG. Furthermore, due to the filtering capability of the EKF,
the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the stator currents using the proposed DB-PC
technique is lower than the THD of the stator currents in the case of using the traditional
DB-PC method.
The EKF is implemented with the help of the following state-space model.

d
x = g ( x, u), and y = h ( x ). (24)
dt
In Equation (24), x is the state vector, y is the output vector, and u is the input vector.
These vectors are defined as follows:
 >
x = isα , isβ , ωr , φr , $αs $sβ
 >
y = isα , isβ (25)
 >
u = uαs , usβ .
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 9 of 19

In Equation (24), g ( x, u) and h( x) can be defined as follows:

− RL s isα + rL pm sin(φr ) +
 ω ψ 1 α

Ls us − $s
α
 Rss β ωr ψspm 1 β β
− L is − L cos(φr ) + Ls us − $s 

 s s

g ( x, u) = 
 0 
 (26)

 ω r


 0 
0

and  
1 0 0 0 0 0
h( x) = x. (27)
0 1 0 0 0 0
| {z }
=:C
It is essential to express this model in the discrete-time model as follows:

=: f ( x[k],u[k])
z }| {
x[k + 1] = x[k] + Ts g ( x[k], u[k]) +w[k],
y[k] = h( x[k]) + v[k]. (28)

In Equation (28), the variables w[k] and v[k] are included to consider the uncertainties
in the model of the PMSG and the noise in the measured vector. To simplify the design of
the EKF, the covariance matrices are considered to be constants, i.e.,

Q = E { w [ k ] w [ k ] > }, R = E { v [ k ] v [ k ] > }. (29)

The estimation of the state vector by the EKF is realized by the following:


x̂[k + 1] = f ( x̂[k], u[k]) + K [k] y[k] − ŷ[k] ,
ŷ[k] = h( x̂[k]) = C x̂[k ]. (30)

In Equation (30), K is the Kalman gain. The flowchart of the EKF is illustrated in
Figure 5 and the block diagram of the proposed DB-PC technique is depicted in Figure 6.
Note: In Equation (26), the variations of the machine parameters and un-modeled
d α d β
dynamics are assume very slow. Therefore, dt $s and dt $s are zero, which is the accepted
assumption [32–34]. Furthermore, due to the fact that the mechanical time constant is very
d
long in comparison to the sampling time, it is accepted to assume dt ωr = 0 [35].
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 10 of 19

start

Prediction of the state

xˆ − [ k + 1] = f ( xˆ[ k ], u[ k ])

Prediction of error covariance matrix

P − [ k ] = A[ k ]P[ k − 1] A[ k ]T + Q
∂f ( x , u )
A[ k ] =
∂x xˆ − [ k +1]

Calculation of Kalman gain

K[k ] = P−[k ]CT (CP−[k ]CT + R)−1

Correction of the estimation with measurment

xˆ[ k + 1] = xˆ − [ k + 1] + K [ k ]( y[k ] − h ( xˆ[k ]))

Update of the error covariance matrix

P [ k ] = P − [ k ] − K [ k ]CP − [ k ]

end
Figure 5. Flow chart of the extended Kalman filter.

udc
udc
Rs Ls ψp
d
i
s, ref [k + 2] usd,ref [k +1]
Proposed dq
DB-PC SVM
isq,ref [k + 2] usq,ref [k +1]
Method αβ
ωˆr [k +1] iˆsd [k +1] iˆs [k +1]
q
φˆr [k +1]
iˆs [k +1]
α isα [k]
dq αβ
isa
αβ iˆsβ [k +1] EKF
isβ[k] abc
isb
isc
φˆr [k +1] ωˆr [k +1]

PMSG
Wind
Turbine

Figure 6. Proposed deadbeat predictive control technique for PMSGs.

