STATE OF STRESS AND

STRAIN IN TWO-DIMENSION

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (MSE 305) LECTURE

DELIVERED BY:

DR. J. O. OLAWALE
November 2023
 STATE OF STRESS IN TWO-DIMENSION
(PLANE STRESS)
• A two-dimensional state-of-stress exists when the stresses and body
forces are independent of one of the coordinates.
• Such a state is described by stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and the x and y
body forces. Here z is taken as the independent coordinate axis. In this
state the two of the faces of the cubic element are free of any stress.
• Since 𝑧 axis is chosen perpendicular to this face, we have 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 =
𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0 and the only remaining stress components are 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦
as shown in Fig. 3.1.
• Such a situation is referred to as a state of stress in two-dimension
(plane stress). Thus, a two-dimensional stress system is one in which
the stress at any point in the body act in the same plane.
 STATE OF STRESS IN TWO-DIMENSION
(PLANE STRESS)
• Recalled that the general state of stress at a point is characterized by
six independent normal and shear stress components which act on the
faces of an element of material located at the point.
• This state of stress, however, is not often encounter in engineering
practice.
• Instead, engineers frequently make approximations and simplifications
of the loadings on a body in order that the stress produced in a
structural member or mechanical element can be analyzed in a single
plane.
• When this is the case, the material is said to be subjected to plane
stress.
• A two-dimensional state-of-stress exists when the stresses and body
forces are independent of one of the coordinates. Such a state is
described by stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and the x and y body forces.
(Here z is taken as the independent coordinate axis.)

• In this state the two of the faces of the cubic element are free of any
stress. Since 𝑧 axis is chosen perpendicular to this face, we have 𝜎𝑧 =
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0 and the only remaining stress components are 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦
and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 as shown in Fig. 3.1.

• Such a situation is refer to as a state of stress in two dimension (plane

stress). Thus a two dimensional stress system is one in which the stress
at any point in the body act in the same plane.
Fig. 3.1a Element in plane stress in the 𝑥𝑦 Fig. 3.1b Two-dimensional presentation of
plane. plane stress.
• Many problems can be simplified by considering a two-dimension
state of stress.
• This condition is frequently approached in practice when one of the
dimensions of the body is small relative to the others.
• For example, in a thin plate loaded in the plane of the of the plate (Fig.
3.2) there will be no stress acting perpendicular to the surface of the
plate.
• If we take the 𝑥𝑦 plane to be the plane of the sheet, then the state of
stress at a point 𝑂 in the sheet can be visualized as shown in Fig. 3.1a,
where 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0.
• Hence, the state of stress at a point will depend on only the stress
components:
 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑥 array of tress component is called
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦 plane stress in the 𝑥𝑦 plane.
Taking the summation of the
forces about center O in the 𝑧
direction:
𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 ∆𝑥 = (𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑧 )∆𝑦
∴ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥
If we assume further that for a thin
sheet there are no variations in the
stress components in the 𝑧
direction, then the stress
components are functions of only
𝑥 and 𝑦. Under this assumption the Fig. 3.2: A thin plate loaded by
forces in the 𝑥𝑦 plane
• Plane stress arises in a thin components loaded in certain ways.

• In addition, many engineering problems, such as axial bars, beams in

bending and circular members in torsion, are examples of a state of
stress called plane stress
 TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRESS
• Let us assume that a state of plane stress exists at point 𝑂 (with 𝜎𝑧 =
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0) and that it is defined by the stress components 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦
and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 associated with the elements shown in Fig. 3.3a.
• We propose to determine the stress components 𝜎𝑥 ′ , 𝜎𝑦′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′
associated with the element after it has been rotated through an angle
𝜃 about the 𝑧 axis (Fig. 3.3b), and to express these components in
terms of 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜃.
• In order to determine the normal stress 𝜎𝑥 ′ and shearing stress 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′
exerted on the face perpendicular to 𝑥 ′ axis, we shall consider a
prismatic element with faces respectively perpendicular to the 𝑥, 𝑦 and
𝑥 ′ (Fig. 3.4a).
• If the area of the oblique face is denoted by 𝐴, it follows that the
forces exerted on the three faces are shown in Fig. 3.4b.
• Left face has area 𝐴.
• Bottom face has area 𝐴 tan 𝜃.
• Inclined face has area 𝐴 sec 𝜃.
• Using the components of forces along the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axes, we write the
following equilibrium equations:

σ 𝐹𝑥 ′ = 0:
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝐴 sec 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑥 𝐴) cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 sin 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − (𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) cos 𝜃 = 0
σ 𝐹𝑦′ = 0:
𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ 𝐴 sec 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑥 𝐴) sin 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 cos 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − (𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) sin 𝜃 = 0

Using 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 and solving the first equation for 𝜎𝑥 ′ and second for
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ , we have :
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 Eqn. 1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) Eqn. 2
Recalling the trigonometric relations:
sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
and
2 1 +cos 2𝜃 2 1 −cos 2𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
2 2
Using trigonometric relations, we write Eqn. 1 as follow:

1 + cos 2𝜃 1 − cos 2𝜃
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
or
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 3
2 2

Using trigonometric relations, we write Eqn. 2 as follow:

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃 Eqn. 4
2

The expression for the normal stress 𝜎𝑦′ can be obtained by replacing 𝜃
in Eqn. 3 by the angle 𝜃 + 90° that 𝑦 ′ axis forms. Since cos(2𝜃 +
180°) = − cos 2𝜃 and sin 2𝜃 + 180° = − sin 2𝜃, we have:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 5
2 2
Equations 3 to 5 are refer to as stress transformation equations for plane
stress which gives the stresses in an 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ coordinate system if the stress
in an 𝑥𝑦 coordinate system and the angle 𝜃 are known.

Adding Eqns. 3 and 5 member to member, we obtained:

𝜎𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦

Since 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 ′ = 0, we thus verify in the case of plane stress that sum

of the normal stress exerted on the cubic element of material is
independent of the orientation of that element.
Special cases
Case 1: Uniaxial stress Case 2 : Pure Shear

𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 0
1 +cos 2𝜃
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 0
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥
2 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
sin 2𝜃
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
Case 3: Biaxial stress

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃
2
Sign Convention:
1. Positive normal stress acts outward from all faces and positive shear
stress acts upwards on the right-hand face of the element.
2. Negative normal stress acts inward from all faces and negative shear
stress acts downwards on the right-hand face of the element.
3. If the body is rotated clockwise the shear stress is negative and the
angle 𝜃 is negative.
4. If the body is rotated counterclockwise the shear stress is positive
and the angle 𝜃 is positive.
5. If the body is rotated in positive angle the shear stress is positive.
6. If the body is rotated in negative angle the shear stress is negative.
Example 3.1 The state of stress at
a point in the machine element is
shown in Fig. 3.1a. Determine the
normal and shearing stresses
acting on an inclined plane parallel
to (1) line 𝑎 − 𝑎 and (2) line 𝑏 − 𝑏

Solution The 𝑥 ′ direction is that of

a normal to the inclined plane. We
want to obtain the transformation
of stress from the 𝑥𝑦 system of
coordinates to the 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ system. Fig. 3.1a Element in plane stress
(1) Given that: 𝜎𝑥 = 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = −5 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜃 =
45° on an inclined line 𝑎 − 𝑎, we obtain:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
10 − 5 10 + 5
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 90° − 6 sin 90°
2 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 2.5 + 7.5 cos 90° − 6 sin 90° = −3.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
 10 − 5 10 + 5
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 90° + 6 sin 90°
2 2
𝜎𝑦′ = 2.5 − 7.5 cos 90° + 6 sin 90° = 8.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ =− sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − 10 + 5 sin 90° − 6 cos 90°
2
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −7.5 sin 90° − 6 cos 90° = −7.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(2) Given that: 𝜎𝑥 = 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = −5 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜃 =
− 60° on an inclined line 𝑏 − 𝑏, we obtain:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
10 − 5 10 + 5
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos(−120°) − 6 sin(−120°)
2 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 2.5 + 7.5 cos(−120°) − 6 sin(−120°) = 3.95 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
 10 − 5 10 + 5
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos(−120°) + 6 sin(−120°)
2 2
𝜎𝑦′ = 2.5 − 7.5 cos(−120°) + 6 sin(−120°) = 1.05 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ =− sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − 10 + 5 sin(−120°) − 6 cos(−120°)
2
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −7.5 sin(−120°) − 6 cos(−120°) = 9.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
The sketch of stresses on an element oriented at the angle 45° ↶ and
120° ↶ are as shown in Fig. 2.1b and Fig. 2.1c, respectively.

Fig. 3.1 (a) Element in plane stress, (b) Element inclined at 45°↶, (c) Element inclined at 60°↷
Example 3.2: The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress
element below. Determine the stresses acting on an element oriented 30°
clockwise with respect to the original element.

