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Machine Learning and Python for Human Behavior
Emotion and Health Status Analysis 1st Edition Md Zia.
Uddin Digital Instant Download
Author(s): MD ZIA. UDDIN
ISBN(s): 9781032544786, 1032544783
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 5.45 MB
Year: 2024
Language: english
 Machine Learning and Python for
Human Behavior, Emotion, and
Health Status Analysis

This book is a practical guide for individuals interested in exploring and implementing
smart home applications using Python. Comprising six chapters enriched with hands-­on
codes, it seamlessly navigates from foundational concepts to cutting-­edge technologies,
balancing theoretical insights and practical coding experiences. In short, it is a gateway to
the dynamic intersection of Python programming, smart home technology, and advanced
machine learning applications, making it an invaluable resource for those eager to explore
this rapidly growing field.

Key Features:
• Throughout the book, practicality takes precedence, with hands-­on coding examples
accompanying each concept to facilitate an interactive learning journey.
• Striking a harmonious balance between theoretical foundations and practical cod-
ing, the book caters to a diverse audience, including smart home enthusiasts and
researchers.
• The content prioritizes real-­world applications, ensuring readers can immediately
apply the knowledge gained to enhance smart home functionalities.
• Covering Python basics, feature extraction, deep learning, and XAI, the book pro-
vides a comprehensive guide, offering an overall understanding of smart home
applications.
 Machine Learning and
Python for Human Behavior,
Emotion, and Health Status
Analysis

Written by
Md Zia Uddin
Designed cover image: Freepik
First edition published 2025
by CRC Press
2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2025 Md Zia Uddin
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and
publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and
apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright
material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit-
ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or
contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-
8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected]
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-54478-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-54635-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-42590-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003425908
Typeset in Minion
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents

Preface , ix
Acknowledgments, xii
About the Author, xiii

Chapter 1   ◾   Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning 1

1.1 SMART HOMES 1
1.1.1 Technologies 2
1.1.2 Benefits 3
1.1.3 Challenges 3
1.2 EXAMPLE SMART ASSISTED HOMES 4
1.3 EVENTS IN SMART ASSISTED HOMES 5
1.4 SENSORS IN SMART HOME 7
1.4.1 Wearable Sensors 7
1.4.2 Ambient Sensors 9
1.5 MACHINE LEARNING 10
1.5.1 Supervised Learning 12
1.5.2 Unsupervised Learning 12
1.5.3 Semi-Supervised Learning 13
1.6 DEEP MACHINE LEARNING 13
1.6.1 Transfer Learning 15
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF MACHINE LEARNING 16
1.7.1 Underfitting and Overfitting 16
1.7.2 Other Limitations 18
1.8 CONCLUSION 19
REFERENCES 20

v
vi   ◾    Contents

Chapter 2   ◾    Python and Its Libraries 27

2.1 PYTHON’S KEY FEATURES 27
2.2 PYTHON IN PRACTICE 28
2.3 PYTHON LIBRARIES AND FRAMEWORKS 29
2.4 PYTHON’S COMMUNITY TO LEARN 29
2.5 PYTHON’S IMPACT ON EDUCATION 30
2.6 PYTHON 2 VERSUS PYTHON 3 30
2.7 PYTHON’S ROLE IN DATA SCIENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING 31
2.8 CHALLENGES AND CONSIDERATIONS 32
2.9 PYTHON BASICS 32
2.10 BUILT-IN PYTHON LIBRARIES 33
2.11 DATA MANIPULATION LIBRARIES 34
2.11.1 NumPy 34
2.11.2 Statistical Analysis 39
2.12 PANDAS 40
2.12.1 Pandas Data Structures 41
2.12.2 Basic Operations 41
2.13 DATA VISUALIZATION 43
2.13.1 Matplotlib 43
2.13.2 Seaborn 45
2.14 CONCLUSION 48
REFERENCES 48

Chapter 3   ◾   Feature Analysis Using Python 49

3.1 FEATURE EXTRACTION 49
3.2 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS (PCA) 50
3.3 KERNEL PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS (KPCA) 51
3.4 FEATURE EXTRACTION USING ICA 55
3.5 LINEAR DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS (LDA) 57
3.6 CONCLUSION 60
REFERENCES 60

Chapter 4   ◾   Deep Learning and XAI with Python 64

4.1 INTRODUCTION 64
4.2 NON-DEEP MACHINE LEARNING 66
4.2.1 Support Vector Machines 67
 Contents   ◾    vii

4.2.2 Random Forests 70

4.2.3 AdaBoost and Gradient Boosting 71
4.2.4 Nearest Neighbors 73
4.2.5 More Examples 74
4.3 DEEP MACHINE LEARNING 77
4.3.1 Convolutional Neural Network 78
4.3.2 Pre-trained CNN Models 81
4.3.3 Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) 90
4.3.4 Neural Structured Learning 93
4.4 EXPLAINABLE AI (XAI) 95
4.4.1 Local Explanations 96
4.4.2 Visual Explanations 101
4.4.3 Feature Relevance Explanations 108
4.5 CONCLUSION 109
REFERENCES 110

Chapter 5   ◾   Behavior and Health Status Recognition 119

5.1 WEARABLE SENSOR-BASED BEHAVIOUR RECOGNITION 119
5.1.1 Mobile Health Dataset and Application 119
5.1.2 PUC-Rio Dataset 130
5.1.3 ARem Dataset 137
5.1.4 WISDM Dataset 138
5.1.5 Real-Time HAR Using Wearable Sensor 147
5.2 VIDEO CAMERA-BASED BEHAVIOR RECOGNITION 158
5.3 AMBIENT SENSOR-BASED BEHAVIOR RECOGNITION 160
5.3.1 Real-Time Home Monitoring Using Ambient Sensors 164
5.3.2 Occupancy Prediction Dataset 167
5.4 HEALTH STATUS MONITORING 173
5.4.1 LSTM for Prediction of Health Status 174
5.4.2 ARIMA for Prediction of Health Status 176
5.4.3 Case Study of Oxygen Saturation, Pulse, and Respiration Prediction 178
5.4.4 Sleep Quality Analysis 183
5.4.5 Case Study of Sleep Quality Analysis 185
5.5 SYNTHETIC DATA GENERATION 195
5.6 CONCLUSION 198
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 199
REFERENCES 199
viii   ◾    Contents

Chapter 6   ◾   Emotion Recognition 204

6.1 IMAGE-BASED EMOTION RECOGNITION 204
6.2 CASE-STUDIES FOR IMAGE-BASED EMOTION RECOGNITION 208
6.2.1 Local Directional Strength Pattern (LDSP) 208
6.2.2 Principal Component Analysis on LDSP 211
6.2.3 Linear Discriminant Analysis on PCA 213
6.2.4 Facial Expression Modeling 213
6.2.5 Experiments on Depth Dataset 215
6.2.6 Experiments on RGB-based Public Database 216
6.2.7 Experiments on Depth-based Public Database 218
6.3 SAMPLE CODE FOR IMAGE-BASED EMOTION RECOGNITION 218
6.4 REAL-TIME IMAGE-BASED EMOTION RECOGNITION 221
6.5 VOICE-BASED EMOTION RECOGNITION 222
6.6 CASE-STUDIES ON VOICE-BASED EMOTION RECOGNITION 224
6.6.1 Signal Pre-processing 224
6.6.2 Feature Extraction with MFCC 226
6.6.3 Emotion Modelling 227
6.6.4 Experiments and Results 228
6.7 SAMPLE CODE FOR VOICE-BASED EMOTION RECOGNITION 230
6.8 CONCLUSION 234
REFERENCES 234

