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 The Art of
Assembly Language
Programming Using
PIC® Technology
This page intentionally left blank
 ­ he Art of
T
Assembly Language
Programming Using
PIC® Technology
Core Fundamentals

Theresa Schousek
Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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 “To Brian Walter, Elizabeth Margaret, and Victoria Rose”
“In Memory of Zachary James and Nathaniel Howard”
“With special thanks to Keith Curtis at Microchip Technologies for
his assistance throughout this book”
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface......................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction..........................................................................1
Practical Applications...................................................................... 1
Why Assembly?............................................................................... 2
Core Families (“Baseline,” “Midrange,” “Enhanced
Midrange,” “High Performance”).................................................... 3
Baseline.................................................................................... 3
Midrange.................................................................................. 4
Enhanced Midrange................................................................. 4
High Performance.................................................................... 4
Data Sheet—Walk Through............................................................. 5
Straight Line Program Implementation........................................... 7
Think of a Number................................................................... 7
Double It..................................................................................8
Add 10 (Decimal)..................................................................... 8
Halve It..................................................................................... 8
Subtract Original Number........................................................ 8
Compare Output to 5................................................................ 8
Looped Code Implementation......................................................... 8
Microchip Tools............................................................................. 10
Microchip Microcontroller Course Information............................ 10
Jargon Note—Italics...................................................................... 11
Word Search................................................................................... 11
Binary Puzzle................................................................................. 12
Further Reading............................................................................. 12
CHAPTER 2 Microchip 8-Bit Architecture..........................................13
The Microprocessor....................................................................... 13
System Clock................................................................................. 13
Execution Cycle............................................................................. 15
Instruction Flow Pipelining........................................................... 16
Bus for Data and Program............................................................. 16
Hardware Interfaces....................................................................... 16
Input/Output Interface............................................................ 17
Comparator Interface............................................................. 18
Timer 0 Interface.................................................................... 18
Flash Programming Interface................................................. 18

vii
viii Contents

Oscillator Output.................................................................... 19
Master Clear Reset................................................................. 20
Hardware Organization of Memory Address Space...................... 20
Data Memory and File Registers................................................... 20
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the W Register........................ 20
Prototyping.................................................................................... 22
Word Search................................................................................... 23
Puzzle: Oscillator........................................................................... 25
Further Reading............................................................................. 25

CHAPTER 3 Instruction Sets.................................................................27

Instruction Set Comparison for PICmicro 10F,
12F, 16F, 18F Controllers.............................................................. 27
Common 33 Instruction Set for PICmicro Controllers.................. 27
Instructions............................................................................. 28
Registers................................................................................. 35
Ports.......................................................................................39
Timers..................................................................................... 39
Addressing..................................................................................... 40
Direct...................................................................................... 40
Indirect................................................................................... 40
Indexed/Relative..................................................................... 41
Code Example................................................................................ 41
Paging Consideration..................................................................... 42
Word Search: Instruction Set......................................................... 43
Puzzle: Instruction Set................................................................... 43
Further Reading............................................................................. 45

CHAPTER 4 Beginning Code.................................................................47

Subroutines.................................................................................... 47
Macros........................................................................................... 48
Elementary Programs..................................................................... 49
ACC Convention.................................................................... 49
8-Bit Data Transfer................................................................. 49
16-Bit Data Transfer............................................................... 50
8-Bit Addition........................................................................50
8-Bit Subtraction.................................................................... 50
8-Bit Multiply by Two (Rotate Left 1 Bit)............................. 51
8-Bit Multiply by Four (Shift Left 2 Bits)............................. 51
8-Bit Divide by Two (Rotate Right 1 Bit).............................. 52
Mask Off Most Significant 4 Bits.......................................... 52
Mask Off Least Significant 4 Bits.......................................... 52
 Contents ix

Clear a Memory Location...................................................... 53

Set a Memory Location to All Ones....................................... 53
Find Larger of Two Numbers................................................. 53
Find Smaller of Two Numbers............................................... 54
Program Counter Addressing......................................................... 54
Application Notes.......................................................................... 54
Interrupts and Jump Tables (AN514)............................................. 54
Stacks (AN534)............................................................................. 55
Calculate Timing............................................................................ 56
Word Search: Beginning Code......................................................57
Puzzle: Number Square................................................................. 57
Further Reading............................................................................. 58
Reference....................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 5 Looping Code.....................................................................59
Loops Introduction......................................................................... 59
8-Bit Sum of Data.......................................................................... 62
Looped Code Example.................................................................. 64
Partial Straight Line Code Example.............................................. 66
Macros for Page and Bank Switching (AN586)............................ 67
Long Conditional Branch Vectors (AN581).................................. 68
Word Search: Loops Code............................................................. 69
Puzzle: Loops Code....................................................................... 70
Further Reading............................................................................. 71
CHAPTER 6 Embedded Control Fundamentals...................................73
Embedded Control......................................................................... 73
Electrical Wiring Diagrams........................................................... 73
Breadboards................................................................................... 74
Basic Input and Output (I/O)......................................................... 75
Specialized Input/Output............................................................... 78
Timer Modules and Registers........................................................ 78
Hardware Alone..................................................................... 79
Hardware and Software.......................................................... 79
Software Alone....................................................................... 79
Development Boards...................................................................... 79
Word Search: Embedded Control.................................................. 80
Puzzle: Flustered............................................................................ 80
Further Reading............................................................................. 81
CHAPTER 7 Fundamentals of Good Practice......................................83
Structured Programming................................................................ 83
Software Design Patterns............................................................... 84
x Contents

Reusable Code Guidelines............................................................. 84

Ordered Lists................................................................................. 85
Ordered Lists Example........................................................... 85
Structured Systems Development (SSD): Four
Basic Structures............................................................................. 87
Programming Flowcharts....................................................... 88
Warnier-Orr Diagrams............................................................ 88
State Machine Diagrams........................................................ 89
Pseudocode............................................................................. 92
SysML.................................................................................... 92
Word Search: Program Design and Development....................... 105
Puzzle: Spiral............................................................................... 106
Further Reading........................................................................... 108

