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UNIT I

SOFTWARE PRODUCT AND PROCESS

Software engineering paradigm:

• The framework activities will always be applied on every project ... BUT the tasks (and
degree of rigor) for each activity will vary based on:
– the type of project
– characteristics of the project
– common sense judgment; concurrence of the project team
The software process:
• A structured set of activities required to develop a software system
– Specification;
– Design;
– Validation;
– Evolution.
• A software process model is an abstract representation of a process. It presents a
description of a process from some particular perspective.
Waterfall model/Linear Sequential Model/classic life cycle :

• Systems Engineering
– Software as part of larger system, determine requirements for all system
elements, allocate requirements to software.
• Software Requirements Analysis
– Develop understanding of problem domain, user needs, function, performance,
interfaces, ...
– Software Design
– Multi-step process to determine architecture, interfaces, data structures,
functional detail. Produces (high-level) form that can be checked for quality,
conformance before coding.
• Coding
– Produce machine readable and executable form, match HW, OS and design needs.
• Testing

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– Confirm that components, subsystems and complete products meet requirements,

specifications and quality, find and fix defects.
• Maintenance
– Incrementally, evolve software to fix defects, add features, adapt to new
condition. Often 80% of effort spent here!
Waterfall model phases:
• Requirements analysis and definition
• System and software design
• Implementation and unit testing
• Integration and system testing
• Operation and maintenance
• The main drawback of the waterfall model is the difficulty of accommodating change
after the process is underway. One phase has to be complete before moving onto the next
phase.
• Each phase terminates only when the documents are complete and approved by the SQA
group.
• Maintenance begins when the client reports an error after having accepted the product. It
could also begin due to a change in requirements after the client has accepted the product
Waterfall model: Advantages:
• Disciplined approach
• Careful checking by the Software Quality Assurance Group at the end of each phase.
• Testing in each phase.
• Documentation available at the end of each phase.
Waterfall model problems:
• It is difficult to respond to changing customer requirements.
• Therefore, this model is only appropriate when the requirements are well-understood and
changes will be fairly limited during the design process.
• Few business systems have stable requirements.
• The waterfall model is mostly used for large systems engineering projects where a system
is developed at several sites.
• The customer must have patience. A working version of the program will not be available
until late in the project time-span
• Feedback from one phase to another might be too late and hence expensive.
The Prototyping Models:
• Often, a customer defines a set of general objectives for software but does not identify
detailed input, processing, or output requirements.
• In other cases, the developer may be unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm, the
adaptability of an operating system, or the form that human –machine interaction should
take
• In this case prototyping paradigm may offer the best approach
• Requirements gathering
• Quick design
• Prototype building
• Prototype evaluation by customers
• Prototype may be refined

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• Application generation
• Testing and turnover
Business modeling:
• What information drives the business process?
• What information is generated?
• Who generates it?
Data Modeling:
• The information flow defined as part of the business modeling phase is refined into a set
of data objects that are needed to support the business.
• The characteristics ( called attributes) of each object are identified and the relationships
between these objects are defined
Process modeling:
• The data modeling phase are transformed to achieve the information flow necessary to
implement a business function.
• Processing descriptions are created for adding , modifying, deleting, or retrieving a data
object
Application generation:
• RAD assumes the use of 4 generation techniques.
• Rather than creating software using conventional 3 generation programming languages,
the RAD process works to reuse existing program components (when possible) or created
reusable components (when necessary)
Testing and Turnover:
• Since the RAD process emphasizes reuse, many of the program components have already
been testing.
• This reduces over all testing time.
• However, new components must be tested and all interfaces must be fully exercised
Advantages &Disadvantages of RAD:
Advantages
• Extremely short development time.
• Uses component-based construction and emphasises reuse and code generation
Disadvantages
• Large human resource requirements (to create all of the teams).
• Requires strong commitment between developers and customers for “rapid-fire”
activities.
• High performance requirements maybe can’t be met (requires tuning the components).
The Incremental Model

increment # n
Co m m u n i c a t io n

Pl a n n in g

M o d e l i n g
a n a l ys i s
Co n s t ru c t i o n
d e s i g n
c o d e De p l o y m e n t

t e s t d e l i v e r y

f e e d b a c k

d e li v e r y o f
n t h incr e me n t
increm ent # 2

Co m m u n i c a t io n

Pl a n n in g

M o d e l i n g

a n a l ys i s Co n s t ru c t i o n

d e s i g n
c o d e D e p l o y m e n t

t e s t d e

f e e
l i

d
v

b
e

a
r y

c k
deliv e ry o f
increm ent # 1 2n d in cr e me n t

Co m m u n i c a t i o n

Pl a n n in g

M o d e l i n g

a n a l y s is Co n s t ru c t i o n

d e s i g n
c o d e De p l o y m e n t

t e s t d e l i v e r y deliv e ry o f
f e e d b a c k

1st in cr e me nt

pr oject calendar t ime

:

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The Incremental development

• Combination of linear + prototype
• Rather than deliver the system as a single delivery, the development and delivery is
broken down into increments with each increment delivering part of the required
functionality
• User requirements are prioritised and the highest priority requirements are included in
early increments
• Once the development of an increment is started, the requirements are frozen though
requirements for later increments can continue to evolve
Incremental development advantages:
• The customer is able to do some useful work after release
• Lower risk of overall project failure
• The highest priority system services tend to receive the most testing
Spiral Model:

Spiral model sectors:

• Customer communication
Tasks required to establish effective communication between developer and
customer
• Planning
The tasks required to define recourses, timelines, and project is reviewed and the
next phase of the spiral is planned
• Risk analysis
– Risks are assessed and activities put in place to reduce the key
• Risks engineering
– Tasks required to build one or more representations of the application

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• The system engineering process usually begins with a ―world view.‖ That is, the entire
business or product domain is examined to ensure that the proper business or technology
context can be established.
• The world view is refined to focus more fully on specific domain of interest. Within a
specific domain, the need for targeted system elements (e.g., data, software, hardware,
people) is analyzed. Finally, the analysis, design, and construction of a targeted system
element is initiated.
• At the top of the hierarchy, a very broad context is established and, at the bottom, detailed
technical activities, performed by the relevant engineering discipline (e.g., hardware or
software engineering), are conducted.
• Stated in a slightly more formal manner, the world view (WV) is composed of a set of
domains ( Di), which can each be a system or system of systems in its own right.
WV = {D1, D2, D3, . . . , Dn}
• Each domain is composed of specific elements (Ej) each of which serves some role in
accomplishing the objective and goals of the domain or component:
Di = {E1, E2, E3, . . . , Em}
• Finally, each element is implemented by specifying the technical components ( Ck) that
achieve the necessary function for an element:
Ej = {C1, C2, C3, . . . , Ck}

Computer Based System

• computer-based system as A set or arrangement of elements that are organized to accomplish
some predefined goal by processing information.
• The goal may be to support some business function or to develop a product that can be sold
to generate business revenue.
• To accomplish the goal, a computer-based system makes use of a variety of system elements:
1. Software. Computer programs, data structures, and related documentation that serve to
effect the logical method, procedure, or control that is required.
2. Hardware. Electronic devices that provide computing capability, the interconnectivity
devices (e.g., network switches, telecommunications devices) that enable the flow of
data, and electromechanical devices (e.g., sensors, motors, pumps) that provide external
world function.
3. People. Users and operators of hardware and software.
4. Database. A large, organized collection of information that is accessed via software.
5. Documentation. Descriptive information (e.g., hardcopy manuals, on-line help files,
Web sites) that portrays the use and/or operation of the system.
6. Procedures. The steps that define the specific use of each system element or the
procedural context in which the system resides.
• The elements combine in a variety of ways to transform information. For example, a
marketing department transforms raw sales data into a profile of the typical purchaser of a
product; a robot transforms a command file containing specific instructions into a set of
control signals that cause some specific physical action.
• Creating an information system to assist the marketing department and control software to
support the robot both require system engineering.

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• One complicating characteristic of computer-based systems is that the elements constituting

one system may also represent one macro element of a still larger system. The macro element
is a computer-based system that is one part of a larger computer-based system.
• As an example, we consider a "factory automation system" that is essentially a hierarchy of
systems. At the lowest level of the hierarchy we have a numerical control machine, robots,
and data entry devices.
• Each is a computerbased system in its own right. The elements of the numerical control
machine include electronic and electromechanical hardware (e.g., processor and memory,
motors, sensors), software (for communications, machine control, interpolation), people (the
machine operator), a database (the stored NC program), documentation, and procedures.
• A similar decomposition could be applied to the robot and data entry device. Each is a
computer-based system.
• At the next level in the hierarchy, a manufacturing cell is defined. The manufacturing cell is a
computer-based system that may have elements of its own (e.g., computers, mechanical
fixtures) and also integrates the macro elements that we have called numerical control
machine, robot, and data entry device.

Business Process Engineering Overview

• The goal of business process engineering (BPE) is to define architectures that will enable a
business to use information effectively.
• When taking a world view of a company‘s information technology needs, there is little doubt
that system engineering is required. Not only is the specification of the appropriate
computing architecture required, but the software architecture that populates the ―unique
configuration of heterogeneous computing resources‖ must be developed.
• Business process engineering is one approach for creating an overall plan for implementing
the computing architecture .
• Three different architectures must be analyzed and designed within the context of business
objectives and goals:
• data architecture
• applications architecture
• technology infrastructure
• The data architecture provides a framework for the information needs of a business or
business function. The individual building blocks of the architecture are the data objects that
are used by the business. A data object contains a set of attributes that define some aspect,
quality, characteristic, or descriptor of the data that are being described.
• The application architecture encompasses those elements of a system that transform objects
within the data architecture for some business purpose. In the context of this book, we
consider the application architecture to be the system of programs (software) that performs
this transformation. However, in a broader context, the application architecture might
incorporate the role of people (who are information transformers and users) and business
procedures that have not been automated.
• The technology infrastructure provides the foundation for the data and application
architectures. The infrastructure encompasses the hardware and software that are used to
support the application and data. This includes computers, operating systems, networks,
telecommunication links, storage technologies, and the architecture (e.g., client/server) that
has been designed to implement these technologies.

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• System component engineering is actually a set of concurrent activities that address each of
the system components separately: software engineering, hardware engineering, human
engineering, and database engineering.

• Each of these engineering disciplines takes a domain-specific view, but it is important to note
that the engineering disciplines must establish and maintain active communication with one
another. Part of the role of requirements engineering is to establish the interfacing
mechanisms that will enable this to happen.
• The element view for product engineering is the engineering discipline itself applied to the
allocated component. For software engineering, this means analysis and design modeling
activities (covered in detail in later chapters) and construction and integration activities that
encompass code generation, testing, and support steps.
• The analysis step models allocated requirements into representations of data, function, and
behavior. Design maps the analysis model into data, architectural, interface, and software
component-level designs.

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