INDEX240
Preface

This book is a practical guide to smart home applications using Python, divided into six
chapters with hands-­on codes. It starts with an introduction and covers Python basics in
the second chapter. Chapter 3 explores pulling important info from data through feature
extraction techniques, and then Chapter 4 dives into machine learning and Explainable AI
(XAI). The exciting part of the book is to be found in Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 5 presents
real-­life examples of behavior and health analysis using deep learning and XAI. Then, the
final chapter explores recognizing emotions through cameras and audio using deep learn-
ing and XAI. The book strikes a balance between theory and practical coding, making it
accessible for both smart home enthusiasts and researchers. A little glimpse of each chapter
follows:
The opening chapter introduces the topic of smart homes and machine learning, shed-
ding light on diverse projects. It explores various smart home initiatives, showcasing the
seamless integration of technology into daily life. A central focus is the pivotal role of
machine learning in data extraction and analysis. Machine learning tools emerge as trans-
formative, aiding caregivers and clinical experts in diagnosis and decision-­making. The
chapter unravels insights into the impact of these projects on healthcare and caregiving
landscapes, laying the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the symbiotic relation-
ship between smart homes and machine learning. Readers embark on a journey where
innovative technologies not only enhance our homes but also revolutionize the delivery of
healthcare. This chapter sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration, promising a deeper
dive into the fascinating fusion of smart living and machine intelligence.
Chapter 2 focuses on Python and its libraries, with a number of real-­world examples. It
starts with the basics of Python, in order to ensure that everyone feels comfy and ready for
the journey. We learn about things like variables, data types, and making choices in our
code. It’s like building the ABCs of Python! This part is great for beginners because lots of
hands-­on activities are there to really understand how Python works. It then jumps into
some cool libraries, which are like special tools that make Python even more awesome. It
then checks out NumPy for doing math stuff, Pandas for playing with data, Matplotlib for
creating cool charts, and Seaborn for even fancier visualizations. Each library is explained
with real examples, so it’s not just theory—you get to see how these tools can solve real
problems. By the end of this chapter, you’ll know the ABCs of Python and have some nifty
tools in your coding backpack. It’s like starting with the basics to build a strong foundation
for all the cool things discussed in the next chapters.

ix
x   ◾    Preface

Chapter 3 dives into the world of feature extraction techniques using Python—PCA,
Kernel PCA (KPCA), Independent Component Analysis (ICA), and Linear Discriminant
Analysis (LDA). It’s like uncovering secrets to refine data in machine learning! With
Python, PCA steals the spotlight, making data simpler by capturing the important stuff
and reducing complexity. KPCA takes it a step further, smoothly handling tricky nonlin-
ear data structures. Then, it explores ICA, pulling out hidden factors in the data by focus-
ing on independent components. LDA steps up with Python demos, showing off its skill in
boosting supervised learning by making classes more distinct. These techniques are not
just theoretical—they get down to real-­world applications like image processing, signal
analysis, and text mining. The chapter proves how adaptable and useful these techniques
are across different fields. By using them, machine learning models become champs at
spotting important patterns.
Chapter 4 unfolds the world of deep learning and explainable AI. Recently, researchers
have been drawn to deep learning techniques for modeling patterns in input data, with
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) gaining popularity for its superior discriminative
power compared to previous approaches. CNN, a type of deep learning, involves feature
extractions and convolutional stacks to build a hierarchy of abstract features. For time-­
sequential event analysis, Recurrent Neural Networks like long short-­ term memory
(LSTM) shine, offering strong discriminative power. Enter Neural Structured Learning
(NSL), an advanced open-­source framework within deep learning algorithms designed to
grasp events in data. NSL leverages structured signals tied to feature inputs, employing
neural graph learning to train networks based on graphs and structured data. It extends
basic adversarial learning by utilizing structured data with valuable relational information
among samples. Acknowledging the remarkable strides in Artificial Intelligence (AI), the
chapter addresses the challenge of explainability (XAI) arising amid AI success. It explores
various machine learning techniques—both shallow and deep—alongside XAI algorithms,
navigating the dynamic landscape of AI advancements and challenges.
Chapter 5 is packed with cool stories showing how wearable sensors, machine learning,
and explainable AI (XAI) can be combined in real-­life situations. First up is behavior
recognition—it’s like teaching computers to understand how people act using wearable
sensors and smart learning. They look at public datasets to figure out and explain what
our actions mean. Next, it jumps into real-­time activity recognition. Imagine your fitness
tracker not just counting steps but instantly knowing if you’re running, walking, or doing
yoga. That’s the magic of wearable sensors and machine learning working together, mak-
ing our gadgets super-­smart. The tech adventure continues with real-­time body skeleton
tracking using cameras that can see both color and heat. It’s like having a virtual map of
how people move in real time, opening doors for lots of cool applications. Heading home,
we explore real-­time home monitoring and behavior prediction. Ambient sensors keep an
eye on what’s happening, and machine learning predicts what might happen next. It’s like
having a super-­smart home that understands your routines. Health takes the spotlight next
with predictions about oxygen levels and pulse using wearable sensors. It’s not just about
tracking—it’s also predicting, and thereby making health monitoring more personalized
and efficient. We wrap up the tech journey with real-­time respiration prediction, where
 Preface   ◾    xi

ultra-­wideband sensors and machine learning team up to give instant and accurate predic-
tions, taking healthcare to a whole new level. In a nutshell, Chapter 5 is all about real stories
where technology, smart sensors, and intelligent machine learning work together to under-
stand our behavior, predict activities, monitor our homes, and even take health monitoring
to new heights.
Chapter 6 takes us into the world of recognizing emotions, first through cameras and
then using audio. With cameras, it explores different features like Principal Component
Analysis (PCA), Independent Component Analysis (ICA), and Local Directional Patterns
(LDP), teaming up with machine learning to understand facial expressions and emotions
in pictures. The chapter doesn’t stop there—it goes into real-­time emotion recognition,
making things even more exciting. To help us understand how the computer makes these
predictions, it introduces Explainable AI (XAI). Moving on to audio-­based emotion recog-
nition, the chapter introduces Mel-­Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC) as special fea-
tures to capture emotions in sound. Different machine learning algorithms join the party
to decode the emotional vibes hidden in spoken words or audio signals. In a nutshell, the
chapter unfolds a journey where technology learns to recognize emotions, in terms of both
pictures and also what we say. It’s not just about understanding technical details; it’s about
seeing how these smart systems can grasp and respond to human emotions. Whether it’s
decoding smiles on camera or sensing emotions in our voice, this chapter shows us the
exciting possibilities of machines understanding how we feel.
Acknowledgments

To my beloved wife (Syeda Farzana Zerin) and children (Zayan Adeeb and Fayzan Aabid),
your relentless support, love, and encouragement have been the guiding forces on my jour-
ney. You are my inspiration, my motivation, and my greatest treasures.
To my dear parents (Ahmed Sharif and Monoara Begum), your love, sacrifices, and
commitments have shaped me into the person I am today.
This book is dedicated to you all, as a token of my deepest gratitude and appreciation.

xii
Author

Md Zia Uddin was born in 1981 at Haji Alimuddin’s House, 18

No Ward, East Bakalia, Chittagong, Bangladesh. He is the young-
est child of Ahmed Sharif (Late) and Monoara Begum. Dr. Zia
completed his PhD in Biomedical Engineering in 2011. He is
currently working as a Senior Research Scientist in Sustainable
Communication Technologies department of SINTEF Digital,
Oslo, Norway. SINTEF is the largest research institute in
Scandinavia and one of the largest research institutes in Europe.
He has been leading/working on work packages of various
national and international research projects. His research fields are mainly focused on data
and feature analysis from various sources for physical/mental healthcare using machine
learning/artificial intelligence/XAI. Dr. Zia also has a good teaching experience with more
than 20 computer science-­related courses from bachelor’s degree to PhD.

Dr. Zia Uddin has got more than 150 peer-­reviewed research publications including pres-
tigious international journals, conferences, and book chapters. Half of the publications are
led or mostly done by him. His google scholar citations are around 4500. He got Gold Medal
Award (2008) for academic excellence in undergraduate study. He was also Awarded Korean
Government IT Scholarship (March 2007 to February 2011) and Kyung Hee University
President Scholarship (March 2007 to February 2011). His research works received best/
outstanding paper awards in several peer reviewed international conferences. He acted as
a reviewer in many prestigious journals including IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis
and Machine Intelligence (TPAMI), Information Fusion, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Informatics, and IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, etc.