CHAPTER 8 Data and Control Structures.......................................... 109

Assembly Language Concepts..................................................... 109
Config Word......................................................................... 109
Using DEFINE..................................................................... 110
Program Structures...................................................................... 111
Subprograms........................................................................ 111
Subroutines........................................................................... 111
Macros.................................................................................. 111
Procedures............................................................................ 111
Functions.............................................................................. 112
Recursive Procedures........................................................... 112
Termination.......................................................................... 112
Data Structures............................................................................. 112
Handling Data in ASCII....................................................... 113
Character Coded Data.......................................................... 113
Character Operations............................................................ 115
Character Operations............................................................ 116
Control Structures........................................................................ 118
Function...............................................................................118
Sequence.............................................................................. 119
Alternation (or Multiple Selections).................................... 119
Repetition (or Iteration).......................................................120
Word Search: Data Structures...................................................... 121
Puzzle: Jigsaw Sudoku 66h.........................................................122
Further Reading........................................................................... 122
References.................................................................................... 122
 Contents xi

CHAPTER 9 Logic and Numbering Systems...................................... 123

Boolean Algebra.......................................................................... 123
Logical Operators................................................................. 124
Polynomial Systems..................................................................... 129
Decimal System................................................................... 129
Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal, Decimal.................................. 129
Binary System...................................................................... 130
Octal System........................................................................ 131
Hexadecimal System............................................................ 132
Mixed Radix Systems.......................................................... 133
Multibyte Integers........................................................................ 134
Hexadecimal to Binary Conversions.................................... 134
Little-Endian vs. Big-Endian............................................... 134
Signed and Unsigned Integers..................................................... 134
Signed and Unsigned...........................................................134
Floating Point............................................................................... 137
BCD as a Type............................................................................. 137
Binary Coded Decimal......................................................... 137
ASCII—Single-Byte Characters.................................................. 138
ASCII................................................................................... 138
Unicode—Multibyte Characters.................................................. 138
Unicode................................................................................ 138
Word Search................................................................................. 139
Puzzle: Diamond 22h................................................................... 140
Further Reading........................................................................... 140
CHAPTER 10 Mathematical Operations............................................... 141
#Include Mathematical Routines................................................. 141
Application Notes in Standard and High Performance
Microprocessors........................................................................... 141
Single and Double Precision Arithmetic.............................. 142
Signed Arithmetic................................................................142
Select Optimization: Speed or Memory............................... 142
Conditional Assembly.......................................................... 143
HI/LO Conventions.............................................................. 143
Specific Math Utility Routines.................................................... 143
Advanced Macro Features.................................................... 143
Featured 8-Bit MCU Boards........................................................ 147
Automotive Networking Development Board...................... 147
Curiosity Development Board.............................................. 147
xii Contents

Curiosity High Pin Count (HPC) Development Board........ 148

Explorer 8 Development Kit................................................ 149
PICDEM Lab II Development Platform.............................. 150
Word Search: Mathematical Operations...................................... 151
Puzzle: Number Tower................................................................152
Further Reading........................................................................... 152
CHAPTER 11 Word Search Solution.................................................... 153
CHAPTER 12 Puzzle Solutions.............................................................. 163

APPENDIX A Instruction Sets............................................................... 173

APPENDIX B ASCII Characters............................................................. 195
APPENDIX C Decimal-Binary-Hexadecimal Characters................... 203
APPENDIX D Best Practices................................................................. 211
APPENDIX E ........................................................................................... 213
APPENDIX F ........................................................................................... 301

Index....................................................................................................................... 437
Preface

­PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of this textbook is to give a thorough introduction to Microchip
Assembly Language Programming for a wide range of users. Microchip’s most basic
33 instructions are used heavily throughout the text. It is recommended that the new
user, regardless of 8-bit processor selection, self-restrict their use to the basic 33
instructions until these are second nature. This will prove to be the best approach
to learning assembly language. This book provides a basic introduction to get the
reader up to speed quickly. It provides beginning code development chapters on such
things as basic data transfers, addition, and subtraction. Application notes for more
complex mathematical routines, multiplication and division are presented for use as
a practical solution. For the novice and returning programmers, there is also a chapter
on Mathematical Numbering Systems. The chapters on arithmetic are reserved for
the end of the book so as to not overwhelm the newest of users. Practical use and
selection of specific evaluation boards, recommended by Microchip, is briefly
presented with a cost, and feature, analysis.
Fundamentals of good design practice are presented using tried and true
approaches of flowcharting, Warnier-Orr diagrams, and State Machines. In addition,
a separate chapter is dedicated to SysML, by way of introduction, with a thorough
case example. A new text on the market is recommended for those expecting to use
SysML daily in their business.
The hardware interface is presented in a chapter on Embedded Control. Focus
is on basic “electronic glue” used on 8-bit processors. Most of the interfaces can be
used directly from this text. With only a modicum of electronic hardware changes,
such as actual values of components, that will be required.

­ ROGRAM CONVERSION PROCESS; FROM PROGRAM TO

P
INDIVIDUAL BITS
Complexity of computer programs is shown in Fig. 1. This diagram starts with the
most fundamental element of a computer; the two states of 5 and 0 V. These are
interpreted by the computer as a logical 1, for 5 V, and a logical 0, for 0 V or ground.
The logical bits are then grouped by sequences of 8 bits, known as bytes. The binary
strings are then grouped as clusters of 8 bits, or 1 byte; each byte defined by two
hexadecimal digits from 0 through F. These binary strings are organized in groups of
two nybbles; known as Machine Language. Each successive bubble, in Fig. 1, then
introduces a higher level of programming. Assembly Language occupies the sweet
spot between Machine Language and High level Language where knowledge of the
embedded device is required and optimal efficient code can be produced.

xiii
xiv Preface

High Level Language

Assembly Language

Machine Language

Hexadecimal code:
6Eh
1 byte = 2 nybbles

Binary sequence:
01101110b
8 bits = 1 byte

Binary bit:
0/1
Two
logical
States:
0/5 volt
No/yes
Off/on

FIG. 1
The circle of languages and their position on the complexity scale.

