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 Electrical Machines
Electrical machines convert energy existing in one form to another, usable, form. These machines
can broadly be divided into three categories: generators, motors and transformers. Generators convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy, motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy,
and transformers change the voltage level in ac system and are considered to be the backbone of a
power system.
Electrical machines play an important role in domestic appliances, commercial devices and
industrial applications. It is important for students of electrical and electronics engineering to learn
the basic concepts of transformers, motors, generators and magnetic circuits. This book explains
the design of transformers, decoding of generators and performance of electrical motors through
descriptive illustrations, solved examples and mathematical derivations. Construction, working
principles and applications of various electrical machines are discussed in detail. In addition, it offers
an engrossing discussion on special purpose machines, which is useful from an industrial prospective
in building customised machines. The text contains hundreds of worked examples and illustrations
and more than a thousand self-assessment exercises. It is an ideal textbook for undergraduate students
of electrical and electronics engineering.
S. K. Sahdev is Associate Dean at the Faculty of Technology and Science at Lovely Professional
University, Jalandhar. He has more than thirty-five years of teaching experience. In addition, he has
helped industrial units to set-up electrical laboratories for testing and developing their products.
He has authored six books. His areas of interest include electrical machines, electric drives, power
electronics and power systems.
Electrical Machines

S. K. Sahdev
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia
314 to 321, 3rd Floor, Plot No.3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108431064
© Cambridge University Press 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
Printed in India
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-108-43106-4 Paperback
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/9781108431064
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 This book is dedicated to
my Parents,
wife – Ritu Sahdev,
son – Rohit Sahdev,
daughter-in-law – Robina Sahdev
and
grandsons – Arnav and Adhiraj
Contents

Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
1. Electro Magnetic Circuits 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Magnetic Field and its Significance 2
1.2 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis 3
1.3 Important Terms 3
1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits 5
1.5 Ampere-turns Calculations 6
1.6 Series Magnetic Circuits 6
1.7 Parallel Magnetic Circuits 7
1.8 Leakage Flux 8
1.9 Magnetisation or B-H Curve 21
1.10 Magnetic Hysteresis 22
1.11 Hysteresis Loss 23
1.12 Importance of Hysteresis Loop 24
Section Practice Problems 24
1.13 Electro Magnetic Induction 28
1.14 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 29
1.15 Direction of Induced emf 30
1.16 Induced emf 31
1.17 Dynamically Induced emf 31
1.18 Statically Induced emf 33
1.19 Self Inductance 34
1.20 Mutual Inductance 34
1.21 Co-efficient of Coupling 35
1.22 Inductances in Series and Parallel 36
1.23 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 41
1.24 AC Excitation in Magnetic Circuits 42
1.25 Eddy Current Loss 44
Section Practice Problems 46
viii Contents

1.26 Electro-mechanical Energy Conversion Devices 48

1.27 Torque Development by the Alignment of Two Fields 49
1.27.1 Soft Iron Piece Placed in the Magnetic Field 49
1.27.2 Permanent Magnet Placed in the Magnetic Field 51
1.27.3 Electromagnet Placed in the Magnetic Field 53
1.28 Production of Torque 54
1.28.1 In Case of Permanent Magnet 55
1.28.2 In Case of Electromagnet 55
1.29 Production of Unidirectional Torque 57
1.29.1 By Rotating the Main Magnets 58
1.29.2 By Changing the Direction of Flow of Current in the Conductors of
Electromagnet 58
1.30 emf Induced in a Rotating Coil Placed in a Magnetic Field 63
1.31 Elementary Concept of Electrical Machines 68
1.31.1 Operation of Machine as a Generator (Conversion of Mechanical
Energy into Electric Energy) 68
1.31.2 Operation of Machine as a Motor 70
Section Practice Problems 74
Review Questions 74
Multiple Choice Questions 76
2. Single-Phase Transformers 79
Introduction 80
2.1 Transformer 80
2.2 Working Principle of a Transformer 82
2.3 Construction of Transformer 82
2.3.1 Core Material 83
2.3.2 Core Construction 83
2.3.3 Transformer Winding 85
2.3.4 Insulation 88
2.3.5 Bushings 89
2.3.6 Transformer Tank 90
2.4 Simple Construction of Single-phase Small Rating (SAY 2 kVA) Transformers 91
2.5 An Ideal Transformer 94
2.6 Transformer on DC 95
2.7 emf Equation 96
Section Practice Problems 100
2.8 Transformer on No-load 103
2.9 Effect of Magnetisation on No-load (Exciting) Current 104
2.10 Inrush of Magnetising Current 106
Section Practice Problems 113
2.11 Transformer on Load 114
2.12 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Transformer 115
2.13 Transformer with Winding Resistance 118
 Contents ix

2.14 Mutual and Leakage Fluxes 119

2.15 Equivalent Reactance 119
Section Practice Problems 122
2.16 Actual Transformer 123
2.17 Simplified Equivalent Circuit 125
2.18 Short Circuited Secondary of Transformer 127
2.19 Expression for No-load Secondary Voltage 128
2.20 Voltage Regulation 129
2.21 Approximate Expression for Voltage Regulation 130
2.22 Kapp Regulation Diagram 131
Section Practice Problems 140
2.23 Losses in a Transformer 142
2.24 Effects of Voltage and Frequency Variations on Iron Losses 143
2.25 Efficiency of a Transformer 145
2.26 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 146
2.27 Efficiency vs Load 152
2.28 Efficiency vs Power Factor 152
2.29 All-day Efficiency 154
Section Practice Problems 156
2.30 Transformer Tests 158
2.31 Polarity Test 158
2.32 Voltage Ratio Test 159
2.33 Open-circuit or No-load Test 159
2.34 Separation of Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses 161
2.35 Short Circuit Test 165
2.36 Back-to-back Test 167
Section Practice Problems 179
2.37 Classification of Transformers 181
2.38 Parallel Operation of Transformers 181
2.39 Necessity of Parallel Operation 182
2.40 Conditions for Parallel Operation of One-phase Transformers 182
2.41 Load Sharing between Two Transformers Connected in Parallel 184
Section Practice Problems 194
2.42 Auto-transformer 195
2.43 Auto-transformer vs Potential Divider 199
2.44 Saving of Copper in an Auto-transformer 199
2.45 Advantages of Auto-transformer over Two-winding Transformer 200
2.46 Disadvantages of Auto-transformers 200
2.47 Phasor Diagram of an Auto-transformer 201
2.48 Equivalent Circuit of an Auto-transformer 203
2.49 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of an Auto-transformer 203
2.50 Conversion of a Two-winding Transformer to an Auto-transformer 205
2.51 Comparison of Characteristics of Auto-transformers and Two-winding
Transformers 207
x Contents

2.52 Applications of Auto-transformers 208

Section Practice Problems 218
Review Questions 220
Multiple Choice Questions 221
3. Three-Phase Transformers 224
Introduction 224
3.1 Merits of Three-phase Transformer over Bank of Three Single-phase
Transformers 225
3.2 Construction of Three-phase Transformers 225
3.3 Determination of Relative Primary and Secondary Windings in Case of
Three-phase Transformer 227
3.4 Polarity of Transformer Windings 227
3.5 Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities in Three-phase Transformer
Connections 228
3.6 Three-phase Transformer Connections 229
3.7 Selection of Transformer Connections 233
3.7.1 Star-Star (Yy0 or Yy6) Connections 233
3.7.2 Delta-Delta (Dd0 or Dd6) Connections 236
3.7.3 Star-Delta (Yd1 or Yd11) Connections 238
3.7.4 Delta-Star (Dy1 or Dy11) Connections 239
3.7.5 Delta-Zigzag Connections 241
Section Practice Problems 251
3.8 Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers 252
3.9 Necessity of Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers 253
3.10 Conditions for Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers 254
3.11 Load Sharing between Three-phase Transformers Connected in Parallel 255
3.12 Three Winding Transformers (Tertiary Winding) 257
3.12.1 Stabilisation Provided by Tertiary Winding in Star-Star Transformer 260
3.13 Tap-changers on Transformers 265
3.14 Types of Tap-changers 266
3.14.1 No-load (or Off-load) Tap-changer 266
3.14.2 On-load Tap-changer 267
Section Practice Problems 268
3.15 Transformation of Three-phase Power with Two Single-phase Transformers 270
3.16 Open-Delta or V-V Connections 270
3.17 Comparison of Delta and Open Delta Connections 274
3.18 T-T Connections or Scott Connections 275
3.19 Conversion of Three-phase to Two-phase and vice-versa 277
3.20 Difference between Power and Distribution Transformers 291
3.21 Cooling of Transformers 291
3.22 Methods of Transformer Cooling 292
3.23 Power Transformer and its Auxiliaries 294
 Contents xi