Dr. Zia Uddin has been leading/working in different work packages of national and inter-
national research projects. He has been enlisted in the World’s Top 2% Scientists since 2019,
conducted by Stanford University of USA and Elsevier BV. For more information about his
work and background: https://sites.google.com/site/webpagezia/home

xiii
 CHAPTER 1

Smart Assisted Homes,

Sensors, and Machine
Learning

1.1 SMART HOMES
A smart home, or a connected or automated home, is a dwelling equipped with the lat-
est technology and built with systems and devices that can be interconnected to make
your life easier and more comfortable [1–3]. Examples are the Internet of Things (IoT),
artificial intelligence (AI), and various communication technologies that have combined
to pave the way for smart homes. So, an integrated and connected smart home is an inte-
grated and controlled environment that allows the control, monitoring, and automation
of various devices and systems. It is often possible to manage and optimize living spaces
through the Internet or a local network, a capability once considered inconceivable
for homeowners. The concept of smart homes has traversed a remarkable evolutionary
journey. It commenced with rudimentary automation features such as programmable
thermostats and remote-­controlled garage doors. Today, smart homes have become
sophisticated ecosystems due to the rapid advancement of technology, particularly in
the Internet of Things (IoT) and AI. The significance of smart homes extends beyond
mere convenience. They are designed to address the practical needs and challenges of
contemporary living. These connected spaces aim to enhance comfort, energy efficiency,
security, and the overall quality of life. Moreover, smart homes contribute to broader
societal goals, such as sustainable living and improved healthcare. The foundation of
smart homes lies in a synergy of cutting-­edge technologies that enable seamless integra-
tion and intelligent control. Understanding these technologies is crucial to grasping the
essence of smart homes.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003425908-1 1
2   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

1.1.1 Technologies
At the heart of smart homes is the Internet of Things (IoT), a vast network of interconnected
physical objects equipped with sensors, software, and coy features. IoT devices collect and
communicate data over the Internet or other networks, forming the basis for smart home
functionality. AI, specifically machine learning, is the brainpower behind smart homes.
Machine learning algorithms empower devices to learn from user behavior, adapt to pref-
erences, and make intelligent decisions. Voice assistants like Amazon’s Alexa and Google
Assistant are prime examples of AI in action. Effective communication between devices
is essential in a smart home ecosystem. Various communication protocols, such as Wi-­Fi,
Zigbee, and Z-­Wave, facilitate seamless data exchange, ensuring devices can work together
harmoniously. Sensors, ranging from motion detectors to temperature sensors, gather
environmental data. Actuators, like motors or switches, execute actions based on this data.
For instance, smart thermostats use temperature sensors to regulate heating and cooling,
enhancing comfort and energy efficiency. Voice assistants have become the central inter-
face in many smart homes. They utilize natural language processing to understand and
respond to voice commands, serving as the command centers for controlling a wide array
of smart devices. A smart home’s ecosystem comprises various components, each con-
tributing to the overall functionality and experience. Let’s explore the key elements that
define a modern smart home. Smart appliances encompass a range of household machines,
including refrigerators, ovens, washing machines, and dishwashers. What sets them apart
is their connectivity and ability to be remotely controlled and monitored. These appliances
often feature energy-­saving modes and can even provide notifications when maintenance
is required. Intelligent lighting systems offer homeowners complete control over their
lighting environments. Users can adjust brightness, color, and scheduling to create custom
lighting scenarios. Automation capabilities enable lights to adapt based on time of day or
occupancy, enhancing energy efficiency and security.
Smart thermostats have redefined heating and cooling management in homes. They
learn user preferences, adapt to daily routines, and optimize temperature settings for com-
fort and energy savings. They can be controlled remotely via smartphone apps, ensuring a
comfortable environment upon arrival. Security is a top priority for homeowners, and
intelligent security systems provide advanced solutions. These systems include intelligent
cameras, smart doorbells, motion sensors, and locks. With remote monitoring and real-­
time alerts, homeowners can enhance security and peace of mind. Voice assistants, such as
Amazon’s Alexa and Google Assistant, have become integral to many smart homes. They
serve as the central control hubs for various devices, responding to voice commands to
control lighting, music, thermostats, and more. Smart TVs and speakers offer access to
extensive entertainment options, from streaming services to music and games. Voice con-
trol simplifies content access and navigation, providing a seamless and immersive enter-
tainment experience. Smart homes increasingly incorporate health and wellness devices,
catering to residents’ well-­being. These devices include fitness trackers, smart scales, air
quality monitors, and connected medical devices. They empower individuals to monitor
and manage their health from the comfort of their homes. Energy management systems tie
together various devices and sensors to optimize energy usage. Homeowners can track
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    3

energy consumption, receive insights, and make informed decisions to reduce their carbon
footprint and utility bills. Home automation hubs serve as centralized controllers for
diverse smart devices. They enable automation, scheduling, and remote control, offering a
single interface for managing the entire smart home ecosystem.

1.1.2 Benefits
Smart homes bring numerous advantages to homeowners, enhancing their living experi-
ences. Let’s explore the key benefits that have made smart homes increasingly popular. The
most apparent benefit of smart homes is their unparalleled convenience. Homeowners can
effortlessly automate daily tasks, adjust settings, and control devices with a simple tap on
a smartphone or a voice command. From adjusting lighting to regulating temperature,
smart homes prioritize user comfort. Smart homes are designed to be energy-­efficient.
Smart thermostats and lighting systems optimize energy usage, lowering utility bills.
Moreover, they contribute to reducing the overall carbon footprint, aligning with sustain-
ability goals. Security is a paramount concern for homeowners, and smart homes address
this with advanced solutions. Surveillance cameras, motion sensors, and smart locks pro-
vide real-­time monitoring and immediate alerts, bolstering home security. Innovative
entertainment systems offer access to vast content and entertainment options. With voice-­
controlled interfaces, users can navigate their favorite shows, movies, and music, creating
an immersive and enjoyable entertainment experience.
Health and wellness devices within smart homes enable individuals to take charge of
their well-­being. Fitness trackers, for instance, track physical activity, while air quality
monitors ensure a healthy living environment. The ability to remotely monitor and control
smart homes is a game-­changer. Whether adjusting the thermostat while at work or check-
ing security cameras while on vacation, homeowners can stay connected to their resi-
dences, enhancing security and convenience. While the initial investment in smart home
technology can be substantial, long-­term savings from reduced energy consumption,
improved maintenance, and enhanced security often outweigh the upfront costs.

1.1.3 Challenges
Despite their numerous advantages, smart homes also present a set of challenges and con-
cerns that homeowners and manufacturers must address to ensure a secure and seamless
experience. The interconnected nature of smart homes raises concerns about privacy and
data. Unauthorized access to devices or data breaches can compromise sensitive infor-
mation. Implementing robust security measures, such as encryption and regular software
updates, is essential to mitigate these risks. Not all smart devices are compatible, which can
lead to interoperability issues. This can frustrate homeowners who desire a seamless expe-
rience across their devices and ecosystems. The upfront costs of purchasing and install-
ing smart devices can hinder adoption for some homeowners. However, it’s essential to
consider the long-­term savings and benefits when evaluating these costs. Setting up and
configuring a smart home ecosystem can be complex, often requiring technical expertise.
Manufacturers are working to simplify installation, but it remains challenging for some
users. Smart devices rely on stable internet connections, and if the network goes down,
4   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

some functionalities may be lost. Additionally, vulnerabilities in device firmware or soft-

ware can be exploited by cybercriminals. The rapid pace of technological advancement
means that devices can become obsolete quickly. This can be frustrating for homeowners
who invest in innovative technology only to find it outdated within a few years. While
smart homes can contribute to energy savings, producing electronic devices can have
environmental consequences. Sustainable practices and responsible disposal are essential
to mitigate this impact. Smart homes are vulnerable to various cyberattacks, including
unauthorized access to devices, data breaches, and the possibility of devices being used as
entry points into home networks. Understanding these risks is crucial for homeowners.
Ensuring that only authorized users can control and access smart devices is vital. Multi-­
factor authentication and secure user accounts are essential for a secured smart home.
Manufacturers must implement secure device management practices. This includes regu-
larly issuing firmware updates to patch vulnerabilities and address security issues promptly.
Homeowners can take proactive steps to enhance the security of their smart homes.
This includes regularly updating device firmware, using strong and unique passwords, seg-
menting the network, and exercising caution when granting access to third-­party apps and
services.

1.2 EXAMPLE SMART ASSISTED HOMES

Smart assisted homes are designed to assist users based on sensors and other technolo-
gies such as machine learning. The growing number of older adults generates a significant
demand for healthcare services. Age is a vital risk factor for the development of chronic
disorders. Older adults also have a substantial risk of falling. One of the significant prob-
lems in handling this complex care is that resources are becoming more abundant daily
[3, 4]. Through recent advances in sensor and communication technologies, monitoring
technologies have become essential for achieving a robust healthcare system that can help
older adults live independently for a longer time [5, 6].
Among the researchers of smart care systems for assisted living, many of them focused
on developing smart older adult care systems that could observe interactions between older
adults and their living environment over a long period [7–16]. Such user behavioral moni-
toring systems for older people use different smart devices such as magnetic switches to
record movement in rooms, infrared sensors to detect activities, and sound sensors to
determine the types of activities. Thus, the system could respond to any activity outside
standard activity patterns. Other technologies emerged in the following decades that
focused on monitoring elderly behaviors such as daily activities and fall detection. However,
an overview of non-­wearable ambient sensor-­based systems would be valuable for analyz-
ing the increasingly complicated care demands of older adults.
During the last few decades, many researchers have tried to carry out smart home proj-
ects. For instance, GatorTech [17] is an earlier smart home project developed at the
University of Florida. The project adopted various ambient sensors to provide several user
services, such as voice and behavior recognition. The CASAS project [18] was a smart home
project that was carried out at Washington State University in 2007. It was a multi-­
disciplinary project for developing a smart home using different sensors and actuators.
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    5

FIGURE 1.1 An example of a smart home of a user’s residence.