The compiler converts a high level language such as C, C++, FORTRAN, and
Python into machine language. Each level of programming then requires “translation”
ultimately to Machine Language, as shown in Fig. 2. This begins with Assembly
Language, which is converted to Machine Language by the use of an assembler and
linker. The linker is not a separate language, per se. It is a necessary step in the
process of converting the program, as written by the user, into nybbles to be read by
the computer.

­AUTHOR’S NOTE
Congratulations, you have arrived! This is the greeting that I anticipated when
first starting my journey into Assembly Language. Those who came before me
learned assembly as their first language. Assembly was a rite of passage. I started
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 A young negro slave who swept the entrance of the palace
happened one day to find the leopard lying on a heap of dust, so he
hit the beast with his broom to make it move. This was resented by
the leopard striking the lad on the head with his paw, so that he fell
dead. H.M. on learning what had happened, ordered that the leopard
should be confined in a cage and sent as a gift to me at Tangier and
that a Jew should be dispatched to take charge of the animal.
I received a letter from the Uzir, making known the gift His
Sherifian Majesty had been pleased to send me and stating that the
animal was docile, but dangerous if struck. No mention, however,
was made of the death of the slave.
Finding the leopard very good-natured, I dismissed the Jew
keeper and took charge of it myself. In the daytime the leopard was
allowed to run loose in the little garden of the Legation, for my family
were absent in England; but I had it fastened, when visitors came to
see it, by a long chain to a palm tree in the garden. I fed the leopard
myself, and he gambolled about like a cat, purring and rubbing
himself against my legs when I caressed him. If I happened on such
occasions not to take sufficient notice, he would strike me heavily
with a soft paw.
One day the leopard, finding that the door leading from the dining-
room into the garden was open, entered, and passing along a lobby
discovered the laundry, and an old Irishwoman ironing there. On
seeing the beast glaring at her over the table where she was
engaged, she boldly advanced with a hot iron in hand, with the
courage of her race, exclaiming, ‘Get out ye dhirty baste.’ The
leopard, much offended, withdrew with a dignified gait and passed
on to a courtyard near the kitchen, where a Moorish woman,
squatted on a mat, was sifting flour. With friendly intentions and
hoping to be caressed, the leopard put his head into the old dame’s
bosom, but she, thinking this was the preliminary step to being
devoured, swooned dead away.
A man-servant, passing, saw the leopard and woman in this
compromising position; but, being afraid to interfere, rushed, pale
with alarm, to the room where I was writing, to announce that the
leopard had killed ‘Titam,’ and was about to eat her.
Running to the rescue, I found ‘Maimon’ covered with flour,
purring and rubbing himself in a loving manner against the reclining
form of poor Titam, who was still in a swoon, but otherwise uninjured.
I told ‘Maimon’ his conduct was most unbecoming, not to say
improper, so he left poor Titam, and bestowed his attentions on me,
covering me with flour.
At dusk I was in the habit of accompanying the leopard across the
street to his cell in the stable-yard. One evening when leading him,
he lay down in the street and refused to move. In vain I coaxed the
beast. The road was thus blocked; for those who wished to pass,
viewing a huge leopard crouching loose in the street, hurriedly
turned back. I sent for a piece of meat, and walking with this bribe
into the stable, the leopard deigned at length to follow me.
When my family was expected, thinking there was a risk that he
might attack them as strangers, I sent the leopard as a gift to the
Zoological Gardens. Eight months afterwards, when I was in London
on leave of absence, I visited the Gardens, and there I saw ‘Maimon’
lying in a cage. I requested the keeper to allow me to pass the bar in
front of the cage to pat the leopard. He replied it was not permitted;
but, on telling him I was the donor, he allowed me to cross the
barrier, warning me, however, that though the animal was docile, it
showed sometimes a surly temper. I approached the cage where the
leopard was lying listless in a corner; ‘Ya Maimon, ya habibi, busni.’
‘Oh, beloved Maimon,’ I cried in Arabic, ‘come and embrace me.’
The animal sprang up and came to the side of the cage, and no
doubt would have embraced me if the bars had not stopped him. I
put in my hand and stroked his back, whilst he rubbed against the
bars of the cage, making a low purring noise. Then I scratched his
head, when to my horror he suddenly took my hand in his mouth; but
the friendly beast only mumbled, without hurting it, and then let my
hand go. A crowd had collected outside to witness the exhibition, so I
thought it was time to leave, though I might have gone round with my
hat to beg alms for the prisoner. As I left the cage, the leopard
watched me with eager eyes, and when some way off I turned to
look again, the beast was standing up with his paws on an upper bar,
his bright eyes fixed anxiously upon me. During my long life loving
eyes have often watched my departure, but none brighter or more
anxious than those of my four-footed friend. So we parted, never to
meet again, for the leopard was dead when I revisited the Zoological
Gardens, after a two years’ absence.

As another instance of this Sultan’s fondness for wild animals Mr.

Hay told the following story.

The Master of the Horse at the Moorish Court related to me, that
Sultan Mulai Abderahman happened one day to pass through the
Court of the palace, mounted on a magnificent white charger, when a
lion which H.M. was accustomed to stop and caress, sprang up the
side of his horse and placed its paws on the knee of the Sultan. H.M.
reined in his steed, which snorted and reared. The Sultan showed no
alarm and did not, said the Master of the Horse, change a muscle of
his countenance, but turning to the Kaid-el-Meshwa, or Chief Officer
of the Court, and putting his hand on the head of the lion to stroke it,
inquired ‘How many pounds of meat are given to the lion daily?’ The
officer stated the quantity.
‘Let the lion have ten more pounds,’ said His Majesty. The lion’s
petition being granted, it quietly dropped off H.M.’s horse and lay
down quite pacified.
‘These animals,’ observed the Master of the Horse, ‘understand
what is spoken, though they have not the power of speech to tell
what they want.’
‘Mashallah!’ I gravely replied.

