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Implementing Digital
Forensic Readiness
 Implementing Digital
Forensic Readiness
From Reactive to Proactive Process
Second Edition

Jason Sachowski
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-1383-3895-1 (Hardback)

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Contents

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xviii
Introduction xix
Author xxi

Section I
ENABLING DIGITAL FORENSICS

1 Understanding Digital Forensics 2

Introduction 2
The Role of Technology in Crime 2
History of Digital Crime and Forensics 4
Prologue (1960s–1980s) 4
Infancy (1980–1995) 5
Childhood (1995–2005) 6
Adolescence (2005–2015) 7
The Future (2015 and Beyond) 8
Evolutionary Cycle of Digital Forensics 9
“Ad Hoc” Phase 9
“Structured” Phase 10
“Enterprise” Phase 11
Principles of Digital Forensics 11
Evidence Exchange 11
Forensics Soundness 12
Authenticity and Integrity 13
Chain of Custody 14
Types of Forensics Investigations 15
Legal Aspects 16
Jurisdiction 16
Digital Forensics Resources 17
Summary 17

v
vi Contents

2 Investigative Process Methodology 18

Introduction 18
Existing Process Models 18
Digital Forensics Readiness Model 22
Summary 23

3 Digital Evidence Management 24

Introduction 24
Types of Digital Evidence 24
Common Sources of Digital Evidence 26
Log Files 27
Computer Systems 28
Infrastructure Devices 29
Virtual Systems 29
Cloud Computing 30
Mobile Devices 31
External Sources 31
Federal Rules of Evidence 32
Investigative Process Methodology 34
Preparation 35
Information Security Management 35
Lab Environment 39
Hardware and Software 43
Gathering 45
Operating Procedures 45
Processing 50
Presentation 50
Evidence Storage Networks 51
Summary 52

4 Ethics and Conduct 53

Introduction 53
Importance of Ethics 53
Principles of Ethics 53
Personal Ethics 54
Professional Ethics 54
Computer Ethics 54
Business Ethics 55
Ethics in Digital Forensics 56
Certifications and Professional Organizations 56
Digital Forensics Certification Board (DFCB) 57
Contents vii

International Association of Computer Investigative

Specialists (IACIS) 58
International Society of Forensics Computer Examiners
(ISFCE) 58
Principles for Digital Forensics 59
Impartiality and Objectivity 60
Openness and Disclosure 60
Confidentiality and Trust 60
Due Diligence and Duty of Care 60
Certifications and Accreditations 61
Summary 61

5 Digital Forensics as a Business 62

Introduction 62
The Role of Digital Forensics in an Enterprise 62
Starting a Digital Forensics Program 63
Step #1: Understand Business Risks 63
Step #2: Outline Business Scenarios 64
Step #3: Establish Governance Framework 66
Step #4: Enable Technical Execution 69
Step #5: Define Service Offerings 70
Maintaining a Digital Forensics Program 70
Educational Roadmap 71
Forensics Toolkit Maintenance 71
Key Performance Indicators (KPI) 72
Resource Capacity 73
Challenges and Strategies 75
Team Placement 75
Industry Regulation 76
Political Influences 77
Summary 77

Section II
ENHANCING DIGITAL FORENSICS

6 Understanding Digital Forensic Readiness 80

Introduction 80
What Is Digital Forensics Readiness? 80
Costs and Benefits of Digital Forensics Readiness 82
Cost Assessment 82
viii Contents

Benefits Analysis 83
Implementing Forensics Readiness 85
Summary 86

7 Defining Business Risk Scenarios 87

Introduction 87
What Is Business Risk? 87
Forensics Readiness Scenarios 88
Scenario #1: Reduce the Impact of Cybercrime 89
Scenario #2: Validate the Impact of Cybercrime or Disputes 90
Mitigating Control Logs 90
Overhead Time and Effort 91
Indirect Business Loss 91
Recovery and Continuity Expenses 92
Scenario #3: Produce Evidence to Support Organizational
Disciplinary Issues 92
Scenario #4: Demonstrating Compliance with Regulatory
or Legal Requirements 93
Scenario #5: Effectively Manage the Release of Court-
Ordered Data 94
Scenario #6: Support Contractual and Commercial
Agreements 94
Scenario Assessment 95
Summary 95

8 Identify Potential Data Sources 96

Introduction 96
What Is a Data Source? 96
Background Evidence 97
Foreground Evidence 97
Cataloguing Data Sources 98
Phase #1: Prepare an Action Plan 98
Phase #2: Identify Data Sources 99
Phase #3: Document Deficiencies 101
Insufficient Data Availability 101
Unidentified Data Sources 104
External Data Considerations 104
Data Exposure Concerns 105
Forensic Architectures 105
Systems Lifecycle 106
Waterfall and Agile Models 106
Summary 108
Contents ix

9 Determine Collection Requirements 109

Introduction 109
Pre-collection Questions 109
Evidence Collection Factors 112
Best Evidence Rule 112
Time 112
Metadata 113
Cause and Effect 114
Correlation and Association 115
Corroboration and Redundancy 117
Storage Duration 117
Storage Infrastructure 118
Data Security Requirements 119
Summary 120

10 Establishing Legal Admissibility 121

Introduction 121
Legal Admissibility 121
Preservation Challenges 123
Preservation Strategies 124
Administrative Controls 124
Policies 124
Guidelines 124
Standards 124
Procedures 125
Technical Controls 125
Storage Security 125
Integrity Monitoring 126
Cryptographic Algorithms 126
Remote Logging 127
Secure Delivery 128
Physical Controls 128
Deter 128
Detect 129
Deny 129
Delay 130
Summary 130

11 Establish Secure Storage and Handling 131

Introduction 131
Secure Storage Attributes 131
x Contents

Least Privilege Access 132

End-to-End Cryptography 132
Integrity Checking 133
Physical Security 134
Administrative Governance Foundations 135
Personnel 136
Evidence Storage 137
Evidence Handling 137
Incident and Investigative Response 137
Assurance Controls 138
Backup and Restoration Strategies 138
Near Real-Time Data Replication 139
Data Replication 139
Data Restoration from On-line Backup Media 139
Data Restoration from Off-line Backup Media 140
Summary 140