The researchers in the project adopted machine learning tools for user behavior analysis.
They focused on creating a lightweight design that could be easily set up without further
customization. SWEET-­HOME was a French project on developing a smart home system
primarily based on audio technology [19]. The project aimed at three key goals: developing
an audio-­based interactive technology that gives users complete control over the home
environment. Figure 1.1 shows an example of a smart home with sensors installed in dif-
ferent places.

1.3 EVENTS IN SMART ASSISTED HOMES

In recent years, several applications for diabetes control, depression treatment, hyperten-
sion control, medication adherence, and psychological support have been developed to
allow people to live alone while having the possibility of daily control over their health
status. Alarm-­alerting applications can save human life when critical events, such as falls,
prolonged inactivity, or environmental dangers, are detected. The early detection of behav-
ioral changes is necessary before a notable deterioration of the primary activities involved
in daily living. Scientific studies have pointed out that people’s activity levels drop signifi-
cantly when they retire. By the early identification of the risk factors of functional decline,
this can be prevented in a large portion of the elderly population at the time of retirement
by targeting timely interventions and reducing the risks. Furthermore, behavioral change
6   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

TABLE 1.1 List of Possible Events and Devices in Smart Home

Events and Devices for Smart Homes
• Occupancy Detection: Motion Sensors
• Sleep Patterns Monitoring: Wearable Sleep Trackers, Bed-­Based Sensors
• Fall Detection: Accelerometers, Gyroscopes
• Medication Reminders: Smart Pill Dispensers
• Health Monitoring: Vital Sign Monitors (e.g., Heart Rate Monitors, Blood Pressure Monitors)
• Daily Routine Assistance: Voice Assistants, Smart Mirrors
• Intruder Detection: Door and Window Sensors, Motion Sensors
• Emergency Response System: Panic Buttons, Wearable Emergency Buttons
• Home Automation Based on Preferences: Smart Thermostats, Smart Lighting Systems
• Social Interaction Facilitation: Video Cameras, Voice Assistants
• Energy Efficiency Optimization: Smart Thermostats, Energy Monitoring Sensors
• Water Usage Monitoring: Smart Water Meters, Water Leak Sensors
• Cognitive Stimulation: Interactive Displays, Cognitive Games
• Exercise and Fitness Tracking: Wearable Fitness Trackers, Smart Exercise Equipment
• Grocery shopping Assistance: Smart Fridges, Barcode Scanners
• Environmental Quality Monitoring: Air Quality Sensors, Humidity Sensors
• Mood Enhancement Smart Lighting Systems, Aromatherapy Diffusers
• Remote Family Connection: Video Cameras, Video Calling Devices
• Routine Maintenance Alerts: Wearable Maintenance Sensors
• Pet Care Assistance: Smart Pet Collars, Pet Activity Trackers
• Posture Correction Reminders: Posture Monitoring Wearables
• Sunlight Exposure Optimization: Smart Blinds, Sunlight Sensors
• Entertainment Recommendations: Smart TVs, Content Recommendation Systems
• Visitor Recognition and Access Control: Facial Recognition Cameras, Smart Door Locks
• Voice-­Activated Control Systems: Voice Assistants, Voice Recognition Sensors
• Financial Management Assistance: Smart Budgeting Apps, Expense Trackers
• Personalized Recipe Suggestions: Smart Kitchen Appliances, Recipe Apps
• Learning and Educational Support: Interactive Displays, Educational Apps
• Calendar and Appointment Management: Calendar Apps, Voice Assistants
• Hydration Monitoring: Smart Water Bottles, Hydration Sensors

applications include monitoring dangerous attitudes, such as smoking, calorie intake for
diet and exercise, and physical activity levels. Table 1.1 shows the possible list of events.
In assisted living technology-­based literature, most researchers have focused on assisted
systems for indoor environments. One of the critical application contexts related to medi-
cal and public health practices is supported by devices that deliver healthcare services via
mobile communication. New technologies and systems have been developed for the con-
tinuous monitoring of physical, behavioral, and environmental data and for assessing out-
comes from the data. Via the development of systems based on the data from distinguished
heterogeneous sensors and additional self-­reported data, new information regarding phys-
iological, psychological, emotional, and environmental states can be derived.
Indoor environments can mainly be differentiated into two categories: firstly, homes
where people usually live alone or possibly live with a few relatives; secondly, retirement
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    7

residences where more people live together, move in shared spaces, perform group or indi-
vidual activities, and undertake controlled physical activities. People’s health status can be
evaluated by observing their movements, recognizing their actions, evaluating resting peri-
ods, monitoring food intake, etc. People’s behavioral analysis can be done by detecting
anomalies while comparing the actual behavioral events with the expected ones. Besides,
social activities in a group and interactions with relatives or friends can also be monitored.

1.4 SENSORS IN SMART HOMES

For different application domains, other technologies can be used to develop assisted living
systems, from IoT devices to complex sensor networks consisting of ambient environmen-
tal sensors, intelligent devices, video cameras, etc. The variety of sensors or technologies
would increase the complexity of data since it can remarkably change in size, heteroge-
neity, and sampling rates. This section examines the essential technologies for detecting
people in assisted living situations.
Devices such as smart objects, wearable sensors, smartwatches, and smartphones are
combined with non-­invasive sensors such as video cameras or infrared motion sensors, to
develop intelligent people monitoring systems for indoor and outdoor applications. The
variety of technological systems is quite wide to satisfy particular constraints such as non-­
invasiveness, subject acceptance, and non-­affecting users during everyday activities. In the
following, four principal categories of technologies will be examined. Let’s start from
those that can be easily used, such as wearable sensors, but that require user acceptance,
and then move on to those that are less invasive but require structuring objects or furni-
ture, i.e., intelligent everyday objects, up to environmental sensors and social assistive
robots. Table 1.2 shows the list of sensors that can be used for smart assisted homes.

1.4.1 Wearable Sensors
The wearable sensor industry has made several advances in miniaturization and energy
efficiency in recent years. The most common wearable sensors, usually worn around the hip
or wrist, are three-­a xis accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers. As well as assess-
ing postural stability, detecting and classifying falls, or analyzing gait cycles, they have
been extensively applied to various purposes [20–29]. Further, these sensors are embedded
in mobile technologies, such as smartphones, smartwatches, and wristbands, which can
also continuously monitor biological, behavioral, and environmental data.
The passive technology of Radio-­Frequency Identification (RFID) has been widely
employed for identifying dynamic positions in indoor environments by identifying peo-
ple’s dynamic positions. A wearable electromagnetic marker (tag) generating information
regarding human motion can be detected by an interrogating antenna that radiates an
electromagnetic field that a remote receiver or reader senses. In addition to monitoring
movement, location, and even accidental falls, this type of system is also used to detect a
fall in the event of an accident.
As far as assisted living systems have been evaluated, they are primarily concerned with
monitoring the behavior of residents. To determine an individual’s overall health status,
several other relevant parameters must also be observed. A physiological parameter is a
8   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