5. Results and Discussion

In order to validate the proposed DB-PC technique, the test bench depicted in Figure 7
is constructed in the laboratory. The list of parameters for the PMSG under test is given
in Table 1. In reality, the stator of the PMSG is connected to the grid via a two-level
back-to-back power converter as illustrated in Figure 1. However, due to limitations in the
hardware components, the schematic diagram of the constructed test bench for PMSG is
illustrated in Figure 8. The setup consists of a 14.5 kW PMSG, driven by a two-level power
converter (machine-side converter (MSC)), which is connected to the grid via a three-phase
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 11 of 19

diode rectifier. The DC-link contains a chopper circuit to dissipate the generated power
from the PMSG. The maximum power that can be dissipated in this chopper circuit is
10 kW. Therefore, the generated power in the following operation conditions is lower than
10 kW.

Table 1. Parameters of the PMSG under test.

Name Symbol Value

Nominal power pn 14.5 kW
Nominal stator line–line voltage us,n 400 V
DC-link voltage udc 560 V
Nominal mechanical angular speed ωm,n 209 rad/s
Stator resistance Rs 0.15 Ω
Stator inductance Ls 3.4 mH
Permanent-magnet flux linkage ψp 0.3753 Wb
Pole pairs np 3

Due to the fact that there is no wind turbine emulator available in the laboratory, a
reluctance synchronous machine (RSM) is used for this purpose. The RSM is driven by
another two-level power converter called a wind-turbine emulator side converter (WTE-
SC). A dSPACE DS1007 real-time platform with Control Desk and MATLAB/Simulink is
utilized for implementing the proposed DB-PC with EKF for the PMSG. For comparison
purpose, an incremental encoder with 2048 pulses per revolution (ppr) is used to measure
the rotor position of the PMSG, which is fed to dSPACE using a DS3002 incremental encoder
board. Three current sensors and one voltage sensor are used to measure the stator currents
of the PMSG and the DC-link voltage, respectively. The measured currents and voltage are
available in dSPACE via a DS2004 analog-to-digital converter (A/D) board. The power
converters are controlled by dSPACE through a DS5101 pulse-width-modulation board.

Figure 7. Test bench utilized to validate the proposed DB-PC strategy.

Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 12 of 19

Grid

MSC

C B A A B C

WTE-SC
Interface board
A: Current sensors D MSC WTE-SC
D
B: Voltage sensor RSM PMSG controller controller
C: Protector dSPACE DS1007 R&D controller
D: Encoder Measurement board

Figure 8. Schematic diagram of the laboratory setup for the PMSG.

In real wind turbines, the torque and speed change at the same time. Therefore, the
RSM is employed to control the rotor speed, and the PMSG controls the torque, where
the reference torque is computed as a function in the speed, i.e., Te? [k] = −0.0061ωm 2 [k]
? ?
(i.e., k p = 0.0061). k p is selected based on the rated torque of the RSM.
As illustrated in Figure 2, the wind turbine does not work when the wind speed
is lower than the cut-in value. Therefore, zero speed and extremely low speeds do not
belong to the operation speeds of the PMSG. In this work, the operation speed range of the
mechanical speed ωm = ωr /n p is selected from 8 rad/s to 100 rad/s. Furthermore, in the
large modern wind turbines in the range of MW, the switching frequency is low to limit
the switching losses in the power electronics devices. Therefore, in order to be close to the
reality, the switching frequency is selected 4 kHz in this work.
The estimation performance of the suggested EKF at step change in the rotor speed is
depicted in Figure 9. The reference mechanical speed for the RSM is stepped from 8 rad/s to
58 rad/s, i.e., the electrical angular speed ωr = n p ωm of the PMSG is changed from 24 rad/s
to 174 rad/s. Accordingly, the reference torque of the PMSG Te? = −0.0061ωm 2 is changed

from Te? = −0.0061 × 82 = −0.3904 N m to Te? = −0.0061 × 582 = −20.52 N m at the

same time. It can be seen from Figure 9 that the estimation performance of the proposed
β
EKF is very good. The steady-state estimation errors of the stator currents (isα , is ) and
the rotor speed and position (ωr , φr ) are almost zero at low and high speeds (i.e., 8 rad/s
and 58 rad/s). Furthermore, the dynamic estimation error is very small and converge
quickly to zero. Therefore, by the help of the designed EKF, control of the PMSG is possible
without using incremental encoders or speed transducers.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 13 of 19

