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Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor
Networks in IoT Domains 1st Edition Sanjeev J. Wagh
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Sanjeev J. Wagh, Manisha Sunil Bhende, Anuradha D. Thakare
ISBN(s): 9781032305592, 1032305592
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 17.97 MB
Year: 2022
Language: english
 ENERGY OPTIMIZATION
PROTOCOL DESIGN FOR
SENSOR NETWORKS IN IOT
DOMAINS
Sanjeev J. Wagh, Manisha Sunil Bhende
and Anuradha D. Thakare
 ENERGY OPTIMIZATION
PROTOCOL DESIGN FOR
SENSOR NETWORKS IN IOT
DOMAINS
This book provides an essential overview of Internet of things (IoT), energy-
efficient topology control protocols, motivation, and challenges for topology control
for wireless sensor networks, and the scope of the research in the domain of IoT.
Further, it discusses the different design issues of topology control and energy
models for IoT applications, and different types of simulators with their advantages
and disadvantages. It also discusses extensive simulation results and comparative
analysis for various algorithms. The key point of this book is to present a solution to
minimize energy and extend the lifetime of IoT networks using optimization
methods to improve the performance.

Features:

• Describes various facets necessary for energy optimization in IoT domain.

• Covers all aspects to achieve energy optimization using the latest tech-
nologies and algorithms, in wireless sensor networks.
• Presents various IoT and topology control methods and protocols, various
network models, and model simulations using MATLAB®.
• Reviews methods and results of optimization with Simulation Hardware
architecture leading to prolonged life of IoT networks.
• First time introduces bio-inspired algorithms in the IoT domain for per-
formance optimization.

This book aims at graduate students, researchers in information technology,

computer science and engineering, electronics and communication engineering.
 ENERGY
OPTIMIZATION
PROTOCOL DESIGN FOR
SENSOR NETWORKS IN
IOT DOMAINS
Sanjeev J. Wagh, Manisha Sunil Bhende, and
Anuradha D. Thakare
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The
MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s
use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute
endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or
particular use of the MATLAB® software.

First edition published 2023

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 Sanjeev J. Wagh, Manisha Sunil Bhende and Anuradha D. Thakare
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author
and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

A catalog record for this title has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-032-30559-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-31611-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-31054-9 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003310549

Typeset in Times
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Author’s Biography ................................................................................................xiii
Abbreviations...........................................................................................................xv

Chapter 1 Introduction and Background Study ...................................................1

1.1 IoT and WSN............................................................................1
1.1.1 Overview of WSN....................................................... 1
1.1.2 How Does WSN Works? ............................................ 2
1.1.3 Security Issues in WSN .............................................. 7
1.2 IoT and Sensor Network Applications ....................................8
1.2.1 Wide Space Applications ............................................ 8
1.2.2 Small Space Application............................................. 9
1.3 OSI and IoT Layer Stack .........................................................9
1.3.1 Physical or Sensor Layer .......................................... 10
1.3.2 Processing and Control Layer................................... 10
1.3.3 Hardware Interface Layer ......................................... 11
1.3.4 RF Layer.................................................................... 11
1.3.5 Session/Message Layer ............................................. 11
1.3.6 User Experience Layer.............................................. 11
1.3.7 Application Layer...................................................... 11
1.4 Protocols in WSN and IoT..................................................... 11
1.4.1 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy
Networks.................................................................... 12
1.4.2 Cognitive RPL........................................................... 12
1.4.3 Lightweight On-Demand AD hoc Distance
Vector Routing – Next Generation (LOADNG)........ 12
1.4.4 Collection Tree Protocol ........................................... 13
1.4.5 Channel-Aware Routing Protocol............................. 13
1.4.6 E-CARP ..................................................................... 14
1.5 Energy Consumption and Network Topology ....................... 14
1.6 Challenges for Energy Consumption in IoT Networks.........14
1.6.1 Energy Consumption................................................. 15
1.6.2 Combination of IoT with Subsystems ...................... 15
1.6.3 User Privacy .............................................................. 15
1.6.4 Safety Challenge........................................................ 15
1.6.5 IoT Standards ............................................................ 16
1.6.6 Architecture Design................................................... 16
1.7 Summary .................................................................................16
References..........................................................................................17

v
vi Contents

Chapter 2 IoT and Topology Control: Methods and Protocol..........................19

2.1 Sensor Network Topologies ...................................................19
2.1.1 Star Network (Single Point-to-Multipoint)............... 19
2.1.2 Mesh Network Topology .......................................... 20
2.1.3 Hybrid-Star-Mesh Network Topology...................... 20
2.2 IoT and Topology Control Methods ......................................21
2.2.1 Powder Adjustment Approach .................................. 23
2.2.2 Powder Mode Approach ........................................... 26
2.2.3 Clustering Approach.................................................. 31
2.2.4 Hybrid Approach....................................................... 36
2.3 Comparative Analysis: Topology Control Methods..............41
2.3.1 Evaluations Based on the Network Lifetime
Definitions.................................................................. 44
2.3.2 Evaluations Based on the Network Lifetime
Definitions.................................................................. 47
2.3.3 Evaluations Based on the Network Lifetime
Definitions.................................................................. 49
2.3.4 Evaluations Based on the Network Lifetime
Definitions.................................................................. 51
2.4 IoT and Topology Control Protocols .....................................53
2.4.1 Link Efficiency-Based Topology Control ................ 53
2.4.2 Improved Reliable and Energy Efficient
Topology Control ...................................................... 54
2.4.3 Cellular Automata-Based Topology Control............ 54
2.4.4 Heterogeneous Topology Control
Algorithm (HTC)....................................................... 54
2.5 IoT and Routing Protocols ..................................................... 55
2.5.1 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy
Networks (RPL) ........................................................ 55
2.5.2 Cognitive RPL (CORP) ........................................... 59
2.5.3 Channel-Aware Routing Protocol (CARP) .............. 60
2.6 Future Research Direction: Context-Aware Routing in
IoT Networks .......................................................................... 60
2.6.1 Routing in IoT........................................................... 60
2.6.2 Need of Context-Awareness in IoT Routing............ 61
2.6.3 Context Needed for Routing..................................... 61
2.7 Summary .................................................................................64
References..........................................................................................64

Chapter 3 Design Issues, Models, and Simulation Platforms...........................69

3.1 Topology Control Design Issues............................................ 69
3.1.1 Taxonomy of Topology Issues ................................. 70
3.1.2 Topology Awareness Problem .................................. 71
3.1.3 Topology Control Problem ....................................... 73
3.2 Network Models .....................................................................76
Contents vii

3.2.1 Homogeneous Model ................................................ 76

3.2.2 Wireless Propagation Model..................................... 77
3.2.3 Model of Long-Distance Path................................... 77
3.2.4 Hop Model................................................................. 78
3.2.5 Energy Model ............................................................ 78
3.3 Simulation Platforms .............................................................. 79
3.3.1 OMNeT++ ................................................................. 79
3.3.2 NS2 ............................................................................ 80
3.4 Simulation Using MATLAB for IoT Domain....................... 81
3.4.1 The MATLAB System.............................................. 81
3.4.2 MATLAB for IoT Domain ....................................... 82
3.5 Future Research Direction: Heterogeneity of Network
Technologies ........................................................................... 82
3.5.1 Sensing Layer ............................................................ 83
3.5.2 Network Layer........................................................... 84
3.5.3 Cloud Computing ...................................................... 84
3.5.4 Application Layer...................................................... 84
3.5.5 Smart Industrial ......................................................... 85
3.5.6 Smart Agricultural..................................................... 86
3.5.7 Smart Home............................................................... 86
3.5.8 Intelligent Transportation System............................. 87
3.5.9 Smart Healthcare ....................................................... 87
3.6 Summary .................................................................................88
References..........................................................................................88

Chapter 4 Link Efficiency-Based Topology Control Algorithm for IoT

Domain Application .......................................................................... 93
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................93
4.1.1 Received Signal Strength Indicator .......................... 93
4.1.2 Limitation of RSSI .................................................... 94
4.2 Network Model .......................................................................94
4.2.1 Definitions.................................................................. 95
4.2.2 Assumptions .............................................................. 96
4.3 Improved Link Efficiency-Based Topology Control
Algorithm ................................................................................96
4.3.1 Proposed Algorithm: LEBTC ................................... 97
4.3.2 Mathematical Model.................................................. 98
4.3.3 Flow Diagram............................................................ 99
4.4 Implementations......................................................................99
4.4.1 RNG-Relative Neighborhood Graph ........................ 99
4.4.2 GG – Gabriel Graph.................................................. 99
4.4.3 FETC and FETCD .................................................... 99
4.5 Future Research Direction: Gateway Placement and
Energy-Efficient Scheduling in IoT .....................................110
viii Contents

4.5.1 Overview.................................................................. 110

4.5.2 Placement of Gateways........................................... 115
4.5.3 Task Model.............................................................. 116
4.5.4 Energy Consumption Model ................................... 116
4.5.5 Energy-Efficient Scheduling Algorithms................ 116
4.6 Summary ...............................................................................118
References........................................................................................119

Chapter 5 Energy-Efficient Topology Control Algorithms for IoT

Domain Applications....................................................................... 121
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 121
5.1.1 Connected Dominating Set ..................................... 121
5.1.2 Clustering Mechanisms ........................................... 125
5.2 Network Model .....................................................................125
5.3 Energy-Efficient Algorithm Based on Connected
Dominating Set .....................................................................126
5.3.1 Proposed Algorithm: iPOLY .................................. 127
5.3.2 Mathematical Model................................................ 127
5.3.3 Flow Diagrams ........................................................ 129
5.4 Implementations: POLY and iPOLY ...................................129
5.5 Future Research Direction: IoT Reliability .........................130
5.5.1 Device Reliability.................................................... 130
5.5.2 Network Reliability ................................................. 133
5.5.3 System Reliability ................................................... 133
5.5.4 Anomaly Detection.................................................. 134
5.6 Summary ...............................................................................134
References........................................................................................134

Chapter 6 Cellular Automata-Based Topology Control Algorithms for IoT

Domain Applications....................................................................... 137
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 137
6.1.1 Cellular Automata for Sensor Networks ................ 139
6.1.2 Sensor Network Clustering ..................................... 140
6.2 Cellular Automata-Based Topology Control Algorithms....140
6.2.1 Cellular Automata Weighted Margoles
Neighborhood .......................................................... 140
6.2.2 Cellular Automata Weighted Moor
Neighborhood .......................................................... 141
6.2.3 Cyclic Cellular Automata........................................ 143
6.3 Future Research Direction: Cellular Automata for IoT
Application............................................................................152
6.4 Summary ...............................................................................153
References........................................................................................153
Contents ix

Chapter 7 Performance Optimization in IoT Networks .................................. 155

7.1 IoT Network Issues .............................................................. 155
7.1.1 Fault Tolerance........................................................ 155
7.1.2 Security Enforcement .............................................. 156
7.1.3 Handling Heterogeneity .......................................... 157
7.1.4 Self-Configuration ................................................... 158
7.1.5 Unintended Interference .......................................... 158
7.1.6 Network Visibility................................................... 160
7.1.7 Restricted Access .................................................... 160
7.2 Optimization Issues in IoT Networks .................................. 160
7.2.1 Data Aggregation .................................................... 162
7.2.2 Routings in IoT Networks ..................................... 163
7.2.3 Optimal Coverage.................................................... 164
7.2.4 Sensor Localization ................................................. 165
7.3 Optimization Levels in IoT .................................................. 166
7.3.1 Device Level Optimizationn ................................... 167
7.3.2 Network Level Optimization .................................. 168
7.3.3 Application Level Optimization.............................. 170
7.4 Solutions for IoT Network Optimization.............................171
7.4.1 Network Routing ..................................................... 172
7.4.2 Energy Conservation ............................................... 172
7.4.3 Congestion Control.................................................. 174
7.4.4 Heterogeneity........................................................... 174
7.4.5 Scalability ................................................................ 175
7.4.6 Network Reliability ................................................. 176
7.4.7 Quality of Service ................................................... 177
7.5 Summary ...............................................................................178
References........................................................................................179

Chapter 8 Bio-Inspired Computing and IoT Networks...................................181

8.1 Bio-Inspired Approach .........................................................181
8.1.1 Bio-Inspired Computing.......................................... 181
8.1.2 Bio-Inspired System ................................................ 181
8.1.3 Bio-Inspired Engineering ........................................ 183
8.2 Motivation for Bio-Inspired Computing .............................. 184
8.2.1 Self-Organization..................................................... 184
8.2.2 Self-Adaptation........................................................ 185
8.2.3 Self-Healing Ability ................................................ 186
8.3 Bio-Inspired Computing Approaches for Optimizations.....188
8.3.1 Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs) .............................. 189
8.3.2 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)........................ 193
8.3.3 Swarm Intelligence (SI) .......................................... 196
8.3.4 Firefly Algorithm (FA)............................................ 198
8.3.5 Artificial Immune System (AIS)............................. 199
8.3.6 Epidemic Spreading (ES)........................................ 201
x Contents

8.4 Summary ...............................................................................203

References........................................................................................204

Chapter 9 Blockchain and IoT Optimization................................................... 205

9.1 Blockchain Technology and IoT.......................................... 205
9.1.1 Introduction to Blockchain...................................... 205
9.1.2 Blockchain Terminology......................................... 205
9.1.3 Blockchain Mechanism ........................................... 206
9.1.4 Distributed P2P Networking ................................... 208
9.2 Blockchain Support for IoT Applications............................209
9.2.1 Securing IoT Networks ........................................... 209
9.2.2 Manufacturing Maintenance Support...................... 210
9.2.3 Transparency in Supply Chain................................ 212
9.2.4 In-Car Payment Model............................................ 212
9.2.5 Vehicle Insurance Model ........................................ 213
9.2.6 Identity Authentication Using Self-Sovereign
Identity (SSI) ........................................................... 213
9.3 Blockchain with IoT Networks Characteristics ...................214
9.3.1 Security .................................................................... 215
9.3.2 Scalability ................................................................ 215
9.3.3 Immutability and Auditing...................................... 217
9.3.4 Effectiveness and Efficiency................................... 217
9.3.5 Traceability and Interoperability............................. 219
9.3.6 Quality of Service ................................................... 220
9.4 Energy Optimization and Blockchain Mechanism ..............220
9.4.1 Optimization Process............................................... 221
9.4.2 Resource Management Using Blockchain.............. 221
9.5 Energy Optimization in Blockchain-Enabled
IoT Networks ........................................................................ 222
9.6 Summary ...............................................................................223
References........................................................................................223