12 Enabling Targeted Monitoring 141

Introduction 141
What Is (un)acceptable Activity? 141
Digital Forensics in Enterprise Security 142
Information Security vs. Cyber Security 144
Defense-in-Depth 145
Traditional Security Monitoring 145
Modern Security Monitoring 146
Positive Security 148
Australian Signal Directorate (ASD) 149
Analytical Techniques 150
Misuse Detection 150
Anomaly Detection 151
Specification-Based Detection 152
Machine Learning 152
Extractive Forensics 153
Inductive Forensics 154
Deductive Forensics 154
Implementation Concerns 156
Summary 156

13 Mapping Investigative Workflows 157

Introduction 157
Incident Management Lifecycle 157
Integrating the Digital Forensic Readiness Model 158
Contents xi

Incident Handling and Response 159

Phase #1: Preparation 159
“Event” versus “Incident” 160
Policies, Plans, and Procedures 160
Team Structure and Models 161
Communication and Escalation 163
Escalation Management 164
Phase #2: Respond 166
Detection 166
Analysis 166
Prioritization 168
Phase #3: Restore 169
Containment 169
Eradication and Recovery 170
Phase #4: Learn 171
The Incident Response Team (IRT) 172
The Role of Digital Forensics During an Incident 174
Practitioner 174
Advisor 174
Investigation Workflow 175
Types of Security Investigations 175
Summary 176

14 Establish Continuing Education 177

Introduction 177
Types of Education and Training 177
Awareness 178
Basic Knowledge 179
Functional Knowledge 180
Professional Certification 180
Specialized Knowledge 180
Organizational Roles and Responsibilities 182
The Digital Forensics Team 183
Roles 183
Titles 184
An Educational Roadmap 185
Technical Knowledge 186
Introductory 186
Intermediate 187
Advanced 188
Non-Technical Knowledge 189
Introductory 189
xii Contents

Intermediate 190
Advanced 191
Digital Forensics Experts 192
Summary 194

15 Maintaining Evidence-Based Reporting 195

Introduction 195
Importance of Factual Reports 195
Types of Reports 196
Creating Understandable Reports 197
Arranging Written Reports 198
Inculpatory and Exculpatory Evidence 199
Summary 200

16 Ensuring Legal Review 201

Introduction 201
The Role of Technology in Crime 201
Laws and Regulations 203
Information Technology (IT) Law 203
Cyberlaw or Internet Law 204
Computer Law 205
Legal Precedence 207
Brady Rule: Inculpatory and Exculpatory Evidence 207
Frye versus Daubert Standard: General Acceptance Testing 208
Jurisdiction 209
Technology Counselling 209
Obtaining Legal Advice 210
Constraints 210
Disputes 210
Employees 211
Liabilities 211
Prosecution 211
Communication 211
Involving Law Enforcement 212
Summary 212

17 Accomplishing Digital Forensic Readiness 213

Introduction 213
Maintain a Business-Centric Focus 213
Don’t Reinvent the Wheel 214
Understand Costs and Benefits 214
Summary 215
Contents xiii

Section III
INTEGRATING DIGITAL FORENSICS
18 Forensics Readiness in Cloud Environments 218
Introduction 218
Brief History of Cloud Computing 218
What Is Cloud Computing? 219
Characteristics 220
Service Models 221
Delivery Models 221
Isolation Models 222
Challenges with Cloud Environments 223
Mobility 223
Hyper-Scaling 223
Containerization 224
First Responders 224
Evidence Gathering and Processing 224
Forensics Readiness Methodology 225
Step #1: Define Business Risk Scenarios 225
Step #2: Identify Potential Data Sources 226
Step #3: Determine Collection Requirements 227
Enterprise Management Strategies 228
Cloud Computing Governance 228
Security and Configuration Standards 229
Reference Architectures 229
Step #4: Establish Legal Admissibility 232
Layers of Trust 232
Step #5: Establish Secure Storage and Handling 234
Step #6: Enable Targeted Monitoring 235
Step #7: Map Investigative Workflows 236
Phase #1: Preparation 236
Phase #2: Gathering 237
Phase #3: Processing 238
Phase #4: Presentation 238
Step #8: Establish Continuing Education 238
General Awareness 239
Basic Training 239
Formal Education 239
Step #9: Maintain Evidence-Based Presentations 240
Step #10: Ensure Legal Review 240
Contractual Agreements 241
Summary 242
xiv Contents

19 Forensics Readiness with Mobile Devices 243

Introduction 243
Brief History of Mobile Devices 243
Challenges with Mobile Devices 245
Loss 245
Theft 245
Replacement 246
Local Storage 246
Cloud Storage 246
Encryption 246
“Burner” Phones 247
Forensics Readiness Methodology 248
Step #1: Define Business Risk Scenarios 248
Step #2: Identify Potential Data Sources 249
Step #3: Determine Collection Requirements 251
Enterprise Management Strategies 251
Step #4: Establish Legal Admissibility 256
Step #5: Establish Secure Storage and Handling 257
Step #6: Enable Targeted Monitoring 258
Step #7: Map Investigative Workflows 260
Phase #1: Preparation 260
Phase #2: Gathering 261
Phase #3: Processing 263
Phase #4: Presentation 264
Step #8: Establish Continuing Education 265
General Awareness 265
Basic Training 265
Formal Education 266
Step #9: Maintain Evidence-Based Presentation 266
Step #10: Ensure Legal Review 267
Summary 267

20 Forensics Readiness and the Internet of Things 268

Introduction 268
Brief History of the Internet of Things (IoT) 268
What Is the Internet of Things (IoT)? 269
Challenges with the Internet of Things (IoT) 270
Form Factor 271
Security 271
Privacy 271
Contents xv