Define the stresses in terms of the

established sign convention:
𝜎𝑥 = −80 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝜎𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −25 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝜃 = −30°

Solution:
The stress components are:
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

−80+50 −80 −50

𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2(−30) + (−25) sin 2(−30) = −25.85 𝑀𝑝𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

−80+50 −80−50
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2(−30) − (−25) sin 2 −30 = −4.15 Mpa
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 50 + 80
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 2(−30°) + (−25) cos 2(−30°) = −68.8 𝑀𝑝𝑎
2

Note that 𝜎𝑦′ could also be

obtained (a) by substituting + 60°
into the equation for 𝜎𝑥 ′ (b) by
using the equation 𝜎𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝑦′ =
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
Example 3.3: An element in plane
stress is subjected to stresses 𝜎𝑥 =
16000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 , 𝜎𝑦 = 6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (as shown in
figure below). Determine the
stresses acting on an element
inclined at an angle 𝜃 = 45°
(counterclockwise)

Solution:
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 16000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ,
𝜎𝑦 = 6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
and 𝜃 = 45°
The stress components are:
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 16000 +6000
= = 11000 𝑃𝑠𝑖
2 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 16000 −5000
= = 5000 𝑃𝑠𝑖
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 11000 + 5000 cos 90 + 4000 sin 90

𝜎𝑦′ = 11000 − 5000 cos 90 − 4000 sin 90

 𝜎𝑦′ = 11000 − 5000(0) – 4000(1) = 7000 𝑃𝑠𝑖
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −5000 sin 90 + 4000 cos 90
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −5000 1 + 4000 0 = 5000 𝑃𝑠𝑖

Fig. 3.3 (a) Element in plane stress, and (b) Element inclined at 45° counterclockwise
Example 3.4: A plane stress Solution:
condition exists at a point on the Given that 𝜎𝑥 = −46 𝑀𝑝𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 = 12 𝑀𝑝𝑎 ,
surface of a loaded structure such 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −19 𝑀𝑝𝑎 and 𝜃 = −15°
as shown below. Determine the The stress components are:
stresses acting on an element that 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎 +2 𝜎 + 𝜎 −2 𝜎 cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
′
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

is oriented at a clockwise angle of

15° with respect to the original 𝜎 +𝜎 𝑥𝜎 −𝜎𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
𝜎𝑦 = ′ − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
element. 2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 −46 +12
= = −17 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 −46 −12
= = −29 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ = −17 − 29 cos −30 − 19 sin(−30)

𝜎𝑥 ′ = −17 − 29(0.866) −19 −0.5 = −36.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑦′ = −17 + 29 cos −30 + 19 sin(−30)

𝜎𝑦′ = −17 + 29 0.866 + 19 −0.5 = −1.386 𝑀𝑃a

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 29 sin −30 − 19 cos(−30)

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 29 −0.5 − 19 0.866 = −31 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Fig. 3.4 (a) Element in plane stress, and (b) Element inclined at 30° clockwise
Example 3.5: A rectangular plate of dimensions 3.0 in x 5.0 in is
formed by welding two triangular plates (see figure). The plate is
subjected to a tensile stress of 600 psi in the long direction and a
compressive stress of 250 psi in the short direction. Determine the
normal stress 𝝈𝒘 acting perpendicular to the line or the weld and the
shear stress 𝝉𝒘 acting parallel to the weld. (Assume 𝝈𝒘 is positive when
it acts in tension and 𝝉𝒘 is positive when it acts counterclockwise
against the weld).
Solution:
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 600 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 = −250 𝑝si, and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0 𝑝𝑠𝑖
3
For 𝑥 axis tan 𝜃 = → 𝜃 = 30.96° → 2𝜃 = 61.92°
5

The stress components are:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 600 −250
= = 175 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 600+250
2
= 2
= 425 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜎𝑥′ = 175 + 425 cos 61.92 + 0 sin(61.92)

𝜎𝑥′ = 175 + 425(0.471) = 375 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜎𝑦′ = 175 − 425 cos 61.92 − 0 sin(61.92)

𝜎𝑦′ = 175 − 425 0.471 = −25 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜏𝑥′ 𝑦′ = −425 sin 61.92 − 0 cos(61.92)

𝜏𝑥′ 𝑦′ = −425 0.882 = −375 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Stresses Acting on the Weld
Example 3.6: The state of stress is given by 𝜎𝑥 = 25 𝑝 and 𝜎𝑦 = 5 𝑝
plus shearing 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . On a plane at 45° counterclockwise to the plane on
which 𝜎𝑥 acts the state of stress is 50 𝑀𝑝𝑎 tension and 5 𝑀𝑝𝑎 shear.
Determine the values of 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
Solution:
From stress transformation equations
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
25𝑝+5𝑝 25𝑝 −5𝑝
50 = + cos 90° + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 90°
2 2

15𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 5𝑝−25𝑝
5= sin 90° + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 90°
2

−10𝑝 = 5 → 𝑝 = −0.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

∴ 𝜎𝑥 = 25 0.5 = −12.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑦 = 5𝑝 = 5 −0.5 = −2.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 50 − 15𝑝 = 50 − 15 −0.5 = 57.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
We can also find 𝜎𝑦′ , orthogonal to 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎;
Since 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝑦′
−12.5 − 2.5 = 50 + 𝜎𝑦′
∴ 𝜎𝑦′ = −65 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Example 3.7: For the given state of stress, determine the normal and
shearing stresses exerted on the oblique face of the shaded triangular
element shown.

Solution:
(a) Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 8 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 = 4 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 3 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝜃 = 20°.
The normal and shearing stresses exerted on the oblique face are
evaluated as follows:
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

8+4 8−4
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 40° + 3 sin 40° = 9.46 𝑘𝑠𝑖
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

8+4 8−4
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 40° − 2 sin 40° = 2.54 𝑘𝑠𝑖
2 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 4−8
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 40° + 3 cos 40° = 1.013 𝑘𝑠𝑖
2

(b) Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 0 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = −60 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −90 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜃 =
30°. The normal and shearing stresses exerted on the oblique face
are evaluated as follows:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

0 − 60 0 + 60
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 60° − 90 sin 60° = −92.94 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
 0 − 60 0 + 60
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 60° + 90 sin 60° = 32.94 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

−60 − 0
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 60° − 90 cos 60° = −71 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM
SHEARING STRESS
• According to Eqns. 3 and 4 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ depend on the angle of
inclination 𝜃 of the planes on which these stresses acts.
• In engineering practice it is often important to determine the
orientation of the planes that cause the normal stress to be a maximum
and a minimum orientation of the planes that cause the shear stress to
be maximum.
• Hence, each of these will be considered:
Principal Stresses
To determine the maximum and minimum normal stresses, we must
differentiate Eqn. 3 with respect to 𝜃 and set the result equal to zero.
This gives:
𝑑𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜎𝑥′ 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= + cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 0 Eqn. 6
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃

where 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 denotes the angle (the principal directions) satisfying Eqn. 6

Rewriting Eqn. 6 produces an equation for 𝜃𝑝 ;

𝑑 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
+ cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 0
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
− 2 sin 2𝜃𝑝 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑝 = 0
2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
2 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑝
2

sin 2𝜃𝑝 𝜏𝑥𝑦

=
cos 2𝜃𝑝 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 Τ2

𝜏𝑥𝑦 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = Eqn. 7
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 Τ2 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
To find 𝜃𝑝 , we solve Eqn.8 for 2𝜃𝑝 . The roots of Eqn. 8 can be considered as the
intersection of the curve of tan 2𝜃 plotted as function of 2𝜃 with the value of the
constant 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 Τ(𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 ) plotted on the same graph as an horizontal line as
shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.6: Triangle indicating the relation

Fig. 3.5: Plot to illustrate location of between the angle 2𝜃𝑝 and stress
principal directions components
• The principal stresses can be found by substituting angle 𝜃𝑝 and 𝜃𝑝 +
90° into the stress transformation equation for 𝜎𝑥 ′ , Eqn.3.
• One stress value will correspond to a maximum and the other to a
minimum value.
• Upon substitution of 𝜃𝑝 into Eqn. 3, we have:

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝 Eqn. 8
2 2

It follows from Eqn. 8 and trigonometry of Fig. 6 with both 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 positive that;
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
cos 2𝜃𝑝 = , sin 2𝜃𝑝 =
2𝑅 𝑅
 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
where 𝑅= + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn. 9
2

Substituting these in Eqn. 8, we find;

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + . + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
2 2 2𝑅 𝑅

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 𝑅 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + .𝑅
2 𝑅
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + 𝑅 ≡ 𝜎1
2

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
∴ 𝜎1 = + + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn.10
2 2

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃𝑝 + = + cos(2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜋) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin(2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜋)
2 2 2

Since cos 2𝜃 + 180 = − cos 2𝜃 and sin 2𝜃 + 180 = −sin 2𝜃

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 + = − cos 2𝜃𝑝 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝
2 2 2
 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
But cos 2𝜃𝑝 = and sin 2𝜃𝑝 =
2𝑅 𝑅

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 + = − . − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
2 2 2 2𝑅 𝑅

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 + = − − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2 𝑅 2

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 + = − .𝑅
2 2 𝑅

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 + = − 𝑅 ≡ 𝜎2
2 2
 𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
∴ 𝜎2 = − + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn.11
2 2

Eqns. 10 and 11 can be combined to give:

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn. 12
2 2

• We define 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 as the maximum and minimum principal stress

respectively. Hence, 𝜎1 ≥ 𝜎2 .

• This particular set of values are called the in-plane principal stresses
and their corresponding planes on which they act are called the
principal planes.
 Maximum Shear Stress
The location of the angle for the maximum shear stress is obtained by
taking the derivative of 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ with respect to 𝜃 and setting it equal to zero.
This gives:

𝑑𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= − sin 2𝜃𝑠 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′
= − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠 = 0
𝑑𝜃
 − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠 = 0 Eqn. 13

where 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 denotes the angle (the maximum shear directions)

satisfying Eqn. 13.

From Eqn. 13:

2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠 = − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠

sin 2𝜃𝑠 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
=−
cos 2𝜃𝑠 2𝜏𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − Eqn. 14
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
Upon substitution of 𝜃𝑠 into Eqn. 4 we have
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = − sin 2𝜃𝑠 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠 Eqn. 15
2

The triangle relating the angle 2𝜃𝑠 and stress components base on Eqn.
14 is as shown in Fig. 3.7.

Fig. 3.7: Triangle indicating the rotation between the angle 2𝜃𝑠 and
stress components.
Using the trigonometry of Fig. 3.7, we have;
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
sin 2𝜃𝑠 = − , cos 2𝜃𝑠 =
2𝑅 𝑅

Substituting these in Eqn. 15, we find;

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 =− .− + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2𝑅 𝑅

1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = +
𝑅 2 𝑅
 1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
𝑅 2
1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = × 𝑅2
𝑅
𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = 𝑅

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
∴ 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = 𝑅 = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2
• The corresponding maximum shear is given by the equation.