Index ......................................................................................................................225
Preface
Internet of things (IoT) and wireless sensor networks (WSN) are the fastest-growing
technologies for deploying general applications ranging from smart home, retail,
supply chain, smart city, industrial Internet, smart farming, and connected cars to
healthcare. IoT has now become a significant empowering technology that extends
various technology dominions from data sensing and processing to networking and
data analytics. This book addresses components of IoT, the importance of topology
control in IoT and WSN, energy-efficient topology control protocols to improve the
performance of IoT, and a framework for performance optimization in the IoT. The
development of IoT applications and services includes various components such as
sensors, actuators, gateways, cloud, etc. Sensors are a very important component of
the IoT system.
In this book, the authors provide an essential overview of IoT, energy-efficient
topology control protocols, motivation, and challenges for topology control for
wireless sensor networks, the scope of the research in the domain of IoT is also
presented. The aims and objectives of the research are elucidated. Scientific
contributions of the research work in the IoT domain are explored. Further authors
discuss the different design issues of topology control and energy models for IoT
applications. Different types of simulators with their advantages and disadvantages
are discussed. This book provides a discussion on the results for contribution
carried out with extensive simulation results and comparative analysis for various
algorithms.
There are still many aspects of topology control for sensor networks that are not
considered in this book because some of them are out of scope or due to limitations
of time and resources. There are plenty of rooms that can be explored and added on
top of our proposed algorithms. Among the issues that are evaluated in the center of
attention of this book, there are still several aspects for further research.
Today, most system designers imagine things to create or design every possible
system based on the IoT. The components in the IoT system have embedded
computing technologies that support internet facilities to support many application
domains. WSN and IoT have become the prominent field of study for researchers
because of their readily available and applicable resources and extensive application
over the various fields.
IoT is a network of internet-enabled sensor devices and different heterogeneous
wireless technologies that are used for data communication. The analyst firm
Gartner says that by 2021 there will be over 26 billion connected devices and a lot
of connections. IoT involves billions of connected sensors communicating through
the wireless network, energy efficiency and fairness is the biggest concern. It raises
a need to develop energy-efficient techniques or approach that reduces contention
and provide energy-efficient communication. The IoT is a giant network of
connected things. Many of the objects in the surrounding environment are on the
network in different forms. And enormous amounts of data are generated which
have to be stored, processed, and presented in a seamless, efficient, and easily

xi
xii Preface

interpretable form. In a real-world scenario, IoT collects data by various sensor

devices and disseminates sensed data through gateway devices to the IoT Cloud (or
the Internet) either using single or multi-hop communication.
The main function of any smart product application is how they communicate
with each other. For this purpose, many topology and routing protocols have been
devised to minimize the differences over the head of the system like energy, cost,
distance, etc. Routing for different wireless sensor applications based on parameters
is a smooth and dependent solution resulting in low costs information for the
network package, as well as for the node itself. This project introduces the kind of
protocol for using a different neighbor’s node and different parameters which are
associated with the system like distance, energy, cost, etc. The key point of this
book is to present a solution to minimize energy and extend the lifetime of IoT
networks and present optimization methods to improve the performance.
The literature in this book explores implementations of new techniques and
algorithms that will support achieving significant enhancement in the existing IoT-
based techniques in the domain. This book will be interpreted as a place to begin
and a useful comparative reference for those inquisitive about the continuously
evolving subject of the IoT.
Author’s Biography
Sanjeev J. Wagh, works as Professor and Head in the
Department of Information Technology at Govt. College of
Engineering, Karad. He completed his BE (1996), ME (2000),
and Ph.D. (2009) in Computer Science and Engineering from
Govt. College of Engineering, Pune and Nanded. He was a full-
time Post Doctorate fellow at the Center for TeleInfrastructure,
Aalborg University, Denmark during 2013–14. He has also
completed an MBA (IT) from NIBM (2015), Chennai. He has a
total of 24 years of experience in academics and research. His
research interest areas are natural science computing, internet technologies, and
wireless sensor networks, data sciences and analytics. He has more than 100
research papers to his credit, published in international/national journals and
conferences. Four research scholars completed their Ph.D. under his supervision
from Pune University. Currently, three research scholars are pursuing Ph.D.’s under
his supervision in various Indian Universities. He is a fellow member of ISTE, IETE,
and a member of IEEE, ACM, and CSI. He is co-editor for International Journals in
Engineering & Technology. He has visited Denmark (Aalborg University, Aalborg
and Copenhagen), Sweden (Gothenburg University, Gothenburg), Germany
(Hamburg University, Hamburg), Norway (University of Oslo), France (the
University of London Institute in Paris), China (Shanghai Technology Innovation
Center Shanghai, delegation visit), Thailand (Kasetsart University, Bangkok),
Mauritius (University of Technology, Port Louis) for academics and research. He
authored the book “Fundamentals of Data Science” published by CRC Press and
edited the book “Applied Machine Learning for Smart Data Analysis” published by
CRC Press and “Handbook of Research on Applied Intelligence for Health and
Clinical Informatics” published by IGI Global, USA.

Dr. Manisha S. Bhende, works as a Professor at Marathwada

Mitra Mandals Institute of Technology, Pune, India. She has
completed a BE (1998), ME (2007), and Ph.D. (2017) in
Computer Engineering from the University of Pune and a
bachelor’s degree from Government College of Engineering,
Amravati, India. Her research interests are IoT and wireless
networks, network security, cloud computing, data science and
machine learning, data analytics, etc. She has 49 research
papers/book chapters in international and national conferences
and journals. She delivered an expert talk on various domains such as wireless
communication, wireless sensor networks, data science, cyber security, IoT,
embedded and real-time operating systems, IPR and innovation, etc. She has
published 4 patents and received 5 copyrights on her credit. She is a reviewer/
examiner for a Ph.D. thesis and ME dissertations for state/national universities. She

xiii
xiv Author’s Biography

is associated with Ph.D. research centers. She works as an editor/reviewer for

various national/international repute journals and conferences. She is the
coordinator of IQAC, IPR cell, IIP cell, and research cell at the institute level.
She works as Subject Chairman for various Computer Engineering subjects under
Savitribai Phule Pune University (SPPU). She contributed to the SPPU syllabus
content designing and revision. She received the Regional young IT Professional
award from CSI in 2006. She authored the book “Fundamentals of Data Science”
published by CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group, US) and edited the book
“Handbook of Research on Applied Intelligence for Health and Clinical
Informatics” published by IGI Global, USA. She is a member of ISTE, ACM,
CSI, IAENG, Internet Society, etc.

Anuradha D. Thakare received her Ph.D. in Computer

Science and Engineering from SGB Amravati University,
M.E. degree in Computer Engineering from Savitribai Phule
Pune University, and BE degree in Computer Science and
Engineering from Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University,
Amravati, India. She works as a Professor in the Computer
Engineering Department of Pimpri Chinchwad College of
Engineering, Pune. Dr. Anuradha is a Secretary of the
Institution of Engineering & Technology Pune LN, a
Member of IEEE and ACM. She is a Ph.D. guide in Computer Engineering at
SPPU, Pune. She was a General Chair of IEEE International Conference ICCUBEA
2018 and an Advisory member for International Conferences. She worked as a
reviewer for the Journal of International Blood Research, IEEE Transactions, and
Scopus Journals. She is a reviewer and examiner for Ph.D. defence for state/
national universities.
She has published 78 research papers in reputed conferences and journals with
indexing in Scopus, IEEE, Web of Science, Elsevier, Springer, etc. She received
Research project grants and workshop grants from AICTE-AQIS, QIP-SPPU,
BCUD-SPPU Pune, and Maharashtra State Commission for Women. She received
the Best Women Researcher Award and Best Faculty Award from International
Forum on Science, Health & Engineering. She received the best paper award in
International Conferences. She delivered 20 expert talks on machine learning,
evolutionary algorithms, outcome-based education, etc. She worked with industries
like DRDO, NCL, etc. for research projects.
She works as Subject Chairman for various Computer Engineering subjects under
Savitribai Phule Pune University (SPPU). She contributed to the SPPU syllabus
Content designing and revision. She authored the book “Fundamentals of Data
Science” published by CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group, US) and edited the
book “Handbook of Research on Applied Intelligence for Health and Clinical
Informatics” published by IGI Global, USA.
Abbreviations
ACK Acknowledgment
APO Application Object
ASCENT Adaptive Self-Configuring sEnsor Networks
BSS Basic Service Set
CA Cellular Automata
CCA Cyclic Cellular Automata
CDS Connected Dominating Set
CS Range Carrier Sensing Range
CSMA Carrier Sense Multiple Access
CTS Clear To Send
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DG Delaunay Graph
DiffServ Differentiated Services
DIFS Distributed Inter-Frame Space
DSN Distributed Sensor Networks
DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
EOFS Environment Observation and Forecasting System
ESS Extended Service Set
FFD Full Function Devices
GAF Geographic Adaptive Fidelity
GG Gabriel Graph
GOAFR Greedy Other Adaptive Face Routing
GRG Geometric Random Graphs
HEED Hybrid Energy-Efficient Distributed Clustering
IBSS Independent Basic Service Set
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
INTSERV Integrated Services
LEACH Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy
LLC Link Layer Control
LMST Local Minimum Spanning Tree
LPL Low Power Listening
MAC Medium Access Control
MANET Mobile Ad Hoc Network
MDS Minimum Dominating Set
MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
MST Minimum Spanning Tree
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
QoS Quality of Service
RCE Random Correlated Event
RF Radio Frequency

xv
xvi Abbreviations

RN Random Network
RNG Relative Neighborhood Graph
RTS Request To Send
SBYaoG Smart Boundary Yao Gabriel Graph
SCH Scheduling
SIFS Short Inter-Frame Space
SIG Special Interest Group
SSIM Smart Sensors and Integrated Microsystems
TC Topology Control
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
Tx Range Transmission Range
UDG Uniform Disk Graph
UWSN Underground Wireless Sensor Network
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WMSN Wireless Multimedia Sensor Network
WSN Wireless Sensor Network
YG Yao Graph
 1 Introduction and
Background Study

1.1 IoT AND WSN

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have begun to fascinate researchers due to the
rapid development of wireless technology and integrated devices. WSNs are often
made up of small devices called nodes. These nodes contain an implanted CPU,
limited computing power, and other intelligent sensors. Nodes use these sensors to
monitor natural ambient elements they are humidity, pressure, temperature, and vi-
bration. A sensor interface, processor, transceiver, and power units are typical com-
ponents of a WSN node. These devices accomplish decisive tasks by allowing nodes
to interconnect with one another and relay data collected by sensors. A centralized
system necessitates communication between nodes. The need for this system inspires
the creation of the notion of the Internet of things (IoT). The IoT idea enables quick
access to environmental data. As a result, efficiency and productivity in a range of
procedures improve significantly.

1.1.1 OVERVIEW OF WSN

A WSN is typically defined as a network of nodes that collaborate to perceive and
manage the environment around them. These nodes are joined together through
wireless technology. This connection is used by nodes to communicate with one
another. A typical WSN architecture comprises three components: sensor nodes,
gateways, and observers (user). The sensor field is made up of sensor nodes and
gateways. Interconnections between gateways and observers are made possible
through dedicated networks or, more typically, the Internet as shown in Figure 1.1.
A WSN is conceptually based on a modest equation that states that Sensing +
CPU + Radio = Lots of Potential [1]. A sensing unit is required to monitor the
surroundings and their circumstances for instance humidity, pressure, and vibration.
After the monitoring and sensing operations are completed, the CPU performs the
necessary computations. Finally, computed conservational data are transmitted by
Radio Unit over wireless communication channels between nodes. Finally, the data
is transferred to the Gateway.
The Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) was the first wireless network that
could be characterized as a modem WSN. The US Military developed SOSUS in
the 1950s to detect Soviet submarines. The SOSUS network is intended to include
submerged sensors and hydrophones spread over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
[2]. In the 1980s, the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) pioneered the Distributed Sensor Network (DSN) effort to investigate the
particular issues of adopting WSNs. The potential of DSN and its advancement in

DOI: 10.1201/9781003310549-1 1
2 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

FIGURE 1.1 Wireless sensor networks (WSN).

academia have piqued the interest of academics. These issues have prompted
academic and scientific researchers to investigate the potential of WSN.
For instance, IEEE has observed the subsequent fact: the low cost and high
proficiencies of these miniature devices. The IEEE association has established a
standard to address low data rate wireless personal area networks – IEEE 802.15.4.
Based on this standard, the ZigBee Alliance published the ZigBee standard for
usage in WSNs.

1.1.2 HOW DOES WSN WORKS?

WSNs are made up of nodes, which are miniature computers in and of themselves.
These little devices collaborate to construct centralized network systems. These
networks’ nodes must meet certain characteristics like efficiency, multi-functionality,
and wireless capability.
Furthermore, every node in each network serves a distinct purpose. If the pur-
pose is to accumulate data about microclimates in different sectors of a forest, for
example, these nodes are located in diverse trees to form a network. This type of
network should have a centralized and synchronized structure for communicating
and sharing data. The sensor nodes are linked in a network with a particular to-
pology, such as linear, star, or mesh. Any network node in any architecture has a
limited broadcast range of 30 meters.
Data collection and data transfer in WSNs are achieved in four steps: data
gathering, data processing, data packaging, and data transfer.

1.1.2.1 Technology
Sensor Node
It is one of the most crucial aspects of any WSN [3]. A sensor node is a small, low-
power device. Despite its limited energy resources, it has a concurrent processing
capability and a low cost. Figure 1.2 depicts the elements of a sensor node. Definite
units of a sensor node collect and transfer data.
Introduction and Background Study 3

FIGURE 1.2 WSN components.

Power Source
The sensor node’s base is equipped with a power source. It provides power to sensor
node units such as sensing units (sensors), CPUs, and radios. Energy is required to
continue performing sensing, computing, and communication operations. As a result,
small sensor nodes are powered by ambient energy harvesting (AEH) techniques.
Watch batteries, solar cells, and smart systems can all be used as power sources.
The AEH is accomplished in a variety of ways, including standard optical cell
power generation as well as small piezoelectric crystals, micro-oscillators, and ther-
moelectric power generation elements [3]. All sensor nodes have limited energy
supplies, and energy is necessary to fulfill all jobs. As a result, nodes may spend up to
99% of their pause time conserving energy. They only awaken to collect, transfer, and
receive data.

Microcontroller
The CPU of a sensor is typically accomplished with a microprocessor and flash
memory. Most of the sensor nodes have connectors that allow you to easily add exterior
processing units and sensors to the main unit. Making decisions and analyzing data are
two examples of crucial CPU tasks. The CPU keeps the data in flash memory until
there is enough of it. Once the system has gathered sufficient data, the CPU’s micro-
processor unit arranges the data in envelopes since envelopes are extremely effective in
data transport. These envelopes are then broadcast over the airwaves. Meanwhile, to
maintain the most effective network structure, the system communicates with other
nodes in the same way that it communicates with data. The CPU is associated with the
base, from which it connects with the sensors and radio [4].

Sensor Transducer
A WSNs most significant component is its sensors. Sensors transform environ-
mental variables such as light, smoke, heat, and sound, among others, into electrical
impulses. Over the previous two decades, there has been rapid progress in a wide
range of sensing technologies, which has facilitated sensor production:
4 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

• Gyroscopes, acoustic sensors, accelerometers, smoke sensors, magnet-

ometers, chemical sensors, pressure sensors, and piezoelectric sensors
are examples of Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS).
• CMOS sensors, including chemical composition sensors, humidity sensors,
temperature sensors, and capacitive proximity sensors.
• LED sensors include chemical composition sensors, proximity sensors,
and ambient light sensors.

These developments have resulted in sensors being extensively used in everyday

life, particularly in sensor nodes. A distinctive node is made up of three different
types of sensors: temperature, vibration, and moisture. However, certain nodes may
have additional features like photographing their surroundings, detecting motion,
detecting pressure, smoke detection, detecting light, and so on.

Transceiver
It is the responsibility of a sensor node’s wireless communications. The four op-
erational states of a transceiver are receive, transmit, idle, and sleep. Radio fre-
quency (RF), infrared, and laser can all be used as wireless media in a transceiver.
RF is the most popular wireless communication technology for WSNs. The typical
RF operation range is 10 meters for indoors and 100 meters for outdoors.

Operating System
Operating systems used for WNSs include Tiny OS, Contiki, MANTIS, and BTunt.
Tiny OS is the most open source and energy-efficient of these systems. Tiny OS
employs event-driven programming instead of multithreading.

1.1.2.2 Gateways
System managers can use gateways to connect nodes to personal digital assistants
(PDAs) and personal computers (PCs). There are three types of gateways: active,
passive, and hybrid. The active gateway enables nodes to communicate with the
gateway server in real-time. The passive gateway does not have the same freedom
as the active gateway. It demands that sensor nodes give the data they need. A
hybrid gateway is a grouping of these dual gates that can function in either mode.

