BUILDING SERVICES 03

Module 02: Acoustics

 Intensity & loudness
Sound Frequency & Pitch
Quality or Timbre
Echo
Reflected
Reverberation
In the air
Behaviour of sound
By the audience
Absorbed
In furniture/ furnishings
Transmitted
Boundary surface
Reverberation
Echoes
Sound foci
Common defects
Design Dead spots
Design factors
Insufficient loudness
Exterior noise
Acoustics is the Study of Sound: Origin, propagation and auditory sensation

Sound is generated in the air when a surface is vibrated. It is propagated as waves comprising a series of compressions and
rarefactions created in the medium through which it travels which sets the ear drums vibrating causing a sensation of sound.

Velocity of sound is dependent on humidity, temperature and density

• at 20C in air is 343m/s
• in water 1450 m/s
• in bricks 4300 m/s.

Characteristics of sound
1. Intensity and loudness
2. Frequency and pitch
3. Quality or timbre
Intensity and Loudness

Intensity of sound is defined as the amount or flow of wave energy crossing per unit time through a unit area taken
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Mathematically the energy of a wave and hence the intensity at a point is
proportional to the square of the amplitude of vibration of the point, i.e., I ∞ A2

Intensity of sound is purely a physical quantity which can be accurately measured.

Loudness, on the other hand, is the degree of sensation which is partly subjective and depends upon the ear and the listener.

To build a scale of loudness, we have to fix its zero. The loudness corresponding to the threshold of hearing is zero of this
scale, while 130 dB is the threshold of painful hearing.
Frequency and Pitch of sound

Frequency or Pitch is defined as the number of cycles which a sounding body makes in each unit of time. It is a measure of
the quality of a sound.

The sensation of pitch depends upon the frequency with which the vibrations succeed one another at the ear; the greater the
frequency, the higher the pitch and the lesser the frequency the lower the pitch.
The frequency scale covers a wide range varying from 20 cycles per second to 1500 cycles per second.
Quality and Timbre of sound

The quality of a sound is that characteristic which enables us to distinguish between two notes of the same pitch and loudness
played on two different instruments or produced by two different voices.

A study of vibration curves of various musical instruments has shown that the notes emitted by them are seldom pure. They
contain some fundamental tones of frequency n and additional tones (of frequencies 2n, 4n, etc.) called overtones.

The quality of a note is determined by its complex structure and depends upon the presence or absence of a certain number
of overtones, on their relative strengths and pitches. It is to be noted that it is the memory of this tonal quality which enables us
to recognize a large number of different sounds.
 Intensity & loudness
Sound Frequency & Pitch
Quality or Timbre
Echo
Reflected
Reverberation
In the air
Behaviour of sound
By the audience
Absorbed
In furniture/ furnishings
Transmitted
Boundary surface
Reverberation
Echoes
Sound foci
Common defects
Design Dead spots
Design factors
Insufficient loudness
Exterior noise
When the sound waves strike the surfaces of a room, three things happen:
1. Reflected back in the room.
2. Absorbed by the surfaces and listeners.
3. Transmitted outside the room.

The amount of sound reflected or absorbed depends upon the surfaces, while the sound transmitted outside the room
depends upon sound insulation properties of the surfaces.
Reflection of Sound: Usually behaves similar to light waves

Defects due to reflection

• Echo
• Reverberation
Echo
And echo is produced when the reflected sound wave reaches the ear just when the original sound from the same source has
been already heard. Thus, there is repetition of the sound.

The sensation of sound persists for 1/10 th of a second after the source has ceased. Hence in order that an echo may be
distinguished as separate, it must reach the ear 1/10 th of a second after the direct sound. Taking the velocity of sound as 340
m/sec, it means that sound must come after traversing a distance of 34 m, i.e., the minimum distance of the obstacle from the
source must be half of this, i.e., 17 m. If, however, the distance of the reflecting surface is less than this, the sound will appear
to be drawn out, sufficient to cause blurring, occur when the distance of the reflecting surface is between 8 and 17 m.
Reverberation
It has been generally noticed that in public halls and auditoriums, the sound persists even after the source of sound has
ceased. This persistence of sound is called reverberation. It is due to multiple reflections in an enclosed space.

A certain amount of reverberation is desirable, specially for giving richness to music, but too much reverberation is
undesirable. The time during which the sound persists is called the reverberation time of sound in the hall.