18
9
0
-9
-18

18
9
0
-9
-18

200

100

0
1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.35 2.4

Figure 9. Estimation performance of the proposed EKF at change of the rotor speed: (a) Measured and estimated α-axis
current, (b) measured and estimated β-axis current, (c) measured and estimated electrical angular speed of the rotor, and (d)
measured and estimated electrical position of the rotor.

Another advantage of the proposed EKF is its ability to filter the harmonics in the
measured stator currents. The mechanical speed ωm of the rotor is set to 15 rad/s by
the RSM. Accordingly, the reference torque of the PMSG Te? = −0.0061ωm 2 is set to
? 2
Te = −0.0061 × 15 = −1.3725 N m. The values of the speed and torque are selected
to be low to give the worst case of harmonic distortion. In Figure 10, the measured and
estimated α-axis stator current of the PMSG is illustrated. According to Figure 10, the
EKF shows good ability in filtering the harmonics in the stator currents of the PMSG. The
total harmonic distortion (THD) of the measured current is 10.18%, while the THD of the
estimated current by the EKF is 6.32%. Accordingly, the torque ripples using the proposed
DB-PC technique are lower than the ripples in the case of using the traditional DB-PC.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 14 of 19

(a) Actual current, THD=10.18%

1.5

-1.5

(b) Estimated current, THD=6.32%

1.5

-1.5
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

Figure 10. α-axis stator current of the PMSG: (a) measured, and (b) estimated.

The responses of the suggested DB-PC technique and the traditional one under mis-
matches in the stator inductance of the PMSG are illustrated in Figure 11. Firstly, for both
the proposed DB-PC and classical one, the parameters used in the software models are the
measured ones; see the time-range from 3.6 s to 4 s in Figure 11. Although the measured
parameters are used in this time-range (i.e., from 3.6 s to 4 s), one can observe that the actual
q
currents isd and is deviate from their reference values, using the traditional DB-PC. The
absolute values of the steady-state errors (AV-SSEs) in the d- and q-axis currents, using the
traditional DB-PC, are 1.06 A and 0.12 A, respectively. This experimental results confirm
that the measured parameters vary all the time, due to variations of temperature, frequency,
q
etc. In contrast to the traditional DB-PC, the currents isd and is perfectly follow the reference
d q
values using the proposed DB-PC, due to the inclusion of $̂s and $̂s in the calculation of the
reference voltage as explained in Section 4. The AV-SSEs in the d- and q-axis currents using
the proposed DB-PC are zero. Secondly, at the time instant t = 4 s, the value of the stator
inductance of the PMSG is reduced to 60% of its measured value in the software models of
the proposed DB-PC and classical one. Based on Figure 11, the deviations of the currents isd
q
and is from their reference values are increased using the traditional DB-PC method, and
the AV-SSEs in the d- and q-axis currents are increased to 1.75 A and 0.16 A, respectively.
Furthermore, the ripples in the current waveforms are also increased, particularly in the
q-axis current. This is not the case when using the proposed DB-PC technique for which the
q
currents isd and is still track the reference values with very good accuracy, and the AV-SSEs
in the d- and q-axis currents are still zero. Additionally, the increase in the ripples is very
q
small in comparison with the traditional DB-PC. In Figure 11, the estimated $̂ds and $̂s by
the EKF are also given.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 15 of 19

Traditional DB-PC
0

-10

-11
Traditional DB-PC
-12
1

0
Proposed DB-PC
-1

-10

-11
Proposed DB-PC
-12
0

-8

-16
3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Figure 11. Experimental results of the proposed DB-PC and traditional one at mismatches in the stator inductance Ls of the
PMSG: (a) actual and reference d-axis currents, (b) actual and reference q-axis currents, (c) observed and reference d-axis
currents, (d) observed and reference q-axis currents, and (e) observed total disturbance for d and q axes.