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 = + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 16
2
• Recall that 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 (1) and 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 (2)

• Subtract (2) from (1), the equations becomes; 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 2𝑅

• Hence;
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
= 𝑅 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
• Therefore, another expression for the maximum shear stress.
𝜎1 −𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Eqn. 17
2

• The shear stress 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ at 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + 𝜋Τ2 is equal to −𝑅, which is

minimum value.
𝜋 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + =− sin 2𝜃𝑠 + 𝜋 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos(2𝜃𝑠 +𝜋)
2 2
Since sin 2𝜃 + 180° = − sin 2𝜃 and cos 2𝜃 + 180° = − cos 2𝜃
𝜋 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + = sin 2𝜃𝑠 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠
2 2
But;
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
sin 2𝜃𝑠 = − , cos 2𝜃𝑠 =
2𝑅 𝑅

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + = .− − 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2 2𝑅 𝑅
𝜋 1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + =− + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 𝑅 2
 𝜋 1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + = − × 𝑅2
2 𝑅
𝜋
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + = −𝑅
2

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
∴ 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + = −𝑅 = − + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
• The corresponding maximum shear is given by the equation.

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝑅 = − + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 18
2

• Eqn. 17 and 18 can be combined to give:

 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ±𝑅 = ± + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 19
2
In addition to the maximum and minimum shear stress acting on the
faces of the element when 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 , we have normal stress component
from Eqn. 3 and 5 using trigonometric equation:
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = + cos 2𝜃𝑠 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = + . − . 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2 𝑅 2𝑅
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒
2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = − cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠
2 2
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = − . + . 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2 𝑅 2𝑅
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒
2
Hence, the normal stresses associated with the maximum shear stress
are equal to:
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = Eqn. 20
2

Also, the shear stresses associated with the principal stresses can be
evaluated from Eqn. 4 using trigonometric equations as follow:
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 =− sin 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑝
2
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 =− . + . 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 𝑅 2𝑅
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 =− . 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + . 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0
2𝑅 2𝑅
Hence, no shear stress associated with the principal stresses

In summary, there is no shear stress associated with the body

rotated at an angle of inclination of principal plane (𝜃𝑝 ) while
normal stresses (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) are associated with the body rotated at an
angle of inclination of maximum shear plane (𝜃𝑠 ).
Fig. 3.8 Body rotated at an angle of inclination of principal plane (𝜃𝑝 )
Fig. 3.9 Body rotated at an angle of inclination of maximum shear plane (𝜃𝑠 )
Comparing angle 𝜃𝑠 and 𝜃𝑝 , it shows that:
1
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − = − cot 2 𝜃𝑝
tan 2𝜃𝑝
∴ tan 2𝜃𝑠 + cot 2𝜃𝑝 = 0
sin 2𝜃𝑠 cos 2𝜃𝑝
+ =0
cos 2𝜃𝑠 sin 2𝜃𝑝
sin 2𝜃𝑠 sin 2𝜃𝑝 + cos 2𝜃𝑠 cos 2𝜃𝑝 = 0

cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 = 0

2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 = ±90°

𝜃𝑠 − 𝜃𝑝 = ±45° Eqn. 21
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 acts on both the plane of maximum and minimum 𝜏 planes.

Fig. 3.10 Element in pure shear

Important Points
• The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal
stress at the point.

• When the state of stress is represented by the principal stresses no

shear stress will act on the element.

• The state of stress at the point can also be represented in term of the
maximum in-plane shear stress. In this case an average normal stress
will also act on the element.

• The element representing the maximum in-plane shear stress with

average normal stress is oriented 45° from the element representing
the principal stresses.
Example 3.8: The state of plane Solution:
stress at a point is represented by From the stress element 𝜎𝑥 =
the stress element below. − 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and
Determine the principal stresses 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −25 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
and draw the corresponding stress
element. Principal stresses are:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2 2

2
−80 + 50 −80 − 50 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + −25
2 2

𝜎1,2 = 15 ± 69.6
𝜎1 = 54.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎2 = −84.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦

2(−25)
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = −0.3846
−80−50

2𝜃𝑝 = 21° and 21 + 180°

𝜃𝑝 = 10.5°, 100.5°

But we must check which angle goes with which principal stress.
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

−80+50 −80−50
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2(10.5) + (−25) sin 2(10.5) = −84.6
2 2

𝜎1 = 54.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 with 𝜃𝑝1 = 100.5°

𝜎2 = −84.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 with 𝜃𝑝2 = 10.5°

Example 3.9: Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 84 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = −30 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 =

− 32 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Determine (i) the principal stresses and their directions, (ii)
maximum shear stress and their directions and (ii) draw the
corresponding stress element.
The principal stresses can be obtained as follows:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2 2

2
84 − 30 84 + 30 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + −32
2 2

𝜎1,2 = 27 ± 65.4

Thus 𝜎1 = 92.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎2 = −38.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The principal angles 𝜃𝑝 can be obtained as follows:

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦

2(−32)
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = −0.5614
84−(−30)

2𝜃𝑝 = 150.6° or 330.6°

𝜃𝑝 = 75.5° or 165.3°
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

84−30 84+30
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2(165.3) + (−32) sin 2(165.3)
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 27 + 57 cos 2(165.3) + (−32) sin 2(165.3) = 92.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Hence, the principal stresses and their directions are as follows:

𝜎1 = 92.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for 𝜃𝑝1 = 165.3°

𝜎2 = −38.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for 𝜃𝑝2 = 75.3°

The maximum shear stresses are given by;

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2

2
84 + 30 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + −32 = 65.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
Alternatively,
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
92.2 + 38.4
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 65.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
The direction of maximum shear stress is given by;

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦

84+30
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − 2(−32) = 1.781

2𝜃𝑠 = 60.7° or 240.7°

𝜃𝑠 = 30.3° or 120.3°
Alternatively,
𝜃𝑠 = 𝜃𝑝 ± 45°

𝜃𝑠 = 75.5° ± 45° = 30.5°, 120.5

The normal stress acting on the planes of maximum shear stress is;

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

84 − 30
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = 27 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
The sketch showing principal stresses and their directions
MOHR’S CIRCLE REPRESENTATION FOR
PLANE STRESS
• The transformation equations for plane stress can be represented in
graphical form by a plot known as Mohr’s circle. This graphical
representation was devised by the German civil engineer Otto
Christian Mohr in 1882 and was named after him.

• The graphical representation of transformation equations extremely

useful because it enables us to visualize the relationships between the
normal and shear stresses acting on various inclined planes at a point
in a stressed body.

• Using Mohr’s circle we can also calculate principal stresses,

maximum shear stresses and stresses on inclined planes
• The equations of Mohr’s circle can be derived from the transformation
equations for plane stress.

• The transformation equations, Eqns. 3 and 4, can be interpreted as a

pair of equations with single parameter 𝜃 that give a plane curve in a
stress system with the normal stress 𝜎 identified with horizontal axis
and shear stress 𝜏 with vertical axis.

• The value of 𝜎 on the horizontal axis is the value of 𝜎𝑥 ′ and the value
of 𝜏 on the vertical axis is the value of 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ .

• As 𝜃 changes, locus points for 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ or a curve 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′

will be traced out.
• If the parameter 𝜃 is eliminated between Eqns. 3 and 4, then a single
equation relating 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ will be found in the stress plane, which
gives a simple geometric interpretation as the curve of all points
satisfying Eqns. 3 and 4.

• The equation of Mohr's circle can be derived from the transformation

equations for plane stress as follow:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ − = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ =− sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

• To eliminate the parameter 2𝜃, we square both sides of each equation

and add them together.

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 + − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
2
cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃 + 2 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
2
− sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 − 2 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2 2 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑅2
2

2 2
∴ 𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ = 𝑅2 Eqn. 22

• This is a equation of circle with 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ coordinates, the radius

is R and center at 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 0
 • The radius of the Mohr circle is
the magnitude R.

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅= + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2

• The center of the Mohr circle is

the magnitude

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
Fig. 3.11 Mohr’s circle representation of plane stress
2
For the purposes of constructing and reading values of stress from
Mohr’s circle, the sign convention for shear stress is that positive shear
stress is plotted downward and a positive angle 2 𝜃 is plotted
counterclockwise.

Fig. 3.12 Sign convention for representation of stress on Mohr’s circle

Procedure for Obtaining Mohr’s Circle
Consider the state of plane stress shown in Fig. 3.13a, Mohr’s circle is
constructed following these steps:

1. Establish a rectangular co-ordinate system, indicating +𝜏 and +𝜎.

Both stress scales must be identical.

2. Locate the center C of the circle on the horizontal axis a distance

1
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 from the origin as shown in the Fig. 3.13c.
2

3. Locate point A by co-ordinates 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . Point 𝐴, representing the

stresses on the x face of the element (θ = 0)

4. Locate the point B by co-ordinates 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . Point 𝐵, representing the

stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90)
Fig. 3.13 Construction of Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress
5. Draw a circle with center C and of radius equal to CA. This has
the magnitude of
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅= + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2

6. Draw a line 𝐴𝐵 through 𝐶.

7. The stress state on an inclined element with an angle 𝜃 (Fig.
3.13b) is represented at point 𝐴′ on the Mohr's circle, which is
measured an angle 2𝜃 counterclockwise from point A.
8. Locate the 𝐶𝐴′ radius by rotating 𝐶𝐴 radius through the double
angle 2𝜃, as shown in Fig. 3.13c, in the same direction as the
rotation 𝜃 on the 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ axes (Fig. 3.13b).
9. Locate the 𝐶𝐵′ radius by rotating 𝐶𝐴 radius through the double
angle 2(𝜃 + 90), as shown in Fig. 3.13c, in the same direction as
the rotation 𝜃 on the 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ axes (Fig. 3.13b).
10. Draw a line 𝐴′𝐵′ through 𝐶.
11. With the sign convention for the stress components, we can read off
the values of 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ as the co-ordinates of point 𝐴′ , and the
value 𝜎𝑦′ of coordinate of point 𝐵′ .
12. The principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 (𝜎1 ≥ 𝜎2 ) are represented by the two
points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 where the circle intersects the 𝜎 axis i.e. where 𝜏 = 0.
13. The principal stresses act on planes defined by angles 𝜃𝑝1 and 𝜃𝑝2 , Fig.
3.13c. They are represented on the circle by angles 2𝜃𝑝1 (shown) and
2𝜃𝑝2 (not shown) and measured from the radial reference line 𝐶𝐴 to
lines 𝐶𝐸 and 𝐶𝐷, respectively.
14. Using trigonometry, only one of these angles needs to be calculated
from the circle, since 𝜃𝑝1 and 𝜃𝑝2 are 90° apart. Remember that the
direction of rotation 2𝜃𝑝 on the circle (here counterclockwise)
represents the same direction of rotation 𝜃𝑝 from reference axis (+𝑥) to
the principal planes (+𝑥), Fig. 3.13c
15. The average normal stress and maximum in-plane shear stress
components are determined from the circle as the coordinates of
either point 𝑆1 or 𝑆2
16. In this case the angle 𝜃𝑠1 and 𝜃𝑠2 , give orientation of the planes
contain these components, Fig. 3.13b. The angle 2𝜃𝑠1 , is shown
in Fig. 3.13c and can be determined using trigonometry. Here
rotation is clockwise, and so 𝜃𝑠1 , must be clockwise on the
element.
• The transformation equations can be recast into form which helps to
clarify their relation to the circles

