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14 views67 pages

chapter_02 Data Model

data modal

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Ritx
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Data Model

Chapter 2
In this chapter, you will
learn:
 Why data models are important
 About the basic data-modeling building
blocks
 What business rules are and how they affect
database design
 How the major data models evolved, and
their advantages and disadvantages
 How data models can be classified by level of
abstraction
The Importance of Data
Models
 Data model
 Relatively simple representation, usually
graphical, of complex real-world data
structures
 Communication tool to facilitate interaction
among the designer, the applications
programmer, and the end user

 Good database design uses an appropriate


data model as its foundation
Importance of Data
Modeling
 End-users have different views and
needs for data

 Data model organizes data for


various users
Data Model Basic
Building Blocks
 Entity is anything about which data are to be
collected and stored
 Attribute is a characteristic of an entity
 Relationship describes an association among
(two or more) entities
 One-to-one (1:1) relationship
 One-to-many (1:M) relationship
 Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship
Business Rules
 Brief, precise, and unambiguous description
of a policy, procedure, or principle within a
specific organization’s environment

 Apply to any organization that stores and


uses data to generate information

 Description of operations that help to create


and enforce actions within that organization’s
environment
Business Rules
(continued)
 Must be rendered in writing

 Must be kept up to date

 Sometimes are external to the organization

 Must be easy to understand and widely


disseminated

 Describe characteristics of the data as viewed


by the company
Sources of Business
Rules
 Company managers
 Policy makers
 Department managers
 Written documentation
 Procedures

 Standards

 Operations manuals
 Direct interviews with end users
Importance of Business
Rules
 Promote creation of an accurate data model
 Standardize company’s view of data
 Constitute a communications tool between users
and designers
 Allow designer to understand the nature, role,
and scope of data
 Allow designer to understand business
processes
 Allow designer to develop appropriate
relationship participation rules and constraints
The Evolution of Data
Models
 Hierarchical

 Network

 Relational

 Entity relationship

 Object oriented
The Hierarchical
Model—Characteristics
 Basic concepts form the basis for subsequent
database development
 Limitations lead to a different way of looking
at database design
 Basic concepts show up in current data
models
 Best understood by examining manufacturing
process
A Hierarchical Structure
Hierarchical Structure—
Characteristics
 Each parent can have many children
 Each child has only one parent
 Tree is defined by path that traces parent
segments to child segments, beginning from
the left
 Hierarchical path
 Ordered sequencing of segments tracing
hierarchical structure
 Preorder traversal or hierarchic sequence
 “Left-list” path
The Hierarchical Model
 Advantages

 Conceptual simplicity

 Database security can be achieved

 Data independence can be achieved

 Database integrity can be maintained

 An efficient model
The Hierarchical Model
(continued)
 Disadvantages
 Unable to handle M:N relationship
 Complex implementation
 Difficult to manage
 Lacks structural independence
 Complex applications programming and use
 Implementation limitations
Child with Multiple Parents
The Network Model
 Created to
 Represent complex data relationships more
effectively
 Improve database performance
 Impose a database standard
 Supported by Conference on Data Systems
Languages (CODASYL) and American
National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Crucial Database Components
 Schema
 Conceptual organization of entire database as
viewed by the database administrator
 Subschema
 Defines database portion “seen” by the
application programs that actually produce the
desired information from data contained within
the database
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Define data characteristics and data structure
in order to manipulate the data
Data Management
Language Components
 Schema Data Definition Language
(DDL)
 Enables database administrator to
define schema components
 Subschema DDL
 Allows application programs to
define database components that
will be used
 DML
 Manipulates database contents
Network Model—Basic
Structure
 Resembles hierarchical model
 Collection of records in 1:M relationships
 Set
 Relationship
 Composed of at least two record types
 Owner
• Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent
 Member
• Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child
A Network Data Model
The Network Data Model
 Advantages
 Conceptual simplicity
 Handles more relationship types
 Data access flexibility
 Promotes database integrity
 Data independence can be achieved
The Network Data Model
(continued)
 Disadvantages