The robustness of the proposed DB-PC and traditional one is also investigated un-
der variation of the permanent-magnet flux linkage ψ p , see Figure 12. The value of the
permanent-magnet flux linkage ψ p is increased by 20% compared to the measured value
(i.e., 1.2ψ p ) in the software model. It is clear that the traditional DB-PC is highly sensitive
to variations of the permanent-magnet flux linkage for which a large deviation between
q
the currents isd and is and their reference values is seen. The AV-SSEs in the d- and q-axis
currents using the traditional DB-PC are 1.72 A and 2.15 A, respectively. This deviation is
q
zero in the case of using the proposed DB-PC technique, where the currents isd and is follow
the reference values with excellent accuracy, i.e., the AV-SSEs in the d- and q-axis currents
are still zero.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 16 of 19

Traditional DB-PC
0

-16

Traditional DB-PC
-22

0
Proposed DB-PC
-1
-16
Proposed DB-PC

-22

-10

-20

-30
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6

Figure 12. Experimental results of the proposed DB-PC and traditional one at mismatches in the permanent-magnet flux
linkage ψ p : (a) actual and reference d-axis currents, (b) actual and reference q-axis currents, (c) observed and reference d-axis
currents, (d) observed and reference q-axis currents, and (e) observed total disturbance for d and q axes.

Finally, the performance of the proposed/traditional DB-PC is tested under change

of the rotor speed and torque at the same time, which represents change of the wind
speed in reality. In Figure 13, the mechanical rotational speed of the rotor is changed
from 16 rad/s to 81 rad/s at the time instant t = 4 s. Accordingly, the reference torque
of the PMSG Te? = −0.0061ωm 2 is changed from T ? = −0.0061 × 162 ≈ −1.6 N m to
e
? 2
Te = −0.0061 × 81 ≈ −40 N m. It can be seen that the proposed DB-PC demonstrates
better performance than the traditional DB-PC. After changing the speed/torque, the AV-
SSEs for the d- and q-axis currents using the proposed DB-PC are zero, while the AV-SSEs
for the d- and q-axis currents using the traditional DB-PC are 1.8 A and 0.28 A, respectively.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 17 of 19

2
1
0

0
-10
-20

2
1
0

0
-10
-20

10
0
-10
-20
-30
3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

Figure 13. Experimental results of the proposed DB-PC and traditional one with change of the torque and speed at the
same time: (a) actual and reference d-axis currents, (b) actual and reference q-axis currents, (c) observed and reference d-axis
currents, (d) observed and reference q-axis currents, and (e) observed total disturbance for d and q axes.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, a deadbeat predictive control (DB-PC) technique for permanent-magnet
synchronous generators (PMSGs) in variable-speed wind turbines is proposed. To enhance
the robustness of the suggested DB-PC scheme, an extended Kalman filter (EKF) was
designed to estimate the total disturbance caused by variations of the PMSG parameters.
Then, this total disturbance was included in design of the DB-PC strategy. Furthermore,
the designed EKF estimates the rotor speed and position of the PMSG, i.e., no incremental
encoders are required and the reliability of the drive system is improved. The suggested DB-
PC technique and the traditional one were implemented in the laboratory. The experimental
results proved that the proposed DB-PC technique with EKF is robust to mismatches in
the PMSG parameters, while the traditional DB-PC is highly sensitive. Furthermore, the
estimation of the rotor speed and position by the EKF is accurate. Finally, the EKF is able to
filter the stator current waveforms of the PMSG and reduce the total harmonic distortion
in comparison with the traditional DB-PC.