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2
Recall;
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
cos 2𝜃𝑝 = and sin 2𝜃𝑝 =
2𝑅 𝑅
Hence,
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
= 𝑅cos 2𝜃𝑝 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = Rsin 2𝜃𝑝
2
Substitute this in the above equation

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃𝑝 cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃𝑝 sin 2𝜃𝑝

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 Eqn. 23a

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −𝑅 cos 2𝜃𝑝 sin 2𝜃 + 𝑅 sin 2𝜃𝑝 cos 2𝜃

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 Eqn. 23b

• Eqns. 23a and 23b are the parametric representation of this circle in
the 𝜎, 𝜏 plane.
• Angle 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 in Eqn. 23 is angle 𝐴′ 𝐶𝐸 (𝛽).
• Hence, Eqn. 23a becomes 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β and Eqn. 23b 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ =
𝑅 sin 𝛽.

If 𝜃 = 0

𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 0 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 2𝜃𝑝 = 𝜎𝑥

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 0 = 𝑅 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦

• The values of 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ follow as the coordinates of point 𝐴′

consistent with Eqn. 23.
In Fig. 9c the following points are located by these coordinates:

𝐴 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐵 𝜎𝑦 , −𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐶 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0 𝐴′ 𝜎𝑥 ′ , 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′

𝐵′ 𝜎𝑦′ , −𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′

At point 𝑃1 on the circle, 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1

Hence, 𝑃1 represents the stress state at the principal plane the other
principal plane (𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎2 ) is represented by 𝑃2

Points 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 representing the points of maximum and minimum

shear stresses.
From the geometry of Fig. 9c the following can be evaluated:

Stress on an element inclined at 𝜽 = 𝜽

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐹 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐹
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐺 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐺𝐶

𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos 𝛽

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐹𝐴′ = 𝑅 sin 𝛽
Principal stresses
𝜎1 = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅
𝜎2 = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐷𝐶
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅

Orientation of principal stresses/Principal planes

𝐴𝐻 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
From ∆ACH; tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = 𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦 =
𝐶𝐻 ൗ2 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
Maximum and minimum shear stress
These are represented by point 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 on the Mohr’s circle.
Algebraically the maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the
circle. Hence;
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝑅
Orientation of maximum shear stress/In-plane maximum shear stress
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝐴𝐼 ൗ2 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐼; tan 2𝜃𝑠 = = =
𝐶𝐼 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
This angle is negative because is measured clockwise on the circle. Then;
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = −
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
Fig. 3.14 Simple Biaxial Stress Systems: (a) Tension, (b) Compression
Fig. 3.14 Simple Biaxial Stress Systems: (c) Tension/Compression, (d) Pure Shear
Biaxial Tension (Fig. 3.14a)
The biaxial stresses are represented by a circle that plots in positive (𝜎, 𝜏)
space, passing through stress points 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 on the 𝜏 = 0 axis. The center of
1
the circle is located on the 𝜏 = 0 axis at stress point 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 . The radius
2
1
of the circle has the magnitude 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 , which is equal to 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

Biaxial Compression (Fig. 3.14b)

The biaxial stresses are represented by a circle that plots in negative (𝜎, 𝜏)
space, passing through stress points 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 on the 𝜏 = 0 axis. The center of
1
the circle is located on the 𝜏 = 0 axis at stress point −𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 . The
2
1
radius of the circle has the magnitude 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 , which is equal to 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
Biaxial Compression/Tension (Fig. 3.14c)
Here the stress circle extends into both positive and negative 𝜎 space. The
1
center of the circle is located on the 𝜏 = 0 axis at stress point 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
1 2
and has radius 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 . This is also the maximum value of shear stress,
2
which occurs in a direction at 45° to the 𝜎1 direction. The normal stress is
zero in directions ±θ to the direction of 𝜎1 , where
𝜎1 + 𝜎2
cos 2𝜃 = −
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
Biaxial Pure Shear (Fig. 3.14d)
Here the circle has a radius equal to 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , which is equal in magnitude to
𝜏𝑦𝑥 , but opposite in sign. The center of circle is at 𝜎 = 0, 𝜏 = 0. The
principal stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, and
are equal in magnitude to 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . The directions of 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 are at 45° to the
directions of 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑥
Example 3.10: At a point on the
surface of a pressurized cylinder,
the material is subjected to biaxial
stresses as shown in the element.
Using the Mohr circle, determine (i)
stresses acting on an element
inclined at an angle 30° (Sketch a
properly oriented element) (ii)
principal stress and their
orientation.
Solution: From the state of stress,
𝜎𝑥 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 a nd
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0 𝑀𝑃𝑎
The center of the circle 𝐶 is located
at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 90+20
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

A point (𝐴) on the circle is located

at the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point 𝐶 as the center and
𝐴𝐶 as the radius the circle is drawn
as follow:
Stresses on an element inclined at 𝜃 = 30° are;
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 90 + 20
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝑅= + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2

90 − 20
𝑅= = 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
 𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 = 0° − 60° = −60°
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 55 + 35 cos 60° = 72.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐸

𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

𝜎𝑦′ = 55 − 35 cos 60°

𝜎𝑦′ = 55 − 17.5 = 37.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐷𝐴′ = 𝑅 sin 𝛽

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin 𝛽 = 35 sin 60° = 30.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Since 𝐴′ is located above the horizontal axis, the shearing stress on the
face perpendicular to 𝑂𝑥 ′ tends to rotate the element clockwise, hence
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −30.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

Principal stresses:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 55 + 35 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐸
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 55 − 35 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Orientation of principal stress:
2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(0)
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 0°
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 90 − 20

2𝜃𝑝 = tan−1 0 = 0° or 180°

Hence;
𝜃𝑝1 = 0° and 𝜃𝑝2 = 90°
The orientation of stresses inclined at angle 𝜃 = 30° is as shown below:
The orientation of principal stresses inclined at angle 𝜃 = 0° and 𝜃 =
90° is as shown below:
Example 3.11: An element in a state
of plane stress has stress components
acting on its coordinate faces as
shown. Using the Mohr’s circle
determine the following:
a) The stresses acting on an element
inclined at an angle 𝜃 = 40°,
b) The principal stresses and
c) The maximum shear stresses.
Solution:
Construction of Mohr’s Circle
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 15000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 , 𝜎𝑦 =
5000 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜃 = 40°
The center of the circle C is located
at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 15000+5000
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 10000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2

A point (𝐴) on the circle is located

at the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point 𝐶 as the center and
𝐴𝐶 as the radius the circle is drawn
as follow:
Point A, representing the stresses on
the x face of the element (θ = 0) has
the coordinates 𝜎𝑥 = 15000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90)
has the coordinates 𝜎𝑦 = 5000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = − 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖

(a) The Stresses Acting on an Element Inclined at an Angle Rotated

Counterclockwise 40°

Diameter 𝐴𝐵 is rotated counterclockwise through 2𝜃 = 80° until it

coincides with the diameter 𝐴′ 𝐵′ . Point 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ on Mohr’s circle
correspond to 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜎𝑦′ stress components on the rotated element

Thus,
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β
From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐹, 𝑅 = 𝐴𝐹 2 + 𝐶𝐹 2 = 4000 2 + 5000 2 = 6403 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃

𝐴𝐹 4000
From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐹, tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 0.8 → 2𝜃𝑝 = tan−1 0.8 = 38.67°
𝐶𝐹 5000

Hence; 𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 = 38.67° − 80° = −41.34°

Hence,
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽 = 10000 + 6403 cos 41.34° = 14807 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐸𝐶

𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos β

 𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos β = 10000 − 6403 cos 41.34° = 5192 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐷𝐴′ = 𝑅 sin 𝛽

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β = 6403 sin 41.34° = 4229 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Since 𝐴′ is located above the horizontal axis, the shearing stress on the face
perpendicular to 𝑂𝑥 ′ tends to rotate the element clockwise, hence 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ =
− 4229 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
Sketch of Orientation of Stresses Inclined at 40° counterclockwise
(b) Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The principal stresses are represented by points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 on the Mohr’s

circle
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝑃1 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝑃1
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10000 + 6403 = 16403 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝑃2

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10000 − 6403 = 3597 𝑝𝑠𝑖
 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(4000)
tan 2𝜃𝑝1 = = = 0.8 → 2𝜃𝑝1 = tan−1 0.8 = 38.67°
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 10000

Hence; the principal planes are found on angles 𝜃𝑝1 = 19.3° and 𝜃𝑝2 =
109.3°

But we must check which angle goes with which principal stress.
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 38.67° + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 38.67°
2 2

15000+5000 15000−5000
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 38.67° + 4000 sin 38.67°
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 10000 + 3903.79 + 2499.34 = 16403 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Hence, the principal stresses and their directions are as follows:

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16403 𝑝𝑠𝑖 acts on the plane 𝜃𝑝1 = 19.3°

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3597 𝑝𝑠𝑖 acts on the plane 𝜃𝑝2 = 109.3°

Sketch of Orientation of Principal Stresses
(c) Maximum Shear Stress
These are represented by point 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 on the Mohr’s circle.
Algebraically the maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the
circle. Hence, maximum shear stress is 6403 𝑝𝑠𝑖.