3.24 Maintenance Schedule of a Transformer 296

3.25 Trouble Shooting of a Transformer 297
Section Practice Problems 297
Review Questions 299
Multiple Choice Questions 300
4. DC Generator 301
Introduction 301
4.1 DC Generator 302
4.2 Main Constructional Features 303
4.3 Simple Loop Generator and Function of Commutator 307
4.4 Connections of Armature Coils with Commutator Segments and Location
of Brushes 309
4.5 Armature Winding 311
4.6 Types of Armature Winding 314
4.7 Drum Winding 315
4.8 Lap Winding 316
4.9 Numbering of Coils and Commutator Segments in Developed Winding Diagram 318
4.10 Characteristics of a Simplex Lap Winding 323
4.11 Characteristics of a Multiplex Lap Winding 327
4.12 Equalising Connections and their Necessity 327
4.13 Simplex Wave Winding 330
4.14 Dummy Coils 332
4.15 Applications of Lap and Wave Windings 338
Section Practice Problems 338
4.16 emf Equation 340
4.17 Torque Equation 341
4.18 Armature Reaction 349
4.19 Calculations for Armature Ampere-turns 351
4.20 Commutation 355
4.21 Cause of Delay in the Reversal of Current in the Coil going through
Commutation and its Effect 357
4.22 Magnitude of Reactance Voltage 358
4.23 Good Commutation and Poor Commutation 360
4.24 Interpoles and their Necessity 361
4.25 Compensating Winding and its Necessity 362
4.26 Methods of Improving Commutation 365
Section Practice Problems 366
4.27 Types of DC Generators 368
4.28 Separately-excited DC Generators 368
4.29 Self-excited DC Generators 369
4.30 Voltage Regulation of a DC Shunt Generator 371
4.31 Characteristics of DC Generators 376
xii Contents

4.32 No-load Characteristics of DC Generators or Magnetisation Curve of DC

Generator 376
4.33 Voltage Build-up in Shunt Generators 377
4.34 Critical Field Resistance of a DC Shunt Generator 378
4.35 Load Characteristics of Shunt Generator 379
4.36 Load Characteristics of Series Generators 380
4.37 Load Characteristics of Compound Generator 380
4.38 Causes of Failure to Build-up Voltage in a Generator 381
4.39 Applications of DC Generators 381
4.40 Losses in a DC Generator 382
4.41 Constant and Variable Losses 383
4.42 Stray Losses 384
4.43 Power Flow Diagram 384
4.44 Efficiency of a DC Generator 384
4.45 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 385
Section Practice Problems 387
Review Questions 390
Multiple Choice Questions 392
5. DC Motors 395
Introduction 395
5.1 DC Motor 396
5.2 Working Principle of DC Motors 396
5.3 Back emf 397
5.4 Electro-magnetic Torque Developed in DC Motor 398
5.5 Shaft Torque 399
5.6 Comparison of Generator and Motor Action 399
5.7 Types of DC Motors 401
5.8 Characteristics of DC Motors 405
5.9 Characteristics of Shunt Motors 405
5.10 Characteristics of Series Motors 407
5.11 Characteristics of Compound Motors 408
5.12 Applications and Selection of DC Motors 409
5.12.1 Applications of DC Motors 409
5.12.2 Selection of DC Motors 410
5.13 Starting of DC Motors 411
5.14 Necessity of Starter for a DC Motor 411
5.15 Starters for DC Shunt and Compound Wound Motors 412
5.16 Three-point Shunt Motor Starter 412
5.17 Four-point Starter 414
5.18 Calculation of Step Resistances Used in Shunt Motor Starter 416
5.19 Series Motor Starter 422
Section Practice Problems 423
 Contents xiii

5.20 Speed Control of DC Motors 428

5.21 Speed Control of Shunt Motors 428
5.21.1 Field Control Method 428
5.21.2 Armature Control Method 429
5.22 Speed Control of Separately Excited Motors 431
5.23 Speed Regulation 432
5.24 Speed Control of DC Series Motors 440
5.24.1 Armature Control Method 440
5.24.2 Field Control Method 441
5.24.3 Voltage Control Method 442
5.25 Electric Braking 451
5.26 Types of Electric Braking 453
5.26.1 Plugging 453
5.26.2 Rheostatic Braking 454
5.26.3 Regenerative Braking 455
Section Practice Problems 457
5.27 Losses in a DC Machine 460
5.28 Constant and Variable Losses 461
5.29 Stray Losses 461
5.30 Power Flow Diagram 462
5.31 Efficiency of a DC Machine 462
5.32 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 463
5.33 Test Performed to Determine Efficiency of DC Machines 471
5.34 Brake Test 472
5.35 Swinburne’s Test 474
5.36 Hopkinson’s Test 479
5.37 Testing of DC Series Machines 487
5.38 Inspection/maintenance of DC Machines 491
5.39 Faults in DC Machines 492
5.40 Trouble Shooting in a DC Motor 492
Section Practice Problems 493
Review Questions 495
Multiple Choice Questions 497
6. Synchronous Generators or Alternators 500
Introduction 501
6.1 General Aspects of Synchronous Machines 501
6.2 Basic Principles 502
6.3 Generator and Motor Action 503
6.4 Production of Sinusoidal Alternating emf 503
6.5 Relation between Frequency, Speed and Number of Poles 504
6.6 Advantages of Rotating Field System over Stationary Field System 504
6.7 Constructional Features of Synchronous Machines 505
xiv Contents

6.8 Excitation Systems 509

6.8.1 DC Exciters 509
6.8.2 Static-Excitation System 510
6.8.3 Brushless Excitation System 511
Section Practice Problems 512
6.9 Armature Winding 513
6.10 Types of Armature Winding 513
6.11 Important Terms Used in Armature Winding 515
Section Practice Problems 519
6.12 Coil Span Factor 521
6.13 Distribution Factor 522
6.14 Winding Factor 524
6.15 Generation of Three-phase emf 524
6.16 emf Equation 525
6.17 Wave Shape 526
6.18 Harmonics in Voltage Wave Form 526
Section Practice Problems 534
6.19 Production of Revolving Field 535
6.20 Ferrari’s Principle (Vector Representation of Alternating Field) 539
6.21 Production of Two-phase Rotating Magnetic Field 540
6.22 Production of Three-phase Rotating Magnetic Field 541
6.23 Rating of Alternators 542
6.24 Armature Resistance 542
6.25 Armature Leakage Reactance 543
6.26 Armature Reaction 544
6.27 Effect of Armature Reaction on emf of Alternator 546
6.28 Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance 548
6.29 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator and Phasor Diagram 548
6.30 Expression for No-load Terminal Voltage 549
6.31 Voltage Regulation 551
6.32 Determination of Voltage Regulation 552
6.33 Synchronous Impedance Method or emf Method 552
6.33.1 Determination of Synchronous Impedance 553
6.33.2 Determination of Synchronous Reactance 555
6.34 Modern Alternators 556
6.35 Short-Circuit Ratio (SCR) 556
Section Practice Problems 565
6.36 Assumptions Made in Synchronous Impedance Method 566
6.37 Ampere-turn (or mmf) Method 567
6.38 Zero Power Factor or Potier Method 579
Section Practice Problems 591
6.39 Power Developed by Cylindrical Synchronous Generators 592
 Contents xv

6.39.1 Power Output of an AC Generator (in Complex Form) 593

6.39.2 Real Power Output of an AC Generator 593
6.39.3 Reactive Power Output of an AC Generator 594
6.39.4 Power Input to an AC Generator (in Complex Form) 594
6.39.5 Real Power Input to an AC Generator 594
6.39.6 Reactive Power Input to an AC Generator 595
6.39.7 Condition for Maximum Power Output 595
6.39.8 Condition for Maximum Power Input 596
6.39.9 Power Equations, when Armature Resistance is Neglected 596
6.40 Two-Reactance Concept for Salient Pole Synchronous Machines 597
6.40.1 Determination of Xd and Xq by Low Voltage Slip Test 599
6.41 Construction of Phasor Diagram for Two-Reaction Concept 600
6.42 Power Developed by a Salient Pole Synchronous Generator 603
Section Practice Problems 610
6.43 Transients in Alternators 611
6.43.1 Sub-transient, Transient and Direct Reactance 613
6.44 Losses in a Synchronous Machine and Efficiency 616
6.45 Power Flow Diagram 617
6.46 Necessity of Cooling 617
6.47 Methods of Cooling 618
6.48 Preventive Maintenance 619
Section Practice Problems 619
Review Questions 620
Multiple Choice Questions 622
7. Parallel Operation of Alternators 626
Introduction 626
7.1 Necessity of Parallel Operation of Alternators 626
7.2 Requirements for Parallel Operation of Alternators 627
7.3 Synchronising Alternators 627
7.4 Conditions for Proper Synchronising 627
7.5 Synchronising Single-phase Alternators 629
7.5.1 Dark Lamp Method 629
7.5.2 Bright Lamp Method 631
7.6 Synchronising Three-phase Alternators 631
7.6.1 Three Dark Lamps Method 632
7.6.2 Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method 633
7.7 Synchronising Three-phase Alternators using Synchroscope 635
7.8 Shifting of Load 636
7.9 Load Sharing between Two Alternators 637
Section Practice Problems 646
7.10 Two Alternators Operating in Parallel 647
7.11 Synchronising Current, Power and Torque 647
xvi Contents