1.1.2.3 Task Managers

They communicate with the gateways via a predefined medium, like satellite links
or the Internet. Client data browsing/processing and data service are the two aspects
of Task Managers. Task Managers can be thought of as a platform for information
processing and retrieval. This section stores and analyses all sensor data collected.
Users and administrators can access and analyses this data locally and/or remotely
using an interface [5].

1.1.2.4 Communication Architecture for WSNs

A radio comprises two components: a radio transmitter and a radio receiver. These
components must be present for any of the nodes for them to communicate fully
with additional nodes. The radio receives information from the centralized and
Introduction and Background Study 5

delivers it to other sensor nodes during data transfer. The radio receives data from
another node’s radio and transfers it to the central system along with data reception.
The sensor node sends all data it collects to the parent node. This parent node is
linked to a multi-functional computer, which permits access to other nodes’ data
through the user’s computer interface. If the user offers instructions, they will be sent
to a multi-functional computer over the Internet. These commands will be delivered
to the parent node, which will then transmit the same message to its child nodes.

WSN Communication Standards and Specifications

The following are the utmost extensively used WSN communication standards:

ZigBee
The communication range of ZigBee is normally 10 meters. It can, however, transport
data across large distances. This is accomplished by sending data over short distances
between intermediate devices. It consumes very little power. The data rate is limited
to 20 kbps.

Bluetooth
It is a wireless technology standard that enables mobile devices to communicate
across short distances. The communication range is one meter to one hundred
meters. It consumes very little power. The maximum data rate is 3 Mbps.

6LoWPAN
This is a method for sending and receiving IPv6 packets via IEEE 802.15.4 net-
works. It has a range of communication from 45 meters to 90 meters. It uses a
moderate amount of power.

WSN Design Factors and Requirements

When designing WSNs, several factors must be considered. When building algo-
rithms or protocols for WSNs, these factors have served as a guideline.
Furthermore, these elements can be utilized as a criterion for comparing various
systems. As a first step, application needs must be addressed before designing WSN
for that application. When those criteria are identified, appropriate technologies to
encounter those necessities can be chosen.

Quality of Service
Quality of service (QoS) is associated with the dependability and priority me-
chanisms of WSNs. As a result, sensors can accomplish several emerging appli-
cations, like object tracking and fire detection. QoS should be employed in such
applications to improve WSN security and dependability. As a result, three major
restrictions should be considered while developing new protocols for important
applications. Data redundancy, collision, and resource limits are examples of these.

Fault Tolerance
Sensors may fail due to the hostile environment; nonetheless, this failure should
not affect the WSN. Every algorithm or protocol created for WSNs would be
6 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

fault-tolerant in this environment. Each application has a varied amount of fault

tolerance. In household applications, such as humidity or temperature monitoring,
high fault tolerance is not required because sensors are not easily destroyed.
Outdoor habitats, on the other hand, are classified as harsh environments. To avoid
the possibility of failure, high fault tolerance is essential.

Time of Data Delivery

Delays in data delivery are limited in applications that demand real-time delivery. In
time-critical applications, service latency should be limited. In healthcare, for ex-
ample, if doctors do not receive signals on time, patients’ lives may be risked. As a
result, when developing protocols or algorithms, the time elapsed between the
source and attention must be considered. It is critical to adhere to a minimum
allowable delay, which is determined mostly by the type of the application.
Scalability: Because hundreds or thousands of sensors are positioned based on the
application, the designer must exercise caution when dealing with the prospect of
network expansion. This high density of sensors, however, must be used to cover as
wide an area as feasible.

Energy Consumption
In some situations, replacing or recharging batteries may be impossible or com-
plicated. As a result, battery life has a significant impact on the lifetime node. As a
result, the overall network’s lifespan will be shortened. In the worst-case scenario,
when nodes are routers, this failure will damage the entire network. The major tasks
that sensors need energy for include sensing, processing, transmitting, and re-
ceiving. Furthermore, noise might increase power usage owing to retransmissions.
WSN-specific data compression algorithms are being studied to reduce power
consumption. Here study determined that data communication munches more re-
sources over data processing. Several communication activities take place in WSNs,
with the transmission, reception, frequency synthesizers, voltage management, and
so on, and all of these functions drain power from sensors.

Gathering Data
Based on how data is acquired, WSN applications are categorized as Event Detection
(ED) or Spatial Process Estimation (SPE). In the emergency department, a specific
occurrence, such as a fire, must be identified by positioning sensors. SPE, on the other
hand, is used to forecast a physical situation, like ground temperature in a volcano or air
pressure. Though, some environmental applications may fall within both categories.

Communication Architecture
Sensors have two basic purposes. These tasks detect data or route it to the sink
node. The sink node, like all other nodes in the network, communicates in a tiered
fashion. A protocol stack is a type of communication architecture.

Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous

When all sensors in a WSN are the same, it is referred to as a homogenous network.
On the other hand, heterogeneous networks are made up of several kinds of sensors.
Introduction and Background Study 7

Though homogeneous networks are simple to maintain, heterogeneous networks

might offer a better resolution due to their diverse energy models. Because certain
nodes have more energy than others, it is sometimes necessary to allocate a sub-
stantial duty to them. Cluster heads serve as routers in a network of nodes. As a
result, it is advantageous to have more energy to transmit data than the other nodes.
As a result, heterogeneous networks may be able to maximize network longevity.
Nonetheless, homogenous networks are simple to set up. Furthermore, cluster heads
can be switched to avoid node death.

1.1.3 SECURITY ISSUES IN WSN

WSN security is vital, especially if they perform mission-critical activities. For
example, in a health care application, the privacy of a patient’s health record should
not be disclosed to third parties. Attacks on the security of WSNs are divided into
two types: active and passive. In active attacks, the attacker harms the functioning
of the targeted network. This could be the attacker’s main goal, which can be simply
noticed as related to passive attacks. Active attacks are classified as hole attacks
(black holes, sinkholes, wormholes, and so on), denial-of-service (DoS) attacks,
jamming attacks, flooding attacks, and Sybil attacks. Passive attackers are typically
physically disguised and either tap the data link to acquire data or destroy any
network operational equipment. Eavesdropping attacks, node tampering attacks,
node malfunctioning attacks, node demolition attacks, and traffic analysis attacks
are all examples of passive attacks.
To assess safety for WSNs, steps may be accomplished toward attacks, similar to
in another network: intrusion prevention and intrusion detection. Intrusion detection
and prevention strategies are the first lines of protection against invaders. However,
like with any protection machine, intrusions cannot be avoided. The assault and
compromise of a single node can bring about the disclosure of essential community
protection statistics to intruders. As a result, the preventive protection system fails.
As a result, Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) are intended to detect intrusions
before they reveal information about the protected system resources. IDSs are
continually seen as a subsequent line of defense in terms of safety. IDSs are the
Internet correspondent of burglar alarms, which are employed in today’s physical
safety systems.
Wireless network systems are predicted to be extensively used as a result of the
development of Micro-Electrical Systems (MEMS). MEMS is an extremely small-
scale combination of electrical devices and mechanical structures. Various surveys
would be directed before MEMS may be used in WSNs. The impacts of extremely
high node density would be examined. The increased use of WSN devices, also the
anticipated difficulty in retrieving specific devices throughout the whole network,
would not be overlooked.
Furthermore, IoT is expected to have a massive effect on our lives withinside the
close to future. WSNs can be included in IoT, and a plethora of sensor nodes will
hook up with the Internet. They will work with different nodes to sense and evaluate
their surroundings.
8 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

1.2 IoT AND SENSOR NETWORK APPLICATIONS

Sensors are classified into five types. They are intended for use in underground,
underwater, terrestrial, multimedia, and mobile applications. Although terrestrial
sensors are less expensive, their battery capacity is limited. Burying sensors are
sometimes essential to evaluate particular circumstances in applications like
agriculture or mining. As an outcome of these applications, the cost of sensors
may be high. Acoustic waves, on the other hand, are used for communication
in underwater applications. Sensors are unreachable due to the hostile environ-
ment of the water. As a result, the sensors’ energy usage should be carefully
evaluated [6].
To track objects or actions in digital applications, mics and cameras are re-
quired. Furthermore, to forward and receive video, audio, or pictures need an
efficient data rate. Finally, portable sensors are used in mobile applications such
as in the military field. In this case, pay close attention to the communication
range. Sensors in the network can move and change places. To transfer data and
structure the network, dynamic methods are required. The following are some IoT
with WSN applications:

1.2.1 WIDE SPACE APPLICATIONS

1.2.1.1 Smart Cities
It is becoming more popular these days. The key components of such a city are
intelligent items with a CPU and a transceiver device to connect with another [7].
These intelligent items have the potential to create a secure and intelligent en-
vironment. This situation is also known as the IoT. The Internet of vehicles (IoV) is
a subclass of IoT that will make transportation systems more sophisticated. There
are three possible ways for communication in IoV like vehicles to vehicles (V2V),
vehicles to infrastructure (V2I), and infrastructure to infrastructure (I2I) [8].
VANETs are utilized in a variety of applications, including identification of vehicle
speed, avoidance of traffic jam, optimal route, and V2V communication. IoVs are
made up of several volumes of vehicles and some wayside stations that can be used
for remote operations in an ad hoc or cellular fashion. Vehicles’ movement, or-
ientation, and unstable topology are heavily constrained.

1.2.1.2 Smart Environmental

Environmental monitoring has a long history. Another broad area of application is
pollution monitoring. Many articles have advised using WSNs in this event due to
the need of having spotless environments with as diminutive pollution as feasible
[9]. When outdoor sensors are installed in a big region, fire detection systems have
been examined. The most common environmental applications like detections of a
flood, volcano, earthquake, and chemical hazardous. Furthermore, underwater
applications like water pollution prevention and sea mammal monitoring are
possible. Furthermore, sensors close to the animals’ bodies have been fitted to
measure conditions linked to rear conditions, generated gases, and animal
temperature.
Introduction and Background Study 9

1.2.1.3 Smart Agricultural

Wireless sensors are having a big impact on agricultural applications. Monitoring soil
and crops have gotten a lot of interest from experts working on everything from
farmed irrigation to fertilizer organization. Traditional methods of assessing agri-
cultural metrics may be problematic, exclusively in big arenas. As a result, sensors are
an appropriate choice for data collection. WSN is superior to the traditional methods
that require effort and attendance [10]. As a result, low-value intelligent sensors with
small batteries and wi-fi conversation abilities were demonstrated. In farmed appli-
cations, two types of sensors are used terrestrial sensors and subsurface sensors [11].

1.2.1.4 Defense Applications

An important feature of Defense applications is the ability to broaden the scope of
interest from information collection to monitoring or surveillance. The defense
applications are divided into four categories they are battlefield, force protection,
urban warfare, and non-violent conflict.

1.2.2 SMALL SPACE APPLICATION

1.2.2.1 Operational Conditions Monitoring
Buildings and bridges must be mechanically inspected following natural calamities
such as earthquakes [12].

1.2.2.2 Industrial Applications

The major crucial characteristic that distinguishes the automata industries is the
control of industrial machines. Furthermore, manufacturing monitoring is a crucial
procedure in industrial applications [12].

1.2.2.3 Healthcare Applications

Sensors on the body that measure health conditions such as respiration, blood
pressure, blood flow, ECG, and oxygen. Based on the data obtained by the in-
telligent sensors, new medications could be designed.

1.2.2.4 Intra-Vehicle Applications

Smart automobiles are equipped with a plethora of sensors. These sensors provide a
clear picture of a vehicle’s status. In some applications, the most important char-
acteristics are pressure, engine status, and speed. Container monitoring aboard
trains or ships is another application for intra-vehicle sensors. These applications do
not require energy awareness. However, energy usage is still taken into account to
limit CO2 emissions in the environment. Indeed, most communication systems may
contribute just a minor amount to CO2 emissions [13].

1.3 OSI AND IoT LAYER STACK

IoT protocol stack layers outline the operations of IoT stack Layers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6,
as well as IoT Layer 7. IoT contains protocol levels ranging from 1 to 7, similar to
10 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

FIGURE 1.3 IoT Protocol Stack Layers.

other wired and wireless technologies. We’ve seen the OSI (open system inter-
connection) model, which outlines a seven-layer networking architecture. OSI
outlines the functions and interfaces of each of these layers. Let’s have a look at
the functional description of the seven tiers of the IoT protocol stack, as depicted
in Figure 1.3.

1.3.1 PHYSICAL OR SENSOR LAYER

This IoT Layer 1 interfaces with physical components in the same way that the
OSI physical layer does. Sensors such as humidity sensors, temperature sensors,
pressure sensors, heartrate sensors, pH sensors, smell sensors, and so on are
among the physical components. The sensors are used to detect various factors
depending on the application. Because there are numerous sensors available for
the same functionality, the suitable sensor is chosen depending on cost and
quality. This Layer-1 is responsible for delivering sensed data to the IoT stack for
further processing.

1.3.2 PROCESSING AND CONTROL LAYER

This layer processes the data provided by Layer-1 via sensors. At this tier, the
microcontroller/processor and operating system are critical. Various development
kits, including Arduino, NodeMCU (based on ESP32 or ESP8266), ARM, PIC, and
others, can be used for this purpose. Android, Linux, IOS, and other popular op-
erating systems are used.
Introduction and Background Study 11

1.3.3 HARDWARE INTERFACE LAYER

This layer contains communication components or interfaces such as RS232,
RS485, SPI, I2C, CAN, SCI, and so on. These interfaces are used for serial or
parallel communication in synchronous/asynchronous modes at various baud rates.
The interface protocols specified above enable seamless communication.

1.3.4 RF LAYER
This radio frequency layer contains RF technologies based on short or long-range,
as well as the data rate required by the application. Wifi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Zwave,
NFC, and RFID are examples of common indoor RF/wireless technologies. GSM/
GPRS, CDMA, LTE-M, NB-IoT, and 5G are some of the most common outdoor RF
cellular technologies. The RF layer communicates data via radio frequency-based
EM waves. Another type of data communication method employs light waves. This
type of light-based data transfer is known as LiFi.

1.3.5 SESSION/MESSAGE LAYER

This layer handles message protocols such as MQTT, CoAP, HTTP, FTP (or
Secured FTP), SSH, and others. It specifies how communications are sent to the
cloud. Refer to the architectures of the MQTT protocol and the CoAP protocol.

1.3.6 USER EXPERIENCE LAYER

This layer is concerned with giving the greatest experience possible to end-users of
IoT products. To do this, this layer is in charge of creating sophisticated UI designs
with a plethora of functionality. For the design of GUI interface software, various
languages and tools have been developed. These technologies include object-
oriented and procedure-oriented technologies, as well as database languages
(DBMS, SQL) and analytics tools.

1.3.7 APPLICATION LAYER

This layer makes use of the remaining six levels to create the required application.
The following are examples of typical IoT case studies or applications: Smart
Homes, Smart Cities, Smart Agriculture Farming, and so on.

1.4 PROTOCOLS IN WSN AND IoT

Routing protocols for WSNs, IoT, and AdHoc wireless networks are covered in
this section. There are various classifications or types of routing protocols that are
based on protocol operation or functionality as well as a network structure.
Routing protocols are classified as reactive or proactive. Reactive routing is also
known as on-demand routing since the protocol only looks for a route to a des-
tination when it is required. Periodic messages are used in proactive routing to
12 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

deliver messages to nodes about their surroundings, ensuring that they always
have a route to their destinations.

1.4.1 ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR LOW-POWER AND LOSSY NETWORKS

Routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks (RPL) is a source routing
protocol that is based on IPv6 and is independent of the link used for routing. It was
designed for low-power, lossy networks, and was standardized by the IETF in 2011.
It is commonly regarded as the de-factor routing protocol for the IoT.
A protocol is said to be a distance-vector if its nodes can manipulate distance
vectors or arrays to other nodes in the network. This signifies that the protocol’s
nodes interact with one another within the domain. To have an effective interaction
between nodes, computation complexity, and message overhead must be kept to a
minimum, and each node must notify other nodes of any changes in topology. The
network topology is the pattern of organization in which nodes in a network are
connected. A distance-vector protocol always computes the direction (the next
hop’s address) and distance (the cost to reach a node) to any node in the network.
Every node maintains a vector with the shortest distance to every other node.