From triangle 𝐴𝐶𝐺, angle 2𝜃𝑠1 can be evaluated as follow:

𝐴𝐺 5000
tan 2𝜃𝑠1 = = = 1.25 → 2𝜃𝑠1 = tan−1 1.25 = 51.34°
𝐶𝐺 4000
This angle is negative because is measured clockwise on the circle,
hence 2𝜃𝑠1 = −51.34°. Then the corresponding 𝜃𝑠1 value is −25.7°.
Sketch of Orientation of Maximum Shear Stress
Example 3.12: For the state of− 45°
stress shown determine (a) the
stress components on elements
rotated 45° counterclockwise and
their orientations (b) the principal
stresses and their orientations, and
(c) the maximum shearing stress
and the corresponding normal
stress.

Solution:
Construction of Mohr’s Circle
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = −50 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 =
10 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜃 =
The center of the circle C is located
at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 −50+10
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2
= 2
= −20 𝑀𝑃𝑎

A point (𝐴) on the circle is located at

the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point C as the center and
𝐴𝐶 as the radius the circle is drawn
as follow:
Point A, representing the stresses on
the x face of the element (θ = 0) has
the coordinates 𝜎𝑥 = −50 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90)
has the coordinates 𝜎𝑦 = 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = − 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

(a) The Stresses Acting on an Element Inclined at an Angle Rotated

Counterclockwise 45°

Diameter 𝐴𝐵 is rotated counterclockwise through 2𝜃 = 90° until it

coincides with the diameter 𝐴′ 𝐵′ . Point 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ on Mohr’s circle
correspond to 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜎𝑦′ stress components on the rotated element

Thus,
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐻 = −𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐻
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos 𝛽
From ∆𝐵𝐶𝐺, 𝑅 = 𝐵𝐺 2 + 𝐶𝐺 2 = 40 2 + 30 2 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃
From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐹, 2𝜃𝑝 can be evaluated as:
𝐴𝐹 40
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 1.33 → 2𝜃𝑝 = tan−1 1.33 = 53.13°
𝐶𝐹 30
Hence; 𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 = 53.13° − 90° = −36.87°

∴ 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos 𝛽 = −20 − 50 cos 36.87° = −60 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐼 = 𝐶𝐼 − 𝑂𝐶 = −𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐼
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β = −20 + 50 cos 36.87° = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐻𝐴′

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β = 50 sin 36.87° = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Sketch of Orientation of Stresses Inclined at 45° Clockwise
(b) Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The principal stresses are represented by points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 on the Mohr’s

circle
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝐶𝐸 − 𝑂𝐶 = −𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −20 + 50 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝐷 = −𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐷
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −20 − 50 = −70 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The principal planes are found on angles 𝜃𝑝1 = 26.6° and 𝜃𝑝2 = 116.6°.
But we must check which angle goes with which principal stress.
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 53.13° + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 53.13°
2 2

−50+10 −50−10
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 53.13° − 40 sin 53.13°
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = −20 − 18 − 32 = −70 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Hence, the principal stresses and their directions are as follows:

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎 acts on direction 𝜃𝑝2 = 116.6°

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −70 𝑀𝑃𝑎 acts on direction 𝜃𝑝1 = 26.6°

Sketch of Orientation of Principal Stresses
(c) Maximum Shear Stress
These are represented by point 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 on the Mohr’s circle.
Algebraically the maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the
circle. Hence, maximum shear stress is 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The angle inclination of maximum shear stress is evaluated as follow:

𝜃𝑠1 = 𝜃𝑝1 + 45° = 26.6 + 45° = 71.6°

Sketch of Orientation of Maximum Shear Stress
Example 3.13: for the state of
plane stress shown, determine (a)
the principal planes and principal
stresses, (b) the stress components
exerted on the element obtained by
rotating the given element counter
clockwise through 30°.
Solution: 𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 100+60
Construction of Mohr’s Circle 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 =
60 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −48 𝑀𝑝𝑎. A point ‘𝑋’ on the circle is located
The center of the circle ‘ 𝐶 ’ is at the point of 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With
located at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis point 𝐶 as the center and 𝐶𝑋 as the
radius the circle is drawn as
follow:
• The normal stress after rotating the body about 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis is located at
point 𝑋 ′ by rotating 𝐶𝑋 counterclockwise 2𝜃 = 60°
(a) Principal Planes and Principal Stresses
Diameter XY is rotated counterclockwise through 2𝜃 = 60° until it
coincide with the diameter 𝑋 ′ 𝑌 ′ .
𝑋𝐹 48
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 2.4
𝐶𝐹 20
2𝜃𝑝 = 67.4° and 𝜃𝑝 = 33.7°

The principal stresses are represented by abscissas of points 𝐴 and 𝐵:

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 80 + 52
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐵𝐶 = 80 − 52
 ∴ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 132 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 28 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Since the orientation that brings
0𝑥 into the axis 𝑂𝑎 corresponding
to 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 is also clockwise; we
obtain the orientation shown for
principal planes.
Points 𝑋 ′ and 𝑌 ′ on the Mohr’s
circle correspond to the stress
components on the rotated element
are obtained as follow:
 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐾 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐾𝐶
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅

𝑅= 𝐶𝐹 2 + 𝐹𝑋 2

∴𝑅= 202 + 482 = 52 𝑀𝑃𝑎

∅ = 180° − 60° − 67.4° = 52.6°
𝜎𝑥′ = 80 − 52𝑐𝑜𝑠 52.6° = 48.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐿 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅
 𝜎𝑦′ = 80 + 52𝑐𝑜𝑠 52.6° = 111.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐾𝑋 ′ = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 52𝑠𝑖𝑛 52.6° = 41.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Since 𝑋 ′ is located above the horizontal axis, the shearing stress on the
face perpendicular to 𝑂𝑥 ′ tends to rotate the element clockwise, hence
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −41.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
Example 3.14: An element in a state of plane stress has stress
components acting on its coordinate faces, as shown in the figure below:
(a) construct Mohr’s circle that represent the state of plane stress at this
point, (b) locate points 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ on the Mohr’s circle that give stress
components on planes normal in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions obtained by
rotating the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes by 40° clockwise, (c) determine the principal
stresses and (d) show the stress components on an element aligned to 𝑥 ′
and 𝑦 ′ .
(a) Construction of Mohr’s Circle
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The center of the circle 𝐶 is located at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 80 + 20
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
A point 𝑥 on the circle is located at the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point 𝐶 as the center and 𝐶𝑥 as the radius the circle is drawn.
The normal stress after rotating the body about 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis is located at
point 𝑥 ′ by rotating 𝐶𝑥 through 2𝜃 = 80°.
𝐹𝑥 60
From ∆𝐶𝐹𝑥; tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 2 → 2𝜃𝑝 tan−1 2 = 63.43°
𝐶𝑥 30
(b) Stress Components on Element Rotated 40° Clockwise
Points 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ on the Mohr’s circle which correspond to the stress
components on the rotated element are obtained as follows:
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐼 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐼
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos 𝛽

But; 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝛽 = 180° − 80° − 63.43° = 36.57°

From ∆𝐶𝐹𝑥, 𝑅 = 𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝐹 2 = 60 2 + 30 2 = 67.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 50 − 67.1 cos 36.57° = −3.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎
 𝜎𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐻 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐻
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β
𝜎𝑦′ = 50 + 67.1 cos 36.57° = 103.9 𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐼𝑥 ′

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 67.1 sin 36.57° = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎

(c) Principal Stresses

The principal stresses are represented by 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 on the Mohr’s circle

 𝜎1 = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅

𝜎1 = 50 + 67.1 = 117. 1 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎2 = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐷
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅

𝜎2 = 50 − 67.1 = −17.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The principal planes are found on angles 𝜃𝑝1 = 31.7° and 𝜃𝑝2 =
121.7°.
But we must check which angle goes with which principal stress.
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 63.43° + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 63.43°
2 2

80+20 80−20
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 63.43° + 60 sin 63.43°
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 50 + 13.42 + 53.66 = 117.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Hence, the principal stresses and their directions are as follows:

𝜎1 = 117.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝1 = 31.7°

𝜎2 = −17.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝2 = 121.7°

(d) Stress Components Aligned

Fig. 3.22 (c) Stress acting on an element oriented at 𝜃 = 40°; (d)

Principal stresses; (e) Maximum shear stresses
 STATE OF STRAIN IN TWO
DIMENSION (PLANE STRAIN)
• If the strain state at a material particle is such that the only non-zero
strain components act in one plane only, the particle is said to be in
plane strain.
• Hence, a material is said to be in a state of plane strain if the only
deformations are those in the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane (Fig. 3.15), i.e. it has only
three strain components 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 .