TABLE 1.2 List of Sensors in a Smart Home

Sensors for Smart Homes
• Motion
• Door/Window • RFID (Radio-­Frequency Identification)
• Contact • Tilt
• Bed • Pulse Oximeters
• Pressure /Mat Alarms • Blood Glucose Monitors
• Occupancy • Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• Temperature • Incontinence
• Humidity • Sound Level
• Cameras • Touch
• Voice and Sound • Oxygen Concentration
• Smoke Detectors • UV-­C Disinfection
• Gas Detectors • Skin Temperature
• Medication Adherence • Bluetooth Beacons
• Wearable Health Devices • Air Quality
• Flood • CO2
• Leak • Light
• GPS Trackers • Water Quality
• Smart Lighting • Smart Pill Dispensers
• Environmental • Smart Thermostats
• Weight • Noise Level
• Proximity • Blood Pressure Monitors
• Infrared (IR) • Pulse Rate
• UV Light

parameter that is measured and referred to as a vital sign. Such parameters include a per-
son’s heart rate (HR), blood pressure, temperature, respiration rate, and blood oxygen satu-
ration. For a complete and long-­term health monitoring system to be built into everyday
scenarios, different sensors can be used to monitor vital bodily functions in addition to the
sensors above, which are complementary to each other to monitor critical body functions.
There are new possibilities for continuous vital sign monitoring with microelectromec­
hanical systems due to recent advances in performance and cost-­effectiveness. Several
promising techniques are being explored to extract information on cardiac events and
phases, especially ballistocardiography (BCG) and seismocardiography (SCG). In addition
to measuring breathing rates and quality metrics of physical activity, they also measure
vibrations caused by heart muscle contractions. They are based on IMU sensors placed
over the subject’s sternum. In addition to smart technology, portable objects, such as
glasses, can also be equipped with sensors to monitor some vital signs, including the heart
rate and respiration rate, the regularity of pulse and respiration, the occurrence of and
duration of apneas, and the distribution of temperature on the face. The use of such tech-
niques is very significant for healthcare professionals, because it allows them to collect
necessary information regarding the medical condition of their patients without the use of
dedicated hardware, but instead by using more natural methods.
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    9

1.4.2 Ambient Sensors
Sensors for environmental monitoring are used to detect parameters that may adversely
impact elderly people, such as temperature or air quality. Furthermore, they assist in moni-
toring daily living activities or localizing individuals and objects around them [30–44].
Environmental sensors are not invasive for people and are not structured or replaced by
household objects as opposed to wearable and smart object sensors. It is possible to monitor
the different activities of different people through radio frequency-­based systems, which
analyze the reflections of radio frequency signals. For example, the sleep quality of older
adults can be analyzed by inferring the sleeping posture of a subject, capturing people’s 3D
dynamics, and detecting changes in movement patterns. In addition to operating through
optically opaque materials, such as clothing, microwave sensors may eventually detect fog
and smoke as they are not affected by external visible lights and scene colours, and they
will ultimately be capable of sensing through these materials. It is possible to recognize
multiple non-­cooperative people’s hands and vital signs using intelligent metasurface sys-
tems capable of translating microwave data into images. There are several environmental
sensory systems that can be utilized to collect biomedical signals, but intelligent optical
systems are an example of these systems. These systems can detect rigid and uncontrollable
gestures, postural instability, or small tremors, warning signs of neurological conditions.
To maintain a healthy lifestyle under observation and notify caregivers during a call for
help, low-­cost devices such as Kinect, RealSense, and Wii can be easily installed to monitor
people’s day-­to-­day activity.
It has been reported that passive infrared (PIR) motion sensors can be used to detect
individual movements in research works [45–60]. Usually, PIR motion sensors are heat-­
sensitive and can detect the presence of users in a room by utilizing temperature changes
produced by the sensors. They are installed in the walls of the home of older homes to
continuously collect motion data that is related to predefined activities within the sensor’s
range. A PIR motion sensor can detect various events, such as stove use, temperature
changes, water use, and cabinet openings. All of these events can be detected with motion
sensors. Motion data can be obtained by a base station that collects data and forwards it to
caregivers so that trend analysis can be performed to detect changes in daily activities.
Once the data has been gathered, the caregivers can analyze the data and determine what
changes have occurred. PIR sensors can also be used to detect changes in health status by
using the analysis results. Therefore, they can recognize patterns in daily activities and be
triggered as soon as deviations occur to provide alerts. Smart homes can adopt the sensors
for various applications, including monitoring the level of activity and detecting falls or
other significant events that may occur. An everyday use of monitoring technologies is to
detect daily activities and essential events simultaneously so they can be combined to
achieve several aims. A PIR motion sensor can also analyze gait velocity, user location,
time spent out of the home, sleeping patterns, and nighttime activities. A lot of PIR sensors
have been investigated for a wide range of purposes.
For eldercare, video sensors are the most widely used ambient sensors. In ambient assis-
tive living, many studies have been conducted using video cameras to locate and recognize
10   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

residents within their homes to perform various tasks [61–80]. By removing background
from the background, obtaining body shape from the body, analyzing features, and apply-
ing machine learning to the data, cameras on walls or ceilings can detect activity. Video-­
monitoring technology has been utilized primarily to detect activities of daily living, falls,
and other significant occurrences.
Among ambient sensors, the Doppler radar is one of the most appealing because it can
detect when there is stationary clutter in the background such as a wall [81–83]. As a result
of its ability to penetrate intense obstacles, such as furniture items and walls, it achieves a
better perception of older adults compared to vision-­based sensors. Furthermore, the sys-
tem does not create any privacy issues when monitoring the home and does not provide the
inconvenience of wearables. Moreover, Doppler radar can also be utilized to detect human
cardiopulmonary motion, which may offer a promising approach to eliminating the prob-
lems of false triggers. Ultra-­wideband radar sensors are also prominent candidates for
monitoring older adults’ occupancy, sleep, and respiration in real time [84–88]. There are
many practical applications for the sensor, including monitoring the vital signs of elderly
persons, personal security, environmental monitoring, industrial automation, and home
automation.

1.5 MACHINE LEARNING
Smart assisted homes are closely related to machine learning since system intelligence is
crucial to this research area [89–90]. As a subfield of AI, machine learning focuses on cre-
ating algorithms and statistical models that allow computers to enhance their performance
in specific tasks by learning from data. Unlike traditional programming, machine learn-
ing systems acquire knowledge from data, detect patterns, and make decisions or predic-
tions. Machine learning has gained immense importance across diverse industries, such
as healthcare, finance, marketing, and technology. It has revolutionized decision-­making,
process automation, and insights extraction from large datasets. Its key benefits include
automation, predictive analytics, personalization, medical diagnosis, and natural language
processing (Table 1.3).
There are four fundamental concepts of machine learning described as follows:

• Data serves as the lifeblood of machine learning, taking forms such as structured data
(e.g., tables), unstructured data (e.g., text, images, and audio), and semi-­structured
data (e.g., JSON, XML). Features represent the variables or attributes in data that
models use for predictions. Data preprocessing, encompassing cleaning, normal-
ization, and feature engineering, is a pivotal step in data preparation for machine
learning.
• Machine learning models act as mathematical representations of systems or prob-
lems learned from data. These models can range from simple linear regression to
complex deep neural networks. Algorithms constitute the mathematical techniques
used for model training and optimization. Standard algorithms include decision
trees, k-­nearest neighbors, support vector machines, and gradient boosting.
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    11

TABLE 1.3 List of Machine Learning Algorithms

Machine Learning Algorithms
Supervised Learning Algorithms:
• Decision Trees
• Random Forest
• Support Vector Machines (SVM)
• Naive Bayes
• Gradient Boosting Machines
• Linear Regression
• Adaptive Learning Algorithms
Unsupervised Learning Algorithms:
• Clustering Algorithms
• K-­Means Clustering
• Hierarchical Clustering
• Anomaly Detection Algorithms
• Hidden Markov Models (HMM)
• K-­Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
Deep Learning and Neural Networks:
• Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN)
• Long Short-­Term Memory (LSTM)
• Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN)
• Deep Q Networks (DQN)
Transfer Learning Algorithms:
• VGG (Visual Geometry Group)
• ResNet (Residual Networks)
• Inception Networks
• BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers)
• GPT (Generative Pre-­trained Transformer)
• Reinforcement Learning
Explainable Al Algorithms:
• LIME (Local Interpretable Model-­agnostic Explanations)
• SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations)
• ELI5 (Explain Like I'm 5)
• Anchors (High-­Precision Model-­Agnostic Explanations)

• Training a machine learning model involves exposing it to labeled data (data with
known outcomes) to learn patterns and relationships. Subsequently, model testing on
unseen data assesses its performance. Data typically splits into training, validation,
and test sets to ensure robust generalization.
• Evaluating a machine learning model’s performance is vital to gauge its effectiveness.
Standard evaluation metrics include accuracy, precision, recall, F1-­score, and mean
squared error (MSE) tailored to the problem type (classification, regression, etc.).
12   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

1.5.1 Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is one of the most prevalent and utilized machine learning types. In
supervised learning, models train on a labeled dataset, where each input data point cor-
responds to a known output or target [91–92]. The objective is to learn a mapping from
input features to the correct output. Supervised learning holds diverse applications across
domains, such as

• Identifying objects within images, such as detecting cats or dogs in photographs.