7.12 Effect of Change in Input Power of One of the Alternators 649

7.13 Effect of Change in Excitation of One of the Alternators 650
7.14 Effect of Reactance 651
7.15 Effect of Governors’ Characteristics on Load Sharing 652
7.16 Hunting 653
Section Practice Problems 660
Review Questions 661
Multiple Choice Questions 663
8. Synchronous Motors 665
Introduction 665
8.1 Working Principle of a Three-Phase Synchronous Motor 666
8.2 Effect of Load on Synchronous Motor 667
8.3 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Motor 669
8.4 Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Motor (Cylindrical Rotor) 669
8.5 Relation between Supply Voltage V and Excitation Voltage E 671
8.6 Different Torques in a Synchronous Motor 673
8.7 Power Developed in a Synchronous Motor (Cylindrical Rotor) 673
8.8 Phasor Diagrams of a Salient-pole Synchronous Motor 676
8.9 Power Developed in a Salient-pole Synchronous Motor 679
8.10 Power Flow in a Synchronous Motor 679
Section Practice Problems 700
8.11 Effect of Change in Excitation 701
8.12 V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves 703
8.13 Effect of Change in Load on a Synchronous Motor 704
8.14 Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motors 706
8.15 Synchronous Condenser 707
8.16 Characteristics of Synchronous Motor 710
8.17 Hunting 711
8.18 Applications of Synchronous Motors 712
8.19 Comparison between Three-phase Synchronous and Induction Motors 712
8.20 Merits and Demerits of Synchronous Motor 713
Section Practice Problems 713
Review Questions 716
Multiple Choice Questions 717
9. Three-Phase Induction Motors 721
Introduction 721
9.1 Constructional Features of a Three-Phase Induction Motor 722
9.2 Production of Revolving Field 724
9.3 Principle of Operation 725
9.4 Reversal of Direction of Rotation of Three-Phase Induction Motors 726
9.5 Slip 727
 Contents xvii

9.6 Frequency of Rotor Currents 728

9.7 Speed of Rotor Field or mmf 729
9.8 Rotor emf 730
9.9 Rotor Resistance 730
9.10 Rotor Reactance 730
9.11 Rotor Impedance 731
9.12 Rotor Current and Power Factor 731
9.13 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of Rotor 732
Section Practice Problems 739
9.14 Stator Parameters 740
9.15 Induction Motor on No-load 740
9.16 Induction Motor on Load 741
9.17 Induction Motor vs Transformer 742
9.18 Reasons of Low Power Factor of Induction Motors 743
9.19 Main Losses in an Induction Motor 744
9.20 Power Flow Diagram 744
9.21 Relation between Rotor Copper Loss, Slip and Rotor Input 745
9.22 Rotor Efficiency 745
Section Practice Problems 752
9.23 Torque Developed by an Induction Motor 752
9.24 Condition for Maximum Torque and Equation for Maximum Torque 753
9.25 Starting Torque 754
9.26 Ratio of Starting to Maximum Torque 754
9.27 Ratio of Full Load Torque to Maximum Torque 755
9.28 Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Torque 755
9.29 Torque-slip Curve 756
9.30 Torque-speed Curve and Operating Region 757
9.31 Effect of Rotor Resistance on Torque-slip Curve 757
Section Practice Problems 764
9.32 Constant and Variable Losses in an Induction Motor 765
9.33 Main Tests Performed on an Induction Motor 766
9.33.1 Stator Resistance Test 766
9.33.2 Voltage-ratio Test 766
9.33.3 No-load Test 767
9.33.4 Blocked Rotor Test 769
9.33.5 Heat Run Test 770
9.34 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 773
9.35 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 775
9.36 Maximum Power Output 776
9.37 Circle Diagram 781
9.38 Circle Diagram for the Approximate Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 782
9.39 Construction of a Circle Diagram for an Induction Motor 783
xviii Contents

9.40 Results Obtainable from Circle Diagram 785

9.41 Maximum Quantities 785
9.42 Significance of Some Lines in the Circle Diagram 786
Section Practice Problems 793
9.43 Effect of Space Harmonies 795
9.43.1 Cogging in Three-phase Induction Motors 795
9.43.2 Crawling in Three-phase Induction Motors 795
9.44 Performance Curves of Induction Motors 796
9.45 Factors Governing Performance of Induction Motors 798
9.46 High Starting Torque Cage Motors 798
9.46.1 Deep Bar Cage Rotor Motors 799
9.46.2 Double Cage Induction Motor 800
9.47 Motor Enclosures 807
9.48 Standard Types of Squirrel Cage Motor 810
9.48.1 Class A Motors 811
9.48.2 Class B Motors 811
9.48.3 Class C Motors 811
9.48.4 Class D Motors 812
9.48.5 Class E Motors 812
9.48.6 Class F Motors 813
9.49 Advantages and Disadvantages of Induction Motors 813
9.49.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Motors 813
9.49.2 Slip-ring Induction Motors 814
9.50 Applications of Three-phase Induction Motors 814
9.51 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Phase Wound Induction Motors 815
9.52 Comparison between Induction Motor and Synchronous Motor 815
9.53 Installation of Induction Motors 816
9.54 Preventive Maintenance of Three-phase Induction Motors 818
Section Practice Problems 819
Review Questions 820
Multiple Choice Questions 822
10. Starting Methods and Speed Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 828
Introduction 828
10.1 Necessity of a Starter 829
10.2 Starting Methods of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors 829
10.2.1 Direct on Line (D.O.L.) Starter 829
10.2.2 Stator Resistance (or Reactance) Starter 831
10.2.3 Star-Delta Starter 832
10.2.4 Auto-transformer Starter 834
10.3 Rotor Resistance Starter for Slip Ring Induction Motors 836
Section Practice Problems 844
10.4 Speed Control of Induction Motors 844
 Contents xix

10.5 Speed Control by Changing the Slip 845

10.5.1 Speed Control by Changing the Rotor Circuit Resistance 845
10.5.2 Speed Control by Controlling the Supply Voltage 846
10.5.3 Speed Control by Injecting Voltage in the Rotor Circuit 847
10.6 Speed Control by Changing the Supply Frequency 847
10.7 Speed Control by Changing the Poles 847
10.8 Speed Control by Cascade Method 848
10.9 Speed Control by Injecting an emf in the Rotor Circuit 850
10.9.1 Kramer System of Speed Control 851
10.9.2 Scherbius System of Speed Control 851
Section Practice Problems 854
Review Questions 854
Multiple Choice Questions 855
11. Single-Phase Motors 857
Introduction 857
11.1 Classification of Single-phase Motors 857
11.2 Single-phase Induction Motors 858
11.3 Nature of Field Produced in Single Phase Induction Motors 859
11.4 Torque Produced by Single-phase Induction Motor 860
11.5 Equivalent Circuit of Single-phase Induction Motor 861
11.6 Rotating Magnetic Field from Two-phase Supply 866
11.7 Methods to make Single-phase Induction Motor Self-starting 870
11.8 Split Phase Motors 871
11.9 Capacitor Motors 875
Section Practice Problems 878
11.10 Shaded Pole Motor 879
11.11 Reluctance Start Motor 880
11.12 Single-phase Synchronous Motors 881
11.13 Reluctance Motors 882
11.14 Hysteresis Motors 884
11.15 AC Series Motor or Commutator Motor 885
11.16 Universal Motor 886
11.17 Comparison of Single-phase Motors 888
11.18 Trouble Shooting in Motors 889
Section Practice Problems 890
Review Questions 891
Multiple Choice Questions 892
12. Special Purpose Machines 893
Introduction 893
12.1 Feedback Control System 893
12.2 Servomechanism 894
 xx Contents