Fig. 3.15 non-zero strain components acting in the x – y plane

• Then 𝜀𝑧 = 𝛾𝑥𝑧 = 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 0. The fully three dimensional strain matrix
reduces to a two dimensional one:
𝜀𝑥 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑧
𝜀𝑥 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑦𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧 =
𝛾𝑦𝑥 𝜀𝑦
𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝛾𝑧𝑦 𝜀𝑧

• This means that the general state of strain at a point in a body is

represented by combination of three components of normal strain 𝜀𝑥 ,
𝜀𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧 and three components of shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 , 𝛾𝑥𝑧 .
• However, if a state of plane strain exist, i.e. situation where the
deformation of material take place within parallel planes the state of
strain at a point will be represented by two components of normal
strains 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and one component of shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 .
• Strain components 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 in the 𝑥𝑦 plane is as showing in Fig.
3.16.
Fig. 3.16 The Components of Strains in 𝑥𝑦 Plane
Comparison of Plane Stress and Plain Strain
 TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR
PLANE STRAIN
• It is important in plane strain analysis to establish transformation
equations that can be used to determine the 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ components of
normal and shear strain at a point, provided 𝑥, 𝑦 components of strain
are known.
• Assuming that the strain 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 associated with the 𝑥𝑦 plane
are known. We need to determine the normal and shear strains (𝜀𝑥 ′ ,
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ ) associated with the 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ axis. 𝜀𝑦′ can be obtained from the
equation 𝜀𝑥 ′ by substituting 𝜃 + 90 for 𝜃.
• To determine 𝜀𝑥 ′ , 𝜀𝑦′ and 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ associated with 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axes we
rotate the body counterclockwise through angle 𝜃 from 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes.
In the 𝑥 direction: The strain 𝜀𝑥
produces an elongation 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥. The
diagonal increases in length by
𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥cos 𝜃.
In the 𝑦 direction: The strain 𝜀𝑦
produces an elongation 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦. The
diagonal increases in length by
𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦sin 𝜃.
The shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 in the plane
𝑥𝑦 produces a distortion of the
element such that the angle at the
lower left corner decreases by an
amount equal to the shear strain.
Consequently, the upper face
moves to the right by an amount
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦. This deformation results in
an increase in the length of the
diagonal equal to: 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
Thus in 𝑥 direction:
𝛿𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥 In 𝑦 direction:
𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥cos 𝜃 𝛿𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦sin 𝜃
In 𝑥𝑦 plane: 𝛿𝑥 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Then the total increase 𝛿 in 𝑥 ′ direction is;

𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥cos 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦sin 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Hence the strain in 𝑥 ′ direction is:
𝛿 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = = 𝜀𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
But = cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Thus;
𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

Substituting 𝜃 + 90° for 𝜃, 𝜀𝑦′ is obtained;

𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

The shear strain 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ associated with 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ axes is obtained as follow:

This strain is equal to the decrease
in angle between lines in the
material that were initially along
the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axes. 𝑂𝑎 and 𝑂𝑏
were the lines initially along the 𝑥 ′
and 𝑦 ′ axis respectively. The
deformation caused by the strains
𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 caused the 𝑂𝑎 and
𝑂𝑏 lines to rotate and angle 𝛼 and The angle 𝛼 can be found from the
𝛽 from the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axis deformations produced by the
respectively. The shear strain 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ strains 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 . The strains
is the decrease in angle between 𝜀𝑥 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 produce a clockwise
the two lines that originally were rotation, while the
at right angles, therefore, 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = strain 𝜀𝑦 produces a
𝛼+𝛽 counterclockwise rotation.
Let us denote the angle of rotation produced by 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 as 𝛼1 , 𝛼2
and 𝛼3 respectively.
𝑑𝑥
𝛼1 = 𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑦
𝛼2 = 𝜀𝑦 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑦
𝛼3 = 𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝛼 = −𝛼1 + 𝛼2 − 𝛼3 = −𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 cos 𝜃 − 𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
But, = cos 𝜃 and = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
∴ 𝛼 = − 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
The rotation of line 𝑂𝑏 which initially was at 90° to the line 𝑂𝑎 can be
found by substituting 𝜃 + 90° for 𝜃 in the expression for 𝛼. Because 𝛽
is positive when clockwise. Thus:
𝛽 = 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin(𝜃 + 90°) cos(𝜃 + 90°) − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃 + 90°)
𝛽 = − 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −2 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)

Using the following trigonometric identities:

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1Τ2 1 + cos 2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1Τ2 1 − cos 2𝜃
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 1Τ2 sin 2𝜃
 𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

Using trigonometric relations, we write 𝜀𝑥 ′ as follow:

1 + cos 2𝜃 1 − cos 2𝜃 sin 2𝜃

𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥 cos 2𝜃 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑦 cos 2𝜃 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + + − + sin 2𝜃
2 2 2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 24
2 2 2

𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

Using trigonometric relations, we write 𝜀𝑦′ as follow:

1 − cos 2𝜃 1 + cos 2𝜃 sin 2𝜃

𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥 cos 2𝜃 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑦 cos 2𝜃 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑦′ = − + + − sin 2𝜃
2 2 2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑦′ = − cos 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 25
2 2 2
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −2 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Using trigonometric relations, we write 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ as follow:
sin 2𝜃 {1 + cos 2𝜃 − 1 − cos 2𝜃 }
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −2 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2 2
 sin 2𝜃 2 cos 2𝜃
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −2 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2 2
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 2𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
𝛾𝑥′ 𝑦′ 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
=− si𝑛 2𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 Eqn. 26
2 2 2

Invariant; 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑥 ′ + 𝜀𝑦′

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 = Eqn. 27
2
 Principal Strains
The angle for the principal strains is :

𝛾𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = Eqn. 28
𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦
The value for the principal strains are

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2

𝜀1 = + + Eqn. 29
2 2 2

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2

𝜀2 = − + Eqn. 30
2 2 2
 Maximum Shear Strain
The maximum shear strains in the 𝑥𝑦 plane are associated with axes at 45° to
the directions of the principal strains
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
2
=+ 2
+ 2
Eqn. 31
or
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2 Eqn. 32
The direction of the axis of maximum in-plane shear strain is determined
from:
𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − Eqn. 33
𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦
While average normal strain is given as; 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

For isotropic materials, at a given point in an stressed body, the principal

strains and principal stresses occur in the same directions.
 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN
The Mohr’s circle representations for
plane strain follows the same
construction techniques as for plane
stress, using𝛾 𝜀𝑥 and 𝜀𝑦 in the place of
𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 , 𝑥𝑦ൗ2 in place of 𝜏𝑥𝑦

Similar to equation of circle in plane

stress the equation for plane strain is
given as:

𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 Eqn. 34

𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 Eqn. 35

𝛾𝑥′ 𝑦′
2
= 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 Eqn. 36
Example 3.15: An element of
material in plane strain undergoes
the following strains: 𝜀𝑥 = 340 ×
10−6 , 𝜀𝑦 = 110 × 10−6 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
180 × 10−6 . Determine the
following quantities:
(a) the strains of an element
oriented at an angle 𝜃 = 30°; 𝜺𝒙 + 𝜺𝒚 𝜺𝒙 − 𝜺𝒚 𝜸𝒙𝒚
𝜺𝒙′ = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
(b) the principal strains; and 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

(c) the maximum shear strains. 𝜺𝒙′ =

𝟑𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎
+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟔𝟎 +
𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Solution:
𝜺𝒙′ = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
(a) Element oriented at an angle
𝜃 = 30° (2𝜃 = 60°)
 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃
2 2 2

340 + 110 340 − 110 180

𝜀𝑦 ′ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 × 10−6
2 2 2

𝜀𝑦′ = 90 × 10−6

𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
=− si𝑛 2𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 340 − 110 180
=− si𝑛 60 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60 × 10−6
2 2 2

𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −110 × 10−6
(b) Principal Strains and Angle of Rotation

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝜀1 = + +
2 2 2

2 2
340 + 110 340 − 110 180
𝜀1 = + + × 10−6 = 371 × 10−6
2 2 2

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝜀2 = − +
2 2 2

2 2
340 + 110 340 − 110 180
𝜀2 = − + × 10−6 = 79 × 10−6
2 2 2
 𝛾𝑥𝑦 180𝜇
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 0.7826 → 2𝜃𝑝 = 38° → 𝜃 = 19°
𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 340𝜇 − 110𝜇

Hence; 𝜃𝑝1 = 19° and 𝜃𝑝2 = 109°

But we must check which angle goes with which principal strain.
𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos 38° + sin 38° × 10−6
2 2 2
340 + 110 340 − 110 180
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos 38° + sin 38° × 10−6
2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 ′ = 225 + 90.62 + 55.41 × 10−6 = 371 × 10−6
Hence, the principal strains and their directions are as follows:

𝜀1 = 371 × 10−6 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝1 = 19°

𝜀2 = 79 × 10−6 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝2 = 109°

(c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
= +
2 2 2

2 2
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 340𝜇 − 110𝜇 180𝜇
= + = 146𝜇
2 2 2

∴ 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 292𝜇
or
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2 = 371𝜇 − 79𝜇 = 292𝜇
The direction of the axis of maximum in-plane shear strain is determined
from:

𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = −
𝛾𝑥𝑦

340 − 110
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − = −1.28
180

2𝜃𝑠1 = tan−1 −1.28° = −52°

Hence; 𝜃𝑠1 = −26° and 𝜃𝑠2 = 64°

(d) Out-of-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀3 = 371𝜇 − 0𝜇 = 371𝜇

All of these results can be obtained from Mohr's circle:
Construction of Mohr’s Circle
Given that 𝜀𝑥 = 340 𝜇, 𝜀𝑦 = 110 𝜇, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 180 𝜇
The center of the circle ‘C’ is located at point (𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜀 axis
𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 340𝜇 + 110𝜇
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
2 2
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 225𝜇

A point ‘𝐴’ on the circle is located at point of intersection of 𝜀𝑥 and

𝛾𝑥𝑦
ൗ2. With center at point 𝐶 and radius 𝐶𝐴 the circle is drawn as follow:
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (𝜽 = 𝟎°)
𝛾𝑥𝑦
has the coordinates 𝜀𝑥 = 340 𝜇, 𝜀𝑦 = 110 𝜇 and ൗ2 = 90 𝜇 .

Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎°)

𝛾𝑥𝑦
has the coordinates 𝜀𝑦 = 110 𝜇 and ൗ2 = −90 𝜇.