Many interesting and distinguished persons visited Tangier during

Mr. Hay’s long residence there. Amongst these may be mentioned,
in 1858, three Royal guests—the Prince of Wales, Prince Alfred and
the late Duc d’Orléans. In favour of the Prince of Wales an
extraordinary exception was made, and he was admitted to the
Basha’s house and there received by the ladies.
Louis Philippe, Duc d’Orléans, was accompanied by his tutor.
After introducing H.R.H. to the sights of Tangier, Mr. Hay arranged a
boar hunt for him on the Hill. The sport was good; but the object of
the hunt was unsuccessful, as the Prince never fired a shot—
principally through the mistaken zeal of one of his suite, who, on
seeing a pig coming in the direction of the Royal guest, stepped
forward and removing his hat exclaimed ‘Mon Prince, voilà le
sanglier!’—with the natural result that the pig turned and broke back!
Riding down the rough mountain path afterwards, with Mr. Hay
leading the way, the Prince, who was mounted on Mr. Hay’s best
pony, soon outstripped with his guide the rest of the party, Mr. Hay’s
horses being always selected as good walkers. Commenting on the
roughness of the track, the Prince was somewhat astonished to hear
Mr. Hay say that he frequently, when out late, cantered down the
hills, and H.R.H. inquired eagerly whether the pony he was riding
could be trusted to go fast down the broken road, and if so would Mr.
Hay gallop down now with him?
Mr. Hay, after a little demur (aware that the sure-footed little Barb,
who had often performed the feat, could be trusted), consented: and
leading the way, he and the young Prince tore madly down the steep
rough path, to the great enjoyment of the latter—though rather to the
bewilderment of his worthy tutor, who did not catch sight of his pupil
again till they met in the town an hour later.
Afterwards in a letter to Mr. Hay—the Duc d’Orléans, alluding to
an accident which had lately happened to him while hunting, wrote:
—

Je ne montais pas alors le fameux petit cheval gris, sur lequel je suis revenu de
la chasse avec vous si bon train sans que jamais il bronchât!
Les souvenirs de Tanger, de cette chasse que vous m’avez fait faire avec les
chasseurs à demi-sauvages de la montagne, resteront toujours le meilleur
souvenir de mon voyage, et je n’oublierai pas tout le soin, tout l’empressement
que vous avez mis à me faire connaître un pays si nouveau, si curieux pour moi.
C’est à vous que je dois d’avoir pu profiter comme je l’ai fait du peu de jours
que j’y ai passés, et toutes les fois que je veux faire un rêve agréable, je me figure
prêt à repartir pour le Maroc. . . .
Les événements actuels de l’Europe seraient bien de nature à m’y pousser si
les voyages ne m’étaient impossibles à un pareil moment, car, lorsqu’on voit à
quoi les nations civilisées se laissent entraîner, on est bien tenté d’aller oublier
l’Europe chez des sauvages, au milieu desquels on sent du moins la supériorité de
notre civilisation sans en voir les maux.
Je vous demande pardon, Monsieur, de vous avoir écrit une lettre aussi longue,
mais, du moment que je pouvais écrire, je ne voulais pas me refuser le plaisir de
vous dire toute ma reconnaissance pour le charmant accueil que vous m’avez fait.
En attendant que je puisse le faire de vive voix, croyez-moi toujours, je vous prie,
Votre bien affectionné,
Louis Philippe d’Orléans.
 CHAPTER XV.

THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 1859-1862.

In September, 1859, Mr. Hay returned from leave to find that

Sultan Mulai Abderahman had just died, and that troubles were
brewing on the French frontier. With Spain also difficulties had arisen
and, for months past, the Spanish Government had been preparing
for an expedition against Morocco. The ostensible motive which was
put forward for these hostilities was the chastisement of the Rif
pirates and the redress of insults received at Ceuta. But public
opinion in England inclined to believe that, under cover of reprisals
for past wrongs, schemes of European aggrandisement upon the
coast opposite Gibraltar were to be carried out by simultaneous
action on the part of France and Spain against Morocco.
Lord John Russell, then at the head of Foreign Affairs, raised no
objection to the temporary occupation of Tangier by the Spaniards;
and Spain, who had steadily refused all offers of English mediation,
only replied to repeated concessions on the part of the Moors with
fresh and more exorbitant demands. At length, early in October,
1859, the Spanish Chargé d’Affaires sent secretly to beg Mr. Hay to
persuade the Moorish Government to give way yet once more, at the
same time solemnly assuring him that, if this demand were
accepted, peace would be made. Mr. Hay spent six hours with the
Moorish Minister, upon whom he brought to bear every possible
argument, and terrified him by the prospect of the dire displeasure of
the Sultan in case of a refusal. The Minister accepted the ultimatum
and fell into a fainting fit!
Four days later, on October 15, a third ultimatum was presented,
involving the cession of further territory. Mr. Hay then withdrew from
further mediation, and war was declared between Spain and
Morocco.
Many years after, Mr. (then Sir John) Hay was called on by the
subordinate official who had brought him the secret message from
the Spanish Chargé d’Affaires. Sir John recalled the incident, and
then for the first time heard an explanation of what had appeared to
be an act of bad faith.
The ex-official related that the third ultimatum was brought by a
Spanish war-ship. On board the vessel was an official, who informed
the Chargé d’Affaires that war was determined on, whatever might
be the concessions made by the Moors; that the attempt to arrange
matters had been a grave mistake, and that now any extravagant
concession, however absurd, must be demanded as a pretext for
war. The Spanish Chargé d’Affaires told his subordinate how
distressed he was at thus appearing to deceive his British colleague;
but added ‘We must obey orders and keep them secret.’
War having been declared, the European population and many of
the Jews fled from the coast towns to Europe, rather from fear of the
wild tribes who flocked to the defence of their country, than on
account of the threatened invasion by Spain.
Mr. Hay stopped his wife and two little girls, who were on their
way from England to join him, at Gibraltar—where they remained
during the six months that hostilities continued. But he, with the
English portion of his staff, stayed at Tangier. All other Foreign
Representatives left.
Writing at this time to his mother, he says:—

All is quiet here up to the present moment; thanks to my friends, the hunters,
having acted as the police of the town, and saved all Christians from molestation.
It is supposed the Sultan will be acknowledged everywhere, but my supposition
about the French frontier being invaded has turned out too true; all however may
be arranged quietly.
It is rather from the Spaniards that we have to expect trouble and ferment. They
have been playing the fool at Ceuta, and now seek for satisfaction, which would
humiliate the new Sultan, and then perhaps cause him, if he concedes, to totter
upon his throne before he has even taken a firm seat thereon.