12.3 Servomotors 894

12.4 DC Servomotors 895
12.4.1 Field-controlled DC Servomotors 895
12.4.2 Armature-controlled DC Servomotors 895
12.4.3 Series Split-field DC Servomotors 896
12.4.4 Permanent-magnet Armature-controlled DC Servomotor 896
12.5 AC Servomotors 897
12.6 Schrage motor 898
Section Practice Problems 903
12.7 Brushless Synchronous Generator 903
12.7.1 Brushless DC Generator 905
12.8 Brushless Synchronous Motor 905
12.9 Three-brush (or Third-brush) Generator 906
12.10 Brushless DC Motors 907
12.11 Stepper Motors 908
12.11.1 Permanent-magnet (PM) Stepper Motor 909
12.11.2 Variable-reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor 912
Section Practice Problems 913
12.12 Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) 914
12.13 Linear Induction Motor (LIM) 915
12.14 Permanent Magnet DC Motors 917
12.15 Induction Generator 920
12.16 Submersible Pumps and Motors 922
12.17 Energy Efficient Motors 926
Section Practice Problems 929
Review Questions 929
Multiple Choice Questions 930
Open Book Questions 933
Index 949
Preface

This book on ‘Electrical Machines’ has been written for under-graduate students of Electrical
Engineering (EE) and Electrical & Electronics Engineering (EEE) belonging to various Indian and
Foreign Universities. It will also be useful to candidates appearing for AMIE, IETE, GATE, UPSC
Engineering Services and Civil Services Entrance Examinations.
We know that electrical energy has a wide range of applications where electrical machines play
a vital role in industrial production and many other areas of science and technology. Accordingly,
this book has been designed so that it be useful not only to students pursuing courses in electrical
engineering but also for practising engineers and technicians.
‘Electrical Machines’ is taught at various universities under different titles such as Electrical
Machines-I, Electrical Machines-II, DC Machines and Transformers, Electromagnetic Energy
Conversion Devices, Special Purpose Machines, etc. All the topics in such courses have been covered
in this single unit. As such, the book covers the revised syllabi of all Indian and Foreign Universities.
Generally, students find Electrical Machines to be one of the most difficult subjects to understand,
despite the availability of a large number of text books in this field. Keeping this fact in mind, this
text has been developed in a systematic manner giving more emphasis on basic concepts.
Each chapter of the book contains much needed text, supported by neat and self-explanatory
diagrams to make the subject self-speaking to a great extent. A large number of solved and unsolved
examples have been added in various chapters to enable students to attempt different types of questions
in examination without any difficulty. Section Practice Problems have been added in all the chapters
to maintain regular study and understanding. At the end of each chapter sufficient objective type
questions, short-answer questions, test questions and unsolved examples have been added to make
the book a complete and comprehensive unit in all respects.
The author lays no claim to original research in preparing the text. Materials available in the
research work of eminent authors have been used liberally. But the author claims that he has organised
the subject matter in very systematic manner. He also claims that the language of the text is lucid,
direct and easy to understand.
Although every care has been taken to eliminate errors, however it is very difficult to claim
perfection. I hope this book will be useful to its users (students, teachers and professionals). I shall be
very grateful to the readers (students and teachers) and users of this book if they point out any mistake
that might have crept in. Suggestions for the improvement of the book will be highly appreciated.
Acknowledgements

There are several people to whom I would like to express my sincere thanks. First of all, I would
like to thank Mr Ashok Mittal (Hon’ble Chancellor), Mrs Rashmi Mittal (Hon’ble Pro-chancellor),
Mr H. R. Singla (Director General) of Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, who have inspired
me to develop the text in the shape of a book. I would also like to thank Dr Lovi Raj Gupta, Executive
Dean, (LFTS) of Lovely Professional University, who has encouraged and helped me in preparing
the text.
Secondly, I would like to thank the entire executive staff, faculty and students of Lovely Professional
University and Punjab Technical University for their support, collaboration and friendship.
I would like to thank all my friends, particularly Dr Manjo Kumar, Principal, DAV Institute
of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar; Dr Sudhir Sharma, HOD, Electrical, DAV Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar; Mr D. S. Rana, HOD, Electrical who have been involved,
either directly or indirectly, in the successful completion of this book.
I owe my family members, relatives, friends and colleagues (Professor Bhupinder Verma,
Mr R. K. Sharma, Mr Satnam Singh, Mr Amit Dhir and Ms Meenakshi Gupta) a special word of
thanks for their moral support and encouragement.
I express my gratitude to the Publisher ‘Cambridge University Press’ and its Associate
Commissioning Editor Ms Rachna Sehgal for guidance and support in bringing out the text in the
shape of a book.
 Electro Magnetic Circuits 1

CHAPTER

Electro Magnetic Circuits 1

Chapter Objectives
After the completion of this unit, students/readers will be able to understand:
What is magnetic field and its significance?
What is a magnetic circuit?
What are the important terms related to magnetism and magnetic circuits?
What are the similarities and dissimilarities between magnetic and electric circuits?
How series and parallel magnetic circuits are treated?
What is leakage flux and how it affects magnetic circuits?
What is magnetic hysteresis and hysteresis loss?
What is electromagnetic induction phenomenon?
What are Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction?
What are self- and mutual inductances and what is their significance?
What is the effective value of inductances when these are connected in series–parallel combination?
What are electromechanical energy conversion devices?
How does torque develop by the alignment of two fields?
What are the factors on which torque depends?
How to determine the direction of torque or induced emf in rotating machines?

Introduction
It is always advantageous to utilise electrical energy since it is cheaper, can be easily transmitted,
easy to control and more efficient. The electrical energy is generally generated from natural resources
such as water, coal, diesel, wind, atomic energy, etc. From these sources, first mechanical energy is
produced by one way or the other and then that mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy
by suitable machines. For the utilisation of electrical energy, it is again converted into other forms
of energy such as mechanical, heat, light etc. It is a well-known fact that the electric drives have
been universally adopted by the industry due to their inherent advantages. The energy conversion
devices are always required at both ends of a typical electrical system. The devices or machines
which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice-versa are called electro–mechanical
energy conversion devices.
 2 Electrical Machines

The operation of all the electrical machines such as DC machines, transformers, synchronous
machines, induction motors, etc., rely upon their magnetic circuits. The closed path followed by the
magnetic lines of force is called a magnetic circuit. The operation of all the electrical devices (e.g.,
transformers, generators, motors, etc.) depends upon the magnetism produced by their magnetic
circuits. Therefore, to obtain the required characteristics of these devices, their magnetic circuits
have to be designed carefully.
In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the basic fundamentals of magnetic circuits and
their applications as electromechanical energy conversion devices.

1.1 Magnetic Field and its Significance

The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or repulsion is called
magnetic field.
The existence of the magnetic field at a point around the magnet can also be determined by placing
a magnetic needle at that point as shown in Fig. 1.1. Although magnetic lines of force have no real
existence and are purely imaginary, yet their concept is very useful to understand various magnetic
effects. It is assumed (because of their effects) that the magnetic lines of force possess the following
important properties:
(i) The direction of magnetic lines of force is from N-pole to the S-pole outside the magnet. But
inside the magnet their direction is from S-pole to N-pole.
(ii) They form a closed loop.
(iii) Their tendency is to follow the least reluctance path.
(iv) They act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten themselves.
(v) They never intersect each other.
(vi) They repel each other when they are parallel and are in the same direction.
(vii) They remain unaffected by non-magnetic materials.

Fig. 1.1 Magnetic field around a bar magnet

 Electro Magnetic Circuits 3

1.2 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis

The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
A magnetic circuit usually consists of magnetic materials having high permeability (e.g., iron,
soft steel, etc.). In this circuit, magnetic flux starts from a point and finishes at the same point after
completing its path.
Figure 1.2 shows a solenoid having N turns wound on an iron
core (ring). When current I ampere is passed through the solenoid,
magnetic flux I Wb is set-up in the core.
Let l = mean length of magnetic circuit in m;
a = area of cross-section of core in m 2;
µr = relative permeability of core material.
f
Flux density in the core material, B = Wb/m2
a
Magnetising force in the core material.
Fig. 1.2 Magnetic circuit
B f
H= = AT/m
m0 mr a m0 mr
According to work law, the work done in moving a unit pole once round the magnetic circuit (or
path) is equal to the ampere-turns enclosed by the magnetic circuit.
f NI
i.e., Hl = NI or ¥ l = NI or I= Wb
a m0 mr ( l / a m0 mr )
The above expression reveals that the amount of flux set-up in the core is
(i) directly proportional to N and I i.e., NI, called magnetomotive force (mmf). It shows that the
flux increases if either of the two increases and vice-versa.
(ii) inversely proportional to l/a µ0 µr called reluctance of the magnetic path. In fact, reluctance is
the opposition offered to the magnetic flux by the magnetic path. The lower is the reluctance,
the higher will be the flux and vice-versa.

Thus, Flux = m.m.f

reluctance
It may be noted that the above expression has a strong resemblance to Ohm’s law for electric
current (I = emf/resistance). The mmf is analogous to emf in electric circuit, reluctance is analogous
to resistance and flux is analogous to current. Because of this similarity, the above expression is
sometimes referred to as Ohm’s law of magnetic circuits.