• Tasks like sentiment analysis, text classification, and language translation.
• Predicting disease outcomes, diagnosing medical conditions, and drug discovery.
• Credit scoring, fraud detection, and stock price prediction.
• Offering tailored product recommendations on e-­commerce platforms.
• Implementing supervised learning for object detection and decision-­making.

Supervised learning is divided into two primary subcategories: classification and regression.
Classification tasks entail assigning input data points to predefined categories or classes.
For instance, given an image of a handwritten digit, the goal might be to classify it as one
of the digits from 0 to 9. Standard algorithms encompass logistic regression, decision trees,
Support Vector Machines, and neural networks.
Regression tasks involve predicting continuous numeric values or quantities. Examples
include forecasting house prices based on factors like square footage and location or esti-
mating a person’s age based on various demographic variables. Linear regression, polyno-
mial regression, and neural networks apply to regression tasks.

1.5.2 Unsupervised Learning
Unsupervised learning addresses data lacking labels or categorization. In unsupervised
learning, algorithms seek patterns, structures, or relationships within data without
prior knowledge of these patterns [93, 94]. Unsupervised learning applies across diverse
domains:

• Segregating customers with analogous behaviors or preferences for targeted

marketing.
• Decreasing image storage space requirements while conserving vital data.
• Identifying rare events or anomalies within data.
• Discovering themes or subjects within textual data.
• Discerning concealed patterns in user behavior for enhanced recommendations.
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    13

Unsupervised learning is subdivided into various subtypes:

• Clustering involves grouping similar data points into clusters or categories based
on their inherent similarities. Prominent clustering algorithms encompass k-­means
clustering and hierarchical clustering. Clustering finds utility in customer segmenta-
tion, image segmentation, and document clustering.
• Dimensionality reduction techniques strive to reduce data dimensions while preserv-
ing essential information. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and t-­distributed
Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-­SNE) are prevalent dimensionality reduction
techniques. They support data visualization and feature selection.
• Anomaly detection identifies data points that are significantly divergent from the
majority. It proves valuable in scenarios like fraud detection, network security, and
manufacturing quality control.

1.5.3 Semi-Supervised Learning
Semi-­supervised learning amalgamates elements from supervised and unsupervised learn­
ing [95, 96]. In this paradigm, the algorithm receives a small, labeled dataset alongside a
more extensive unlabeled dataset. The goal is to enhance model performance using the
labeled data. Semi-­supervised learning finds relevance in scenarios where obtaining
labeled data poses challenges, such as the following.

• Training speech recognition models with limited transcribed audio data.

• Classifying documents when only a subset is labeled.
• Recognizing objects in images with minimal labeled instances.
• Identifying unusual behavior in systems or networks with a limited number of known
anomalies.

Semi-­supervised learning is a pragmatic middle ground between resource-­intensive super-

vised learning and the complexity of understanding extensive unlabeled data in unsu-
pervised learning. Semi-­supervised learning proves exceptionally advantageous when
acquiring labeled data is demanding or time-­consuming. The labeled data assists in
guiding the learning process and optimizing available information. Standard techniques
encompass self-­training and co-­training.

1.6 DEEP MACHINE LEARNING

Deep learning, a subset of machine learning, has profoundly impacted the field of AI [97].
It has completely transformed how machines perceive, learn, and make decisions, resem-
bling human cognition. Deep learning models, particularly neural networks, serve as the
foundation of this technological advancement, and their applications span a wide range
of domains, from computer vision to natural language processing and beyond. At its core,
deep learning revolves around artificial neural networks. These networks draw inspiration
from the structure and function of the human brain, featuring layers of interconnected
14   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

nodes, or neurons, that process and transmit information. The term “deep” in deep learn-
ing refers to the multiple layers these networks can possess, allowing them to uncover
intricate patterns and representations within raw data.
Deep neural networks are characterized by including numerous hidden layers between
the input and output layers. These hidden layers enable the network to acquire intricate and
hierarchical data representations. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Recurrent
Neural Networks (RNNs) are prevalent types of deep neural networks. Deep learning per-
sists as a vibrant and quickly evolving domain, with ongoing research and groundbreaking
developments across diverse domains. Deep learning has realized notable advancements
across a spectrum of applications:

• CNNs have achieved human-­level performance in image classification tasks.

• Transformers, a class of deep neural networks, have transformed NLP tasks, encom-
passing language translation and chatbots.
• Deep learning has elevated the precision of speech recognition systems.
• Deep neural networks are pivotal for perception and decision-­making in self-­driving
cars.
• Deep learning models support medical image analysis, disease diagnosis, and drug
discovery.

The impact of deep learning extends across a multitude of industries. In computer vision,
deep neural networks adeptly process visual data, empowering self-­driving cars to iden-
tify pedestrians, road signs, and other vehicles, thus ensuring safe navigation. In natural
language processing (NLP), deep learning models proficiently comprehend and respond
to human language, powering chatbots and virtual assistants such as Siri and ChatGPT.
Healthcare experiences significant improvements as deep learning aids in disease diag-
nosis, drug discovery, and the analysis of medical images, ultimately enhancing patient
care and outcomes. In the financial sector, deep learning algorithms are at the forefront
of fraud detection, algorithmic trading, risk assessment, and safeguarding financial sys-
tems. Autonomous vehicles heavily rely on deep learning for navigation, environmental
perception, and real-­time decision-­making, offering a future of safer and more efficient
transportation. In robotics, deep learning augments the capabilities of robots, enabling
them to execute intricate tasks in unstructured environments. Creative industries harness
the power of deep learning to generate art, music, and video content, enriching the world
of entertainment and artistic expression.
Nevertheless, deep learning is full of its set of challenges and limitations. One signifi-
cant challenge is its reliance on copious amounts of labeled data for training, which may
only sometimes be readily available for specific tasks or domains. Overfitting poses another
issue: models excel in training data but need to improve on unseen data, necessitating the
deployment of regularization techniques. The training process for deep neural networks
demands substantial computational resources, including the utilization of GPUs or TPUs,
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    15

and an extensive amount of time. Moreover, the interpretability of deep learning models
remains a concern, as they are often regarded as “black boxes,” making it arduous to com-
prehend their decision-­making processes. Transfer learning, the knowledge gained from
one task to another, only sometimes lends itself to seamless application in deep learning
and necessitates judicious model selection and adaptation.
Deep learning continues to evolve, propelled by a slew of promising trends. Research
into explainable AI seeks to imbue deep learning models with greater transparency and
interpretability, providing insight into their decision-­making processes. Federated learn-
ing introduces the concept of models being collaboratively trained on decentralized data
sources, thus elevating privacy and security. By blending deep learning with reinforcement
learning techniques, reinforcement learning enables machines to acquire knowledge and
make decisions via interactions with their surroundings. The intersection of quantum
computing and deep learning, known as quantum machine learning, holds the potential to
solve complex problems exponentially faster. Ethical considerations gain increasing impor-
tance, ensuring that deep learning models remain equitable, unbiased, and accountable in
their decision-­making processes. The following are different deep learning methods used
in short.

• Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) excel in tasks involving images and grid-­
like data. They harness convolutional layers to discern features from raw pixel values
autonomously. CNNs have demonstrated their mettle in image classification, object
detection, and image generation.
• Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are custom-­built for sequential data, making
them suitable for tasks centered on time series data, NLP, and speech recognition.
RNNs boast a recurrent or feedback connection that facilitates the retention of prior
inputs.
• Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) offer a unique approach by orchestrating
a face-­off between two networks: a generator and a discriminator. GANs find util-
ity in generating fresh data samples, such as images, music, or text, by training the
generator to produce indistinguishable contents from genuine data. This innovative
technology is extensively employed in art generation, video game design, and special
effects.
• Autoencoders are another subset of neural networks adept at unsupervised learning
and data compression. Comprising an encoder and a decoder, autoencoders deftly
reduce the dimensionality of input data while preserving essential information. They
come to the fore in tasks such as image denoising and anomaly detection.

1.6.1 Transfer Learning
Transfer learning emerges as a machine learning technique that leverages knowledge gar-
nered from one task to amplify performance on another related yet distinct task [97–100].
In transfer learning, a model initially trains on a source task and subsequently adapts or
16   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

fine-­tunes for a target task. Transfer learning emerges as an invaluable tool for construct-
ing effective machine learning models under restricted data and computational resources.
Transfer learning finds extensive utility across a range of applications:

• Fine-­tuning pre-­trained CNNs to suit specific image classification tasks.