1.4.2 COGNITIVE RPL

1.4.2.1 Cognitive and Opportunistic RPL
Cognitive RPL (CORPL) is an extension of RPL developed for cognitive networks – a
network with a perceptive process that can notice current network conditions, act on
them, and self-learn as a result of its actions. CORPL, like RPL, employs DODAGs,
but with some variations.
CORPL was designed to exploit the DAG in the same way as RPL does but with
an opportunistic approach. There are two primary processes in CORPL: selecting a
forwarder set and selecting a unique forwarder. The first phase is for each node in
the network to choose as many next-hop neighbors as feasible. In the second stage,
the nodes use a coordination system to find the best receiver among the selected
forwarder set; after the best receiver is determined, the node will enable it to for-
ward the necessary packets. Each node maintains a set of forwarders from which the
next-hop/forwarding node is chosen opportunistically. According to, using oppor-
tunistic forwarding in CORPL enhances end-to-end throughput and reliability by
utilizing the inherent features of the wireless channel – which is a major concern in
lossy networks.

1.4.3 LIGHTWEIGHT ON-DEMAND AD HOC DISTANCE VECTOR

ROUTING – NEXT GENERATION (LOADNG)
LOADng is a reactive protocol that was created to provide efficiency, scalability,
and security in LLN routing; it is a lightweight distance-vector protocol. It does not
maintain a routing table for different nodes, but instead works on-demand, initiating
a route discovery whenever there is a need to transfer packets to a destination node;
Introduction and Background Study 13

as explained in previous sections, reactive protocols have lower routing overhead

and memory consumption than proactive protocols.
LOADng, like other reactive routing protocols, uses three separate messages:
route request (RREQ), route reply (RREP), and route error (RERR). When there
is a requirement for packet delivery to discover a path to the target node, the
sender node sends RREQ; the destination node responds with an RREP after
receiving the RREQ from the sender. When a link fails or is broken, the desti-
nation sends RRER to the original sender of the packets it is receiving. Route
discovery, path maintenance, and path metrics are the three protocol processes
involved in LOADng.

1.4.4 COLLECTION TREE PROTOCOL

This routing protocol was designed particularly for WSNs. It is a routing technique
based on distance and vectors. Collection tree protocol (CTP) was the TinyOS de-
factor routing standard before the development of the RPL. It is widely regarded as
a universal reference protocol for WSNs.
CTP builds and maintains a tree-based topology utilizing routing messages, often
known as beacons, which report data messages to the sink, the network’s root. CTP
employs the adaptive beaconing approach to ensure that routing messages are sent
to the root.

1.4.5 CHANNEL-AWARE ROUTING PROTOCOL

Channel-aware routing protocol (CARP) is a routing protocol for underwater
WSNs. It makes use of multi-hop data transmission to the underwater WSN’s sink.
It is a cross-layer protocol that uses connection quality information to calculate
cross-layer delay. CARP picks nodes with a recent history of successful trans-
missions to their neighbors based on information about link quality. To connect
voids and shadow zones, the protocol combines link quality with hop count, which
is simple topology information. It is also capable of selecting robust links by uti-
lizing power control.
During the network configuration, the root node broadcasts a HELLO message
to all nodes in the network. Every node can obtain its hop count – distance to the
node – using the broadcast message, which is extremely useful. Whenever a
packet needs to be transferred, the sender node chooses the best relay to the
destination node using PING and PONG messages. The PING message is sent by
the node to initiate a packet transfer, and the PONG message is sent by any node
that receives the PING message and forms a relay to the destination node.
Time is recorded during the exchange of PING and PONG messages to obtain
a relay. Along with the time, goodness is computed for each node, and the good
value is then used to calculate the link quality of all possible relays to the des-
tination node. To transfer the packets, the relay with the best link quality is
chosen. While sending the PING messages, the power used to send them is also
computed, allowing CARP to use power control to select robust links for packet
transfer.
14 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

1.4.6 E-CARP
This protocol extends CARP to support greedy and location-free hop-to-hop routing
to ensure energy-efficient packet forwarding from sensor nodes to sink. CARP
ensures that data acquired by sensor nodes is not ignored by their presence in the
network; however, unwanted forwarding may occur from those nodes in the net-
work; E-CARP is designed to address this issue by enabling caching of sensory
node data at the sink.
Another feature that is underutilized in CARP is the reusability of network re-
lays. There is usually no need for a PING-PONG message transfer between nodes
when the network is stable. E-CARP is designed to capitalize on the reusability of
previous links by prioritizing previously used links before initiating a transfer.

1.5 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND NETWORK TOPOLOGY

The IoT is currently being developed, in which devices or things are linked over the IP
protocol stack. Most of these devices have restricted hardware resources, such as low
processing power, limited memory, low power, and inadequate communication
abilities like short-range, low bitrate, and short frame size. The most frequent com-
munication methods for IoT are IEEE 802.15.4, low power Wi-Fi, and these sorts of
networks are known as low power and lossy networks (LLNs) [14]. The IPv6 routing
protocol for LLNs was established in 2012 by the IETF ROLL working group to
standardize the routing process for LLNs. RPL design is complex and differs from
earlier routing ideas due to the inherent LLNs of low data rates, a high probability of
node and connection failures, and limited energy resources [15].
The first order constraint of IoT is energy consumption, and evaluating the energy
consumption of an IoT operating RPL is required. The IoT’s energy consumption
comprises both the energy consumption of an individual node and the energy con-
sumption of the whole system. An individual node can operate in five modes: com-
plete function, small energy, forwarding, eavesdropping, and receiving. The complete
function process consumes the most energy. The transmission distance of radio fre-
quency signals is also associated with the energy consumption of a single node. The
IoT primarily relies on multi-hop data forwarding; nodes near the root node take the
data furtherance of other nodes, and the energy consumption is more, resulting in
unbalanced energy consumption of the system.

1.6 CHALLENGES FOR ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN ioT

NETWORKS
Many IoT components will need to be basic and able to work reliably and in-
dependently for extended periods. However, more complex components, such as
data aggregation points and gateways between networks of connected devices and
the outside world, are also required. Aside from all of the benefits of IoT for energy
savings, positioning IoT in the energy sector poses hurdles. The succeeding section
discusses the difficulties and prevailing options for implementing IoT-based energy
systems.
Introduction and Background Study 15

1.6.1 ENERGY CONSUMPTION

The primary focus of IoT platforms in energy systems is energy conservation. A huge
volume of IoT devices broadcast data in energy systems to enable communication via
IoT. A significant quantity of energy is required to run the IoT system and transport
the massive volume of data created by IoT devices [16]. Various ways, however, have
been taken to lower the power consumption of IoT systems. For instance, you could
configure the sensors to go into idle mode and work as and when required. It has been
broadly evaluating about how to design efficient communication protocols that allow
distributed computing approaches that enable energy-efficient communications.
Radio optimization strategies including modulation optimization and cooperative
communication were proposed as a probable solution. Furthermore, energy-efficient
routing solutions like cluster designs and the use of multi-path routing algorithms
were recognized as another alternative [17].

1.6.2 COMBINATION OF IOT WITH SUBSYSTEMS

Integration of an IoT system with energy subsystems is a significant issue.
Because each subsystem in the energy sector is unique, it employs a wide range of
sensor and data communication technologies. As a result, methods for co-
ordinating data transfer among IoT-enabled energy system subsystems are re-
quired [18]. Modeling an integrated framework for the energy system is a strategy
for addressing the integration challenge by taking into account a subsystem’s IoT
requirements. Other proposals argue for the development of co-simulation models
for energy systems to integrate the system and reduce synchronization delay error
between subsystems [19].

1.6.3 USER PRIVACY

Individual or cooperative energy users have the right to preserve the privacy of their
data when it is exchanged with an association, which is known as privacy. As a
result, appropriate data access like the number of energy users and the quantity and
kinds of energy-consuming equipment is incredible. Indeed, the type of data col-
lected by IoT allows for better decision-making, which can inspire energy pro-
duction, distribution, and consumption [20]. To reduce the invasion of users’
privacy, energy providers should acquire user agreement before using their in-
formation, ensuring that the users’ data is not shared with third parties. A reliable
privacy management system in which energy users have control over their data and
secrecy is also recommended [21].

1.6.4 SAFETY CHALLENGE

From production, transmission, and distribution to consumption, the usage of IoT
and the integration of communication technologies in energy systems increase
the potential of cyber-attacks on users’ and energy systems’ information [22].
These threads illustrate the uncertainty confronting the energy sector. Furthermore,
16 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

IoT-based energy systems are broadly positioned in large geographical areas to

deliver energy-related services. They are increasingly exposed to hackers as a result
of the broad implementation of IoT strategies. A study offers an encryption strategy
to protect the information of energy from cyberattacks to address the issue.
Furthermore, distributed control systems that enable control at different IoT system
levels are recommended to lessen the possibility of cyberattacks and boost system
security [23].

1.6.5 IOT STANDARDS

IoT connects a single device to an enormous amount of devices through the use of
various technologies and protocols. Unpredictability amongst IoT devices that
implement several criterions introduces a new contest. In IoT facilitated systems,
standards are divided into two categories like network and communication proto-
cols, and other is data-aggregation standards, as well as regulatory requirements
relating to data safety and secrecy. Among the problems challenging the assumption
of criteria in IoT to comprise criterions for processing amorphous data, safety and
privacy concerns, as well as regulatory requirements for data marketplaces [24].
One approach to acquainting the problem of standardization of IoT-based energy
systems is to define a system with shared knowledge that all users may access and
use equally. Another possibility is for parties to collaborate to develop open in-
formation models and standards-based protocols. As a result, the public will have
access to standards that are free and open [25].

1.6.6 ARCHITECTURE DESIGN

IoT facilitated systems are comprised of many technologies, as well as an accu-
mulative number of smart networked devices and sensors. The IoT is expected to
enable communications at any time and from any location for any associated
services, in general, in a self-directed and ad hoc manner. This infers that the IoT
systems are intended with complicated, decentralized, and mobile features de-
pendent on their application requirements [25]. Given the differences in char-
acteristics and requirements, a reference design cannot be a single resolution
for all IoT applications. As a result, IoT systems require diverse reference
structural designs that are uncluttered and adhere to criterions. Furthermore, the
structural design should not bounds users to utilize secure and end-to-end IoT
communications [26].

1.7 SUMMARY
This section describes the introduction and background details of IoT and WSN and
their applications in different areas. Also discussed is the IoT layer protocol stack.
Furthermore, addressed the various protocols being used in WSN and IoT with
energy consumption and network topology. At last, discussed various challenges for
energy consumption in IoT networks.
Introduction and Background Study 17

Exercise
1. What is the significance of IoT and WSN?
2. Explain in detail the applications of IoT and WSN.
3. Explain the IoT layer stack in detail.
4. List and discuss in detail the protocols used in WSN and IoT.
5. What are the different challenges for energy consumption and IoT
networks?

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 2 IoT and Topology
Control: Methods
and Protocol

2.1 SENSOR NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Typically, sensors, smart sensors, and sensor systems combine sensing, pro-
cessing, communication, and power subsystems into a single integrated system.
While sensors can be used in isolation for specific applications, multiple sensors
are commonly integrated into higher-level topologies to deliver real-world ap-
plications. These topologies can vary in complexity from a single node con-
nected to an aggregator to fully meshed networks distributed over a large
geographical area. Sensor topologies can also be described as having either a flat
or a hierarchical architecture. In a flat (peer-to-peer) architecture, every node in
the network (sink node and sensor node) has the same computational and
communication capabilities. In a hierarchical architecture, the nodes operate
close to their respective cluster heads. Hence, nodes with lower energy levels
simply capture the required raw data and forward it to their respective cluster
heads. Usually, the cluster heads possess more processing and storage capacity
than any ordinary sensor node.

2.1.1 STAR NETWORK (SINGLE POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT)

The star topology includes one base station. The base station shall transmit the data
received by the network node. This sort of network topology has one base station
for the data that sends and receives the network nodes. The base station is centrally
positioned on the network. In the star topology, all the nodes are connected to the
base station for data transportation. This is seen in Figure 2.1.
In star topology, if the network can transmit data to a node, it is then
transmitted via the base station. No topology node may send or receive in-
formation directly from another node. Remote nodes can send and receive
messages from a single base station. This is a very useful wireless sensor net-
work because the sensor node will maintain a minimum electricity consumption.
The sensor and base station use very little communication time in this type of
network. The limitation of this network is that the base station must be within
the range of the radio transmission of all nodes. The star topology network is not
as robust as any other network topologies. In this type of network, when the base
station fails, the whole network will fail, which is the main drawback of this type
of network.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003310549-2 19
20 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

FIGURE 2.1 Star network topology.

2.1.2 MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY

All nodes are linked to one another in this type of network. Any node can directly
send information to any node. If any nodes are disconnected from the range of the
network sensor, the issue of data transportation is not faced by other nodes. This
form of the network enables multihop communication, i.e. if any node wants to send
data to another node, and at that time, this node is not accessible in the radio
communication range, then another intermediate node is required to send data to
that specific node. The strengths of this network are reliability and scalability. We
should be able to increase our network size in this form of network, which has no
range of nodes.
The power consumption of the sensor node indicates the drawback of this system
because it supports the multihop communication system. Sensor nodes have very
little battery capacity, which is why multihop communication would lose easily
compared to traditional node-to-node communication. It also increases the arrival
time of the message as the number of contact hops increases at the destination. An
example of this type of topology is shown in Figure 2.2.

2.1.3 HYBRID STAR-MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY

The hybrid mesh network offers a stable and multipurpose communication network.
This kind of network will consume the minimum power of the sensor nodes. When
a sensor node has less battery power, it does not send messages to the other nodes in
this type of network. Other nodes in the networks can communicate and can send
messages to sensor nodes that have low power. Multihop communication nodes
have high power and, if possible, they can also be plugged into electrical switches.
This topology has been implemented by the new Zigbee. An example of hybrid
topology can be seen in Figure 2.3.
IoT and Topology Control 21

FIGURE 2.2 Mesh network topology.

FIGURE 2.3 Hybrid star mesh network topology.