1.3 Important Terms

While studying magnetic circuits, generally, we come across the following terms:
1. Magnetic field: The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or
repulsion is called magnetic field.
4 Electrical Machines

2. Magnetic flux (I): The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb). It is analogous to electric current I in electric circuit.
3. The magnetic flux density at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles to the flux at that
point.
It is, generally, represented by letter ‘B’. Its unit is Wb/m 2 or Tesla, i.e.,
f
B= Wb / m 2 or T (1 Wb/m2 = 1 × 10 4 Wb/cm2)
A
4. Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force through it is called
the permeability of that material.
It is generally represented by µ (mu, a Greek letter). The greater the permeability of a material,
the greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of force and vice-versa. The permeability
of air or vacuum is the poorest and is represented as µ 0 (where µ0 = 4S × 10 –7 H/m).
Relative permeability: The absolute (or actual) permeability µ of a magnetic material is much
greater than absolute permeability of air µ 0. The relative permeability of a magnetic material
is given in comparison with air or vacuum.
Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material µ to the permeability of air or vacuum µ 0 is
called the relative permeability µr of the material.
m
i.e., µr = or µ = µ 0 µr
m0
Obviously, the relative permeability of air would be µ 0/µ0 = 1. The value of relative permeability
of all the non-magnetic materials is also 1. However, its value is as high as 8000 for soft iron,
whereas, its value for mumetal (iron 22% and nickel 78%) is as high as 1,20,000.
5. Magnetic field intensity: The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when placed at a point
in the magnetic field is called the magnetic intensity of the field at that point. It is denoted by H.
In magnetic circuits, it is defined as mmf per unit length of the magnetic path. It is denoted by
H, mathematically,
m.m.f NI
H= = AT / m
length of magnetic path l
6. Magnetomotive force (mmf): The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to set-up magnetic
flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force. As per work law it may be defined as
under:
The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic circuit is called
magnetomotive force. In general
mmf = NI ampere-turns (or AT)
It is analogous to emf in an electric circuit.
7. Reluctance (S): The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit is called its
reluctance.
It depends upon length (l), area of cross-section (a) and permeability (µ = µ 0 µ r) of the material
that makes up the magnetic circuit. It is measured in AT/Wb.
 Electro Magnetic Circuits 5

l
Reluctance, S =
a m0 mr
It is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.
8. Permeance: It is a measure of the ease with which flux can be set-up in the material. It is just
reciprocal of reluctance of the material and is measured in Wb/AT or henry.
1 a m0 mr
Permeance = = Wb/AT or H
reluctance l
It is analogous to conductance in an electric circuit.
9. Reluctivity: It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric circuit.

1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Although magnetic and electric circuits have many points of similarity but still they are not analogous
in all respects. A comparison of the two circuits is given below:

Magnetic Circuits Electrical Circuits

Fig. 1.3 Magnetic circuit Fig. 1.4 Electric circuit

Similarities
1. The closed path for magnetic flux is called 1. The closed path for electric current is called
magnetic circuit. electric circuit.
2. Flux = mmf/reluctance 2. Current = emf/resistance
3. Flux, I in Wb 3. Current, I in ampere
4. mmf in AT 4. emf in V
5. Reluctance, S =
l
=
l
AT/Wb 5. Resistance, R = r l W or R = 1 l Ω
am a m0 mr a s a
6. Permeance = 1/reluctance 6. Conductance = 1/resistance
7. Permeability, µ 7. Conductivity, V = 1/U
8. Reluctivity 8. Resistivity

9. Flux density, B =
f
Wb/m 2 9. Current density, J = I A / m2
a a
10. Magnetic intensity, H = NI/l 10. Electric intensity, E = V/d
Other documents randomly have
different content
 “The next day the youth proceeded on his journey—and
for several days he continued to pursue it, until at last he had
nearly reached the point to which he was bound. On every
occasion when his courage had failed—when fatigue had
oppressed him, or when difficulties had stared him in the face
—the little lady, of flaxen hair and bright blue eyes, had come
to his aid, and, chasing away his despondence, had given him
new courage to proceed. As the youth came in sight of the
city to which he was travelling, she appeared once more, and
addressed him for the last time.
“As he was about to bid her farewell, his heart smote him
at the idea of parting with her forever. ‘My dear lady,’ said he,
while he kissed her hand tenderly; ‘I owe you much more
than my tongue can speak. You have watched over me in this
long and tedious journey; you have lightened my burthen,
cheered my fatigues, chased away my fears, and given me
courage in the place of despondence. But for you, I had long
since lain down and died in the path; or had lingered in
misery by the way. Would that I could induce you to live with
me forever.’
“‘That may not, cannot be!’ said the lady, as a smile passed
over her face; ‘that may not be. I am not of flesh and, blood,
like you: I am a fairy—my form is but a thing of hues like the
rainbow, that seems a bridge leading from earth to heaven,
and yet is baseless as a dream.’
“‘Lovely fairy,’ said the youth, kneeling; ‘pray tell me your
name; and oh, if it be possible, tell me the art by which you
have taught me to conquer difficulties, to rise above doubt, to
triumph over indolence, murmuring, and despondency!’ The
fairy replied as follows:—
“‘Listen, youth—for I tell you an important secret. My
name is Cheerfulness, and all my art lies in a single sentence:
Always make the best of it.’ So saying, the fairy departed, and
was seen by the youth no more; but he now perceived the
 force of the fairy’s words, and practising accordingly, he soon
possessed the great art of securing happiness, and of making
himself agreeable to others.”

Caution.—As you would air a bed carefully, that has been slept in
by one afflicted with an infectious disease, so be very considerate
before you place confidence in a lawyer.
 The War in Florida.

At the southeastern extremity of the United States, is a long

Peninsula called Florida. This name was given to it by the Spaniards,
because it seemed to them a land of flowers. It continued to belong
to Spain till about twenty years ago, when it was ceded to the
United States.
Florida was occupied by several tribes of Indians, when first
discovered. Among them were the Seminoles, a branch of the Creek
nation, who dwelt in the northern part of the territory. When the
country was ceded to the United States, they held possession of the
vast tract which stretches from the Atlantic ocean to the river
Apalachicola, save only a space around the town of St. Augustine. It
was a fair land, watered with many rivers, inhabited by millions of
brilliant birds, and the dwelling-place of vast herds of deer; it was a
land of almost perpetual summer, where the orange and the lemon,
and the vine, flourished in the open air.
Notwithstanding the beauty of their country, the Seminoles
consented to part with the best portion of it. They made an
agreement with the white people, to give up all their vast territory,
save only the central portion, consisting of pine barrens and deep
swamps, covered with a wild vegetation, and the dwelling-place of
alligators, serpents, lizards, tortoises, gallanippers, and a variety of
similar inhabitants.
When the time came to carry this bargain into effect, Neha Matla,
a chief of the tribe, told the Indians that they had been cheated,
overreached and deceived by the cunning whites; and he therefore
urged them to resist the treaty. But while the Indians were holding
their war-council, to deliberate upon the matter, the armed soldiers
broke in upon them, deposed the war leaders, and compelled the
poor Seminoles to retire from their land of fruits and flowers, to the
pine barrens and the swamps. They did this, but they carried the
memory of their wrongs written deep in their bosoms.

OSCEOLA.
Not long after they had taken possession of their new territory,
the Seminoles made another bargain, by which they engaged to
retire from Florida, give up their lands there, and remove to another
territory, upon the upper-waters of the Arkansas, far to the west.
When the time for removal came, the poor Indians still felt reluctant
to leave the land of their fathers, and go away to unknown and
distant regions! In order to compel them to remove, an officer of the
United States called upon them to deliver up their horses and cattle,
as they had promised to do, and go to their new home. Upon this,
they prepared for resistance. They retired to the deep thickets in the
swamps, called hammocks, and taking their wives and children and
some of their horses and cattle, set their enemies at defiance.
After a time Osceola, or Powel, as he was sometimes called, was
chosen as their chief. He was partly of Indian, and partly of white
blood—but a man of great courage, skill and energy. When he
became the leader, the war assumed a serious aspect.
I cannot now tell the whole story of the struggle that has been
maintained by the Seminoles for nearly seven years. They have
displayed a degree of courage, patience, perseverance, and
patriotism, scarcely equalled in the annals of history—considering
the smallness of their number, and the mighty force that has been
brought against them.
Osceola was a vagabond child among the Indians, but he became
their chief, and maintained the war with vigor for some time. At last
he was taken, and being removed to a fort on Sullivan’s Island, near
Charleston, S. C., he died in 1838.
The war has been continued since his death, and both the Indians
and the American troops sent against them, have performed
wondrous feats of valor. It is supposed that the Indians are now
nearly destroyed or worn out, and that the few who remain must
soon surrender to their more powerful enemies.
Such is the sad story of the Seminoles. They are savages, but
they have shown many traits of character worthy of our respect. We
shall soon possess their lands, but they have cost our country many
millions of dollars, and far more than they are worth. This piece of
history tells us that even an Indian tribe, small though it be, if it
bears hatred in its bosom, founded upon acts of oppression, may
become the instrument by which that oppression is punished.
 Composition.
The following is a letter of an East Indian servant, addressed to a
physician who had been attending his master:
To Dr. ——
Most learned Saib—I am instructed by his excellency, the
noble saib, to make information that his arm alteration of
pain, sensibly diminishing heat of surface. Accounted for by
them Blue Balls which your making master digest. My
honored master his face already seize collour of custard apple
which not desirable. Your honor when will come then, tell
bearer who will show the place of the unfortunate Budwood
Saib, the prey of the vulture ill-luck.
The meaning of this is as follows:
Most learned Sir:—I am instructed by his excellency, my
noble master, to inform you that the pain in his arm has
sensibly decreased. The heat of his skin is accounted for by
the blue pills you gave him, which had a very powerful effect.
My honored master’s face has already become the color of a
custard apple—a bad symptom. When your honor comes to
visit him, the bearer will point out his residence to you.
 The Cereopsis.