 System complexity

 Lack of structural independence


The Relational Model
 Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
 Conceptually simple
 Computers lacked power to implement the
relational model
 Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated
relational database software
The Relational Model—
Basic Structure
 Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS)

 Performs same basic functions provided by


hierarchical and network DBMS systems, plus
other functions

 Most important advantage of the RDBMS is


its ability to let the user/designer operate in a
human logical environment
The Relational Model—
Basic Structure
(continued)
 Table (relations)
 Matrixconsisting of a series of
row/column intersections
 Related to each other by sharing a
common entity characteristic
 Relational schema
 Visual representation of relational
database’s entities, attributes, and
relationships between those
entities
Relational Table
 Stores a collection of related entities
 Resembles a file
 Relational table is purely logical structure
 How data are physically stored in the
database is of no concern to the user or the
designer
 Thisproperty became the source of a real
database revolution
A Relational Schema
Linking Relational Tables
The Relational Model
 Advantages
 Structural independence
 Improved conceptual simplicity
 Easier
database design, implementation,
management, and use
 Ad hoc query capability
 Powerful database management system
The Relational Model
(continued)
 Disadvantages

 Substantial hardware and system software


overhead

 Can facilitate poor design and implementation

 May promote “islands of information” problems


The Entity Relationship
Model
 Widely accepted and adapted
graphical tool for data modeling

 Introduced by Chen in 1976

 Graphical representation of entities


and their relationships in a
database structure
The Entity Relationship
Model— Basic Structure
 Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
 Uses graphic representations to model
database components
 Entity is mapped to a relational table

 Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table


 Entity set is collection of similar entities
 Connectivity labels types of relationships
 Diamond connected to related entities through
a relationship line
Relationships: The
Basic Chen ERD
Relationships:
The Basic Crow’s Foot ERD
The Entity Relationship
Model
 Advantages

 Exceptional conceptual simplicity

 Visual representation

 Effective communication tool

 Integrated with the relational data model


The Entity Relationship
Model (continued)
 Disadvantages

 Limited constraint representation

 Limited relationship representation

 No data manipulation language

 Loss of information content


The Object Oriented
Model
 Semantic data model (SDM) developed by
Hammer and McLeod in 1981
 Modeled both data and their relationships in a
single structure known as an object
 Basis of object oriented data model (OODM)
 OODM becomes the basis for the object
oriented database management system
(OODBMS)
The Object Oriented Model
(continued)
 Object is described by its factual content
 Like relational model’s entity
 Includes information about relationships
between facts within object and relationships
with other objects
 Unlike relational model’s entity
 Subsequent OODM development allowed an
object to contain operations/methods
 Object becomes basic building block for
autonomous structures
Developments that
Boosted OODM’s Popularity
 Growing costs put a premium on code
reusability
 Complex data types and system requirements
became difficult to manage with a traditional
RDBMS
 Became possible to support increasingly
sophisticated transaction & information
requirements
 Ever-increasing computing power made it
possible to support the large computing
overhead required
Object Oriented Data
Model—
Basic Structure
 Object: abstraction of a real-world entity
 Attributes describe the properties of an object
 Objects that share similar characteristics are
grouped in classes
 Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
 Inheritance is the ability of an object within
the class hierarchy to inherit the attributes
and methods of classes above it
A Comparison of the OO
Model
and the ER Model
The Object Oriented
Model
 Advantages

 Adds semantic content

 Visual presentation includes semantic content

 Database integrity

 Both structural and data independence


The Object Oriented
Model (continued)
 Disadvantages

 Slow pace of OODM standards development

 Complex navigational data access

 Steep learning curve

 High system overhead slows transactions

 Lack of market penetration


Other Models
 Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)

 Semantic data model developed in response


to increasing complexity of applications

 DBMS based on the ERDM often described as


an object/relational database management
system (O/RDBMS)