(a) Stress Components on Element Rotated 30° Counterclockwise

Diameter 𝐴𝐵 is rotated counterclockwise through 2𝜃 = 60° until it

coincides with the diameter 𝐴′ 𝐵′ . Point 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ on Mohr’s circle
correspond to 𝜀𝑥 ′ and 𝜀𝑦′ stress components on the rotated element
 𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐻 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝐻
𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽

From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐹;

𝑅= 𝐴𝐹 2 + 𝐶𝐹 2 = 90 2 + 115 2 𝜇 = 146 𝜇
𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃
From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐹, 2𝜃𝑝 can be evaluated as:
𝐴𝐹 90
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 0.7826 → 2𝜃𝑝 = tan−1 0.7826 = 38.05°
𝐶𝐹 115
Hence; 𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 = 38.05° − 60° = −22°
 ∴ 𝜀𝑥 ′ = [225 + 146 cos 22°] 𝜇 = 360 𝜇
𝜀𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐼 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐼
𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos β
∴ 𝜀𝑦′ = [225 − 146 cos 22°] 𝜇 = 90 𝜇
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′
= 𝑅 sin 𝛽
2
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′
= 146 sin 22° = 55 𝜇
2
Since 𝐴′ is located above the horizontal axis, the shearing stress on the face
perpendicular to 𝑂𝑥 ′ tends to rotate the element clockwise, hence 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ =
− 110 × 10−6 .
(b) Principal Strains and Principal Planes

The principal strains are represented by points 𝐸 and 𝐷 on the Mohr’s

circle
𝜀1 = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸
𝜀1 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅
𝜀1 = 225 𝜇 + 146 𝜇 = 371 𝜇
𝜀2 = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐷
𝜀2 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅
𝜀2 = 225 𝜇 − 146 𝜇 = 79 𝜇

The principal planes are found on angles 𝜃𝑝1 = 19° and 𝜃𝑝2 = 109°.
But we must check which angle goes with which principal strain.
𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos 38° + sin 38° 𝜇
2 2 2
340 + 110 340 − 110 180
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos 38° + sin 38° 𝜇
2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 ′ = 225 + 90.62 + 55.41 𝜇 = 371 𝜇

Hence, the principal strains and their directions are as follows:

𝜀1 = 371 𝜇 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝1 = 19°

𝜀2 = 79 𝜇 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝2 = 109°

(c) Maximum Shear Stress
Algebraically the maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the
circle as;
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝐶𝐽 = 𝑅 = 146 𝜇
2
∴ 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 292 𝜇

The angle inclination of maximum shear stress is evaluated as follow:

𝜃𝑠1 = 𝜃𝑝1 − 45° = 19° − 45° = −26°

Alternatively, angle 2𝜃𝑠1 can be evaluated from triangle 𝐴𝐶𝐿 as follow:

 𝐴𝐿 115
tan 2𝜃𝑠1 = = = 1.278 → 2𝜃𝑠1 = tan−1 1.278 = 52°
𝐶𝐿 90

This angle is negative because is measured clockwise on the circle,

hence 2𝜃𝑠1 = −52°. Then the corresponding 𝜃𝑠1 value is −26°.
Strain when 𝜃 = 0° Strain when 𝜃 = 30°
Strain when 𝜃 = 0° Principal Strain
Strain when 𝜃 = 0° Maximum Shear Strain
Example 3.16: A steel shaft is
loaded such that the state of strain
at a point in the plane of the shaft
is given by the strain components
related to a set of 𝑥𝑦 axes (Fig. a).
Determined (a) the strain
components associated with set of
axes 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ at an angle of 30° Solution:
clockwise to the 𝑥𝑦 set of axes
(Fig. b), (b) the principal strains (a) Element oriented clockwise at
and their directions, and (c) the an angle 𝜃 = 30° (2𝜃 = −60°)
maximum in-plane shear strain 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
and its direction. Show the 𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
2 2 2
sketches in new planes.
 −200 + 1000 −200 − 1000 900
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −60° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −60° × 10−6
2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 ′ = −290 × 10−6
𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑦′ = − cos 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃
2 2 2

−200 + 1000 −200 − 1000 900

𝜀𝑦′ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −60° − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −60° × 10−6
2 2 2
𝜀𝑦′ = 1090 × 10−6
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
=− si𝑛 2𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2
 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ −200 − 1000 900
=− si𝑛 −60° − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −60° × 10−6
2 2 2
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −590 × 10−6

(b) Principal Strains and Angle of Rotation

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝜀1 = + +
2 2 2
2 2
−200 + 1000 −200 − 1000 900
𝜀1 = + + × 10−6
2 2 2

𝜀1 = 1150 × 10−6
 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝜀2 = − +
2 2 2
2 2
−200 + 1000 −200 − 1000 900
𝜀2 = − + × 10−6
2 2 2

𝜀2 = −350 × 10−6

The principal directions are;

𝛾𝑥𝑦 900
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = × 10−6 = −0.75
𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 −200 − 1000
 2𝜃𝑝 = tan−1 −0.75 = −36.87° → 𝜃𝑝1 = −18.4° and 𝜃𝑝2 = 71.6°

(c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
= +
2 2 2

2 2
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 −200 − 1000 900
= + × 10−6 = 750 × 10−6
2 2 2

∴ 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1500 × 10−6

or
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2 = 1150 + 350 × 10−6 = 1500 × 10−6
All of these results can be obtained from Mohr's circle:
Construction of Mohr’s Circle
Given that 𝜀𝑥 = −200 × 10−6 , 𝜀𝑦 = 1000 × 10−6 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 900 × 10−6
The center of the circle ‘C’ is located at point (𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜀 axis
𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
−200 + 1000
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 = × 10−6
2
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 400 × 10−6

A point ‘𝐴’ on the circle is located at point of intersection of 𝜀𝑥 and

𝛾𝑥𝑦
ൗ2. With center at point 𝐶 and radius 𝐶𝐴 the circle is drawn as follow:
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (𝜽 = 𝟎°)
𝛾𝑥𝑦
has the coordinates 𝜀𝑥 = −200 × 10 and ൗ2 = 450 × 10−6 .
−6

Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (𝜽 =

𝛾𝑥𝑦
−𝟔𝟎°) has the coordinates 𝜀𝑦 = 1000 × 10 and ൗ2 = − 450 × 10−6 .
−6

(a) Stress Components on Element Rotated 30° Clockwise

Diameter 𝐴𝐵 is rotated clockwise through 2𝜃 = 60° until it coincides with

the diameter 𝐴′ 𝐵′ . Point 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ on Mohr’s circle correspond to 𝜀𝑥 ′ and
𝜀𝑦′ stress components on the rotated element
 𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐻 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐻
𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos 𝛽

From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐹;

𝑅= 𝐴𝐹 2 + 𝐶𝐹 2 = 450 2 + 600 2 × 10−6 = 750 × 10−6

𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃
From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐹, 2𝜃𝑝 can be evaluated as:
𝐴𝐹 450
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = =− = −0.75 → 2𝜃𝑝 = tan−1 −0.75 = −36.87°
𝐶𝐹 600
Hence; 𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 = −3.87° + 60° = 23.13°
 ∴ 𝜀𝑥 ′ = 400 × 10−6 − 750 × 10−6 cos 23.13° = −290 × 10−6
𝜀𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐼 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐼
𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β
∴ 𝜀𝑦′ = 400 × 10−6 + 750 × 10−6 cos 23.13° = 1090 × 10−6
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′
= 𝑅 sin 𝛽
2
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′
= 750 × 10−6 sin 23.13° = 295 × 10−6
2
Since 𝐴′ is located above the horizontal axis, the shearing stress on the face
perpendicular to 𝑂𝑥 ′ tends to rotate the element clockwise, hence 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ =
− 590 × 10−6 .
(b) Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The principal strains are represented by points 𝐸 and 𝐷 on the Mohr’s

circle
𝜀1 = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸
𝜀1 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅
𝜀1 = 400 × 10−6 + 750 × 10−6 = 1150 × 10−6
𝜀2 = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐷
𝜀2 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅
𝜀2 = 400 × 10−6 − 750 × 10−6 = −350 × 10−6

The principal planes are found on angles 𝜃𝑝1 = −18.4° and 𝜃𝑝2 = 71.6°.
But we must check which angle goes with which principal strain.
𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos −36.87° + sin −36.87° × 10−6
2 2 2
−200 + 1000 −200 − 1000 900
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos −36.87° + sin −36.87° × 10−6
2 2 2
𝜀𝑥 ′ = 400 − 480 − 270 × 10−6 = −350 × 10−6

Hence, the principal strains and their directions are as follows:

𝜀1 = 1150 × 10−6 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝2 = 71.6°

𝜀2 = −350 × 10−6 acts on the direction 𝜃𝑝1 = −18.4°

(c) Maximum Shear Stress
Algebraically the maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the
circle as;

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅 = 750 × 10−6
2

∴ 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1500 × 10−6

The angle inclination of maximum shear stress is evaluated as follow:

𝜃𝑠1 = 𝜃𝑝1 + 45° = −18.4° + 45° = 26.6°

Fig. 3.16: Element of material in plane strain: (a) element oriented to the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes; (b) element
oriented at an angle 𝜃 = 30°; (c) principal strains; (d) maximum shear strains.
 TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS-STRAIN
RELATIONS
Recall in one-dimensional stress-strain relations are:

1
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺
However, in two-dimensional stress-strain there are no stress in the 𝑧
direction, the stress depend only on the components of 𝑥 and 𝑦
direction. Thus if we considered a case of plane stress for which 𝜎𝑧 =
𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0, the stress-strain relations in the absence of a temperature
change becomes;
1
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣𝜎𝑦 Eqn. 37
𝐸

1
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥 Eqn. 38
𝐸

𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = Eqn. 39
𝐺
If we solve for the stress in terms of the strains, we have

𝐸
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝑣𝜀𝑦 Eqn. 40
1−ʋ2

𝐸
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 + 𝑣𝜀𝑥 Eqn. 41
1−ʋ2

𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 42
2 1+𝑣
Volume Changes
When a solid object undergoes
strains, both its dimensions and its
volume will change.
Consider an object of dimensions
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐. The original volume is
𝑉0 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 and its final volume is

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝜀𝑥 𝑏 + 𝑏𝜀𝑦 𝑐 + 𝑐𝜀𝑧

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1 + 𝜀𝑥 1 + 𝜀𝑦 1 + 𝜀𝑧
Upon expanding the terms:
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉0 1 + 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧
For small strains:
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉0 1 + 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
The volume change is
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉0 = 𝑉0 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
The unit volume change e, also known as dilatation is defines as:
𝑒 = ∆𝑉Τ𝑉0 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
Positive strains are considered for elongations and negative strains for
shortening, i.e. positive values of e for an increase in volume.
Since,
1 1 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣𝜎𝑦 , 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐺

∆𝑉 1−2𝑣 1−2𝑣
𝑒= = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 For uniaxial stress 𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝑒 = 𝜎𝑥
𝑉0 𝐸 𝐸

Strain Energy Density in Plane Stress

The strain energy density u is the strain energy stored in a unit volume
of the material. Because the normal and shear strains occur
independently, we can add the strain energy of these two elements to
obtain the total energy.