Natural Curiosities of New Holland.

New Holland is the largest island in the world, being as extensive

as Europe. It is considered a continent by some writers on
geography: but its size is not the greatest point of interest. It
possesses several birds, quadrupeds, and even vegetable
productions, distinct in kind from those of any other part of the
world. It produces kangaroos, which are as large as a sheep, and
carry their young ones in a natural pocket. They jump seventy-five
feet at a bound; and use their tails as a jumping-pole.
It produces black swans, and flying opossums; the superb
menura, a bird with a tail shaped like an ancient harp; the platypus,
a queer fellow, with a bill like a duck, fur like a beaver, and claws like
a woodchuck!
 Among other curiosities found in New Holland, is the cereopsis, a
kind of speckled goose. We give a picture of this bird, which will
afford a better idea of its appearance, than words can convey. Who
would not like to go to New Holland?

Tolerance.—“In my youth,” says Horace Walpole, “I thought of

writing a satire upon mankind; but now, in my old age, I think I
should write an apology for them.”
 Story of Philip Brusque.

chapter x.

Pacification.—​Another attempt to adopt some form of government.

The morning that followed the battle of the tents, and the death
of Rogere, was fair and bright. The sun, at rising, seemed to burst
from the bosom of the briny element, at the same time converting
its boundless surface into a mirror of burnished gold. The light
clouds that hung in the east, in long horizontal lines, were also of a
golden hue, betokening at once the gentleness of the morning
breeze, and the fair weather that was to characterize the day. M.
Bonfils, as he stepped forth from the tent, and felt the fresh air, and
looked abroad, could not but be struck with the beauty of the scene
around. “It is indeed a lovely morning—and this is a heavenly
climate,” said he, half audibly. “Oh, that the human beings upon this
lone island, would look forth upon nature, and take a lesson of
peace from its teaching!”
As he said these words, he was met by Brusque, and several
other persons, who had been deliberating as to what course ought
to be pursued. No communication had, as yet, been had with the
defeated party at the cave, and the state of feeling there was a
matter of entire uncertainty. After a little conversation, M. Bonfils
offered himself to go alone to the cave, and propose some amicable
adjustment of difficulties. To this, Brusque as well as others
objected; urging upon the hoary patriot the danger of placing
himself in the power of these violent men, recently defeated, and
likely still to be irritated by the death of their leader. But these
reasons did not shake the old man’s purpose. He replied that he
feared no danger; that the Rogere party would probably be more
reasonable now than before; that his very helplessness would disarm
their vengeance; and that even if they took his life, it was but the
remnant of an existence, now near its close, and which he could well
afford to risk for the sake of his friends.
Finding him entirely devoted to the adventure, Brusque withdrew
his objections, and the aged man departed, taking no weapon of
defence; supported, however, by a light bamboo cane, for his step
was tottering, and his frame frail, from extreme age. The people saw
him take his way up the hill, with anxious and admiring eyes, and
there was more than one cheek down which the tears stole, showing
that their hearts were touched by the fortitude and devotion of the
patriarch.
In a brief space after the old man had gone, Brusque and
François, unnoticed by the people, wound their way around the
trees, and ascended to a sheltered spot, near the cave, to be in
readiness to offer succor, should any rudeness or insult be
threatened to M. Bonfils. From this cover, they saw him approach the
cave, around which about a dozen men were standing. They were all
armed, and appeared to be in expectation of attack, yet ready for
desperate defence. There was a determination and daring in their
looks, which alarmed both François and Brusque: and it was with a
feverish interest that they saw the old man, tottering indeed, but still
with a calm and tranquil aspect, march directly up to the party, take
off his hat, and speak to them as if the emotions of fear were
unknown to his bosom.
“I have come, my friends,” said he, “for I will not call my fellow-
men enemies—I have come to speak to you of peace. I have come
in the name of those who are your countrymen, in behalf of
mothers, sisters, children, to beg you to lay down your weapons, to
lay aside all thoughts of war; to”—
“Down with the old fool!” said a rough voice; “let us hear no more
of his twaddle.” “Nay, nay!” said another; “none but a brute will
injure an old man: let’s hear him out. It can do us no harm.”
 This seemed to be acceptable to the party, and M. Bonfils went
on.
“I pray you to listen to me for a moment. Look around upon this
island; is it not a little paradise? How beautiful are the skies above;
how glorious the sun that shines upon it; how soft the breezes that
fan its surface; how luxurious the vegetation that clothes its swelling
hills and its gentle vales! Was this spot made for peace or war? Is
there a heart here that can look around, and not feel that nature
whispers a lesson of peace? Does not every bosom whisper peace?
Does not common sense teach us peace? What can we gain by
strife, but evil? Can it promote our happiness to slay each other like
wild beasts? If we are to have war, and blood is to be shed, will the
conquering party enjoy their victory, when they are forever to live in
sight of the graves of their butchered brethren?
“Oh my friends—my countrymen—take an old man’s counsel: no
one can be happy, if others are not happy around him. If one of us
become a despot, and his will is law, he will still be a wretch,
because he will be in the midst of the wretched. Every human
bosom reflects the light or the shadow that falls on other bosoms.
Man cannot live for himself alone. Let us then be wise and live for
each other. Let us enter into a compact to secure each other’s
peace. Let us adopt a system of government, which shall secure
equal rights and equal privileges. This is just, fair, and wise. It is the
only course to save the inhabitants of this island from misery and
desolation. This is my errand; I came to pray you to throw aside
your weapons; I came to beg that what is past may be forgotten. I
propose that you reflect upon these things; and that, as soon as
may be, you send a deputation to the party at the tents, to acquaint
them with your decision.”
Saying this, the old man departed.
This mission was not without its effect. The party at the cave took
the subject into serious consideration, and though there was a
division of opinion, yet the majority concluded that it was best to
accede to the offered terms of pacification. They accordingly
appointed two of their number, who went to the tent party, and
proposed that another attempt should be made to establish some
form of government.
This proposition was at once accepted; and a committee,
consisting of five persons, was appointed to draw up a constitution.
The result will be given in another chapter.
 Beds

Strew then, oh strew,

Our bed of rushes;
Here may we rest,
Till morning blushes!

In the days of Elizabeth, the peasants used logs of wood for

pillows. In the time of the Hebrew kingdom; the bed resembled a
divan; consisting of a low elevation, running round three sides of a
small room, and stuffed with cushions. In the early times, the
Romans slept on leaves: afterwards they used hay and straw. Till the
close of the thirteenth century, straw was common in the chambers
of palaces. Rushes were also sometimes used for beds, as the
preceding extract from an old English song shows. To the English
belongs the merit of having brought improvements in beds to the
present state of perfection.
 THE GREAT BUSTARD.

This noble bird, being twice as large as a turkey, weighing often

thirty pounds, is found in the northern parts of Europe, and even in
England. Its food is esteemed as a great delicacy, and therefore it is
scarce in countries thickly inhabited by man. It frequents open
plains, runs with rapidity, and if pursued, rises upon the wing, and
skims over the ground with great swiftness. It lives upon grasses,
grain, and the leaves of tender plants. It lays its eggs on the ground,
without a nest. The young ones, when pursued, skulk in the grass or
leaves, and are thus often taken with the hand. The bustard is
sometimes tamed, but even then it is shy, and never seems to place
full confidence in man.
 African Rings.—Dollars are in great request among the old kings
and chiefs of the interior of Africa. They first drill two holes, about
the centre, into which they insert a circular piece of lead to slip on to
the finger; the surface of the dollar being on the upper part of the
hand, like a seal.
 The Tartar.