2.2 IoT AND TOPOLOGY CONTROL METHODS

Topology management is an effective strategy used by WSNs to achieve energy
efficiency and longer network life without compromising important network per-
formance, such as connectivity and throughput. The concept of topology control is
to allow sensor nodes a sense of control over certain parameters so that these
parameters can be controlled in a way that supports the network. In particular, the
sensor nodes have the capacity to change the transmitting scope of their radio, to
turn to the different modes of service, or even to settle on the eligibility of the nodes
to access the network backbone. These characteristics are the parameters used to
22 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

achieve energy efficiency and extend network life by implementing reduced

topology.
In WSNs, a topology gives information about a group of nodes and connections
between a set of nodes. Each sensor node senses its neighbors and its relative con-
nections using maximal transmitting power to create a network topology. The node
will make decisions to create a network based on the information received. The
downside to this approach is that it may either be too dense (sensitive to unnecessary
interference) or too sparse (sensitive to network partitioning) [1]. This approach is
also very important. A proper topology control should be used to remove unwanted
network connections without losing network efficiency to prevent this issue.
Topology control has two primary purposes. The first goal is to conserve re-
sources and prolong the lifetime of the sensor node and network. The first objective
is topology controls to provide a framework for the change in the propagation
spectrum of sensor nodes, eventually reducing the energy usage during transmis-
sion. As an outcome, communication over long distances is dropped, while com-
munication over the short distance is picked. From the point of view of energy
consumption, short-distance direct communication is more energy-efficient than
long-distance communication [2]. Reducing transmission power will therefore
eliminate long-distance linkages that can waste energy resources. The second goal
is to overcome collisions. Apart from discarding inefficient connections, the use of a
small transmission range successfully eliminates long-distance nodes, resulting in a
sparse network. The results of this include a decrease in packet retransmission and
interruption and an increase in the performance of the network.
Topology control can be carried out in three ways. As discussed earlier, mini-
mizing the power produced during transmission by changing the transmission range
of the wireless sensor node radio is a typical method. In addition, sensor nodes that
are sitting idle and do not engage in transmitting and receiving can switch off their
radios or can shift to sleep mode. This strategy will have substantial energy savings
as the energy consumption during idle mode is very significant relative to the en-
ergy consumed during sleep mode [3]. Topology control can ultimately be per-
formed by a clustering technique. Based on the selection criterion, the sensor nodes
will choose a group of nodes to form a cluster. This provides control over the
topology to achieve energy conservation and allows for balanced hierarchical
network architecture. The possible selection parameters are residual energy, the
number of adjacent nodes, or the node identifier. In clustering, data forwarding and
aggregation operations are allocated to the nodes in the collection to minimize the
amount of packet retransmission and optimize energy resources.
According to the energy-saving methodology, classified topology control algo-
rithms have been spread. For this criterion, the method groups the topology control
algorithms into four categories, as seen in Figure 2.4. The four types are power
adjustment, power mode, clustering, and hybrid. Power adjustment is a strategy that
decreases the energy consumption of the WSN by manipulating the transmission
power of the nodes. In contrast, power mode saves resources by shutting off idle
node radios and putting the nodes in sleep mode. The third group, known as
clustering approaches, conserves resources by objectively choosing a collection of
neighbor nodes to create the energy-efficient backbone of the network. Finally,
IoT and Topology Control 23

FIGURE 2.4 The four classifications of 2D-distributed topology control algorithms and
12 representative algorithms.

hybrid approaches further boost energy savings by combining a clustering approach

with either power mode or power adjustment method.

2.2.1 POWDER ADJUSTMENT APPROACH

The power adjustment method helps nodes to vary their transmitting power in order
to reduce the energy produced by the transmission. Instead of communicating at full
transmission capacity, nodes work collaboratively to change and locate the neces-
sary transmission power to form a connected network. The following sections de-
scribe the three algorithms for power adjustment.

1. Minimum Energy Communication Network (MECN): Rodoplu et al.

[4] suggested a localized and position-based algorithm that minimizes the
energy involved in the transmission of WSN packets. The idea of this
algorithm is to create a topology consisting of the lowest energy paths to
be transmitted from any wireless network sensor to a sink node using the
principle of “relay transmission”.

The MECN algorithm works in two steps. In the first step, each node can find its
neighbor set. Typically, the neighbor set of a node includes all the nodes within its
field of communication. Here, the node adds to its neighbor collection only those
that can communicate directly by investing minimal packet transmission power. In
other words, a node can only admit another node to its neighbor set if:

• It can connect directly with this node, and

• There is no other way to communicate with this node by using relays and
wasting less energy on transmitting than direct communication.

Figure 2.5 shows this distinction. Algorithm 1 defines the building mechanism set
by the neighbor.
In the second step, the nodes run the Bellman-Ford shortest path algorithm to
evaluate the minimum energy path to the node of the sink. Each node communicates
24 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

FIGURE 2.5 Neighbors of the node u: It can directly exchange packets with v, w, r, and q,
but discovers that relayed packet transmissions toq via r are more efficient than direct
communications. So, it does not include q in its neighbor set.

the cost of using itself as a relay to the sink (here, the cost is the minimum power
consumption required to send a packet to the sink). When a node u receives cost
information from a neighbor node v, it determines the minimum cost of the path to
the sink relayed by v as in 2.1,

Cost (u , v ) = Cost (v ) + d (u , v )n + (2.1)

where d(u, v) is the Euclidean distance between the nodes u and v (it is assumed that
the nodes know their locations), n is the path loss exponent, and β is the power
absorbed by the receiver serving as the relay node.
Based on the costs, node u selects a route that requires a minimal transfer cost of
packets between its neighbors. The chosen node with the minimum cost is the next
node to begin the creation of the minimum energy path. Cost measurements are kept
up-to-date and broadcast to neighbors. To further optimize energy consumption, the
node will switch to sleep mode after completion of the second step if no messages
are sent.
To handle dynamic changes in the environment (spread path fluctuations, faulty
nodes, etc.), the MECN algorithm also includes a mechanism called “Flip”. It is
used to deal with the following cases:

1. Nodes are removed from the neighbor set if it is found that direct com-
munication with them is no longer efficient (i.e., it is possible that, due to
the dynamic changes in the environment, communication with this node
could become more efficient if another neighbor is used as the relay), or
2. A node is added to the neighbor set as direct communication with them
becomes more efficient. The newly inserted node activates the cases referred
to in point 1.

For the details of the Flip mechanism, Ref. [4] can be referred.
IoT and Topology Control 25

ALGORITHM 1 DISCOVERY OF NEIGHBORS THAT ARE

ENERGY-EFFICIENT TO COMMUNICATE
Pu→v→q is the total transmit power used to transfer packets from node u to q
through node v
N(u) is a neighbor set of node u that is energy efficient to connect directly

procedure FINDNEIGHBORSET(u)
N(u) ← ∅
for all received beacon packets do
q ← Sender of the beacon
if q /∈ N(u) then
Pu→q > Compute the power cost
N_candidate ← true
for all v ∈ N(u) and N_candidate = true do
if Pu→v + Pv→q < Pu→q, then
N_candidate ← false
end if
if N_candidate = true, then
N(u) ← N(u) ∪ {q}
end if
end for
end if
end for
end procedure

2. Small Minimum Energy Communication Network (SMECN): The

SMECN [5] algorithm is an expansion of the MECN algorithm. It aims
to create a network that is simpler, faster, and more energy-efficient than
the one created by MECN [4]. The goal of SMECN is to create a sub-graph
G that is smaller than sub-graph G in MECN. As a version of the MECN,
the SMECN uses the same energy model and assumptions as the MECN.
The implementation of SMECN also consists of two steps identical to
MECN. The only difference between SMECN and MECN is the approach
used to evaluate the nodes for the enclosure graph. In SMECN, nodes once
known to be neighbors are never deleted from the neighbor set and are all
included in the enclosure graph. For this cause, SMECN does not need the
heuristic “Flip” as in MECN [4]. The work in SMECN has shown that the
built subgraph G is smaller than that constructed by MECN while
broadcasting at a given power setting is able to enter all the nodes in a
circular area around the broadcaster. An energy-efficient reconfiguration
algorithm based on SMECN was later represented in Ref. [6].
3. COMPOW: The energy-saving approach in COMPOW [7] defines and
uses the least standard level of power that is necessary to sustain the
connectivity of the whole network. Based on theoretical research, the
26 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

authors concluded that the minimum common power level could offer a
range of benefits to the networks, including increased transport capability,
energy usage, and MAC controversy. The option of using the smallest
common power level often results in bi-directional connections, an essential
feature needed for efficient routing and proper communication on the MAC
layer. This protocol is the first to be implemented in a real wireless testbed
and to investigate the different power levels available in the Aironet WLAN
access points of the CISCO 350 range. COMPOW blends both power
control and routing due to the way that they both influence each other.

COMPOW introduced concurrent routing layer modularity to accomplish the

asynchronous and distributed activity. This is achieved by allowing each node to
run multiple routing daemons in parallel, one daemon for each transmission power
level Pn. Thus, each node establishes several routing tables for all available power
levels by exchanging hello messages. Initially, each node creates a routing table
using the highest power level to locate all the nodes in the network. It then builds a
routing table for the remaining power levels and finds the smallest power level
whose entries in the routing table are equal to the entries in the routing table at the
highest power level. The smallest power level is selected as the optimum power
level and its routing table is configured as the master routing table used by the
kernel to transfer packets between nodes.

2.2.2 POWDER MODE APPROACH

The power mode approach is a strategy that uses the features of the operating mode
available in the network interface of the sensor nodes to conserve resources. There
are four modes of operation of the nodes: sleep, idle, send and receive modes. The
energy expended during transmission and reception is usually higher than in sleep
mode [8]. To send or receive packets, nodes must be in idle mode. However,
continuous listening to incoming packets that are not addressed to idle nodes
will lead to a high energy dissipation that is very important compared to sleep mode
[3]. This implies that redundant nodes sitting in the idle can be switched to the
energy-saving mode by having them in sleep mode. This function has been used in
topology control to conserve resources and extend network life without losing
network power and communication. In this section, three power mode algorithms
dealing with power-off idle nodes as well as coordinating sleep and wake-up
scheduling of nodes are discussed.

1. Geographical Adaptive Fidelity (GAF): The core concepts of GAF [9]

are to provide an appropriate number of nodes that remain active for
communication and to put redundant nodes in sleep mode without dis-
rupting network connectivity. To distinguish active nodes from redundant
nodes, GAF splits the network area into small virtual grids. Both nodes are
connected to these grids by using position information and an idealized
radio model. Figure 2.6 illustrates an example of three simulated grids.
IoT and Topology Control 27

FIGURE 2.6 The virtual grid structure in GAF.

The length of the grid r is selected in such a way that every two nodes in the
adjacent grids will meet each other. The scale of the simulated grids is based on
the nominal R spectrum and they are all equal in size. The longest potential distance
between the nodes of the adjacent grids is the length of the diagonal connecting the
two adjacent grids that can be measured using Equation (2.2),

r R/5 (2.2)

GAF uses the word “equivalent nodes” to describe a neighbor set appropriate for
routing. The “equivalent nodes” identify nodes capable of interacting with all the
nodes in their neighboring grids. Equivalent nodes can be used to save power by
keeping only some of them alive for routing while the remaining nodes can sleep.
For example, in Figure 2.6 [9], nodes v, w, and x are identical nodes, since, in order
for node u to communicate with node z, packets can be relayed by either v, w, or x.
In this example, energy savings are accomplished by putting nodes w and x in sleep
mode while node v forwards data and alternates between sleeping and active. This
phase can be represented in a state transformation diagram in Figure 2.7, which is
redrawn from Ref. [9].
There are three GAF operational states – primarily sleeping, discovery, and
active states. In the discovery state, nodes identify their neighbors on the grid by
flipping on their radios and exchanging discovery messages. The discovery message
contains the id of the node, the state, the grid, and the active time of the node Tact.
The Tact value is used to evaluate the length of the nearby nodes remaining to sleep.
The instant when the node depletes half of its energy resource is set. Nodes engage
in routing in the active state. In the sleeping state, the nodes turn off the radio and
stay inactive. Initially, all nodes begin with the state of discovery. In this state,
nodes set their discovery time for Td seconds, transmit the discovery message to find
nodes inside the same grid, and then enter the active state. Nodes that join the active
state set their timer to the timeout value Ta to determine the period that they remain
in the active state. After Ta, the nodes will return to the discovery state and re-
broadcast their discovery message every Td second. Nodes in discovery or active
state can turn to sleep state if they find other equivalent nodes for routing. When
going to sleep, nodes cancel all the timers and shut down their radios. They sleep
for the length of Ts, which is a random interval between Tact/2 and Tact. Information
28 Energy Optimization Protocol Design for Sensor Networks in IoT Domains

FIGURE 2.7 State transitions in GAF.

on whether or not these nodes are capable of receiving messages during sleep is not
given in Ref. [9].
To optimize network life, nodes that engage in routing are ranked according to
a set of rules. The rules ensure that only one active node remains in each grid and
that nodes with a longer projected lifespan are used first. There are a variety of
rules for determining rank. Next, the node in the active state is of a higher rank
than the node in the discovery state. Second, if nodes are in the same state, the
GAF gives a higher rank to a node with a longer life expected. Third, node IDs
are used to remove the connection. GAF also adopts a load balancing approach to
ensure that the load is equally spread between nodes to keep nodes from ex-
hausting their energy. By setting the timeout value Ta, nodes that are in an active
state can gradually move to the exploration state to allow other nodes with a
higher energy level to become active within the same grid. GAF considers
system-level actions to conform to high mobility to avoid the drop of high packet
rates. This is achievable by calculating the time that each node persists in the grid.
This value of the Tmob is included in the discovery message and forwarded to the
neighbors. Its neighbors who are about to transit to sleeping state use the Tmob
along with the Tact to assess the length of their Ts.