In other words, it is the period of time in seconds, which is required for sound energy to decay or diminish by 60 dB after the
sound source has stopped.
The reverberation time of a room varies inversely as the effective surface area and directly as the volume of the room. This
time is independent of the position of the source and the listener and the shape of the room.
Sabine’s expression:
Reverberation time and Acoustical quality

Optimum reverberation time

Absorbtion of Sound

When a sound wave strikes a surface, a part of its energy is absorbed by friction. The sound generated in an auditorium or
hall is absorbed in four ways:
1. In the air
2. By the audience
3. In furniture and furnishing
4. At the boundary surfaces such as floors, ceilings, walls, etc.
Absorbtion by boundary surfaces
(a) Penetration of sound into porous materials, causing resonance within air pockets in the pores until energy is dissipated
(b) Resonant vibration of panel materials
(c) Molecular damping in soft absorbing materials
(d) Transmission through structures.
Absorbents
1. Porous materials:
Frictional losses which occur when the sound waves cause to and fro movement of the air contained in the material.
These materials absorb sound mainly in the higher frequencies.
2. Resonant panels:
Absorb the sound by damping the sympathetic vibrations in the panels, caused by sound pressure waves of appropriate
frequency, by means of air space behind the panel. Absorb sound only at lower frequencies, over a comparatively narrow
frequency band ranging from 50 to 200 cycles.
3. Cavity resonators:
A cavity resonator is virtually a container with a small opening, and it functions by the resonance of air in it. They can be
designed to absorb sound of any frequency.
4. Composite absorbers
Absorbtion coefficient
• The absorption ratio of a surface is the ratio of sound absorbed to the incident sound energy on a material.
• A m2-sabin is the unit of sound absorbed by one square metre area of fully open window. The ratio of the sound
absorbed by one square metre of any surface to that absorbed by one square metre of open window is called coefficient
of absorption for that surface.
Absorption Coefficients for Building Material and Furnishings
Absorption Coefficients for common acoustical materials
 Intensity & loudness
Sound Frequency & Pitch
Quality or Timbre
Echo
Reflected
Reverberation

Behaviour of In the air

sound By the audience
Absorbed
In furniture/ furnishings
Transmitted
Boundary surface
Reverberation
Echoes
Sound foci
Common defects
Design Dead spots
Design factors
Insuffieicent loudness
Exterior noise
 Intensity & loudness
Sound Frequency & Pitch
Quality or Timbre
Echo
Reflected
Reverberation
In the air
Behaviour of sound
By the audience
Absorbed
In furniture/ furnishings
Transmitted
Boundary surface
Reverberation
Echoes
Sound foci
Common defects
Design Dead spots
Design factors
Insufficient loudness
Exterior noise
Summary of Acoustic factors
1. Sound source should be of adequate intensity. For halls of big size, suitable sound amplification system should be
installed.
2. The sound produced should be evenly spread in the hall so that sound foci and dead spots are avoided.
3. The boundary surfaces should be so designed that there are no echoes or near echoes.
4. The boundary surfaces of the hall should be properly designed so that the desired reverberation time is achieved
5. In the case of conference halls, the acoustics of the halls should be so designed as to ensure proper conditions for
listening, assuming that a person may speak or listen from anywhere in the hall.
6. In the case of music halls, the treatment should be such that the initial sound reaches the audience with the same
intensity and frequency.
7. The outside noise should be properly insulated.
Planning factors

Suitable volumes for different types of auditoriums

(a) Public lecture hall 3.5 to 4.5 m3/person.
(b) Cinemas or theatres 4.0 to 5.0 m3/person.
(c) Musical halls or concert halls 4.0 to 5.5 m3/person.

Form
In the case of talking pictures, synchronisation of sound with
lip movement is most essential. Also, in the case of theatres a
person with normal vision should be able to discern facial
expressions of the performers.
In order to satisfy these conditions it is recommended that the
distance of the farthest seat from the curtain line should not
normally exceed 23 metres.
Those areas which cause objectionable sound reflection and need to be treated with sound absorbents should be earmarked
for treatment with sound absorbing material. These areas are:
(i) rear wall
(ii) balcony parapet
(iii) any area which may reflect sound back to the stage
(iv) concave areas which have a tendency to focus sound in certain places
(v) such other areas as will contribute to indirect sound arriving at any point in the hall later than 50 milli-seconds after the
direct sound.
The rest of the sound absorbing material required to be introduced in the room should be distributed over the various
remaining surfaces.
Room shaping
Basic stage forms used in theatre design