 Primarily geared to business applications


Other Models (continued)
 Date’s objections to ERDM label
 Given proper support for domains, relational
data models are quite capable of handling
complex data
 Therefore,capability that is supposedly being
extended is already there
 O/RDM label is not accurate because the
relational data model’s domain is not an object
model structure
Data Models: A
Summary
 Each new data model capitalized on the
shortcomings of previous models
 Common characteristics:
 Conceptual simplicity without compromising the
semantic completeness of the database
 Represent the real world as closely as possible
 Representation of real-world transformations
(behavior) must be in compliance with
consistency and integrity characteristics of any
data model
The Development of
Data Models
Database Models and
the Internet
 Characteristics of successful “Internet age”
databases

 Flexible, efficient, and secure Internet access


that is easily used, developed, and supported

 Support for complex data types and


relationships

 Seamless interfacing with multiple data


sources and structures
Database Models and
the Internet (continued)
 Relative
conceptual simplicity to
make database design and
implementation less cumbersome
 Anabundance of available
database design, implementation,
and application development tools
A powerful DBMS graphical user
interface (GUI) to help make the
DBA’s job easier
Degrees of Data
Abstraction
 Way of classifying data models

 Many processes begin at high level of


abstraction and proceed to an ever-
increasing level of detail

 Designing a usable database follows the


same basic process
Degrees of Data
Abstraction (continued)
 American National Standards
Institute/Standards Planning and
Requirements Committee (ANSI/SPARC)
 Classifieddata models according to their
degree of abstraction (1970s):
 Conceptual

 External

 Internal
Data Abstraction Levels
The Conceptual Model
 Represents global view of the database

 Enterprise-wide representation of data as


viewed by high-level managers

 Basis for identification and description of


main data objects, avoiding details

 Most widely used conceptual model is the


entity relationship (ER) model
A Conceptual Model for
Tiny College
Advantages of
Conceptual Model
 Provides a relatively easily understood macro
level view of data environment
 Independent of both software and hardware
 Does not depend on the DBMS software used
to implement the model
 Does not depend on the hardware used in the
implementation of the model
 Changes in either the hardware or the DBMS
software have no effect on the database
design at the conceptual level
The Internal Model
 Representation of the database as “seen” by
the DBMS

 Adapts the conceptual model to the DBMS

 Software dependent

 Hardware independent
The External Model
 End users’ view of the data environment
 Requires that the modeler subdivide set of
requirements and constraints into functional
modules that can be examined within the
framework of their external models
 Good design should:
 Consider such relationships between views
 Provide programmers with a set of restrictions
that govern common entities
A Division of an Internal Model
into External Models
Advantages of External
Models
 Use of database subsets makes application
program development much simpler
 Facilitates designer’s task by making it easier
to identify specific data required to support
each business unit’s operations
 Provides feedback about the conceptual
model’s adequacy
 Creation of external models helps to ensure
security constraints in the database design
The External Model
 DBMS dependent

 Hardware independent
The External Models for
Tiny College
The Physical Model
 Operates at lowest level of abstraction,
describing the way data are saved on storage
media such as disks or tapes

 Software and hardware dependent

 Requires that database designers have a


detailed knowledge of the hardware and
software used to implement database design
Levels of Data
Abstraction
Summary
 A good DBMS will perform poorly with a
poorly designed database
 A data model is a (relatively) simple
abstraction of a complex real-world
data-gathering environment
 Basic data modeling components are:
 Entities
 Attributes
 Relationships
Summary (continued)
 Hierarchical model

 Based on a tree structure composed of a


root segment, parent segments, and child
segments

 Depicts a set of one-to-many (l:M)


relationships between a parent and its
children

 Does not include ad hoc querying


capability
Summary (continued)
 Network model attempts to deal with many
of the hierarchical model’s limitations
 Relational model:
 Current database implementation standard
 Much simpler than hierarchical or network
design
 Object is basic modeling structure of
object oriented model
 Data modeling requirements are a
function of different data views (global
vs. local) and level of data abstraction

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