Evidence Gathering and Processing 271

Forensics Toolkits 272
Forensics Readiness Methodology 272
Step #1: Define Business Risk Scenarios 273
Step #2: Identify Potential Data Sources 273
Step #3: Determine Collection Requirements 274
Step #4: Establish Legal Admissibility 275
Zones of Trust 275
Step #5: Establish Secure Storage and Handling 276
Step #6: Enable Targeted Monitoring 277
Step #7: Map Investigative Workflows 278
Phase #1: Preparation 278
Phase #2: Gathering 279
Phase #3: Processing 281
Phase #4: Presentation 283
Step #8: Establish Continuing Education 284
General Awareness 284
Basic Training 285
Formal Education 285
Step #9: Maintain Evidence-Based Presentation 285
Step #10: Ensure Legal Review 286
Discrimination 286
Privacy 287
Security 287
Consent 287
Summary 287

Section IV
ADDENDUMS

Addendum A: Tool and Equipment Validation Program 290

Addendum B: Service Catalog 297
Addendum C: Cost-Benefit Analysis 301
Addendum D: Building a Taxonomy 313
Addendum E: Risk Assessment 320
Addendum F: Threat Modeling 336
Addendum G: Data Warehousing Introduction 344
Addendum H: Requirements Analysis 355
xvi Contents

Section V
APPENDIXES

Appendix A: Investigative Process Models 362

Appendix B: Education and Professional Certifications 383
Appendix C: Investigative Workflow 394

Section VI
TEMPLATES

Template 1: Test Case 400

Template 2: Logbook 404
Template 3: Chain of Custody 405
Template 4: Investigative Final Report 408
Template 5: Service Catalog 411
Template 6: Business Case 412
Template 7: Net Present Value (NPV) 420
Template 8: Threat Risk Assessment 421
Template 9: Data Source Inventory Matrix 426
Template 10: Project Charter 427
Template 11: Requirement Analysis Report 437
Bibliography 444
Resources 456
Glossary 461
Index 469
Preface

The art of war teaches us to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy’s not coming,
but on our own readiness to receive him; not on the chance of his not attack-
ing, but rather on the fact that we have made our position unassailable.

—Sun Tzu
The Art of War

xvii
Acknowledgments

I would like to most of all thank my wife and my children for showing me that
no matter what I do in my lifetime, they will always be my greatest success.
Thank you to my parents for providing me with countless opportuni-
ties to become who I am today and for encouraging me to keep pushing my
boundaries.
Thank you to my colleagues for allowing me the honor of working with
you and for the infinite wisdom and knowledge you have given me.
Lastly, thank you to Blair for opening doors.

xviii
Introduction

Digital forensics has been a discipline of information security for decades.

Since the digital forensics profession was formalized as a scientific discipline,
the principles, methodologies, and techniques have remained consistent
despite the evolution of technology and can ultimately be applied to any form
of digital data. Within a corporate environment, digital forensics practitio-
ners are often relied upon to maintain the legal admissibility and forensic
viability of digital evidence in support of a broad range of different business
functions.

Why This Book

Regardless of how strong an organization’s defenses are, there will come a
time when the weakest link is exposed, leading to some type of incident or
event. When that time comes, organizations turn to the highly specialized
skills of digital forensics practitioners to parse through and extract evidence
from the complex volumes of data.
Unfortunately, there are times when an incident or event occurs and
organizations are unable to support the digital investigation process with
the electronic data needed to conduct analysis and arrive at conclusions.
Not only does this slow down the digital investigation process, it also places
additional overhead on people and systems to reactively identify where rele-
vant electronic data is and work to have it properly collected and preserved to
support the investigation. In comparison, the ability to collect and preserve
electronic data before something happens enhances the digital investigation
process by streamlining activities, reducing overhead, and enabling a proac-
tive approach to incidents or events.

Who Will Benefit from This Book

This book was written from a non-technical business perspective to provide
readers with realistic methodologies and strategies related to how the people,
process, and technology aspects of digital forensics are integrated through-
out an enterprise to support different business operations.
While this book does cover the fundamental principles, methodolo-
gies, and techniques of digital forensics, it largely focuses on outlining how

xix
xx Introduction

the people, process, and technology areas are used to defend the enterprise
through integrating digital forensics capabilities with key business functions.
The information contained in this book has been written to benefit peo-
ple who:

• Are employed, both directly or indirectly, in the digital forensics

profession and are working to implement digital forensics readiness
capabilities within their organization
• Are employed in the information security profession and are inter-
ested in implementing security controls that enable proactive digital
forensics capabilities
• Are academic scholars pursuing non-technical business knowledge
about requirements for enabling proactive digital forensics capabili-
ties throughout an enterprise environment

Who Will NOT Benefit from This Book

This book is not designed to provide readers with technical knowledge about
digital forensics, including the “hands-on” and “how-to” aspects of the
discipline; such as how to forensically acquire a hard drive.

How This Book Is Organized

This book is organized into six thematic sections:

Section 1: Enabling Digital Forensics outlines the fundamental princi-

ples, methodologies, and techniques applied unanimously through-
out the digital forensic discipline.
Section 2: Enhancing Digital Forensics analyses additional consid-
erations for enabling and enhancing digital forensic capabilities
throughout an enterprise environment.
Section 3: Integrating Digital Forensics addresses best practices for
integrating the people, process and technologies components of digi-
tal forensics across an enterprise environment.
Section 4: Addendums provides complimentary content that discusses
topics and subject areas not directly related to Digital Forensics.
Section 5: Appendixes provides supplementary content that expand
topics and subject areas discussed in throughout other sections of
this book.
Section 6: Templates supply structured templates and forms used in
support of the digital forensic and business functions/processes cov-
ered throughout.
Author

Jason Sachowski is a seasoned professional in the fields of information

security and digital forensics. He has an extensive history of working in a
fast-paced corporate environment where he has led digital forensics inves-
tigations, directed incident response activities, developed and maintained
processes and procedures, managed large information security budgets, and
governed the negotiation of third-party contracts.
In addition to his professional career, Jason is the author of the books
Implementing Digital Forensic Readiness: From Reactive to Proactive Process
and Digital Forensics and Investigations: People, Process, and Technologies to
Defend the Enterprise. He has also served as a contributing author and content
moderator for DarkReading, a subject matter expert for information security
and digital forensic professional exam development, and volunteering as an
advocate for cyberbullying prevention and cybersecurity awareness.
Jason holds several information security and digital forensics certifi-
cations, including Certified Information Systems Security Professional—
Information Systems Security Architecture Professional (CISSP-ISSAP),
Certified Secure Software Lifecycle Professional (CSSLP), Systems Security
Certified Practitioner (SSCP), and EnCase Certified Examiner (EnCE).