Work done = Force x distance

Work done in the 𝑥 - direction =
𝜎𝑥 𝑏𝑐
𝑎𝜀𝑥
2
Work done in the 𝑦 - direction =
𝜎𝑦 𝑏𝑐
𝑎𝜀𝑦
2
The sum of the energies due to Then the strain energy density
normal stresses: (strain per unit volume)

𝑎𝑏𝑐 1
𝑈= 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜀𝑦 𝑢1 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜀𝑦 Eqn. 43
2
2
Similarly, the strain energy density associated with the shear strain:
1
𝑢2 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 44
2

By combining the strain energy densities for the normal and shear
strains:
1
𝑢= 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 45
2
The strain energy density in terms of stress alone:

𝜎𝑥 2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
𝑢= + −𝑣 + Eqn. 46
2𝐸 2𝐸 𝐸 2𝐺
The strain energy density in terms of strain alone:
𝐸 𝐺
𝑢= 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 − 2𝑣𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
Eqn. 47
2 1−𝑣 2 2

For the special case of uniaxial stress: 𝜎𝑦 = 0, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0, 𝜀𝑦 = −𝑣𝜀𝑥 ,

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0

𝜎𝑥 2 𝐸𝜀𝑥 2
𝑢= or 𝑢=
2𝐸 2

For the special case of pure shear: 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦 = 0

𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝑢= or 𝑢=
2𝐺 2
Example 3.17: Strain-gage measurements made on the free surface of a
steel plate indicate that the principal strains are 0.004 and 0.001. What
are the principal stresses if E = 200 GPa and 𝑣 = 0.33?

Solution:
𝐸
𝜎1 = 2
𝜀1 + 𝑣𝜀2
1−𝑣
200
𝜎1 = 0.004 + 0.33 0.001 = 0.965 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 965 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 − 0.109

𝐸
𝜎2 = 2
𝜀2 + 𝑣𝜀1
1−𝑣
200
𝜎2 = 0.001 + 0.33 0.004 = 0.516 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 516 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 − 0.109
Example 3.18: A plate is subjected to two mutually perpendicular
stresses, one compressive of 45 MN/m2 , the other tensile of
75 MN/m2 , and a shearing stress, parallel to this directions of
45 MN/m2 . Find the principal stresses and strains, taken Poisson’s ratio
as 0.3 and E = 200 GN/m2
Solution:
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = −45 MN/m2 , 𝜎𝑦 = 75 MN/m2 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 45 MN/m2

(a) Principal Stresses

𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 ± 𝑅

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
 2
−45 + 75 −45 − 75
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ± + (45)2
2 2

𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = 15 ± 75

Hence; 𝜎1 = 90 MN/m2 and 𝜎2 = −60 MN/m2

(b) Principal Strains

1
𝜀1 = 𝜎1 − 𝑣𝜎2
𝐸
1 −4
𝜀1 = 90 + 0.3 × 60 = 5.40 × 10
200 × 103
 1
𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝑣𝜎1
𝐸
1 −4
𝜀2 = −60 − 0.3 × 90 = −4.35 × 10
200 × 103
Example 3.19: A metal wire of length 2.5 𝑚 and cross-section 1.5 ×
10−6 𝑚2 is stretched through 2 mm . Calculate work done during
stretching. Assuming E = 1.25 × 1011 N/m2 .
Solution:
Given that Area (𝐴) = 1.5 × 10−6 m2 , Length 𝐿 = 2.5 m, Extension
𝑙 = 2 × 10−3 𝑚 and 𝐸 = 1.25 × 1011 N/m2
𝜎 𝐹 Τ𝐴 𝐹𝐿
𝐸= = =
𝜀 𝑙 Τ𝐿 𝐴𝑙
 𝐸𝐴𝑙
𝐹=
𝐿
1.25 × 1011 × 1.5 × 10−6 × 2 × 10−3
𝐹=
2.5
𝐹 = 150 𝑁

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 1ൗ2 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 1ൗ2 × 150 × 2 × 10−3

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 0.15 𝐽

Example 3.20: A rod of area 100 𝑚𝑚2 has a length 5 𝑚. Determine the
strain energy if the stress of 500 𝑀𝑃𝑎 is applied when stretched.
Assuming E = 200 GPa
Solution:
Given that 𝐴 = 100 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝐿 = 5 𝑚 , 𝜎 = 500 × 106 𝑃𝑎 and 𝐸 =
200 × 109 𝑃𝑎.
𝑉 =𝐴×𝐿

𝑉 = 100 × 10−6 × 5
𝜎2
𝑢= 𝑉
2𝐸
 500 × 106 2 −6
𝑢= 9
100 × 10 ×5
2 × 200 × 10
𝑢 = 31.25 𝐽

Example 3.21: Determine the diameter of an aluminum shaft which is

designed to store the same amount of strain energy per unit volume as a
50 𝑚𝑚 diameter steel shaft of the same length. Both shafts are
subjected to equal compressive axial loads. What will be the ratio of the
stresses set up in the two shafts? Assuming 𝐸𝑆 = 200 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2 and 𝐸𝐴 =
67 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2 .

Solution:
𝜎2 𝑃2
Strain energy per unit volume; u = =
2𝐸 2𝐴2 𝐸
Since the strain energy per unit volume in the two shafts is equal,
𝜎𝐴 2 𝜎𝑆 2
=
2𝐸𝐴 2𝐸𝑆
𝜎𝐴 2 𝐸𝐴 67 1
2
= = =
𝜎𝑆 𝐸𝑆 200 3
3𝜎𝐴 2 = 𝜎𝑆 2
2 2
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝑆 𝜋
3 = but 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃 and 𝐴 = 𝐷2
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝑆 4
2 2
1 1 4 4 4
3 = → 3𝐷𝑆 = 𝐷𝐴 → 𝐷𝐴 = 3𝐷𝑆 4
𝐷𝐴 2 𝐷𝑆 2
4 4
𝐷𝐴 = 3 50 = 65.8 𝑚𝑚
Example 3.22: Calculate the strain Solution:
energy due to the shear strain in
𝜋𝑑2 0.122 𝜋
structure shown. Take 𝐺 = 90 𝐺𝑃𝑎. 𝐴 = = = 11.31 × 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
𝐹 5000 2
5 kN 𝜏= = = 56.55 𝑁/𝑚
𝐴 11.31 × 10−3
𝑉 = 𝐴𝐻 = 11.31 × 10−3 × 0.5

0.5 m 𝑉 = 5.65 × 10−3 𝑚3

120 mm 𝜏2
𝑢= ×𝑉
2𝐺
56.55 2 −3
𝑢= × 5.65 × 10
2 × 90 × 109
𝑢 = 100.5 × 10−12 𝐽
Example 3.23: Suppose a rod AB Solution:
must acquire an elastic strain 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑢= ×𝑉
energy of 13.6 𝑁. 𝑚 using 𝐸 = 2𝐺
200 𝐺𝑃𝑎. Determine the required 𝑢 = 13.6 × 5 = 68 𝑁. 𝑚 = 68 × 103 𝑁. 𝑚𝑚
yield strength of steel. If the factor
𝜋 𝜋
of safety with respect to permanent 𝑉 = 𝐴𝐿 = 𝑑2 𝐿 = 20 2 × 1.5 × 103
deformation is equal to 5. 4 4
𝑉 = 471 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
Hence;
2
𝜎𝑦
68 × 103 = × 471 × 103
2 × 200 × 106

68 × 2 × 200 × 109
𝜎𝑦 = = 240 𝑀𝑃𝑎
471
Example 3.24:
(a) A thin titanium (Ti-6Al-4V
with 𝐸 = 17500 𝑘𝑠𝑖 , 𝐺 =
6500 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝑣 = 0.35) plate
is subjected to the state of
stress shown, determine the
strain energy density. Assume
that the material behaves as a
linear elastic isotropic material.
(b) The same material deformed in
a manner shown below.
Assuming that the distance
𝛿 = 1 𝑚𝑚 and the plate has
original dimensions 𝑎 = 1 𝑚,
determine the strain energy
density.
Solution:
Given that: 𝜎𝑥 = 100 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 = 75 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 85 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝐸 = 17500 𝑘𝑠𝑖,
𝐺 = 6500 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝑣 = 0.35

(a) The strain energy density in terms of stress calculated as follow:

𝜎𝑥 2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
𝑢= + −𝑣 +
2𝐸 2𝐸 𝐸 2𝐺

1002 752 100 × 75 852

𝑢= + − 0.35 +
2 17500 2 17500 17500 2 6500

𝑢 = 0.852198 𝐽
(b) The strain energy density in terms of strain is calculated as follow:
𝐸 2 2
𝐺
𝑢= 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 − 2𝑣𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
2 1 − 𝑣2 2
However,
1 1 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣𝜎𝑦 , 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐺
1
𝜀𝑥 = 100 − 0.35 × 75
17500

𝜀𝑥 = 0.004214 = 4.2 × 10−3

1
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥
𝐸
 1
𝜀𝑦 = 75 − 0.35 × 100
17500
𝜀𝑦 = 0.002286 = 2.3 × 10−3
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺
85
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = = 0.013077 = 13.1 × 10−3
6500

17500 2 2 −6
6500
𝑢= 4.2 + 2.3 − 2(0.35 × 4.2 × 2.3 10 + 13.1 × 10−3 2
2 1 − 0.352 2

𝑢 = 0.718952 𝐽
References
1. Case, J. and Chilver, A.H. “Strength of Materials and Structure” The
English Language Book Society and Edward Arnold (Publisher)
Ltd., London.
2. Beer, F.P. and Johnston, E.R. (1981). “Mechanics of Materials”
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
3. Dieter, G.E. (1988). “Mechanical Metallurgy”. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, London.
4. Lardner, T.J. and Archer, R.R. (1994). “Mechanics of Solid
Materials An Introduction”. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Singapore.
5. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R. and DeWolf, J.T. (2002). “Mechanics of
Materials” McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.