2. Sparse Topology and Energy Management (STEM): The concept of

STEM [10] is to position as many nodes as possible in sleep mode in
such a way that energy consumption is minimized and the network life is
increased. The system proposed that this idea is relevant to a network
that spends much of its time monitoring operations and has less data
forwarding activity. The inactive nodes that track the operation can only
be shut down and woken up when they have data to be sent to the base
station. The common challenge of the power-down approach is to control
the sleeping transfer of nodes so that sleeping nodes are triggered only
when an incident occurs. STEM addresses this problem by changing the
node’s radio on regularly for a brief time to listen to incoming
communications.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Among the domestic animals of the village—and the number was
very limited, there being two old cows, eight or ten hogs, and as
many dogs—there were two sheep, a buck and a ewe, which I had
presented to the Governor on my first visit. The ewe in the course of
the winter had been devoured by the wolves or the bears, as it was
said; but I thought it more probable by some of the half-starved
Russians. The buck became quite a pet with the settlers. Towards
spring he began to take advantage of familiar treatment, and show
many positive signs of a pugnacious disposition, and with very little
respect for persons. As Billy and I were from the same country town,
and appeared to be alone among strangers, I always made it a
point, when I passed him, to salute him with the familiar phrase of
“How are you, Billy?” and he would seem to respond by a look of
recognition. It so happened, however, that one day, as I was coming
from the Governor’s house upon the hill, after a good substantial
dinner, and had reached the beginning of the descent where stood
the sentinel with Billy at a little distance from him, I gave him the
usual greeting, and began to go down, when, perfectly unconscious
of having offended man or beast, I received a contusion in the rear,
which sent me head-foremost down the declivity with telegraphic
velocity, and with a shock which seemed to disturb my whole
stowage, even to the very ground tier. I got up as soon as I could
collect my scattered senses, and brushed the dust out of my eyes,
when looking up the hill I saw Billy, the ram, from whom I had
received the assault, making significant demonstrations of another
onslaught. I had scarcely scrambled a little to one side before he
came down again full charge. This time I dodged him, and, not
meeting the check he expected, he went a considerable distance
before he could recover himself. Still unsatisfied with the result, he
was preparing to make another bolt up hill at me; but now, having
the advantage of the ground, I was ready to receive him. The
current was this time against him, and his headway a good deal
impeded. I caught him by the neck and beat him, and endeavored to
turn him off; but as soon as I let him go, he rushed upon me again.
Finally, finding it impossible to get rid of him, I took a stone to
increase the solidity of my fist, with which I was obliged to pound
the creature till the blood ran freely. There was still no yield in him.
The sentinel, who had till how been looking on,—to see fair play, I
suppose,—seeing that I should probably kill him, left his post and
came to the rescue. Thus ended the farcical scene of a battle
between a sheep and a Wolf, in which neither could rightfully claim
the victory.
April came, and no movement was made towards getting the
Maria off the beach, preparatory to the voyage to Ochotsk. Captain
Maschin complained that he could not get men. In fact, there was so
much work to be done at the settlement, and the number of hands
so much reduced by the California expedition, that it was impossible
to spare laborers for the vessels. Moreover, many of them were sick,
and among the healthy there were no sailors; so operations in the
navigation line were suspended.
May commenced with quite pleasant and warm weather. About the
10th, the ship Okain, Captain Jonathan Winship, arrived at the
sound. He came direct from the United States without any cargo, but
for the express purpose of obtaining Kodiak Indians and baidarkas
for a voyage to California to catch sea-otter, on the same plan I had
relinquished on the sale of my ship. He made all the necessary
arrangements, and sailed about the middle of the month.
The mild weather melted the snow very fast, and by the last of
May the frost was all out of the ground. Governor Baranoff was
desirous of having a good kitchen garden, and so, to commence the
business with a sort of flourish, we made up a pretty substantial
picnic party. A little way back from the shore we found a
considerable clearing without underbrush, and here we staked out
about two acres of land. It was good soil, deep and rich, and we all
tried our hand at the spade. The Governor setting the example, we
went to work with a good will. Soon getting tired, we adjourned to
the refreshments, at which it was thought we showed more talent
than at the spade. Some of us, they told us, got quite blue by the
time we had finished our labors. This was the first ground ever
broken for a garden at New Archangel. Another diversion was taking
salmon, which at this season ran up into the creeks and inlets in
great numbers. As many of the people as could be detached from
their regular occupations were set to catching them, and curing
them for winter provisions, in the manner I have before described.
While waiting impatiently for the arrival of the Juno, I made many
excursions about the sound in my baidarka. About seven or eight
miles from the village, there was a hot-water spring which I visited.
Situated in a beautiful, romantic place, the water runs down from
the foot of a high mountain, in a small serpentine rivulet, for several
hundred yards, and empties into a broad basin, several rods in
diameter, which has a sandy bottom. The heat of the water at its
source is about 150°, and as it spreads over the basin below it cools
down to 100°. It is strongly impregnated with sulphur, and with salt
and magnesia.
To our great joy, on the 21st of June the Juno returned from
California, with all our friends and a tolerable supply of wheat, jerked
beef, English beans, &c.; but his Excellency failed to make any
arrangement for the future. The Governor of San Francisco
remonstrated against sending Russian subjects to hunt sea-otter on
the shores and in the harbors of New Albion, and prevailed upon
Baron von Resanoff to promise to put a stop to all adventures of that
nature.
I immediately applied to Resanoff to know how and when he
intended to fulfil his promise of providing me a passage to Ochotsk.
It was now the last of June, and there were no preparations in either
of the vessels for that purpose. He told me that the Juno should be
got ready as soon as the little vessel could be rigged to accompany
her; but the little vessel was yet on the stocks, and it did not appear
to me, from the rate at which the work was progressing, that she
would be in sailing order before August. In fact, I became quite
alarmed, lest the season should be so far advanced that I should be
obliged to make a winter journey across the Russian Empire. I had
had some conversation with Dr. Langsdorff about taking the brig
Russisloff, if they would allow me, and making my own way to
Ochotsk. The Doctor eagerly caught at the idea, and resolved to go
with me, if I could obtain her. I accordingly made the proposal to his
Excellency, and it was readily accepted. He offered to put as many
men to work upon the Russisloff as I needed. She was a little craft
of twenty-five tons burden, built by the Russian American Company
at Bhering’s Bay, and in construction a kind of nondescript. She was
lying high and dry upon the beach, but, with the assistance
rendered, I had her ready for sea in less than a week, well stored
with a plenty of the best provisions the place afforded. My crew
consisted of seven men, three of whom were Indians and natives of
Alashka, making with Dr. Langsdorff, my man Parker, and myself, ten
in all. I am happy to say that everything was done by the authorities
to expedite my departure, and they all seemed anxious to show me
every kindness and attention in their power. Having been furnished
with the necessary papers for my voyage, I took leave of his
Excellency Baron von Resanoff, Governor Baranoff, and my other
friends, and put to sea on the 30th of June, 1806, shaping my
course for the island of Kodiak.

V.

Dull Sailing.—I touch at Kodiak and Alashka.—Take in Passengers at

Oonalashka.—No Prospect of completing my Voyage this Season.—Determine
to winter at Petropowlowsk.

Being at sea again, and on my own vessel, I had leisure for a

more deliberate view of the step I had taken, in attempting to seek
my own way to Ochotsk, in preference to waiting for the Juno. My
little craft was large and safe enough for my purpose; but I was now
convinced by her sluggish motion that it was very doubtful whether I
gained the port of my destination before it was too late in the
autumn to pursue my journey across Siberia. Our best sailing before
the wind was hardly five knots, and by the wind two and a half. We
had a voyage of 2,500 miles before us, and at a season of the year
in that water most subject to calms, light winds, and fogs.
This tract of ocean, from longitude 130° west, along the entire
coast of Alashka and through the seas of Kamtchatka and Ochotsk,
was at that time the great place of resort of the right whale.
Persecuted in all its other haunts, it had sought refuge in this
northern region, where as yet a whaleship had never made its
appearance. We were frequently surrounded by them. Sometimes
they would take a position at the windward, and come down towards
us, as if they were determined to sink us; but when they had
approached within eight or ten rods, they would dip and go under, or
make a circuit round us. Most of them were much longer than our
vessel, and it would have taken but a slight blow from one to have
smashed her into a thousand pieces.
On the 13th of July we saw the high land near the entrance of
Cook’s Inlet; and on the 17th arrived at the harbor of St. Paul, in the
island of Kodiak, after a passage of eighteen days, and which might
have been performed by an ordinary sailing craft, with the same
winds, in ten days. Here my letters of introduction made me
acquainted with Mr. Bander, the Company’s Superintendent. He
received us with great cordiality, and readily procured me a man to
serve as mate. He likewise furnished all the supplies we were in
need of, and saw that they were put on board; so that Dr. Langsdorff
and myself had little else to do than to look about and see the lions.
The village consisted of about forty houses, of various descriptions,
including a church, school-house, storehouse, and barracks. The
school-house was quite a respectable establishment, well filled with
pupils, under the especial care, as teacher, of the “Pope,”[30] or
ecclesiastic. He instructed them in reading, writing, arithmetic, and
keeping accounts. Many among them were excellent scholars in
these branches. The Doctor and myself made an excursion to an
adjacent island, where the Pope had a considerable tract of land
under cultivation, raising potatoes, cabbages, turnips, cucumbers,
and other vegetables. He also kept several milch cows, and
appeared to live in quite a farmer-like style. We concluded to pass
the night with him, and were hospitably entertained by his wife.

ST. PAUL IN THE ISLAND OF KODIAK

Having taken on board some freight of skins and sea-elephant’s

teeth for Ochotsk, and a cask of brandy for the island of Oonalashka,
on the 23rd of July we took leave of our friends, Mr. Bander and the
Pope, and started again on our route. The wind was so strong from
the southeast that I found it impossible to weather the southern
point of the island, and thus to get to the westward of it. I
concluded to bear up, and pass through the Schelikoff’s Strait. This
is a channel formed by an archipelago of islands (of which Kodiak is
the principal), and the peninsula of Alashka. But by reason of light
and contrary winds, we did not get fairly into the strait until the
26th, and shortly after encountered a strong wind from the west,
with heavy squalls, which soon increased to such a severe gale, that
we were compelled to seek shelter on the Alashka shore. Here I
found my Indian sailors, who had proved good men from the
beginning, to be of the greatest service. I mentioned above that
they were natives of Alashka, and they were perfectly acquainted
with the shore. They pointed out to me a good harbor, for which I
steered; and as we rounded the point at its entrance, which was
called Kudak, a baidarka containing one man came alongside. He
turned out to be the father of one of my sailors, and they had not
seen each other before for two years. They did not appear, however,
to be over-rejoiced at this accidental meeting. They embraced each
other after the Russian custom, had a little chat together, and then
went about their business, without showing any disposition for
further communication.
In the course of the night the gale increased so much that I
deemed it prudent to let go our best bow-anchor; but with the
return of light the wind abated, and the weather became quite
pleasant. Doctor Langsdorff and myself took our baidarka, and went
to the village, which was situated on the opposite side of the harbor
from where we lay. It consisted of eight or ten habitations, which
looked more like mounds of earth than houses. They contained but
one room, of an oval form, and about fifteen feet across. The earth
was dug out about three feet in depth, and raised from the surface
about three feet more, and to enter we had to crawl on our hands
and knees. The light was admitted through windows of transparent
skins, as a substitute for glass. Their quarters were certainly
comfortable for winter. The floors were covered with spruce boughs,
and mats were laid over them, which made the apartment dry and
warm. An aperture was left in the top for ventilation. The outside
was covered with a luxurious growth of grass. The occupants were
principally women, with a few old men; the young men had all gone
out hunting the sea-otter, in the Russian service. Those at home
seemed to be quite happy and contented, and were all employed in
making water-proof garments from the entrails of sea-lions, for their
husbands and sweethearts. We bought of them a number of articles
of their manufacture,—curious and very neat work,—such as pocket-
books, baskets, &c.,—and paid them in tobacco and beads.
 On the 28th of July, the wind being moderate and favorable, we
put to sea again, and pursued our course to the westward along the
coast of Alashka. We made but slow progress on our voyage, and by
the 9th of August we had only reached the end of the peninsula.
The same day we passed through between the island of Oonemak
and the easternmost of the Fox Islands. On the 12th we arrived at
the island of Oonalashka. I had no cause to stop here beyond the
desire of replenishing our water-casks and stores. Owing to our
tardy progress,—having as yet, performed only one third of the
distance from Kodiak to Ochotsk,—our provisions were more than
half consumed. I therefore felt myself constrained to put in for a
further supply.
The Company’s Superintendent, Lariwanoff, a gentleman highly
esteemed by them, had died a short time previous to our arrival,
leaving a widow and an only child, a daughter about eighteen years
of age. I was received by his successor with much kindness, and
with an apparent disposition to facilitate my voyage. The harbor,
Illuluk, was spacious and well sheltered on all sides. There was a
good anchorage in four or five fathoms of water, on a sand and clay
bottom, at a convenient distance from the shore. While making
some necessary repairs on my little vessel, and getting supplies
aboard, Madam Lariwanoff learned that I was bound to Ochotsk. She
immediately came, and on her knees entreated me to have
compassion on her lonely and bereaved condition, and let her and
her daughter take passage with me. Irkutsk in Siberia was her native
place, and thither she was desirous of returning after a residence on
this island ten years. Her solicitations were so earnest that I had not
the heart to refuse her, and notwithstanding our contracted
accommodations, entirely unfit for a woman’s occupation, I resolved
to take her under my protection. I went aboard, and set about
making the best possible arrangements for her comfort, gave up my
bunk, enlarged it sufficiently for the mother and child together, and
partitioned off the little cabin with a canvas screen. I immediately
commenced taking on board their goods and chattels, with which,
however, they were not overburdened; but she had been preparing
to leave the island for some time, and had accumulated a goodly
stock of provisions of various kinds,—several barrels of eggs, put up
in oil, smoked geese in abundance, dried and pickled fish of an
excellent quality, and other things equally good. Thus our fare
promised to be the best the island afforded. In the mean time the
Superintendent began to make objections, and throw difficulties in
the way of the old lady’s going with me. She might make reports
which would not redound to his credit. But I had it in my power to
silence all his objections, having on board the cask of brandy, which
it was at my option to leave with him, or take to Ochotsk. On his
application for it, I demurred until he withdrew all his opposition to
the widow’s leaving, and was willing to grant anything on the island
we wished. He was a dear lover of “the ardent.”
Everything now went on smoothly, and in a few days we were
ready for sea; but adverse winds detained us, and I seized the
opportunity to take a stroll over the island with the Doctor and
Superintendent. It was totally bare of trees and shrubs, and with
little or no game but foxes. The whole value and importance of the
Aleutian group consist in the sea animals taken on their shores and
bays, such as fur-seals, walruses, sea-lions, and sea-otter; though of
the latter there were few. This is likewise the principal depot of the
fisheries of the smaller islands, and from here the furs are
periodically shipped to Ochotsk. In the course of our ramble we
ascended some high table-land with the hope of obtaining a view of
the new island, which we were informed had recently made its
appearance in the Sea of Kamtchatka, to the northwest of
Oonalashka; but we were disappointed by a thick mist’s setting in,
which obscured all distant objects. After wandering about in the
numerous fox-paths, and with great caution, to avoid the many traps
set for those animals, we returned to the village, somewhat hungry
and leg-weary, and with but little satisfaction to boast of, beyond
traversing a region rendered classic by the verse of Campbell, in the
“Pleasures of Hope”:—
“Now far he sweeps, where scarce a summer smiles,
On Behring’s rocks, or Greenland’s naked isles;
 Cold on his midnight watch the breezes blow,
From wastes that slumber in eternal snow;
And waft, across the waves’ tumultuous roar,
The wolf’s long howl from Oonalashka’s shore.”
But, in fact, I was the only Wolf ever known upon the island.
Nevertheless, I came near verifying the poet’s language, as I barely
escaped being caught in one of those fox-traps; in which event I
should have probably howled lustily, for they were terrible
instruments.
August 16th, the wind and weather being favorable, Madame
Lariwanoff, her daughter, and man-servant, came on board, and we
put to sea; and I have every reason to believe with the fervent
prayers of every individual upon the island for God’s blessing upon
their patroness, and good speed to our little craft. The next day we
saw the new island, to which I was desirous to get near enough to
send a baidarka, particularly as the Doctor was anxious to get some
specimens of natural history; but a thick fog coming up, and having
a leading wind, we concluded to continue our voyage without loss of
time. On the 18th we lost sight of the islands, and, with a light wind
and rain, slowly pursued our course to the westward, across the Sea
of Kamtchatka, to the north of the Aleutian group; but such was our
tardy progress, that by the 28th we had only reached the
neighborhood of Atter, the most western island. Then for ten days in
succession we had calms, fogs, and light adverse winds. Our
patience was sorely tried, but the monotony of our life was alleviated
by the numerous and great variety of sea-birds, which were
constantly flying round us, and furnished endless sport with the
musket. And here I feel bound to record the marvellous skill, or good
luck, of the Doctor, as he killed a whole flock of four wild geese at
one shot; and, what was still better, we got out our baidarka, and
took them all aboard.
Still creeping along with the same dull winds and disagreeable
weather, on the 3d of September we found ourselves in latitude 52°
north, and longitude 170° east, which placed us a considerable
distance southwest of Atter. We began to entertain fears lest we
should not reach the port of our destination in season; but on the
6th, for the first time since leaving Oonalashka, we took a strong
northeast gale, which carried us into the vicinity of the Kurile
Islands. Our hopes began to revive, and the prospect of reaching
Ochotsk to brighten; but again were we doomed to disappointment.
A severe blow from the southeast obliged us to heave to, with a
heavy sea running; and we drifted back over the course we had just
sailed, at the rate of two miles an hour. A considerable quantity of
the provisions for the sailors consisted of whale’s blubber, which was
hanging on our quarter, and was of course well soaked with oil. This
we found to be a great advantage, for it made a “slick” to the
windward for nearly a mile, and prevented the sea from breaking
over us.
Strong westerly winds continued to baffle us until the 14th, when,
having no hope of reaching Ochotsk before the autumn was so far
spent that we should be obliged to make a winter’s journey across
Siberia, we concluded to alter our course, and sail for the harbor of
St. Peter and St. Paul, or Petropowlowsk, in Kamtchatka. We made
port on the 22d, and anchored abreast the village. We were kindly
and hospitably received by the Company’s Superintendent, as well as
by the officers of the military department, and especially by Major
Antony Ivanah and lady, who showed me many civilities. Madam
Lariwanoff and daughter were taken in charge by the
Superintendent, and provided with comfortable quarters. The Doctor
and myself at once took temporary lodgings on the shore, until we
could make permanent arrangements for the winter. Having
discharged all the cargo, and dismantled our little craft, we hauled
her up on the beach at the first spring tide. Provisions and
accommodations were provided at the settlement for the crew as
well as ourselves; and in fact the people seemed desirous to do
everything in their power to render our stay amongst them as
comfortable and agreeable as the nature of the place would admit.
 VI.