xxi
Enabling
Digital Forensics I
Understanding
Digital Forensics
1
Introduction

What is now commonly referred to as digital forensics is a profession

that was once made up of unstructured processes, custom home-grown
toolsets, and knowledge based on the collective work of hobbyists. Over the
past 50 years, the profession of digital forensics has evolved significantly
alongside technological advancements to become a mature discipline where a
common body of knowledge (CBK)—made up of proven scientific principles,
methodologies, and techniques—has brought about a globally adopted level
of standardization and formal structure.
While it is relatively well known that there are legal aspects involved with
digital forensics, most people are surprised to learn that the profession involves
a great deal of scientific principles, methodologies, and techniques. Not only
does digital forensics require a significant amount of specialized training and
skills to properly apply these scientific fundamentals, digital forensics is also
somewhat of an art form where analytical experience comes into play.

The Role of Technology in Crime

In relation to crime, technology can play multiple roles that in turn

produce many types of digital artifacts that can be used as digital evidence.
Depending on how much digital evidence is contained within any given
piece of technology, it may or may not be authorized for seizure and
subsequent collection of evidence as part of an investigation. In any case,
when technology plays a role in criminal activity, it is much easier to justify
its seizure so evidence can be processed.
Through the years, several authors have tried to develop a standard
classification scheme for the distinct roles technology can play in crime.
In the 1970s, Donn Parker was one of the first individuals to recognize the
potential seriousness of technology-relates crimes which led him to create
the following four categories which remain relevant today:

1. Object of Crime applies when technology is affected by the crime

(e.g., when a device is stolen or damaged).
2. Subject of Crime applies when technology is in the environment in
which the crime was committed (e.g., system infected by malware).
2
Understanding Digital Forensics 3

3. Tool of Crime applies when technology is used to conduct or plan

crime (e.g., illegally forged documents).
4. Symbol of Crime applies when technology is used to deceive or intimidate
(e.g., falsified investment profits).
Distinguishing when technology plays one role or another is important
on many levels. For example, knowing when technology is an object or
subject is important because, from the perspective of the practitioner, this
demonstrates intent of the perpetrator. Also, when technology is a tool, like
a gun or other weapon, this could lead to additional charges or increased
punishment. However, although technology as a symbol may seem irrelevant
because no actual system is involved in the crime, when categorized under
this role technology is represented as an idea, belief, or any entity that can
be useful in understanding motivations for committing the crime. As an
example, CEOs are a symbol of their organization and as such can become
either the victim or target of crime because of what they symbolize.
In 1994, the U.S. Department of Justice (USDOJ) developed their own
categorization scheme that made a clear distinction between hardware, being
physical components, and information, being data and programs that are
stored or transmitted. It is important to note that with a single crime there is
the potential to fall into one or more of these categories; for example, when a
system is used as the instrument of crime, it may also contain information as
evidence. The categories proposed by the USDOJ include:

• Hardware as Contraband or Fruits of Crime (i.e., any item that is

illegal to be possessed or was obtained illegally)
• Hardware as an Instrumentality (i.e., when technology played a role
in committing the crime; such as a gun or weapon)
• Hardware as Evidence (i.e., scanners with unique characteristics that
can be used and linked to the creation of digitized content)
• Information as Contraband or Fruits of Crime (i.e., computer
programs that can encrypt content to conceal evidence)
• Information as an Instrumentality (i.e., programs used to break into
other systems)
• Information as Evidence (i.e., digital artifacts revealing a user’s
activities on a system)

In 2002, the USDOJ updated their categorization scheme as part of

their publication titled Searching and Seizing Computers and Obtaining
Electronic Evidence in Criminal Investigations. The most notable
difference in the updated categorization was the realization that data and
program content, not the hardware, are usually the target of the crime;
but even when information is the target it may be necessary to collect the
hardware.
4 Understanding Digital Forensics

History of Digital Crime and Forensics

Information technology has been involved in criminal activities for more

than half of a century. Dating as far back as the 1960s, computer crimes
were first committed as either physical damage or as sabotage to computer
systems. But when technology first arrived, most people did not think that it
would one day become such an integral part of our everyday lives. If history
has taught us anything, it’s that as information technology advances there
will always be new and evolved digital crimes.
With the growing commercialization of technology and the expansion
of the Internet, computer crimes continue to take the next step in an ever-
evolving threat landscape. Moving forward from the 1970s and into the new
millennium, computer crimes expanded from just damage and sabotage
to digital crimes such as fraud, denial of service (DoS), SPAM, advanced
persistent threats (APT), and extortion.

Prologue (1960s–1980s)
From the 1960s to 1980s, computers were owned and operated by corporations,
universities, research centers, and government agencies. Computers were used
primarily as industrial systems largely supporting data processing functions and
were, for the most part, not connected to the outside world. Responsibility for
securing these computer systems was left to administrators who would perform
routine audits to ensure the efficiency and accuracy of the data processing
functions. These activities were essentially the first systematic approach to a
computer security discipline.
It was during this time that the computer first became a point of
interest to the information security, legal, and law enforcement communities.
Several government agencies started creating small ad hoc groups of
individuals who were then provided with basic training on computer systems.
These “investigators” would work with administrators to gather information
from the computer systems to be used as evidence in criminal matters.