Throughout the central parts of Asia are various tribes of Tartars,

some of which pursue the vocation of robbers. We give a picture of
one of these fellows, mounted on his dromedary, and armed with a
good supply of spears.
These Tartar thieves usually roam in small parties over the thinly
settled plains and barren lands of Central Asia, making an occasional
assault upon the poor villagers, or attacking and plundering the
caravans of merchants and travellers that may be met with. They are
a fierce and cruel race, and appear to have pursued this course of
life, from the earliest period to the present time.

Answers to our Puzzles.

One of our correspondents has been so kind as to offer an answer

to the puzzle of 28 letters in our last number, as follows:
The first, instead of a French villa,
I find to be the town Manilla.
 The second, of presaging ill,
Is that detested scroll, Rent Bill.
The third a Cab, and by my hat,
The fourth is nothing but a Cat.
With Yankee privilege, I’ll try
To guess the fifth; a grain of Rye!
Sixthly, we find that people will
Poor master William, nickname Bill.
And seventh, all blessings were in vain,
Should heaven withhold her showers of Rain.
The eighth discloses man’s worst lot,
A self-degraded, loathsome Sot.
The ninth as bright in color glows,
As Sharon’s richest, sweetest Rose.
The tenth, if I have not forgotten,
Is that important product, Cotton.
The whole, that school of information,
Mercantile Library Association.

Another correspondent sends us the following:

Mr. Editor:—Our little circle gathered about the table to
guess out the conundrums in Merry’s Museum; and the result
of our united investigations I send you.
That Man begins with M, no one, indeed, can doubt;
A hard Sum is a task, as many school-boys have found out.
A welcome winning sure, is Yes to all who favors seek,
And human creatures often Err, for they are frail and weak.
The Muse is often drawn with beauteous face divine,
And like a goddess do her form, her face, and features shine.
With Mr. Merry we shall soon be pretty well acquainted,
And his Museum pleases us, with covers yellow painted.

Manilla, a town in East Indies is found,

The Rent-bill, to some, maketh sorrow abound.
A Cab is a vehicle, greatly in use,
And a Cat is of value, where rats are profuse.
The Rye, when well ripened, is useful for food,
But Bill, for a nickname, I think is not good.
That Rain is a blessing, sure no one will doubt,
 And a Sot’s to be pitied, whether in doors, or out.
The Rose is a flower admired by all,
And Cotton, I think, without commerce, would fall.
Have I found out the puzzle? Surely ’tis great vexation,
To make rhyme with Mercantile Library Association.
Lancaster, Jan. 5, 1842.

We cannot refuse a place to the following, for it is both short and

sweet:
The answers to the puzzles in your magazine, are “Merry’s
Museum,” and “Mercantile Library Association.”
Yours,
A Black-eyed Friend.
 THE SNOW-STORM.
THE WORDS AND MUSIC COMPOSED FOR MERRY’S MUSEUM.

Down, down the snow is falling slow,

Powd’ring the bald-pate trees:
Its myriad flakes
A blanket makes,
And wrap the sleeping leaves.

Fierce now the blast!

The snow flies fast,
And whirls in many a spray—
Wreath chases wreath,
O’er hill and heath,
Like spirits in their play.

Jack Frost is out,

And drives about—
The white drift for his sled—
Loud roars the gale—
The child turns pale,
And hugs his trundle-bed!

The storm is past,

Gone, gone the blast!
 The moon shines fair and bright—
Come, girl and boy,
With shout of joy—
We’ll have a slide to-night!

Apology.—We owe an apology to the Rev. A. B. Muzzy for the

insertion of several articles in our Museum, on the important subject
of habit. We copied them from an English magazine, giving credit for
them to that source. We are now informed that they are from an
excellent work, entitled “The Moral Teacher,” by the aforesaid
gentleman.
 MERRY’S MUSEUM.

V O L U M E I I I . — N o . 3 .

The Siberian Sable-Hunter.

chapter vii.

Arrival at Yakoutsk.—​Letter from home.—​Departure.

Nothing could be more dreary than the aspect of the country, as

our travellers approached the town of Yakoutsk. This was situated
on a nearly level plain, which was now covered with snow. There
were only a few stunted trees to be seen, and not a dwelling for
miles around the town. The river, of which a view was afforded, was
frozen over, and the scene bespoke a land of sterility and the stern
season of winter.
Yakoutsk contains about 7000 inhabitants, and is built of wood.
The houses are low and mean, and the people, for the most part,
live in poverty and wretchedness. The climate is so severe, that, so
late as June, the frost is not out of the ground; and in September,
the Lena, which is a large river, is frozen over. Of course, the fruits
yielded by the soil are exceedingly few, and the people have hard
work, during the three brief months of summer, to lay up a sufficient
store of food, fuel, and clothing, to save them from perishing during
the long and bitter winter of nine months.
It was now three months since Alexis had parted from his friends
at Tobolsk, and he was separated from them by a space of two
thousand miles. He expected to get letters from home, brought by
the post, and as soon as he and his party had obtained lodgings, he
went to the office, where they were to be left. It was with a beating
heart that he entered the place, and inquired for his letters. So long
a time had elapsed since his departure, and so vast a distance now
lay between him and his friends, that he experienced a sickening
sense of anxiety. What might not have happened to his aged father,
or his dear sister?
These were the thoughts in his mind, as the person at the office
handed him a letter, on which he instantly recognised the hand-
writing of Kathinka. He thrust it into his bosom, and, with a rapid
step, sought his lodgings. Here he broke the seal, and read as
follows:
“Dearest Alexis:—It is now two months since you left us,
and it seems a year. I have counted the very hours since your
departure, and could I have foreseen the weariness, anxiety,
and longing that your absence has occasioned, I had never
consented to your enterprise. When I think that you will be
two thousand miles from Tobolsk when this reaches you, I am
really sick at heart. And yet nothing has happened to give us
any particular cause of anxiety. Indeed, our condition has
rather improved. The governor’s lady bought the lace collar
which I wrought, and has since taken other articles, and she
has paid me well for them. The governor himself has noticed
me kindly, though there is something about him I do not like.
He smiles when he meets me, and flatters me very much; but
still, his dark brow frightens me. However, I must not offend
him, for he is not only kind to me, but he has called upon our
poor father, and expressed his desire to make his exile as
little painful as possible. What all this means I cannot say, but
I hope it proceeds from the kindness of his heart.
“Do you remember young Suwarrow, who was at our
house, while the Princess Lodoiska was concealed there? He
was somehow concerned in aiding her escape; and after her
departure, I had never seen him till he came here. He is of
Polish birth, but his family is Russian, and he is now an officer
of the castle in Tobolsk. He arrived about the time you left us.
He soon found us out, and has been to see us frequently. He
is a noble fellow, and, though a Russian soldier, seems to
possess the heart of a Pole. It is a great comfort to find such
a friend, and I think it the more fortunate, that he and father
seem to like each other so much. The only thing about it that
troubles me, is, that he seems to dislike my going to the
governor’s house, and is very careful to conceal his visits, so
that they may not be known to his commander. What does all
this mean?
“You will hardly expect me to tell you any news, for we see
little of society, and in fact we are almost as much lost to the
world, as if Tobolsk were a prison. The only thing of particular
interest that has occurred, is the arrival of several Polish
exiles. Some of them are of noble families, and father’s heart
has been wrung to agony for them. Alas, that the love of
one’s country should be a crime, for which banishment to this
dreary land must atone!
 “You will desire to know all about our dear father. He is
now happily relieved from the fear of immediate want; the
products of my needle, so liberally paid for by the governor’s
lady, supply us with the few necessities of life. He spends a
good deal of time in reading; for Suwarrow has furnished us
with books; and occasionally we get the Petersburgh Gazette
from the same source. He seems more tranquil, but I see that
sorrow is gradually weaving its shadows over his brow. There
is a settled sadness in his face, which sometimes makes me
weep. Oh, how changed is his condition! Once in the
possession of wealth and power; once so active, so energetic,
and, by the springs he set in motion, exerting so great an
influence! now, so utterly helpless, isolated, and lost! How is
the light of his life put out! Dear Alexis, these things move me
to tears. I would that you were here to share, and thus to
soften my grief. But I am thankful that there is one often here
who understands my feelings. Is it not strange that a Russian
should be the depositary of our confidence, and the alleviator
of our sorrow? I think father likes Suwarrow more than I do.
If you were here, I should care less for him; but what can I
do, in my brother’s absence, but find consolation in the
society of one who seems to have a brother’s interest in my
happiness?
“I have had a great deal of anxiety for you. Pray write me
a long letter, and tell me all about your journey. How have
you borne the long and weary march of two thousand miles?
Alas, that Alexis Pultova should have come to this! And yet,
my brother, it may be good for you: I mean, it may promote
your happiness. It may seem strange to you, for it surprises
myself, to find a real pleasure in my toil. I once thought that
labor was a curse, but I now find it a blessing. It is associated
in my mind with the comfort and independence of our father;
there is something soothing and consoling to think that I,
poor I, can be so useful. Do not think me conceited, but
really, Lex, I feel quite important! And you may find a similar
 compensation for your exertions and privations. Only think,
now, if you should bring home a quantity of fine furs, and
enable father to live a little more according to his wont; what
a pleasure that would be! It appears to me that, if I were a
young man, I should be very proud to be able to do
something clever. The consciousness of being able to compel
fortune to come at one’s bidding, is reserved for your sex. We
girls can only admire such things in men; we may not possess
the feeling itself. Still, I now feel a certain degree of
confidence in myself, which is a source of much cheerfulness
to my heart.
“I have now written my sheet nearly full, yet I have not
told you a hundredth part of what I think and feel. Oh that I
could see you, dear, dear Alexis! I never loved you so well as
now, in your absence. I am not content with this cold way of
speaking to you. I want to pour out my soul with the lips to
your own ear, and in your real presence. Yet I must not be
impatient. I would not recall you, for I believe you are in the
path of duty. Let the confidence that an arm more powerful,
protects you, nerve your heart for your hardy enterprise.
Write me a long letter. I shall write again in four months, so
that on your return to Yakoutsk, after your hunting excursion
upon the banks of the Lena, you will get news from us once
more. Father sends his blessing, and a thousand kind prayers
and wishes for your safety. Suwarrow wishes to be kindly
mentioned to you. Farewell! farewell!
Kathinka.”
We need hardly say that this tender epistle drew many tears from
Alexis. For a time he was almost overcome with a yearning for
home, but this feeling subsided, and he was able to direct his
attention to other matters. The streets of Yakoutsk presented many
objects of curiosity. There were parties of Kamtschadales, in the
town, muffled in skins, and drawn on sledges by dogs; and there
were Samoiedes—short copper-colored fellows, dressed in sealskins,
and drawn by reindeer. These, and hunters and trappers of many
other tribes, were to be seen in the streets, all of them seeking a
market for their furs. And there were merchants here to buy them
from Russia, and Tartary, and Japan, and other countries. Nothing
could be more curious than the contrasts furnished by these
different people.
Linsk had been here before, and understood the manners and
business of the place. He was a good judge of furs, and having some
spare cash, he bought a few skins, remarkable for their fineness,
knowing that he could make a large profit on them on his return to
Tobolsk. These he deposited, for safekeeping, in the hands of a
merchant.
After a few days, having made provision for their wants, the
hunters left Yakoutsk, and taking a northern course along the banks
of the Lena, pursued their way to the hunting-ground, where they
hoped to gather a rich harvest of sable-skins.
It was now mid-winter, and it is hardly possible to conceive of
anything more dreary than the country through which they passed.
It was a rolling plain, covered deep with snow, over which the wind
was driving in its swift and unbroken career. Not a house or hut was
visible for leagues; there was no path; and the travellers were
obliged to guide themselves, as they proceeded on the hard snow-
crust, like the voyager upon the sea, by the heavenly bodies, or
occasional landmarks.
Pursuing their weary and lonely way—seeming, in the vast
expanse, like insects creeping slowly on—they reached at night a
small uninhabited hut, situated in a wooded ravine, and designed for
the shelter of travellers.
Here the party made preparations for rest, and soon fell asleep.
Early the next morning, Linsk went forth, leaving Alexis and his sons
to their repose; his object being to see if he could not find some
game, for he was now becoming eager to enter upon business.
Scarcely had he proceeded two hundred yards when a bear sprung
suddenly from a thicket of fur trees, and rearing on his hind legs,
was about clasping the old hunter in his arms! But Linsk was like a
weasel—always on the watch. Quick as thought, he seized the bear
by the throat, and drawing his dirk, plunged it into his bowels. He
fell with a fearful growl to the earth, and Linsk, drawing back,
levelled his rifle at his head, and letting go the ball, killed him in an
instant.