Settled for another Winter.—Arrival of old Friends.—Dogs and Sledging.—A

Russian Christening.

Detained for another winter, we endeavored at once to make the

acquaintance of the inhabitants of the village, and to become
familiar with the country in its vicinity. We were introduced to all the
people of note, and kindly entertained by them. We made pedestrian
excursions for several miles in every direction, and visited all the
common places of resort. The scenery was picturesque, and the
view from the elevations was beautiful and grand. The Awatska Bay,
or outer harbor, as it is called, is completely land-locked, and at the
same time so extensive, that a thousand ships might ride at anchor
in it with safety. The distant mountains, and particularly the high
peak Awatska, add greatly to the landscape. The latter presents the
imposing spectacle of a volcano in full blast, always overhung with a
cloud of smoke, and constantly belching fire and lava.
We had only one source of annoyance at the village during the
early part of our stay, and we soon became well used to that. I refer
to the barking of the numerous dogs, though it can scarcely be
called barking, for they howl like a wolf. At sunset regularly they
would begin their serenade at one end of the settlement,—which, by
the way, extended all round the harbor,—and in the course of half an
hour all the voices would join in the chorus, and keep it up all night
long. With this single temporary drawback, we passed our time very
pleasantly until the first of November. By then we had visited on foot
all the places in the more immediate neighborhood, and we
concluded to make a short boat excursion to a small river named
Paratunka, to see some warm springs situated several miles from its
mouth. This spring issues from the ground in a boiling state, and
spreads out over a basin excavated for its reception. It forms an
excellent bathing-place, being of suitable depth, with a sandy
bottom, and the bather can choose any degree of warmth he
pleases. The water is impregnated with sulphur and other minerals.
We found here some Russian invalids who had come to enjoy the
use of the spring. All the rivers in the neighborhood abounded in
salmon, though it was so late in the season; and we protracted our
stay for a day or two, hunting and fishing, and boiling our game in
the hot water of the spring.

PETROPOWLOWSK IN KAMTCHATKA

On our return to the village we were surprised to find one of our

old Norfolk Sound friends, Lieutenant Davidoff, who had arrived at
the harbor in command of the little new vessel built at Sitcha, and
called the Awos. He had left the Sound in August, accompanied by
the Juno, under the command of Lieutenant Schwostoff, and having
Baron von Resanoff on board to be carried to Ochotsk. He had
parted with them off the Kurile Islands. About the middle of
November Lieutenant Schwostoff made his appearance with the
Juno. After landing his Excellency about Ochotsk, he received orders
to proceed to one of the southernmost of the Kurile Islands, and
break up a Japanese settlement reported to have been established
there. He found at the place four Japanese, with a large stock of
goods for trade with the islanders, consisting of rice, tobacco, fish-
nets, lacquered ware, salt, cotton, silk, and many other articles; all
of which he seized without opposition, and brought Japanese,
goods, and all to Kamtchatka. Thus we met our old friends in a very
unexpected manner. As we were doomed to pass another winter in
this region, their company was very pleasant, and to have the Juno
in sight again was especially agreeable to me.
I now took lodgings in a shanty owned and occupied by a very
clever old man, named Andra, and his wife and little boy. I called
him in a familiar way Starruk, that is old man, and his wife Starruke,
old woman. He was quite thrifty for the place, and was one of the
few in the village who owned and kept a cow. This was a fortunate
circumstance, for good milk was a rarity in that section. His shanty
was warm and comfortable, and was divided into three apartments.
In one corner of the largest they made a bunk for me, and curtained
it round. My man Parker slept in the same room on a movable bed.
In the next room, which was the cooking-room, there was a large
brick oven, or furnace, and on the top of this slept Starruk, his wife,
and little boy. The third apartment was devoted to the cow and her
fodder. At this place I took my meals at night and morning, but
dined by general invitation at the Company’s table, at the house of
the Superintendent. Comfortably settled in my new quarters, I
prepared for a long winter’s siege.
It was necessary to be provided with a set of good dogs and a
sledge. With the assistance of Starruk I was soon possessed of five
of the best animals of the kind, and had them tied up near the
house, that they might get accustomed to me, and be ready for use.
In the spring of the year the dogs are turned loose, and left to
provide for themselves, in the best way they can. Hence they are
great thieves until the herring season comes, when they have an
abundant supply of food, which they go into the water and catch for
themselves, until they become very fat, and unfit for use.[31] At that
season, too, great quantities of the herring are caught by the
owners of the dogs, and split and dried in the sun, to feed them in
the winter, when they give them nothing else.
I also purchased a first-rate sledge, at once light and handsome,
fur garments, Kamtchatka boots, bear-skin, and everything needed
to make my equipage complete; and, now fully prepared, I waited
impatiently for the snow. There had been already several squalls,
but about the last of November the ground was well covered and the
winter set in. My dogs were in good travelling condition, and I now
made my first essay, with three of them to begin with. The style in
which they tumbled me about in the snow was “a caution,” as Paddy
says, and furnished great amusement to the villagers. But I
persevered, with a determination to make myself master of the
business, and at the end of a week was quite an adroit performer.
The sledges were so constructed, that it required nearly as much
skill and practice to keep in equilibrium as in skating; but when well
understood, they afforded a most splendid recreation and agreeable
exercise. Being soon able to harness and manage my five dogs with
dexterity, we used frequently to make a party, consisting of
Langsdorff, Schwostoff, Davidoff, and Miasnikoff, and go out on
excursions to the neighboring villages, from ten to twenty miles
distant. When the weather was unfavorable, we had balls and
parties; and in this way the weeks and months of the long winter
passed off quite cheerfully.
About the 1st of January, 1807, the Governor-General, Koscheleff,
who resides at Nischney, which is the capital of Kamtchatka, made
his annual visit of inspection to all the military posts on the
peninsula. His entrance into Petropowlowsk with a long handsome
sledge, a Kamtchadale on each side, as conductors, and a string of
twenty dogs, was quite a new and pleasing sight to me. During his
stay of five days, we had royal feastings and visitings; and when he
left, half the village accompanied him to the distance of ten or
fifteen miles, myself among the number. We made a string nearly a
mile long.
 The sledging in Kamtchatka is not without some adverse
casualties to the best of managers. One occurred to me which I will
narrate. I was coming from Melka, an interior village, with a load of
frozen salmon, in company with my landlord, Starruk, and, my dogs
being better than his, I got several miles ahead of him. The snow
was deep, but the top was crusted, and the underbrush all covered.
The surface was perfectly smooth, but interrupted by numerous
large trees; and to avoid them our track was serpentine. At last we
came to an inclined plane of a mile or so in length, and, my sledge
being heavily laden, it became necessary for me to be constantly on
my guard, and keep a sharp lookout. Accordingly I took the usual
preliminary precaution in such cases, of sitting sideways, with the
left hand hold of the fore part, left foot on the runner, and my right
leg extended; my foot, slipping over the snow, operated as a sort of
an outrigger. The dogs at the same time, fearful lest the sledge
should run on to them, went down the declivity like lightning. The
trees seemed to grow thicker and thicker, and to avoid them it soon
became hard up and hard down with me. At last, coming to a sharp
curve to the right, the sledge, shearing to the other side, struck with
such force as to scatter my whole establishment, and I received such
a blow on the head that it stunned me and laid me out on the snow
unconscious. When I came to a little, and looked up, I saw my
sledge was partly a wreck, four of my dogs had broken from their
harness and gone on, while one, left fast in his gear, was sitting on
his haunches, and watching me with wonder, as much as to say,
“How came you here?” It was not long before Starruk came up. He
asked me what was the matter. I replied that some one in passing
had run foul of me. “No,” said he, “I guess you run foul of that tree”;
which, on collecting my scattered thoughts I found to be the fact.
But as there were no bones broken, I brightened up, and, with the
old man’s assistance, caught my dogs again, repaired damages and
pursued my journey, not a little worse for my tumble.
 SLEDGE AND EQUIPMENTS IN KAMTCHATKA

I will mention another circumstance which occurred to me,—not

that there was anything extraordinary in it, but merely to show the
sagacity of dogs, and the convenience of travelling with them. I was
coming from a village about ten miles distant. It was dusk when I
started, and night soon closed in with Egyptian darkness and an
arctic snow-storm. I could not see even my dogs. The new snow
soon covered and obliterated the old track. It was difficult to tell
whether I was going ahead or standing still, without putting my foot
through the new-fallen snow down to the old crust. In this way I
went on for an hour or so, the dogs making very slow progress, and
very hard work of it. Not being able to see anything, I somehow or
other became persuaded that the dogs had inclined to the left of the
beaten track, and consequently I kept urging them to the right. Thus
I went on for some time, until I found myself in a forest of large
trees, and had much difficulty in keeping clear of them. At last I
became decidedly bewildered, but convinced that I had lost my way.
Not knowing whither I was going, and fearing that I might wander,
the Lord knew where, during the long night, I concluded to halt, and
make my dogs fast to a tree. I then sat awhile on my sledge, and
listened, to see if I could hear anybody, and finally prepared my
bear-skin and fur garments for a night’s bivouac. I had not lain more
than an hour before I heard the howling of dogs; my own
immediately answered them. I found they were approaching, and
when I judged them to be within hailing distance, I called out. A
man called out in return, and soon drove up. It was a Kamtchadale
coming from Petropowlowsk. It appeared that I had urged the dogs
a considerable distance from the proper track, which, with the new-
comer’s assistance, I regained. He told me not to attempt to guide
the dogs, but to let them pick their own way. I accordingly sat on my
sledge for an hour or so, scarcely realizing that I was moving, till at
last I turned my eyes up, and found myself right under the light of
my own window.
These little mishaps occurred while I was yet a novice in the art of
sledging; but I soon became acquainted with the habits and
dispositions of my dogs, and they became accustomed to me, so
that I travelled fearlessly, alone or in company, and made excursions
to all the villages in the southern part of the peninsula within a
hundred miles of Petropowlowsk. While I was amusing myself in the
southern, the Doctor was traversing the northern part of Kamtchatka
all by himself, and collecting specimens of natural history.
I was always an admirer of the rigid adherence of the Russians to
their religious forms and ceremonies. I never saw a Russian, high or
low, who did not, both before and after eating, ask a blessing, and
give thanks to God for his bounty, apparently with a sincere and
thankful heart. Yet there were some things very absurd in their
ceremonies. For instance, I was invited to the christening of a child
at the house of the Superintendent, and requested to stand as
godfather with Dr. Langsdorff, as it was necessary, I was told, to
have two godfathers and two godmothers.[32] At the appointed time
we repaired to the house, where we found the pope and numerous
guests already assembled. The pope had brought with him a small
box, resembling a tea-caddy, containing, as was said, consecrated
oil. A large tub full of water was placed in the centre of the room,
and the pope’s apparatus near at hand. He then commenced the
operation with prayers, after which, he took the child in his arms and
plunged it under the water. Then, with a small brush and some oil
from the box, he crossed the child all over its body and legs, and
afterwards marched round the tub, and we, the godfathers and
godmothers, followed, in Indian file, three times around. The child
was then given to one of the godfathers, crossed again, and round
the tub we went three times more. And so it continued until we all
had taken our turns, and made fifteen circuits of the tub. Now I
thought this, or the greater part of it, a nonsensical ceremony, and a
piece of rigmarole; but it was not my part to find fault or object to it,
and I willingly conformed to the custom.
When it was over, the tub was taken away, and a table put in its
place, madam, the mother of the child, brought on the goodies, pies
of flesh and pies of fish, cakes of various kinds, preserved berries,
and many other things; but what astounded me most was that a
bottle of real ardent spirits found its way to the table on this extra
occasion, an article which had disappeared from among our stores
several months previous. The pope paid his respects to it with
peculiar unction, and a glowing countenance, and the rest of us
were not slow in following suit. This was one of the friendly
gatherings to which I made it a point never to refuse an invitation;
and I found the Russians very fond of celebrating birthdays,
christenings, and as many holidays as they could make an excuse
for.

VII.

Voyage to Ochotsk.—Journey from Ochotsk to Yakutsk.