In 1968, in Olympia, Washington, an IBM 1401 Data Processing System

was shot twice by a pistol-toting intruder.
Following closely behind in February 1969, the largest student riot in
Canada ignited when police were called in to stop a student occupation
of several floors of the Hall Building at Concordia University. When the
police arrived to control the protest, a fire broke out, resulting in
computer data and university property being destroyed. The damages
totaled $2 million, and 97 people were arrested.
Understanding Digital Forensics 5

Prior to the 1980s, computer crimes were largely dealt with under existing
laws. However, in response to an increasing number of computer crimes,
law enforcement agencies began establishing new laws to address computer
crimes. The first computer crime law, the Florida Computer Crimes Act, was
created in 1978 to address fraud, intrusion, and all unauthorized access to
computer systems. The evolution of crime into computer systems during this
time led to new terms such as computer forensics, forensics computer analysis,
and forensics computing.

Infancy (1980–1995)
With the arrival of the IBM personal computer (PC), there was a sudden
explosion of computer hobbyists around the world. These PCs had very few
applications and were not user friendly, which enticed hobbyists to write
program code and access the internals of both the hardware and operating
system (OS) to better understand how they worked. Amongst the hobbyists
were individuals from law enforcement, government agencies, and other
organizations who collectively shared their understanding of computer
systems and how technology could play a larger role as a source of evidence.
Much of the time and money spent by these individuals to learn about these
modern technologies was done of their own accord because their respective
agencies did not necessarily support their efforts.
Investigations performed by these pioneers were rudimentary from
today’s perspective. The Internet was not yet widely available for consumer use,
which limited the scope of most investigations to data recovery on standalone
computer systems. Cyber criminals mostly consisted of a mix of traditional
criminals who used technology to support their activities (e.g., phreaking)
and people who used their technical skills to illegally access other computers.
During this time, there were very few tools available, which left
investigators to either build their own or use available data protection and
recovery applications to perform analysis. Additionally, the only means of
preserving evidence was taking logical backups of data onto magnetic tape,
hoping that the original attributes were preserved, and restoring the data to
another disk, where analysis was performed using command-line utilities.
Throughout the 1990s, forensics tools began to emerge from both the hob-
byists (e.g., Dan J. Mare’s Maresware, Gord Hama’s RCMP Utilities) and larger
software vendors (e.g., Norton’s Utilities, Mace Utilities). These applications and
software suites were developed to solve specific forensics activities (e.g., imaging,
file recovery) and proved to be powerful tools for the computer forensics practice.
As technology became more widely available and reports of different
types of computer crimes were becoming more widely known, law
enforcement agencies around the world started responding by enacting laws
similar to that passed by Florida. In 1983, Canada was the first to respond by
6 Understanding Digital Forensics

amending their criminal code to address computer crimes. Following their

lead, several other nations began implementing legislation in response to
computer crimes, including the 1984 U.S. Federal Computer Fraud and Abuse
Act, the 1989 amendment of the Australian Crimes Act to include Offenses
Relating to Computers, and the 1990 British Computer Abuse Act.
Parallel to the establishment of computer laws, interest in the forensics
community was growing, as was its popularity. Agencies recognized that
many forensics investigations were performed by individuals who had
minimal training, operated on their own terms, used their own equipment,
and did not follow any formal quality control. From this, efforts began to
create a CBK of principles, methodologies, and techniques that could be
applied to standardize and bring formal structure to computer forensics.

Childhood (1995–2005)
The next decade proved to be a major step forward in the maturity of digital
forensics. Technology quickly became pervasive amongst consumers, where
it was embedded in many facets of our daily lives, which drove significant
technology innovation (e.g., mobile devices). Plus, the Internet had gained
enough momentum for it to become more readily available for use in homes
and businesses, introducing personal accessibility to email and web browsing.
Accompanied by these advances in technology was the opportunity for
criminals to commit new cybercrimes. An example of this opportunity
being made available through technology occurred following the events on
September 11, 2001, when investigators realized that digital evidence of the
attack was recoverable on computers located across the world. This revelation
reinforced the fact that criminals were using technology in the same
ubiquitous ways as the everyday consumer.
From the technology-sponsored growth of digital crime, the term computer
forensics became increasing challenging to use because both crimes and evidence
could now be found throughout networks, printers, and other devices. In 2001,
the first annual Digital Forensics Research Workshop (DFRWS) recognized
that computer forensics was considered a specialization and proposed the use of
the term digital forensics to describe the discipline as a whole.
Expansion of the field into the all-encompassing digital forensics resulted
in the creation of specializations for investigating different technologies.
In addition to the traditional computer forensics becoming a concentration,
there was the introduction of network forensics and mobile forensics.
However, with the formation of these specializations came increased
technical sophistication and legal scrutiny over requirements to follow
standardized principles, methodologies, and techniques.
The formalization of digital forensics led to the first publication of
standardized principles being issued between 1999 and 2000 from the
Other documents randomly have
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Martha
Schofield, pioneer Negro educator
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Title: Martha Schofield, pioneer Negro educator

Author: Matilda A. Evans

Release date: June 4, 2022 [eBook #68234]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: DuPre Printing Co, 1916

Credits: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARTHA

SCHOFIELD, PIONEER NEGRO EDUCATOR ***
 Martha Schofield

Pioneer Negro Educator

Historical and Philosophical Review of

Reconstruction Period of South
Carolina

By MATILDA A. EVANS, M. D.
Graduate Schofield School
 Copyright, 1916.
By Matilda A. Evans, M. D.

DuPre Printing Company, Columbia, S.C.

 Dedicatory
To the men and women who braved the
dangers and suffered the hardships of frontier life
and bore with fortitude the pain of social
ostracism and the sting of poison slander that
through their work a lowly race might be
educated, this work is respectfully dedicated by
The Author.
 FOREWORD

One of the benefits conferred by education is that of enlightening

the mind on the subject of one’s duty. Finding what is duty the
manner of discharging it will suggest itself to the alert, the active, and
those of industrious and intelligent discernment. Perhaps forever
hidden would remain the necessity for certain tasks were it not for
the inspiration idealists receive from education. This education, if
proper and well rounded, also forces all who embrace it into the line
of work promising the accomplishment of the greatest achievements
—achievements such as in leaving foot-prints on the sands of time
leave no mark of dishonor but such as really and truly do give new
heart and new hope and new courage to the weaker brother.
That Martha Schofield was inspired by the highest motives that
possibly could influence any one in choosing an occupation to be
made a life-work is evidenced by the personal sacrifices she made in
order to engage in it. The fortitude with which she bore the poison
sting of slander, the cruel whip of character assassination and
braved the threats of personal violence forcibly attests the sincerity
actuating her in pursuing her chosen work. The results accomplished
by the fifty years of earnest endeavor by her form a tribute to
efficiency of women in administrative affairs that is seldom ever
equaled by other human beings claiming greater strength by reason
of sex. When the final history of the war between ignorance and
enlightenment, between superstition and science, between vice and
virtue shall have been written of the colored race the foremost name
among all will be—Martha Schofield—Pioneer Negro Educator.
Matilda A. Evans, M. D.,
Columbia, S. C.
Martha Schofield
 CHAPTER I.
The Hunted Beast.