• Modifying pre-­trained language models like BERT for tasks like sentiment analysis
or question-­answering.
• Harnessing pre-­trained models to facilitate medical image analysis and diagnosis.
• Employing transfer learning for tasks including speech recognition and audio
classification.
• Leveraging knowledge from one domain to enhance recommendations in another.

Transfer learning frequently commences with a pre-­trained model that has already cap-
tured valuable features from an extensive dataset, such as a deep neural network trained
on an extensive image dataset like ImageNet. These pre-­trained models encode general
features, including edges, textures, and high-­level object representations.
To implement transfer learning, the pre-­trained model undergoes adaptation or fine-­
tuning using a smaller dataset pertinent to the target task. This adaptation process empow-
ers the model to specialize in the target domain’s subtleties while retaining the source
task’s general knowledge.

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF MACHINE LEARNING

It is true that machine learning as a whole, including deep learning, has enabled comput-
ers to learn from data, making predictions or decisions without explicit programming. Its
applications span various industries, from self-­driving cars to medical diagnosis. However,
machine learning is not a panacea and comes with limitations and challenges.

1.7.1 Underfitting and Overfitting

Machine learning is a powerful tool for making predictions and decisions based on data.
However, when developing machine learning models, it’s crucial to balance complexity
and simplicity. Two common challenges that arise in this context are underfitting and
overfitting. The most common problems in machine learning are these two. Let’s dive into
these concepts in plain terms, along with real-­world examples.
Underfitting occurs when a machine learning model is too simple to capture the under-
lying patterns in the data. It needs to learn more from the training data to make accurate
predictions. Think of it as trying to fit a straight line to a highly nonlinear dataset. Imagine
we’re trying to predict a person’s salary based on their years of experience. We used a linear
regression model, which assumes a straight-­line relationship between these variables.
However, the actual relationship might be curved or nonlinear. In this case, the linear
model would underfit the data, resulting in poor predictions.
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    17

On the other side of the spectrum, we have overfitting. This happens when a machine
learning model is too complex and tries to memorize the training data instead of learning
the underlying patterns. It’s like a student who memorizes answers without understanding
the concepts in a textbook. Consider a spam email filter. If we train a model on a dataset of
spam and non-­spam emails, an overly complex model might remember each email’s unique
characteristics, including typos, font styles, or specific keywords. As a result, it would
struggle to generalize to new, unseen emails, marking some legitimate ones as spam and
vice versa.
Machine learning aims to find the right level of model complexity, a balance between
underfitting and overfitting. This sweet spot is where the model generalizes well to new,
unseen data. Achieving this balance requires careful model selection, feature engineering,
and tuning. Let’s explore how to identify and address both underfitting and overfitting.
Signs of underfitting can be:

• High training error (i.e., model performs poorly even on the training data).
• High validation error (i.e., model performs poorly on new data).
• The model’s predictions are too simplistic and inaccurate.

The possible solutions can be:

• Increase model complexity: Choose a more complex algorithm or increase the mod-
el’s capacity (e.g., using a deeper neural network).
• Add relevant features: Incorporate more meaningful features from the data to help
the model learn better.

Signs of overfitting can be:

• Low training error (i.e., model fits the training data almost perfectly).
• High validation error (i.e., model performs poorly on new data).
• The model’s predictions are overly sensitive to noise in the training data.

Solutions for overfitting can be:

• Reduce model complexity: Simplify the model architecture by reducing the number of
features, nodes in a neural network, or tree depth in decision trees.
• Strengthen regularization techniques.
• Get more data: Additional high-­quality data can help the model generalize better.
• Employ techniques like k-­fold cross-­validation to evaluate model performance more
robustly.
18   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

Let’s apply these concepts to a real-­world problem: image classification. Suppose we want
to build a machine-­learning model that can distinguish between cats and dogs based on
images. If we use a simple algorithm, like logistic regression, to classify these images, it
might need help to capture the intricate details that differentiate cats from dogs, resulting
in poor accuracy. That is the underfitting scenario.
Conversely, suppose we employ an intense neural network with millions of parameters
and train it on a relatively small dataset. In that case, the model may memorize the training
images’ pixel values rather than learning meaningful features. This leads to high training
accuracy but needs to improve generalization to new, unseen cat and dog images. That is
overfitting scenario.

1.7.2 Other Limitations
The efficacy of machine learning models heavily hinges on the quality and quantity of
data. Noisy or biased data can result in inaccurate predictions. Furthermore, obtaining
labeled data for supervised learning can be costly and time-­consuming. Machine learning
models can inherit biases from the training data, culminating in unfair or discrimina-
tory outcomes. Ensuring fairness and mitigating bias in models stands as a critical ethical
concern. Deep learning models, in particular, often assume the guise of “black boxes” due
to the intricacy of understanding their decision-­making processes. Interpretability is cru-
cial, especially in high-­stakes domains such as healthcare and finance. Machine learning’s
heavy reliance on data is fundamental. Data quality and quantity significantly affect algo-
rithm performance. Biased, incomplete, or unrepresentative data can lead to accurate or
fair predictions. Collecting and labeling large datasets can be time-­consuming and costly,
posing challenges for specific applications.
Machine learning models often need help to generalize beyond their training data.
While they may excel in the training data, they can fail on unseen or out-­of-­distribution
data, known as overfitting. Overfitting occurs when models become too specialized in
capturing noise in the training data, hampering generalization. Addressing overfitting
requires model selection, regularization, and cross-­validation. Many machine learning
models, intense learning models, are viewed as black boxes. They provide predictions, but
understanding why a particular decision was made can be challenging. This lack of inter-
pretability and explainability is problematic in critical domains like healthcare or finance,
where trust and accountability require understanding the model’s reasoning. Machine
learning models can unintentionally perpetuate biases from the training data. Biases
related to race, gender, or other sensitive attributes in the training data may lead to biased
predictions. Mitigating bias and ensuring fairness is an ongoing challenge, requiring care-
ful data preprocessing, algorithmic fairness techniques, and ongoing monitoring. Some
shot notes of related problems can be described below.

• Machine learning models, especially those in recommendation systems and personal-

ized advertising, rely on user data, raising significant privacy concerns. Mishandling
sensitive data can lead to privacy breaches and personal information leaks. Balancing
model utility with user privacy is an ongoing challenge.
 Smart Assisted Homes, Sensors, and Machine Learning   ◾    19

• Many machine learning models, intense learning models, demand substantial compu-
tational resources. This includes high-­performance hardware and energy consump-
tion, making them inaccessible to smaller organizations and raising environmental
concerns. Efficient model architectures and optimization techniques are developed to
address these resource limitations.
• Machine learning models excel at finding correlations but struggle with causality.
While they predict outcomes based on data patterns, they cannot establish underly-
ing cause-­and-­effect relationships. This limitation is crucial in domains where cau-
sality is essential, such as scientific research and public policy.
• Machine learning models assume data distributions remain constant over time.
However, real-­world data distributions can change due to various factors, leading to
concept drift. Models that do not adapt to these changes may become obsolete, neces-
sitating continuous monitoring and retraining.
• Machine learning models lack the common sense and contextual understanding
humans naturally possess. While they may make data-­driven predictions, they lack
the intuition and contextual knowledge humans use for decision-­making. This limi-
tation hinders their suitability for tasks requiring a deep understanding of the world.

1.8 CONCLUSION
Smart assisted homes and machine learning are two technological innovations fundamen-
tally changing how we experience our living environments. A smart assisted home, com-
monly known as a smart home, incorporates interconnected devices and systems that can
be managed and automated through technology. Machine learning, a subset of AI, empow-
ers these smart homes by allowing them to learn from data and make informed decisions
without explicit programming. The application of machine learning within smart homes
is reshaping home automation. Machine learning algorithms can analyze data from vari-
ous sensors and devices in the home, including motion sensors, temperature detectors,
and cameras. They then use this data to understand and predict patterns of user behavior.
For example, a smart home system can learn when occupants usually return home from
work and adjust lighting, temperature, and security accordingly. Over time, these systems
become more attuned to the inhabitants’ routines, making the home more comfortable
and efficient. Energy management is another critical area where machine learning is mak-
ing a significant impact in smart homes. By utilizing historical data and real-­time environ-
mental conditions, machine learning algorithms can optimize the operation of heating,
cooling, and lighting systems. A smart thermostat equipped with machine learning can
adapt heating and cooling schedules to minimize energy consumption while maintaining
comfort levels. This not only reduces energy costs but also contributes to environmental
sustainability. Security and safety are paramount concerns in any household, and machine
learning is crucial in enhancing these aspects within smart homes. Machine learning
also contributes significantly to improving the user experience in smart homes. Natural
language processing (NLP) algorithms enable voice assistants like Amazon’s Alexa and
20   ◾    ML and Python for Behavior, Emotion, and Health Status