 About the last of March the snow began to disappear rapidly, and
by the middle of April the ground was so bare that our sledging
parties were abandoned. The ice had left the bay, and all hands
were at work, under the directions of Lieut. Schwostoff and Davidoff,
sawing and breaking up the ice in the inner harbor, in order to
extricate the Juno and Awos, which had been preparing to sail for
some time. By the 25th the channel was cleared, and the two
vessels put to sea, with the four Japanese who had passed the
winter with us. Their destination was the northern Japanese Islands,
where they intended to land their passengers, and make some
further attempts to establish an intercourse with the people.
By this movement I was prompted to get my little craft afloat and
prepare for the remainder of my voyage. I was admonished, by
those acquainted with the breaking up of the ice in the rivers at the
head of the Ochotsk Sea, not to be in a hurry; but my anxiety to be
off rendered me deaf to all remonstrances; and on the 22d of May I
was ready. At this point I was beset by a number of persons, both
male and female, for a passage to Ochotsk. I concluded to take five
in addition to Madam Lariwanoff and daughter, viz. one elderly
widow woman, one old woman and her daughter, one very
respectable young man in the Company’s service, and one other
gentleman. Our party now numbered eighteen. We were tolerably
well equipped, and had an abundant supply of such provisions as
the place afforded. When our arrangements were all completed,
Doctor Langsdorff and myself devoted a day to taking leave of the
many friends who had entertained us during the winter; and I
particularly of my old landlord and landlady, Starruk and Starruke. To
the former I paid what he thought a very liberal compensation for
the apartment I had occupied at his house. I also made him a
present of my sledge, its equipage, and my dogs, with the exception
of one, which I took with me. To Starruke I gave my bedding,
curtains, and furniture. I then bade good-bye to these warm-hearted
people, and left them with their warmest prayers for a prosperous
voyage. Our passengers now came on board, and, after making the
best accommodations for them our contracted quarters would admit,
on the 26th, with fair weather, we bade adieu to Petropowlowsk, and
weighed anchor.
Favorable winds continued just long enough to give us a good
offing, when they became light and adverse, with calms, and so
continued for several days. On the 30th, having just taken a brisk
breeze, which was driving us along, for a wonder, at nearly five
knots, we ran into a large whale which was lying near the surface.
We somehow slid up his back so as to raise our little vessel two or
three feet and throw her over on her side four or five streaks. It was
like striking a rock, and brought us to a complete standstill. The
monster soon showed himself, gave a spout, “kicked” his flukes and
went down. He did not appear to be hurt, nor were we hurt, but
most confoundedly frightened. I sounded the pump immediately,
and found that all was safe as to leakage, and we continued on our
course quite satisfied with the result.
June 3d, we passed through between the second and third Kurile
Islands from the southern part of Kamtchatka, and entered the Sea
of Ochotsk. Here again we were annoyed by the calms, which
continued with but little variance until the 14th, when we had
reached latitude 58°. We now began to meet ice, at first so
scattered that we thought it possible to push through it; but after
working in amongst it for a few hours, it became so compact as to
be impassable, and extended east, west, and north as far as the eye
could reach, even from the masthead a solid mass. Finding it
impossible to proceed any farther, and as the ice was closing rapidly
around us, I deemed it advisable to avail myself of that better part
of valor, discretion, and pole out as we had poled in; for I had soon
discovered that our little craft was too slight to deal freely with
heavy ice. Having gained the open water, I steered to the eastward
all day without finding any passage-way. The wind proving
unfavorable for sailing in that direction, we turned and went
westward. Thus we continued for ten days, making various attempts
to get clear of the ice, and at last succeeded. On the 26th, at
meridian, we found our latitude 59°20′, and the land was in sight.
On the 27th, we anchored off the mouth of the river Ochota. At 2 P.
M., the tide turned, and we crossed the bar, entered the harbor of
Ochotsk, and made fast to the Company’s wharf. Thus terminated a
long and tedious passage of thirty-three days.
We were told here that the ice had only left the rivers and bays
four or five days. We were likewise informed, to our great grief, that
his Excellency Baron von Resanoff had died at Krasnojarsk in Siberia,
on his route to St. Petersburg. He had fallen from his horse on the
road from Ochotsk to Yakutsk, which was supposed to be the cause
of his death. The passport and letters I had previously received from
his Excellency at once made me acquainted with the Company’s
Superintendent, Mr. Petroff; likewise with the commandant of the
port, Captain Bucharin. By both these gentlemen I was treated with
the utmost kindness and civility; and, knowing my desire to be on
my way to St. Petersburg, they were both anxious to afford me
every facility in their power. A taboo was immediately put upon a
sufficient number of the first horses that arrived from Yakutsk. With
the greatest possible despatch, it was necessary to wait a few days,
and in the mean time I was taken round the place to see the lions.
They did not amount to much. The town was situated on a sand
spit, washed by the sea on one side and the river Ochota on the
other. The river Kuchtin unites with the Ochota near the harbor’s
mouth, which, at the best, is an indifferent one, and not accessible
to vessels drawing more than eight feet of water. The town is joined
to the mainland by a narrow neck of marshy ground, which is often
inundated. In fact, it appeared to me that any extra rise of the river
or sea would swamp the whole place. Some ship-building was going
on here, and many convicts were employed in the government
service.
For my convenience, the privilege was accorded to me by the
Company of selecting a Russian subject to accompany me on my
road, as a kind of an assistant. A young man by the name of
Kutsnetsoff, or Smith, was pointed out as one desirous of going with
me, but the Superintendent did not feel authorized to release him
from the service, unless I should think proper to select him, and I
accordingly did so. He had been ten years at the settlements on the
Aleutian Islands, and was anxious to return to Irkutsk, his native
place. He had a brother in Moscow, a merchant in high standing,
who was at the head of the Company’s establishment there.
On the morning of July 3d, my horses, eleven in number, were
brought out. They did not look very promising, as they had been
overworked on the route hither. This was rather discouraging, for it
was important that they should be in a good condition for a journey
of 500 miles, through a country with no signs of a settlement except
a few log shanties at great distances asunder, and no road but a
serpentine footpath; moreover, we had a fair amount of luggage,
and for comfort and convenience we were obliged to carry a tent,
cooking-utensils, and bear-skins, &c. for bedding. Bad as they were,
these horses were better than none, and I must make the best of
them.
Having completed my preparations, I took leave of my highly
esteemed friend, Dr. Langsdorff, who intended to remain a week or
so for the promotion of his favorite object; also of Madam Lariwanoff
and her daughter, my other passengers, and sailors,—particularly of
the three Alashka Indians, who had proved themselves excellent
men, and rendered me good service.[33] They fell upon their knees
and entreated me to take them with me. As this was impracticable, I
could only make them a gratuity in rubles, and recommend them to
the kindness of Mr. Petroff, in whose employ and charge they were.
Having finished our leave-takings, we mounted our horses. There
were five of us,—myself and two aids, Parker and Kutsnetsoff, and
two Yakutas, the owners of the horses, and acting as guides. Three
of the other six horses carried our luggage, and the remaining three
were kept in reserve for a change on the road. Dr. Langsdorff, the
Superintendent, Captain Bucharin, and other friends, accompanied
us to the outskirts of the town to take another and a final farewell,
and we then put spurs to our horses, and struck into the woods. We
went on at quite a spirited pace until five o’clock, when we arrived at
a small clearing called Medwescha Golowa, or Bear’s Head, where
there were a few huts. Here we dismounted to lunch, and rest our
horses for half an hour; and then resumed our journey. At seven in
the evening we pitched our tent, and camped for the night, in a
good place for our horses to graze. As we carried no provender, this
was a matter of great importance throughout our whole journey. We
turned our beasts loose, and the Yakutschians watched them by
turns through the night. The distance we travelled this day since
eleven o’clock was 45 versts.[34]
Ochotsk is situated in latitude 59°30′, and Yakutsk in about 63°.
The direction of our course was west-northwest and the distance in
a bee-line 500 miles; but by reason of the tortuous nature of the
route we were obliged to pursue, the distance was much increased.
In such an extent of wild country there were doubtless many objects
that would have attracted the attention of the man of science; but
being myself neither naturalist, botanist, nor geologist, I had no call
to search to the right or to the left for specimens. My business was
to push on as fast as my horses could carry me, having an especial
regard for my bills of exchange. I paid but little attention to the
names of the numerous small rivers and mountains which we
crossed, merely noticing some of the principal. To me the country
wore even a greater degree of sameness than other unsettled
regions.
July 4th. We collected our horses and struck our tent at 7 A. M.,
mounted, and continued our journey. Several large caravans of
horses passed us in the forenoon, laden with flour and provisions for
Ochotsk. In the afternoon, we crossed a ridge of tolerably high
mountains, and then came upon swampy ground. At five o’clock we
reached a small river; but it was so deep we were obliged to ferry
our luggage over in a boat, and swim our horses. We went on until
eight in the evening, when we encamped. The distance travelled this
day was 47 versts.
July 5th. We had a thick fog and rain through the night. It cleared
up in the morning, and we mounted at seven, and continued our
journey through valleys and over mountains, with extremely bad
travelling, the whole day. The weather growing hot, we were sorely
annoyed by the mosquitos, and were obliged to wear leather gloves
and a kind of hood in the shape of a sun-bonnet, with a gauze veil
to protect the face. Our white horses became perfectly pink with the
blood drawn from them by these insects. We pitched our tents at six
in the evening. The distance travelled this day was 55 versts.
July 6th. Started at seven, and had pleasant, but rather warm
weather. In the course of the day we forded several small rivers
without unpacking our horses, and passed four caravans with stores
for Ochotsk. At five in the afternoon we came to a small group of
shanties where was kept a magazine of provisions and a stud of
horses for government emergencies. This place was 190 versts from
Ochotsk. Taking tea here, we proceeded until seven o’clock, and
then encamped in a tolerably good grazing-place. The distance
travelled this day was 55 versts.
July 7th. Started this morning at six. The travelling was extremely
bad, and the ground swampy; the horses sank in the mire up to
their saddle-girths. By noon we came to better going. Passed to-day,
beside caravans, several droves of cattle on the way to Ochotsk.
Distance, 60 versts.
July 8th. Fine weather, but the travelling very poor again. At ten in
the morning arrived at the banks of the river Allacjun, one of the
largest tributaries of the Aldan. We ferried our baggage across, and
swam our horses. At three in the afternoon we halted and turned
our beasts out to graze. Owing to the uneven and miry road they
had passed over, they were much fatigued and galled. Distance this
day, 40 versts.
July 9th. Started at six in the morning. Passed several caravans,
and at five in the afternoon met the government post for Ochotsk.
At nine, pitched our tent on the bank of a small tributary of the
Allacjun. Distance this day, 65 versts.
July 10th. Rained all the fore part of the day. Our route was
through a gorge between high ridges of mountains. Distance
travelled, 50 versts.
 July 11th. The weather was pleasant and warm, the country
rugged and mountainous. At four in the afternoon we came to the
foot of a high and steep mountain, and halted to make preparations
for the ascent. Our horses had already become so weak and travel-
worn, that it was doubtful whether they would succeed in crossing it.
My Yakutschian guides lifted their tails to ascertain their strength. On
those that had limber tails the weight of the baggage was reduced,
and increased on those that had stiff tails. I noticed them also
pulling hair from the manes, and tying it to the branches of trees;
whether this was done to invoke the good, or propitiate the evil
spirits, I could not make out. After they had adjusted things to suit
them, we took off our coats, and started, leading our beasts. The
ground was so very springy that it was with great difficulty that we
could pick our way. Two of the baggage horses mired before we
reached the top, and we were obliged to unload in order to extricate
them. We finally gained the summit,—which after all was not so very
high,—and, having rested a little, descended. Continuing our course
through a narrow valley, at 6 P. M. we crossed the river Allakum, and
stopped at a small cluster of shanties on its left bank. There was a
ferry for bipeds, but such of the poor horses as were able were
obliged to swim. The stream was so rapid, that mine had a hard tug
to get across. Distance this day, 50 versts.
It was necessary to make a halt soon for a day or two to recruit,
and this was a favorable place. The government had a station and
postilion here. Four of my horses were completely broken down, and
I left them, and hired six fresh ones. We also replenished our stock
of provisions.
July 14th. Mounted at 5 A. M., and passed over a very high
mountain, and descended into a narrow, serpentine valley, in which
we travelled the better part of the day. We passed several caravans
and droves of beef cattle. Distance, 55 versts.
July 15th. Our route this day over boggy ground again, and the
travelling was therefore as poor as ever. Our horses’ backs were very
sore, and they were all nearly exhausted. We pitched our tent early
in the afternoon at a good grazing-place, to give them a little rest.
Distance, 40 versts.
July 16th. The weather this day was warm and pleasant, and road
not so mountainous as it had been. At 5 P. M., one of our horses
gave out, and we left him. Continuing on until seven, we pitched our
tent on the banks of the White River. Distance, 50 versts.
July 17th. At 6 A. M. we mustered together our horses, and found
that four were missing. We spent half the day in a fruitless search
for them, and then concluded that they were either killed or
frightened away by the bears, which are very plentiful in this region.
We pursued our journey, much of the way through mud and water
up to the saddle-girths. Distance, 30 versts.
July 18th. Struck our tent at 7 A. M., and at nine crossed the
White River. All the early part of the day, until within twenty versts of
the Aldan, we found the road very good. Here we saw before us an
extensive morass, to avoid which it would be necessary to go the
distance of thirty versts. This morass was about a quarter of a mile
in breadth, and partially covered with water, interspersed with little
grass knolls, which were soft and unsteady. Disagreeable as the
prospect was, we concluded to go straight across. We accordingly
fastened on the baggage tighter, stripped off all our clothes but shirt
and pants, and secured them to the saddles, and started, leading
our horses, each one picking out the way for himself. In about half
an hour we succeeded in flouncing through without accident; but it
was a tiresome job, and we got well plastered with mud. Putting
ourselves and luggage in order, we proceeded until 10 P. M., when
we reached the government station on the right bank of the Aldan,
having left two of our horses on the road exhausted.
We had now reached the principal station on the route, which was
about two thirds the distance to Yakutsk; and I determined to halt
for a day or two to recruit, after passing fifteen in the saddle. At first
I was quite pleased with the idea of this land excursion, but I found
in a very little while that it was no joke. I was sore all over, from
head to foot. The clumsy saddles we rode were anything but
convenient. The pommels were of wood and raised about six inches,
and in the hollow between sat the rider. There was just space
enough for an ordinary-sized man; and being myself light and spare
of person, there was plenty of room for me to shake in my seat. I
soon hit upon an expedient, however, to alleviate my suffering. I
bolstered up with pillows, so that by the fourth day my pains and
aches subsided, and afterward I was tolerably comfortable. Still the
incessant torments of the mosquitos and miry roads were hard to
bear. I soon grew sick of this horse-marine navigation, and came to
the conclusion that the spray of the sea was far preferable to a mud
bath. We made up as well as we could for the annoyance of bad
roads, bogs, and small rivers, by taking reasonable care of the inner
man. I mentioned before, that we took our cooking apparatus and
provisions with us. We had bread and sugar, and the tea-kettle was
in constant requisition morning and evening. Sometimes at the
shanties on the route we obtained a little milk. At noon we generally
had a substantial lunch of Bologna sausage or corned meat, and a
glass of schnapps.
Having rested and refreshed ourselves sufficiently, I made an
arrangement with the postilion of the station to take us through the
remainder of the distance, as from here to the banks of the Lena
there were relays of horses at points twenty-five or thirty versts
asunder.
July 21st. Being all ready for a move, our horses were gathered
together at the river’s side. There was only one small boat belonging
to the place, in which we made out to ferry ourselves and baggage
over; but the poor horses were obliged to swim. Such was their
dislike to the water, that we were detained half a day trying to force
them in. At last we succeeded, by taking two of them by the halter,
one on each side of the boat, and letting the others, five in number,
follow on their own hook. The current was so rapid that they swam
the distance of two versts, when the width of the stream at this
point was only one, before they reached the opposite shore. They
crawled up on the bank quite exhausted, and we were obliged to
remain awhile for them to recover. At 2 P. M. we mounted and
pursued our journey. At eight in the evening we pitched our tent at
the first post-station after leaving the Aldan. The distance travelled
was 35 versts.
July 22d. Changed horses and started at 6 A. M. The travelling
was much improved, and at 5 P. M. we came to the second stand, on
the bank of the Anger, after a ride of 50 versts. We passed over this
river in the usual manner, and went on 25 versts more to the third
station, where we paused for the night, quite satisfied with our day’s
progress.
July 23d. At 9 A. M. started with fresh horses and continued on
our route. The travelling was still more improved, and the country
generally had a more agreeable appearance. The high mountains
had disappeared, and we rode over level prairies, beautifully
diversified with grasses and a great variety and profusion of flowers.
Among the latter the red pink predominated, the odor of which
scented the whole atmosphere, and made the journey delightful. At
1 P. M. we changed our horses at the fourth station, and at six
arrived at the fifth, where we passed the night. Distance, 60 versts.
July 24th. We had pleasant weather, and at 7 A. M. started on our
route. At 8 P. M. we arrived at the seventh station, where we
encamped for the night, and paid the postilion 35 rubles for the use
of his horses, this being the last station to which he had authority to
take us. Distance, 60 versts.
July 25th. At 7 A. M. we resumed our journey under the charge of
another postilion. Our horses, since leaving the Aldan, had generally
been very good; but this morning I found myself on a splendid
animal, of a cream color, singularly and beautifully marked. A dark
brown stripe about a hand’s breadth ran from the crupper to the
withers, and then spread over the shoulders in a broad patch; his
mane and tail reached nearly to the ground. I could see that he was
well groomed and cared for, but I was rather shy about mounting
him at first. I was assured, however, that he was well broken and
gentle, and I found him so. He was certainly the most perfect
creature of the kind I ever rode or set eyes on. The plains over
which we travelled this day were dotted over with innumerable cattle
and horses grazing. At 9 P. M. we arrived at the tenth station and
pitched our tent. Distance, 75 versts.
July 26th. At 7 A. M. we continued on our route, and at 4 P. M.
reached the right bank of the river Lena, which I crossed, and was
kindly received and entertained at the Company’s establishment at
Yakutsk. This town, the capital of the province of the same name,
covers a large space of ground. The houses were mostly of logs, but
some were spacious and tolerably handsome, and surrounded with
large gardens. The churches and other public buildings, with their
cupolas, made quite a conspicuous and pleasing appearance as we
approached the place, but the streets were irregular, unpaved, and
muddy. The latitude of the town is 62°30′ N.
The breadth of the Lena at Yakutsk is about two miles. This
magnificent river takes its rise in the southern part of Siberia, in lat.
52°. Its general course is northeast, and it empties into the Arctic
Ocean in lat. 75°. With its tributaries it forms the principal channel
for the discharge of the great water-sheds of the eastern part of the
empire, and the thoroughfare of communication with the provinces
of Ochotsk, Kamtchatka and the Aleutian Islands. Down this stream
vessels carried the various articles needed in those distant regions,
such as bread-stuffs, liquors, and manufactures, and brought up in
return the furs and other commodities which found a ready market
in China and Russia.

VIII.

Yakutsk.—Different Modes of Travelling.—Voyage up the Lena.—I arrive at

Irkutsk.

I determined to remain at Yakutsk a few days, to look around and

ascertain the best mode of proceeding up the river to Irkutsk. The
distance in a straight line was about 1500 miles, but by following the