‘My friends the hunters,’ alluded to in this letter, were, it may be

explained, villagers from outlying hamlets in the Tangier district. They
were strongly attached to Mr. Hay as a brother sportsman and friend,
and are frequently mentioned in his stories and in his little book on
Western Barbary. The bond lasted throughout his life, though one
generation of hunters passed away during his long residence in
Morocco.
Writing again to his wife on November 13, he says:—

Green and Reade[39] live with me, and are very useful and attentive; but I am
bored with this bachelor’s life and miss my wife and my dear children.
All well so far.
Government has again approved of all I have done and am doing.
When war begins you will probably see me; but be assured I shall not be in
Tangier when bombardment takes place. I shall either be on board a ship or safe
inland amongst my hunters on ‘Mount Washington[40].’ No imprudence shall I be
guilty of, for your sake. As to the Moors, they are ready to do anything for me. I will
not trust the Spaniards, nor go amongst the ‘Kabail.’
Sultan’s brother (Mulai Abbas, in command of the troops) and I are good
friends.
Tangier is deserted. Nothing but armed men: not a woman, not a child.
Difficulty in getting anything.

Every effort was made by the Spaniards to remove Mr. Hay from
the scene of action. His conduct was the subject of violent attacks by
the Spanish Minister, Señor Castelar, and by the Madrid press. It
was also commented on in a letter in the Times from the Special
Correspondent of that paper. These attacks were brought before the
House of Commons, where Mr. Hay’s conduct was defended by Lord
John Russell and Mr. Liddell.
 ‘From Mr. Hay’s long residence in Morocco,’ said Lord John, ‘and his kindness
to all who hold any intercourse with him, he has gained to a great degree the
respect of the people of that country, not only of the Foreign Minister of the
Emperor of Morocco, who was formerly a merchant, but of the wild tribes of
natives who so frequently made incursions into the Spanish settlements. Having
this influence, I believe that he, according to instructions from Her Majesty’s
Government, endeavoured to prevent the breaking out of war between Spain and
Morocco. He endeavoured to prevent this war, till he was told by the Moorish
Minister that, whatever advice might be given, Morocco could make no further
concessions. Mr. Drummond Hay did exert himself to the utmost, and used the
influence he had so justly acquired to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. Since that
time, it being the policy of Her Majesty’s Government to be neutral in the war, his
conduct has been in strict conformity with his instructions. The hon. member has
read a report from the correspondent of The Times newspaper—a very
respectable gentleman, I believe; but he is in the Spanish camp, and can hear
nothing but what he is told by Spaniards. They have stated various matters which
the correspondent repeats, but he says that he knows nothing of them, and has no
proof of them whatever. I have not heard from Mr. Drummond Hay since he had an
opportunity of seeing these statements in the newspaper, but I have not a doubt
they are, one and all, entirely false. I do not believe that Mr. Drummond Hay has
felt it his duty to take any part in the war. The Spanish Minister did on one
occasion state to Mr. Buchanan that complaints had been made of the partiality of
Mr. Drummond Hay; but he gave no instance of such partiality, nor any proof of it
whatever. We are aware that the Spanish Government in this war has obtained the
aid of British merchants, and that the Spanish army has been supplied with British
stores and provisions. Any complaints, therefore, of a violation of neutrality might
more justly be made by the Government of Morocco than by the Government of
Spain. I believe that the conduct of Mr. Drummond Hay has been entirely free from
blame. I do not wish to say which party in this war is right; but I cannot sympathise
with the enthusiasm of the hon. gentleman in regard to it. I do not think because
one party is Christian and the other Mohammedan, we ought to give the former all
our sympathy, without knowing the causes of the quarrel.

Throughout the whole crisis Mr. Hay’s efforts to protect property

were unremitting, and an instance of his success is here given in his
own words.