A woman apparently thirty years of age, of mulatto skin, fell limp

into a chair in the kitchen of Mrs. Oliver Schofield of Darby, Bucks
County, Pennsylvania about the year 1857, with blood hounds and
the voices of angry men following close upon her heels through the
tangled swamps from which she had just emerged.
“Who can thee be? Who can thee be?—and what does thee want
here?” inquired excited Mrs. Schofield as she dropped the dish rag
and rushed to the prostrate form in the chair, eager to render aid and
comfort to the suffering and afflicted woman as well as to ascertain
the cause of her abrupt, unannounced entrance into her home.
Out of breath from the long run made necessary to escape the
dogs and the traps laid by experienced officers of the law who had
been so diligently upon her trail for more than a week, that she had
had time to stop and rest and take nourishment for only a few
minutes at a time, Laura Duncan was unable at first to give any
coherent account of herself. She managed, however, to make it
known to the kind Quaker lady that she was an escaped slave and
was endeavoring with all speed possible to reach the Canadian
border and enter the world of freedom, which she had been informed
existed under the British flag in the Dominion of Canada for all who
might enter that country.
As causes moving her to take this drastic step in defiance of the
law of her own land and the possibility of involving the liberty and
happiness of all who might be kind enough to assist her in the
accomplishment of the task, she recited such evils as brought tears
to the eyes of her enforced host. She exhibited a lash-scared back, a
broken bone or two and a deep cut on the head that had since been
healed without serious results only by the aid of a skillful surgeon.
 But the physical suffering attested by these outward signs of the
practice of brutality on the woman were but a fraction of the pain and
torture which Miss Schofield knew was gnashing at her heart over
the parting of herself and husband and children more than a month
before, when at a public sale little Gabe, her ten year old son, and
Jennie, the only daughter, and her husband, “Jim,” were each sold to
different masters in as many different States and carried away where
she would never see or hear of any of them again.
“Martha” said Mrs. Schofield addressing her daughter, whose face
was covered in an immaculate white apron that adorned her whole
front, to hide the freely flowing tears that rushed from her eyes like
water from the fountains, “do thee find thy father at once and tell him
to come to the house as quickly as possible.”
Then laying her arms around the body of the inconsolable wife and
mother she spoke words of consolation and cheer, assuring her that
God in his own way and wisdom would destroy the power of the
government of human beings by the lash, would break the chains
that bind the hand and foot and visit a just retribution on all those
responsible for the sale of babies from the breasts of mothers. She
begged and pleaded earnestly that Laura abandon the attempt to
escape and entreated her to surrender to the officers and return to
her master, but the slave, chafing under the influence of a life of
injustice and brutality, expressed a firmer determination than ever
before, to continue on in her course and begged pitiably of her host
that her presence in the home be not divulged. She threatened
suicide if captured.
Mr. Schofield, himself, by this time had reached the house and
instantly grasping the situation, requested of Mrs. Schofield a familiar
old shawl and bonnet of hers. Dressed in these Laura, in company
with Mr. Schofield, passed readily as Mary, his wife, among
acquaintances of the latter, and successfully eluded all pursuit by the
officers, who a half hour after her departure had ransacked the
Schofield home from turret to foundation stone in search of the
fleeing fugitive.
 Reaching a zone safely out of reach of harm’s way, the leader of
the church of the Society Friends, deposited his burden, wishing her
God-speed in her undertaking and placing in her hand one dollar in
gold to assist her on her journey, turned his horse, after many days
on the road, and made his way slowly back home, with a painful
heart.
During the interval of her husband’s departure and return, Mrs.
Schofield was kept busy in the attempt to control the indignant and
outraged feelings of Martha, who had gone to her mother dozens of
times with the question of the justice and mercy of God and the
wisdom and power of the government in permitting the fettering of
four million bodies in chains and the trampling under foot by brutal
might of all the sacred relations of wife, father and child.
“Ah, my daughter, ’tis not for thee to question the mysterious
workings of God,” she would reply, “in the Master’s own time and
way He will touch the auction block, the slave pen and the whipping
post, and in their place thee shall see what thy dear heart desires so
much to see—happy homes and firesides, and school houses and
books, where today thee only sees crime and cruelty and fear.”
“But mother,” Martha would protest, “for how much longer must the
poor ignorant slaves endure the infinite outrages heaped upon them
by reason of the barbarism of the slave-holding oligarchy? Have they
not suffered enough already? Is it not time to close the door on the
slave-holding class and render judgment as swift and implacable as
death? Their cause was brought forth in iniquity and consummated
in crime, and I for one believe God would only be served by our
societies (the Society of Friends and the Abolitionist Society)
hastening on the inevitable civil conflict, believed by most people as
absolutely necessary in the settlement of the whole question of
slavery.”
“My daughter, oh, my daughter, pray thee do not talk that way”
said her mother in tones of profound anxiety; “does not the good
book command thee not to kill? Eternal torment for thy portion if thou
should commit murder, and to wish it to be done is father to the
deed. Oh, my daughter! my daughter! thee frightens me!”
 “Oh, no my mother, there’s no murder in my heart, I assure thee,”
said Martha; “I only desire the government’s protection for every
human being subject to its authority and I want that same authority to
turn every auction block and slave pen into a school house even if its
necessary to exact by bullet every drop of blood that has been
spilled by the lash, in accomplishing this result. Thee must concede
that the Bible also teaches us to exact an eye for an eye and a tooth
for a tooth. But I wish this to be done, Mother, only to make possible
a happier and blesseder existence here on this earth for a lowly
race, when all other means of accomplishing so desirable an end
have been tried and proven in vain.”
 CHAPTER II.
Revolution and War.