Author Contributions: The design and implementation of the proposed control technique was
achieved by M.A. The writing of the whole manuscript and drawing of the figures were also realized
by M.A. The test-bench used to implement the proposed control strategy was provided by C.H. The
review of the manuscript was achieved by C.H. and R.K. The guidance and suggestions during
this work were provided by R.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 18 of 19

References
1. Bimal K. Bose, Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems and Smart Grid: Technology and Applications; Wiley-IEEE Press:
Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2019.
2. Shourangiz-Haghighi, A.; Diazd, M.; Zhang, Y.; Li, J.; Yuan, Y.; Faraji, R.; Ding, L.; Guerrero, J.M. Developing More Efficient Wind
Turbines: A Survey of Control Challenges and Opportunities. IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag. 2020, 14, 53–64.
3. Ahmed, S.D.; Al-Ismail, F.S.M.; Shafiullah, M.; Al-Sulaiman, F.A.; El-Amin, I.M. Grid Integration Challenges of Wind Energy: A
Review. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 10857–10878.
4. Tang, X.; Hu, Y.; Chen, Z.; You, G. Flexibility Evaluation Method of Power Systems with High Proportion Renewable Energy
Based on Typical Operation Scenarios. Electronics 2020, 9, 627.
5. Orlando, N.A.; Liserre, M.; Mastromauro, R.A.; Dell’Aquila, A. A Survey of Control Issues in PMSG-Based Small Wind-Turbine
Systems. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2013, 9, 1211–1221.
6. Mahmoud, M.S.; Oyedeji, M.O. Adaptive and predictive control strategies for wind turbine systems: A survey. IEEE/CAA J.
Autom. Sin. 2019, 6, 364–378.
7. Abdelrahem, M. Predictive Control and Finite-Set Observers for Variable-Speed Wind Generators. Ph.D. Thesis, Technische
Universität München, Munich, Germany, 2020. Available online: https://mediatum.ub.tum.de/1520001 ( accessed on 10 May
2021).
8. Abdelrahem, M.; Hackl, C.M.; Kennel, R. Limited-Position Set Model-Reference Adaptive Observer for Control of DFIGs without
Mechanical Sensors. Machines 2020, 8, 72.
9. Abdelrahem, M.; Hackl, C.M.; Rodríguez, J.; Kennel, R. Model Reference Adaptive System with Finite-Set for Encoderless Control
of PMSGs in Micro-Grid Systems. Energies 2020, 13, 4844.
10. Chinchilla, M.; Arnaltes, S.; Burgos, J. Control of permanent-magnet generators applied to variable-speed wind-energy systems
connected to the grid. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2006, 21, 130–135.
11. Vafaie, M.H. Performance Improvement of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motor Through a New Online Predictive Controller.
IIEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2019, 34, 2258–2266.
12. Hammoud, I.; Xu, K.; Hentzelt, S.; Oehlschlaegel, T.; Kennel, R. On Offset-Free Continuous Model Predictive Current Control of
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors. IFAC-PapersOnLine 2020, 53, 6662–6669.
13. Vazquez, S.; Rodriguez, J.; Rivera, M.; Franquelo, L.G.; Norambuena, M. Model Predictive Control for Power Converters and
Drives: Advances and Trends. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2017, 64, 935–947.
14. Valencia, D.F.; Tarvirdilu-Asl, R.; Garcia, C.; Rodriguez, J.; Emadi, A. Vision, Challenges, and Future Trends of Model Predictive
Control in Switched Reluctance Motor Drives. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 69926–69937.
15. Morel,F.; Lin-shi, X.F.; Retif, J.M. A comparative study of predictive current control schemes for a permanent magnet synchronous
machine drive. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2009, 56, 2715–2728.
16. Alexandrou, A.D.; Adamopoulos, N.K.; Kladas, A.G. Development of a Constant Switching Frequency Deadbeat Predictive