When the rupture of relations between Spain and Morocco took

place, and Spanish subjects at Tangier were required by their
Government to leave Morocco, the ‘Padre Superior’ of the Roman
Catholic Mission paid me a visit, and informed me he had received
orders from the Spanish Minister to embark, with all the members of
his Mission, in a vessel sent to convey them to Spain. He added:
‘We are ordered off in such haste that we have no time to pack and
convey to Spain the sacred pictures, crucifixes, and other religious
emblems adorning the chapel.’
(At that time the only chapel was that adjoining the Spanish
Legation.)
‘All the Foreign Representatives,’ he continued, ‘the Consular
Officers, as well as all foreign subjects, both Christians and Jews,
have begun to depart, and I hear that no one of them, with the
exception of yourself and the gentlemen attached to the British
Consulate, intends to remain in the country, fearing that the
Mohammedan population may, when the war commences, massacre
the Christians and Jews and pillage their dwellings.’
I replied that it was my intention to remain at my post, and that, as
I had never acted unjustly or unkindly towards the Mohammedans, I
had no grounds for supposing that they would seek to injure me;
though, in pursuance of instructions received from my Government,
my family would remain at Gibraltar.
The Padre Superior then said that the object of his visit was to ask
me a great favour—that I would prevent, as far as lay in my power,
the chapel from being broken into and pillaged.
‘After all,’ he said, ‘though we may entertain different views
regarding the forms of the Christian religion, somos hermanos (we
are brothers).’
I told the Padre it would afford me sincere satisfaction to be of
service to him; that I should let the Moorish authorities—and also my
native friends in the town—know that the Roman Catholic Chapel
was a house of God, and that it would be taken under my special
protection.
The Padre expressed his heartfelt thanks, and, shaking hands
warmly, we parted.
At the commencement of the war, large bodies of armed men
belonging to the tribes of the provinces of Tangier and El Araish
arrived at the former town, to buy powder and provisions before
proceeding to the Ceuta district—the seat of war. Amongst them
came a body of Beni Aros, composed of twelve hundred armed men.
They are a fanatical tribe, many of them being Sherífs, and
guardians of the sanctuary of Mulai Abd Selam. These wild fellows
assembled in the little market-place adjoining the Spanish Legation,
which was situated about a hundred yards from the British
Consulate, and in the same street.
A Tangier Moor, having overheard some of the chiefs of these
Beni Aros, who were purchasing provisions, propose that the tribe
should break into and pillage the Spanish Legation and burn the
Chapel, ran down to report to my kavasses what they had said. As
soon as I received the information, I walked towards the little market-
place, accompanied by one of these kavasses, just in time to meet
the tribe, who had collected in the market-place, and were moving in
a body towards the Spanish Chapel with hostile intentions. I was not
acquainted with any of the Chiefs, but my kavass announced to them
that I was the ‘Naib Ingliz,’ the friend of the Moors, who—having
confidence in their good-will—had remained in Tangier, when all
other Christians had fled.
‘Oh, friends and warriors of the faith!’ I exclaimed, ‘where are you
going?’
 They replied, with shouts,
‘It is our intention to destroy the dwelling of the accursed “kaffer”
(unbeliever), and the Spanish place where they worship the devil,
and to burn the pictures and idols it contains.’
I said, ‘Are you not aware that this house of the Spanish Bashador
and all it contains, as also this place of worship since the declaration
of war, is no longer the property of the Spaniards, but belongs to
your Lord the Sultan? Moreover, the Spaniards do not worship the
devil, but Allah—though their forms are different from yours and
mine. That chapel is a house of God, and you would bring a curse on
yourselves by committing such a sacrilege, and would be punished
by the Sultan for destroying his property. You are brave warriors of
your faith, going to the seat of war to defend your country. War not
against brick and mortar, the property of your Lord and Master the
Sultan, but lose no time and hasten off to Ceuta to join your brethren
in arms who await you.’
‘The Englishman speaks the truth,’ the chief Sheikh cried out. ‘He
is the friend of the Mussulmans. Come away.’
Many of the wild fellows looked up as they passed and gave me a
friendly nod.
Not a door, not even a pane of glass, was broken, and when
peace was restored and the Spanish Legation and other Missions
returned, everything was found safe and uninjured as they had left it.
During the war, my friend the Superior had died, and was
succeeded by another very worthy priest, who devoted day and night
to attending on the sick. All that he possessed he gave away in
charity to the poor, but he was more fanatical and intolerant towards
the ‘hereticos’—as he called all Christians of other than the Roman
Catholic creed—than towards the Mohammedans and Jews.
On the return of the Franciscan Mission, after peace had been
concluded, the Superior called and thanked me for having guarded
the chapel and their property, which, he said, was found just as it
had been left. I replied that it had afforded me much pleasure to be
of service to the Franciscan friars, always so distinguished for their
charity and kindness to the poor Christians and Mohammedans; and,
‘after all,’ I said, ‘Somos Cristianos y hermanos’ (‘we are Christians
and brothers’).
The Padre looked very grave when I used this expression, and
took his leave. The following day he called again, after dark, and
requested to see me in private. He told me that he had been
pondering over the expression I had used, ‘Somos Cristianos y
hermanos.’ ‘If that be indeed the case,’ he added, ‘I rejoice; but I am
surprised that, as a Christian, you never attend at the Chapel. If, on
the other hand, you are still a Protestant, then you are not a
Christian or a brother, but a heretic, damned to all eternity.’ He
continued, ‘Are you a Catholic?’
I replied, ‘Yes.’
‘Do you believe in God?’ ‘Yes.’
‘In the Trinity?’ ‘Yes.’
Then followed questions regarding the Sacraments, and whether I
acknowledged the Pope as God’s Vicar on earth.
My responses no longer met the good Padre’s views; for he burst
out, ‘I eschew you as a Christian! You are an accursed heretic, and
shall burn hereafter in the everlasting fire of hell,’ and he raved in his
excitement.
 I interposed, ‘Judge not, lest ye be judged. Condemn not, lest ye
be condemned;’ adding, with a smile, ‘you have declared that you
believe I shall go to hell and suffer eternal punishment. Now, I
declare my belief that you, for your good works and charity, will go to
heaven, and there I hope to meet you. You see I have the more
charity, since you have cursed me; but I say, God will bless you. I
return good for evil, as taught by our Saviour. If you inquire,’ I
continued, ‘regarding the belief of the members of the Church of
England, to which I belong, or of Protestants in general, as you call
us, you will find that we have the same moral laws as the Roman
Catholics, and that the livery alone and the outward forms separate
us from the Roman Catholic Church.’ So saying, I held out my hand
to the good old fanatic, repeating, ‘You shall be blessed for your
charity and kindness to all men.’
He took my hand in silence, and I bade him adieu.