During the ten years intervening between the precipitate

appearance of the runaway slave at the Schofield home and the
coming to Edisto Island, South Carolina, of Miss Martha Schofield for
the purpose of founding an industrial school for the colored race, the
new form of liberty conceived by our fore-fathers and dedicated to
the principle that all men are born free and equal, had been put to a
severe test as to whether this new form of government could be put
into practice. The great Civil War predicted by Martha as inevitable in
the settlement of the problem of slavery broke out in all its fury in
1860-61 and was not only attended by the loss of hundreds of
thousands of priceless lives, whose bodies filled countless hospitals
of pain, and made gory the prairies and furrows of old fields, as they
on the side of the South as well as they on the side of the North bled
and died for the eternal right as each saw what was their duty; but
the demoralization precipitated by this gigantic conflict, followed by
the assassination of President Lincoln, the idol of the whole free-
civilized world, was even more staggering in its influence on the lives
and fortunes of those left to solve the problems created by the great
revolution.
The waste of inconceivable sums of money through the awarding
of contracts involving millions and millions of dollars by which
fortunes, through little or no effort at all, were made in a single night
was openly countenanced at Washington.
Superfluous wealth chocked the nation at the North with its mighty
grip and the riot of speculation, corruption and debauchery which
followed, in the voting away of the public lands free of any charge to
private corporations and the granting of subsidies of millions of
dollars without any compensation whatever, laid such burdens upon
the people that many of them until this day (1916) remain
undischarged.
The paralysis experienced by the business interests as a result of
this whirlwind of corruption resulted in the decline of the credit of the
country to such an extent that the six per cent. bonds of the Republic
dropped to about seventy-three cents on the dollar in the open
market. But the disastrous financial calamity which the war produced
is of no consequence in comparison with the moral degradation into
which the country sank.
A few years before the panic of 1873 nearly everybody in the
North and West, where conditions were prosperous in spite of the
war, wanted to go to the cities where fortunes were waiting for them,
and almost every farmer’s son took an oath that he would never
cultivate the soil. At the age of twenty-one they left the dreary and
desolate farms in droves and rushed to the cities to become
bookkeepers, doctors, lawyers, merchants and sewing machine
agents, anything to escape the heavy work of the farm. Those with
capital wanted to engage in something promising huge and quick
returns and so these built railroads, established banks and insurance
companies. Some speculated in stocks of Wall Street, while others
gambled in grain in Chicago with the result that the riches of the
whole country flowed to their coffers in immense volume, and in their
carriages and palaces the pitied their poor brothers on the farm, who
as earnestly envied them.
But the lap of luxury in which these citizens were being nursed
was doomed to become thread-bare as, indeed, it did do, and
always will do, when the world’s advance is checked by the want of
assistance and co-operation of all classes of laborers. The railroad
and insurance presidents became bankrupts and their companies
went into the hands of receivers by the score. Large numbers of
young men who imagined they had entirely too much education to be
wasted on the farm and flocked to the cities in incredible numbers
became in time, either absconders and fugitives from justice, or plain
tramps and hobos, a demonstrative force to prove the saying, that
the only really solvent people, the only independent people, are the
tillers of the soil.
 At the South which had been reduced to the most degraded type
of poverty there were no such opportunities for the accumulation of
wealth as existed at the North and in the West. The few railroads
that before the war intersected this section had been torn up by the
necessities of war and needed rebuilding, but there was no money to
be had anywhere with which to do the work. All the strongest blood
and brain had been either slain in battle or rendered incapacitated
for the tasks which the new order of conditions had forced upon the
country. Aside from the loss of millions and millions of dollars as a
result of the Emancipation Proclamation freeing the slaves the South
was forced also to bear the burden of an exorbitant tax on all crops
produced, especially the cotton tax.
The agitation set up by many of the acts of Reconstruction,
impeachment proceedings against President Johnson and the
foment and strife engendered by the rule of the military authorities
opposed by the Ku Klux Klan, all served, to keep for years longer
than necessary, the bleeding and prostrate South securely on its
back, a helpless beggar at the mercy, in many instances of an army
of unscrupulous and grafting office-seekers. Under such conditions it
was impossible to obtain credit anywhere for the most necessary
things of life and as there was almost nothing of any value produced,
the greatest hardships and suffering, if not actual misery, was
endured by the people of the South.
Scores of persons gave up in despair and died. Cow peas, corn
bread and molasses of such quality as only a few years before would
have been considered unfit food for the slaves formed the sole diet,
for the first few years after the war, of delicate and cultured women.
Little children often went to bed crying from hunger. An element of
the Negro population, rendered conspicuously brutal and vicious by
service in the army, stole and threatened even blacker crimes, just
as the game of war has affected the morality of all races of men
throughout the history of recorded warfare.
 CHAPTER III.
Pioneer Educator Arrives.