Control Technique for Field-Oriented Synchronous Permanent-Magnet Motor Drive. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2016, 63, 5167–5175.
17. Abdelrahem, M.; Hackl, C.; Kennel, R. Simplified Model Predictive Current Control without Mechanical Sensors for Variable-
Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Electr. Eng. J. 2017, 99, 367–377.
18. Mehreganfar, M.; Saeedinia, M.H.; Davari, S.A.; Garcia, C.; Rodriguez, J. Sensorless Predictive Control of AFE Rectifier With
Robust Adaptive Inductance Estimation. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2019, 15, 3420–3431.
19. Cheng, L.-J.; Tsai, M.-C. Enhanced Model Predictive Direct Torque Control Applied to IPM Motor with Online Parameter
Adaptation. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 42185–42199.
20. Yao, Y.; Huang, Y.; Peng, F.; Dong, J.; Zhang, H. An Improved Deadbeat Predictive Current Control with Online Parameter
Identification for Surface-Mounted PMSMs. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2019, 67, 10145–10155.
21. Hammoud, I.; Morsy, K.; Abdelrahem, M.; Kennel, R. Efficient model predictive power control with online inductance estimation
for photovoltaic inverters. Electr. Eng. 2020, 102, 549–562.
22. Abdelrahem, M.; Hackl, C.; Zhang, Z.; Kennel, R. Robust Predictive Control for Direct-Driven Surface-Mounted Permanent-
Magnet Synchronous Generators Without Mechanical Sensors. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2018, 33, 179–189.
23. Zhang, X.; Hou, B.; Mei, Y. Deadbeat Predictive Current Control of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors with Stator Current
and Disturbance Observer. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2017, 32, 3818–3834.
24. Tang, P.; Dai, Y.; Li, Z. Unified Predictive Current Control of PMSMs with Parameter Uncertainty. Electronics 2019, 8, 1534.
25. Abdelrahem, M.; Hackl, C.M.; Kennel, R.; Rodriguez, J. Efficient Direct Model Predictive Control with Discrete Time Integral
Action for PMSGs. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2019, 34, 1063–1072.
26. Zhu, Y.; Tao, B.; Xiao, M.; Yang, G.; Zhang, X.; Lu, K. Luenberger Position Observer Based on Deadbeat-Current Predictive
Control for Sensorless PMSM. Electronics 2020, 9, 1325.
27. Abdelrahem, M.; Hackl, C.; Kennel, R. Finite Position Set-Phase Locked Loop for Sensorless Control of Direct-Driven Permanent-
Magnet Synchronous Generators. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2018, 33, 3097–3105.
28. Wang, G.; Valla, M.I.; Solsona, J.A. Position Sensorless Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine Drives—A Review. IEEE Trans.
Ind. Electron. 2020, 67, 5830–5842.
29. Wu, B.; Lang, Y.; Zargari, N.; Kouro, S. Power Conversion and Control of Wind Energy Systems; Wiley-IEEE Press: Hoboken, NJ,
USA, 2011.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1596 19 of 19

30. Heier, S. Grid Integration of Wind Energy Conversion Systems; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1998.
31. Boldea, I. Variable Speed Generators; Taylor and Francis Group, LLC: Abingdon, UK, 2006.
32. Li, X.; Kennel, R. General Formulation of Kalman-Filter-Based Online Parameter Identification Methods for VSI-Fed PMSM.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2021, 68, 2856–2864.
33. Boileau, T.; Leboeuf, N.; Nahid-Mobarakeh, B.; Meibody-Tabar, F. Online Identification of PMSM Parameters: Parameter
Identifiability and Estimator Comparative Study. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2011, 47, 1944–1957.
34. Nalakath, S.; Preindl, M.; Emadi, A. Online multi-parameter estimation of interior permanent magnet motor drives with finite
control set model predictive control. IET Electr. Power Appl. 2017, 11, 944–951.
35. Bolognani, S.; Tubiana, L.; Zigliotto, M. Extended Kalman filter tuning in sensorless PMSM drives. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.
2003, 39, 1741–1747.