Throughout these troubled times Mr. Hay rode daily, unattended,

on the beach or in the country. One afternoon, when riding along the
narrow road leading outside the town walls to the sea, he
encountered an armed tribe coming in to join the forces then bound
for the Tetuan district, the seat of war. As he passed quietly through
them, one of the men, cursing him for an infidel, spat at him. Mr. Hay
at once retaliated by bringing his heavy hunting crop sharply down
on the head of the offender, abusing him roundly the while.
In a moment the long guns of those who witnessed the
occurrence were brought to their knees, and he heard the click of the
clumsy flint-locks as they cocked their pieces.
Undaunted, he cried, ‘Shame on you, that would call yourselves
men! Cowards, go and fight with women!’
Some of the elders, who were rather in the rear, observing the
pause and disturbance, hurried forward and checked the excited
tribesmen, and Mr. Hay, turning to them, said, ‘It is most unseemly
and unworthy of the warriors of your race that these young men
should attack an unarmed and unoffending individual. Is it for these
youths to insult and abuse me, an Englishman, and the friend of the
Moors?’
The elders soundly rated the offenders, and offered to bastinado,
then and there, the chief culprit, which Mr. Hay however declined.
They then frankly apologised, pleading that the men were under the
influence of great excitement at the prospect of fighting the
Spaniards, else they would never have behaved so ill to the ‘Ingliz,’
their friend. The weapons were lowered, and Mr. Hay rode through
the midst of the horde, who made way for him quietly.
When peace was finally concluded, in 1860, it was in great
measure due to Mr. Hay’s intervention. All the variations between
hope and fear are chronicled in his letters home.
At last, on March 29, he is able to write:—

Thank God! on the 25th preliminaries were signed. Entre nous, though
Spaniards continue to rave against me, it was I who got this Government to agree
to peace after a hard-fought battle in the plain of Tetuan.

Altogether this period had been for him a time of great anxiety. His
troubles were increased by a sharp attack of what is now known as
‘Russian influenza,’ which prostrated him just when affairs were in
the most critical condition. He fought against the malady, however, in
his anxiety to secure peace; but when his family returned to Tangier
they found that the illness had left him with snow-white beard and
moustache, who before had not a gray hair.
The three letters that follow were written from Meknes during a
mission undertaken by Mr. Hay to the Moorish Court with the object
of inducing the Sultan to concede the demands of Spain, and to
place the peace just concluded between the two countries on a firm
basis.
 As will be seen, great difficulties arose with regard to the payment
of the indemnity claimed by Spain. The Sultan had asked the British
Government to guarantee a loan, to which request they could not
accede. During his sojourn at Meknes, Mr. Hay received a proposal
from Mr. Forde, a British merchant, to raise a loan in England at 10
per cent., provided the British Government would make a convention
with the Moorish Government by which the interests of the
shareholders in the proposed loan would be safeguarded by the
British Government. This matter was not concluded when Mr. Hay
left Meknes, as much depended on the attitude taken by Spain. He
writes to his mother from Meknes on July 18, 1861:—

Here we are! all well and not even fatigued by our journey. We have had a
triumphal march through the country, and had I been the Sultan himself, more
honour and respect could not have been shown me.
Not an unkind word has been heard from high or low. The General Officer sent
by the Sultan to Tangier to escort us is the third military dignitary in the Empire. All
the governors and chiefs who met us were under his authority, and the good fellow
told me he was ordered by the Sultan to attend upon me and to meet my wishes
as if I were the Sultan himself. He and I have made great friends. He said, ‘When I
received the Sultan’s order to take charge of the Mission, I thought I should have
to take care of pots of china, which would crack or break at the first jolt, and that I
might therefore be ruined by some accident; but I find I have to deal with men who
have kind and stout hearts.’
I will not tell you of the thousands of wild fellows—cavalry and infantry—who
have saluted us on the road, but will merely describe our reception this morning.
We left our last encampment, called Kasba Faráo, at 4 a.m., escorted by the
Governor of Sherarda with about 1,200 cavalry.
At 5.30 we were met by the wild tribe of Zerhóna, shouting and firing. I do not
believe they meant to offend us in any way, but, on the contrary, to welcome us in
this boisterous manner; but our old Kaid declared that no man should shout or fire
again till I had passed. The Zerhóna objected, as they said they wished to honour
me face to face. I should mention that they are of Rif origin, and fight better than all
the other tribes put together. A dispute took place, and then the order was given to
the cavalry to surround our party. In a moment we found ourselves surrounded by
the 1,200 cavalry; the chiefs of Sherarda declaring that they would ride down the
Zerhóna if the slightest insult were offered. All passed off quietly.
 At 7 a.m. mounted officers arrived, sent from the capital by the Sultan to
welcome us. At 8 o’clock, about four miles from the town, the Kaid-el-Meshwa, the
first military officer of the court, met us, and we beheld a line of about 15,000
cavalry and 18,000 infantry[41], with banners flying, ranged along the heights
surrounding the town. Along these lines we passed, and I was presented to all the
governors, generals, and other dignitaries. A feu de joie was fired repeatedly along
the lines.
The Governor of Meknes arrived in state to receive us, also a relation of the
Sultan; and the late Ambassador to London, with another Moorish officer, came
out to welcome us, and to say that they were ordered by the Sultan to attend upon
us during our sojourn at the court.
All the shops were shut; the whole population lined the wall.
We are lodged in a large and handsome house, with a fountain in the centre of
the court. The walls are in Arabesque filagree, the floors in glazed tiles. The house
is lofty, and has a second story. The rooms are magnificently furnished with
carpets, mirrors, clocks, beds, and velvet and cloth tapestries.
The provisions are profuse, never have I eaten such bread; and, strange to say,
the butter is delicious.
The ex-Ambassador waits below to learn our wishes, the General Officer to act
as chief guard. Too much has been done, and it almost makes me feel sad, as I
know how little we can do to help them, and what a bitter pill I have to offer as the
remedy to be taken to save the Empire.

July 22, 1861.