Fruits of Industry.—Franklin, the greatest philosopher and

statesman of America, was once a printer’s boy. Simpson, the great
mathematician, and author of many learned works, was at first a
poor weaver. Herschel, one of the most eminent of astronomers,
rose from the low station of a fifer boy in the army. These examples
show us the happy effects of industry and perseverance.

Dr. Watts.—It was so natural for Dr. Watts, when a child, to speak
in rhyme, that even at the very time he wished to avoid it, he could
not. His father was displeased with the propensity, and threatened to
whip him if he did not leave off making verses. One day, when he
was about to put his threat into execution, the child burst into tears,
and on his knees said,—
“Pray, father, do some pity take,
And I will no more verses make.”

Sensibility.—A lady, who made pretensions to the most refined

feelings, went to her butcher to remonstrate with him on his cruel
practices. “How,” said she, “can you be so barbarous as to put little
lambs to death?” “Why not, madam,” said the butcher, “you would
not eat them alive, would you?”
 1. Bees making wax. 4. Drone. 7. Death’s-head moth.
2. Working bee. 5. Humble bee. 8. Honey guide.
3. Queen bee. 6. Mason bee. 9. Honey ratel.

Bees.

There are several kinds of bees; the most interesting species of

which is the honey bee. Small and insignificant as this little creature
might appear to be, it is one of the most wonderful animals in the
world. Many of them live in a wild state and make their hives in
hollow trees. In America, and other countries, there are persons who
devote themselves to finding these hives for the sake of the honey.
One of the most common methods adopted is to place some bee-
bread, in order to tempt the bees, on a flat board or tile, and draw a
circle round it with white paint. The bee always settles upon the
edge of anything flat, so she must travel through the paint to reach
the bee-bread. When she flies away, the white on her body enables
the observer to trace her flight, and her course is marked down with
a pocket compass. The same thing is done at another spot, some
distance from the first, and by comparing the direction of the two
lines, the situation of the nest is easily found, as it must be at the
point, where, if continued, the lines would meet. In Africa, the bee
hunter is aided by a little bird called the honey guide. In the same
country the honey ratel will sit and hold one of his paws before his
eyes, about the time of sunset, in order to get a distinct view of the
objects of his pursuit; and when he sees any bees flying, he knows
that at that hour they are returning home, and so he follows them.
The domestic bees afford a good opportunity for studying the
habits of this wonderful race of insects. Three kinds of bees are
discovered in the hive; the drone, the queen bee, and working bee.
The drones are the fathers of the young bees, and live an idle life.
They are larger than the rest, and make a louder hum in flying. The
queen is the mother of the young bees, and governs the hive. The
subjects are much attached to her.
If she dies, the whole community is thrown into the greatest
agitation, and those which first find out what is the matter, run
about the hive in a furious manner, touching every companion they
meet with their little horns or feelers, which are called antennæ.
These in their turn run about in the same manner, and inform others
of the sad event, till the whole hive is in confusion. This agitation
lasts four or five hours, after which the bees begin to take measures
for repairing their loss. Nothing can be more extraordinary than the
way in which they proceed. They build several cells, which are much
larger than the common ones, and of a different form. Having
removed one of the worker worms into each of these, they feed it
with a particular kind of food, and in a few days it grows larger, and
at length comes out a queen. One of these becomes the sovereign
of the hive.
If the bees lose their queen, and there are no worms or young to
supply her place, they leave off working, and die in a few days. But
if in the midst of their agitation their lost queen should be restored,
they are quiet immediately, for they instantly remember and
distinguish her from all others. If a new queen were to be placed in
the hive too soon after the loss of the other, no attention would be
paid her, and she would be starved or smothered in the crowd. But
when four and twenty hours have passed, and the first grief is over,
a stranger queen is well received and reigns immediately. The bees
crowd about her, touch her by turns with their antennæ, give her
honey, range themselves round her in a circle, and follow her as a
guard when she moves.
The offspring of one queen alone is too numerous for a hive to
hold. She will sometimes lay in one season sixty or seventy thousand
eggs; so it would never do to have more than one queen. Some of
the eggs turn to queens, some to drones, and the largest portion to
workers. The swarms that leave the hive are each led by a queen.
The drones do not collect honey, or help to build the cells. People,
who like them lead an idle life, are sometimes called drones. The
drones are turned out of the hive before winter, that they may not
eat the honey that the industrious workers have collected.
A swarm of bees, on entering a new hive, immediately want cells
to store their honey in, and to bring up their young. These cells
cannot be made without wax, which is obtained, not from flowers,
as is supposed, but from the body of the bees. This forms best while
they are quiet; and in order to obtain it, they hang themselves in
clusters, clinging to each other’s legs. Having remained in this
situation for twenty-four hours, they scrape it off, and form it into
cells, the tongue being used as a sort of trowel. Their industry, skill
and contrivance in doing this are admirable.
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