Into the midst of these terrible times which made weak the souls
and hearts of the strongest of men, came Miss Martha Schofield, the
first of the pioneers to push into the distracted South to labor, to
suffer, and if need be, to die for the millions of ignorant, irresponsible
Negroes. Their education, along industrial lines, she made her life-
work—crowning it on the 77th day of her birth, February 1, 1916, by
passing from earth to heaven. But she left to show that she did
something on earth a school and campus comprising an area of two
entire blocks in the beautiful City of Aiken, S. C., on which she had
erected eight buildings.
The school farm, adequate for all farm demonstration work,
consists of about 400 acres. The funds by which all this valuable
property was acquired was raised by Miss Schofield herself, through
the fluent use of her trenchant pen, which she knew how to wield as
few women have ever learned to do. Everything contracted for in the
interest of the school was paid for in cash as Miss Schofield, in all
her fifty years of administration, never contracted the outlay of
money without first having provided the means with which to meet
claims. She enjoyed the good-will and friendship of men and women
of wealth and influence throughout the country, especially of the old
Abolitionists, who supported her institution generously as long as
they lived and possessed the means with which to do so.
The Schofield School at Aiken has sent out into the world many
young men and women who have gone back among their own
people accomplished teachers, ministers, physicians, farmers and
artisans, leading the colored race of the South to the highest
appreciation of what Martha Schofield’s motto for life was
—“Thoroughness,” thoroughness not only in books and the industrial
arts, but in thought and action as well. No doubt the success which
attended the efforts of the graduates of this School is due, in the
main, to the strict regard for efficiency with which this great woman
inspired every student coming under her influence.
When we contemplate the wide-spread influence which the life
and work of Martha Schofield has exerted on the education of the
people of the South, the white as well as the colored, words become
inadequate to pay proper tribute to her; to justly express the
appreciation felt by those having knowledge of her achievements.
There is not a colored school in the entire South that has not
acknowledged the wisdom of this Divinely endowed leader and
instructor by establishing an industrial department. Recognizing the
imperative importance of this sort of instruction almost all the schools
and colleges for whites emphasize it by giving it first place in their
curriculums. Clemson, for white men and Rock Hill Normal and
Industrial Institute for young white women were established long
after Miss Schofield brought home to the people of the South the
crying necessity of preparing our boys and girls of all races for the
actual duties met with in every day home life. The vision which she
herself had of a thorough preparation for the humbler tasks lighted
the intellectual skies of the whole South after years of success by
her in the education of the weaker race. This fact is made more
prominent by the action of many of the States in incorporating
industrial courses in the common schools.
Much credit must be given to the practical success of Miss
Schofield’s school work for the marvelous strides made by the
education of the Negro at such celebrated institutions as Hampton,
Va., with an enrollment annually of over 1,500 students and an
endowment of over $1,000,000.00; and at Tuskegee, with about an
equal number of students and as great or greater endowment fund.
Then there are other great institutions devoted entirely to the
education of the colored race, making quite a feature of the industrial
department, such as Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga., Fisk University,
Nashville, Term., Haines Institute, Augusta, Ga., Spellman
University, Atlanta, Ga., Claflin and the Agricultural Colored State
College at Orangeburg, S. C. Also Benedict at Columbia and
Voorhees Institute at Denmark, all of which have grown into
existence and attained the top-most rung of the ladder of fame since
the coming to the South of Martha Schofield in 1865.
Near the Schofield School is the Bettis Academy in Edgefield
County, South Carolina, formed and modeled after the fashion of the
Aiken School. Alford Nicholson, the principal, is a product of the
latter and is working out with great similarity the ideas and theories
of his Alma Mater. The good being accomplished here in a small way
is one of the great triumphs of the life-work of Miss Schofield, it being
her greatest aim in life not to create and endow great institutions of
learning with money and high sounding names, but to plant in the
heart and soul of every child coming under her influence those
principles of efficiency that would enable them to get out into the
world and actually do something to lift up the fallen. She acted
always as if the taking of the name of the Lord in vain consisted
entirely of praying for the Kingdom of God to come but doing
absolutely nothing to bring those prayers to pass. “Deeds, deeds, my
children,” she was fond of saying, “are what count, not mere words.”
The absence of faith in God, she asserted, was seen in all those
who did not turn their hand to accomplish the results for which they
prayed. No one can successfully accuse her of hypocracy in the
least. She practiced what she taught and taught others that anything
less than that was hypocracy and infidelism.
Miss Martha Schofield was born near Newton, in Bucks County,
Pennsylvania, on the first day of February in the year 1839 of well-to-
do parents, who professed and lived true the principles of religion as
enunciated by the Society of Friends, or the Quakers, as they are
commonly called. This stern sect of religious puritans date their
arrival in America along with the earliest immigrants, and in
proportion to numbers can lay as heavy claim to being responsible
for the civilization of the present day as any other denomination
inhabiting the New World. The same cause, religious persecution,
leading other denominations to seek a home on American shores,
where they could worship God in their own way, inspired the Friends
to come to this country. William Penn, a very wealthy and highly
educated man, famous the civilized world over for his kindness of
heart and generous benevolences, was a member of the Society and
one of its chief supporters in England and America. He founded the
City of Philadelphia, which means brotherly love. The foundation
stone of the whole structure of the Quaker religion is carved out of
the rock of brotherly love, and it was this love that placed Ben Abon
Ahem on the highest seat in the house of the Hall of Saints when the
wandering Angel of the earth went to Heaven to pick out the
Archangel within the pearly gates.
The love which Martha Schofield bore for all mankind, white and
black, Jew and Greek, male and female, friend and foe, was
evidently inspired by a religious conviction that held her thrall.
Not since Christ has there been a man or woman of whom it can
be truly said he or she could not possibly, wilfully sin, but it is
believed confidently by all who knew Miss Schofield best that she
would not under any circumstances knowingly commit sin. It was as
natural for her to be virtuous and righteous as it is natural for the
vicious to be bad, unkind, selfish and immoral.
While Miss Schofield was kind and generous to prodigality she
was also as brave as a lion and quick as a tiger to fight if the
occasion demanded it. While she always took counsel and weighed
matters carefully she never failed to contend for what she believed to
be right. Her nature seemed blended with the holiness of a sacred
spirituality, imparted to it no doubt by her religious training, and an
invincibleness in matters affecting social relations that bordered the
stubbornness of Satan. Influenced, possibly, to greatness in the
latter attribute by the teachings of the Abolitionist Party, to which she
belonged in heart, mind and soul?
As one of her most valued friends and one of the most brilliant of
the many noteworthy people said of her at the funeral, the author
wishes to repeat here: “Martha Schofield is not dead; she lives and
will continue to live in the memory of her students scattered all over
South Carolina and other States. She lives in their memory and in
the memory of their children’s children, for there are few colored
homes in which her name and deeds are not recounted in the family
circle. I count some of her best work, the efforts she made to elevate
and purify the home. She spent much time and endured many
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