This morning we had a public audience of the Sultan.
One of the chief officers of the royal household, with a guard of honour, was
dispatched by the Sultan to this residence to conduct us to the palace. We
proceeded on horseback, and threading the winding and narrow streets of this
town, which had been well watered for the occasion, we arrived at the beautiful
and picturesque gate of the castle built by Sultan Mulai Ismael about two centuries
ago. On entering the gate we passed through lines of troops, placed on each side
of the passage conducting to the great court, or ‘Meshwa,’ of the palace. This
court, a mere walled enclosure, is about 200 yards long and 120 broad. Around it
were arranged some 2,500 infantry, amongst whom I observed about 500 men
drilled in the European style.
We were conducted to the centre of the court and there dismounted. A chair,
which I declined, was offered to me whilst awaiting the Sultan’s arrival.
Immediately in the rear of where we had been placed stood the chief dignitaries
and officers of the Sultan’s court. A few minutes after our arrival, the chief Uzir
came out from the gate of the palace and, after salutations had passed between
us, placed himself in the centre of the line of officers standing in our rear. The Uzir
was followed by the ‘Kaid-el-Meshwa,’ or High Chamberlain, of the Sultan’s court.
A few moments after, from the gate facing our party, the Sultan, mounted on a
magnificent white horse, entered the court. His Majesty was preceded by five led
horses splendidly caparisoned, then came two officers carrying very long lances:
these men were followed by a number of officers on foot, ranged on each side of
His Majesty. Amongst them I observed the Chief Executioner—wearing a broad
sword—and the bearer of the Sultan’s gun.
His Sherifian Majesty was dressed all in white, and wore a ‘burnous’ with large
silken tufts on the hood—these tufts being the sole mark of the Sovereign.
As His Majesty entered the court, the Master of the Horse shouted in a loud
voice to the officers and troops, ‘Our lord says, May God assist you.’ All the line of
officers in our rear, Uzir included, kneeling, bowed their heads to the ground, and
the troops, bending low, raised a shout of ‘May God prolong the life of our lord.’
This was repeated twice.
His Majesty, having advanced to within thirty yards of where we stood, waved
to us with his hand to advance, which I and the other gentlemen did, after making
our bows, till I stood within a yard of His Majesty’s horse. The interpreter, Mr. David
Sicsu, accompanied us; as on such occasions it is etiquette to speak through an
interpreter.

Formal speeches were then exchanged and the Sultan withdrew.

The letter continues:—

The horse is the throne of the Sultan of Morocco, who is the descendant and
representative of the prophet Mohammed and of those Kaliphs who, rallying from
the deserts of Arabia on their swift horses, conquered such vast and fair portions
of Africa, Asia, and Europe.
The fact of the Sultan having mounted a milk-white horse is meant to be
emblematic of peace and goodwill. When His Majesty is displeased he rides a
black horse, and according to the royal humour he is said to vary the shade of the
steed he mounts.

July 28, 1861.

We have not made much progress in negotiation, for the war party is strong
here, and the Sultan feels very strongly his past humiliations. I have had one or
two battles with the chief Uzir, and he now openly declares that he takes my view
of the whole question, whatever may be the decision of the Sultan.
 We continue to be feasted, and are rather bored thereby, for they fix on the late
hour of 10 p.m. to commence festivities, and there is a great monotony;
illuminations, Moorish music, tea and cakes.
The houses are most beautiful, fountains bubble all around, and the scene is a
fairy one.
Princely honours are paid me everywhere, the population being compelled to
stand up as I pass, in fact I am exceedingly bored by all these attentions and
forms.
We have our prayers on Sunday; it is perhaps the first little gathering of
Christians that ever prayed together at Meknes.

July 30.
I have just returned from a long private interview with the Sultan. He has not
conceded Spanish terms, for he has not the money, and, therefore, to say he
would give what he has not, would only make matters worse; but he agrees to
send an Ambassador to Madrid to treat. To persuade him to do this was one of the
chief objects of my mission.
Thus far we have succeeded.
Sultan is very kind, says much that is flattering, and laughs and talks with me.

Tangier, August 20, 1861.

We have arrived here, all well.
I succeeded in obtaining Sultan’s consent to all demands the British
Government desired me to put forward; so, if Spain keeps good faith, all will be
settled.

With the object of bringing negotiations to a conclusion, Mr. Hay

subsequently paid a short visit to Rabát, where the Sultan was then
staying. After his return to Tangier he writes on October 23 to his
mother:—

The Sultan is at Rabát, and my object was to have a chat with him. He received
me very kindly, and privately, as I had requested. He agreed to all I suggested, and
even told his Uzir that his duty would be to listen to what I proposed, and then to
act at once on my recommendations.
 His Sultanic Majesty was in good spirits, scolded me good-humouredly for not
writing to him, told me he looked upon me as his best counsellor and friend, and
he therefore expected I should write to him, not only what was agreeable, but also
what was disagreeable, as he said thus alone he could learn the truth.
I was lodged sumptuously. I refused all presents, but accepted for Commander
Nicolas a splendid sword mounted in gold which the Sultan sent him through me.
I begin to feel almost nervous about the blind confidence placed in me by the
Sultan. I happened to mention to the Uzir that one of the governors of a port was
an ‘imbecile.’ Next morning I was informed that the Sultan said my opinion
sufficed, and he was dismissed from office. A Jew had been robbed and put in
prison by a governor. I mentioned it. Orders were given for restoration of the
property, and the governor is sent for by the Sultan, which is equivalent to
imprisonment. I must think twice before I speak to these folk.
There are sad delays in England about the loan, but I am working hard.

Finally, in January, 1862, in virtue of a convention between Her

Majesty the Queen and the Emperor of Morocco, the loan was
issued in bonds amounting to £501,200. The terms of the payment
were that half of the custom’s duties were to be hypothecated as
security, Her Majesty undertaking to appoint Commissioners to
receive the customs duties. The Consuls and consular agents at the
various ports were directed to act as these commissioners, and the
moneys so collected were delivered to the British Representative to
be transferred by him to the contractors in London.
At the time the loan was issued, the customs duties were
assessed as follows:—
Imports paying 10 per cent £91,676
Exports paying 25 per cent 231,228
Total £322,904

It was expected that this sum would be increased by a duty on

exportation of wheat and barley, which would have added another
£100,000, raising the total to be paid to the contractors to
£211,452[42].
The other moiety of the customs duties was paid to the Spanish
Government to cover the remainder of the war indemnity—they also
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