Google Assistant to comprehend and respond to spoken commands. These voice-­activated

assistants can control various smart devices, provide answers to questions, and offer infor-
mation, making it more convenient for homeowners to interact with their homes. Health
and well-­being increasingly become focal points for smart homes, and machine learning
enhances these aspects. Wearable devices and health sensors can gather data on an indi-
vidual’s vital signs and daily activities. Machine learning algorithms can analyze this data
to offer personalized health recommendations and identify anomalies that may indicate
health issues. For example, a smart home system can alert caregivers or medical profes-
sionals if it detects a sudden change in an older adult’s mobility patterns or vital signs.
Furthermore, machine learning facilitates predictive maintenance for smart home devices.
By examining data from appliances and systems, it can predict when a device is likely to
require maintenance or face potential failure. Homeowners can receive proactive notifica-
tions and schedule repairs or replacements before a breakdown occurs, ensuring uninter-
rupted functionality in their smart homes. In conclusion, the incorporation of machine
learning into smart assisted homes is revolutionizing the way we interact with and manage
our living spaces. From automation and energy efficiency to security, convenience, and
health monitoring, machine learning algorithms enhance every facet of smart homes. As
these technologies advance, smart homes will become even more intuitive and adaptive,
providing homeowners with heightened comfort and control while promoting a more sus-
tainable and secure future.

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Many flowers show a remarkable appreciation of the passage of
time and open and close at regular hours each day. In fact, a close
student of floral habits can actually tell the time of day by watching
the actions of the flowers around him. It is said that the Swedish
botanist Linnaeus once built himself a flower clock, arranged to
count the passing hours by the folding and unfolding of different
blossoms. One does not really need to go to this trouble. The
common flowers of the field and garden are all accurate time-pieces.
Long before the rising of the sun their activity begins; in fact even the
night hours are all noticed by certain more obscure plants. Along
about three in the morning, the dainty Goat’s-Beard wakes from
sleep and spreads its petals. Promptly at four o’clock the Dandelion
begins its day’s work. The Naked Stalked Poppy, the copper-
coloured Day-Lily and the smooth Sow-Thistle are five o’clock risers.
The Field Marigold is a slug-a-bed, and does not blink its sleepy
eyes at the sun until ten o’clock. The Ice-Plant throws back its downy
coverlets exactly at noon.
Shortly after mid-day, the early risers begin to get tired, and
prepare to sleep through the heat of the afternoon. Beginning with
the Hawkweed Picris shortly after noon, and extending to the bed-
time of the Chickweed at ten at night, every quarter hour sees the
retirement of some particular flower. After sundown, the night owls
make their appearance, and such plants as the Night-Blooming
Cereus, the Moonflower, and the Datura check off the fleeting
minutes. How can this marvelous acquaintance with the passage of
time be explained in terms of cold materialism?
Among plants which show a well-developed sense of direction, the
Compass-Plant is probably the most remarkable. Its flowers, and
sometimes the edges of its leaves, always point toward the north
with the certainty of a magnet. Travelers have been known to use it
as a natural guide.
A great many plants perform remarkable acts which can only be
explained by the possession of some measure of psychic sense or
quality. Thus, a climbing plant in need of a prop will creep along the
ground toward the nearest vertical support. If the support is shifted,
the vine will promptly change the direction of its progress, and
eventually reach the object of its desires.
Inasmuch as it is positively known that plants are sensitive to light,
it may be that, in this case, the vine actually perceives the support
through a process akin to animal sight; but if a climbing plant finds
itself growing between two mounds or ridges, and behind one there
is a wall or some other means of support, and behind the other none,
it will invariably bend its creeping steps over the ridge hiding the wall.
The wall was invisible from the plant’s starting-point, and certainly
betrayed its presence through no odour or other manifestation. In
some mysterious way, the creeper simply knew that a vital necessity
of its life lay in a certain direction. Ordinarily, we associate such
phenomena with psychic influences. It is quite evident, that in certain
ways, the plants display a very practical knowledge of such
mysteries.
For many years, man has instinctively been aware of this psychic
superiority of the members of the vegetable kingdom, and has gone
to them for advice in various troubles and difficulties, even
sometimes believing the plants to have a direct control over the
affairs and lives of men. While the great mass of such alleged
influence is classed by modern thought as merest superstition, who
can say that the wildest of these fancies does not contain certain
germs of truth? At any rate, a brief investigation of some of the more
popular beliefs of former years is very illuminating.
In ancient days, many flowers and plants were supposed to
possess the power of discovering the location of lost or hidden riches
and conducting a human searcher to them. The Germans named the
Primrose Schlüsselblume, or key-flower, in the belief that, if held in
the hand, it would unlock to its possessor the location of buried
treasure by some movement or other manifestation. To this day,
many country people in Europe and America have implicit faith in the
ability of the divining rod to seek out underground water. There are
many enlightened folk who claim that reported successes of this
method of picking well-sites are mere coincidences, but in view of
the wide-spread reliance on this theory which is constantly meeting
the most practical tests, would it not be open-minded to suggest that
possibly the branches of the rod do make some slight movement
toward the hidden water with which they have a natural affinity?
As mentioned in a previous chapter, young people through all
ages have gone to flowers for counsel when in love. The most
frequent masculine question has been “Does she love me?” The
flowers have given the answer in a variety of ways, most often by the
number of their petals. The query of the very young girl usually has
been “Will I be married?” and she has been sure to see that the reply
is most often in the affirmative. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream,
Oberon tells Puck to lay Pansies on Titania’s eyes in order that she
may fall in love with the first person she sees upon awakening.
There was a time when people placed great reliance upon the
efficacy of dreams. Plants seen in dreams always had special
significance. Among the various omens, general good fortune was
indicated by Palms, Olives, Jessamines, Lilies, Laurels, Thistles,
Currants and Roses. When flowers or fruit of the Plum, Cherry,
Cypress and Dandelion appeared, misfortune was indicated.
Withered Roses foretold especially dire events. “Nobody is fond of
fading flowers.” A four-leaved Clover put under a pillow induced
dreams of one’s lover. In parts of South America, the natives are said
to smoke and eat certain intoxicating plants in the hope that they
may see visions in the resulting narcotic dreams.
Plants have not been the cause of very many ghost stories, but
occasionally one hears of some mysterious night adventure of which
some plant is the central figure.
The Reverend S. H. Wainright of Japan tells a somewhat amusing
tale of a ghost scare he and his family had while living at Tsukiji,
Tokio. One evening, while sitting around the fire, they were
considerably disturbed by a weird and recurring sound which
seemed to come from the front yard. At first they took it for the
creaking of a bamboo gate, then for boys throwing pebbles, but
neither of these explanations seemed adequate. Finally, continual
repetitions led to a search which located the noises in a Wistaria
arbour near the front fence. On near approach, the loud taps
sounded so much like stones striking the leaves, that it was decided
to take no further notice of the matter. However, the problem
weighed on Mr. Wainright’s mind, and he and his son at length
sallied forth a third time, determined with Aristotle that the main thing
was to know the causes.
“We entered the side yard through the bamboo gate and
approached the Wistaria. Underneath the Trellis arbour there were
dark shadows and outlines were indistinct. A Palmyra Palm was
growing in the corner of the fence under the arbour, and the fingers
of one of the leaves pointing downward seemed to be the hand of a
man. When expectation is running high, a fingered palm leaf may
easily become the hand of a human being or of a shadowy ghost.
We had the electric burners brought to the windows upstairs and the
light thrown toward the arbour, and the shadows cast by the electric
rays rendered the situation all the more mysterious.
“The noises were plainly among the Wistaria vines. But, strange to
say, the stones which seemed to be striking the vines came from no
particular direction. They seemed to burst like shells the minute they
struck and the pieces were heard to fall or strike in different
directions. By this time the thought of ghosts had not only occurred
to us but was gaining force in our minds. Indeed, a first-rate romance
was developing—subjectively, I should no doubt add.”
Again the party abandoned the quest, returned to their fireside, but
could not rest content. “With a heroic determination of will, I declared
that I would again go in search of the causes and not return until the
secret had been found out. The lights were held by those who
remained indoors at the upstairs windows. Two of us approached
through the side yard the place of mystery. Step by step we
advanced, stopping at intervals to listen. We could see nothing, but
the noises we heard were unmistakable. There could be no
deception as to their reality. Step by step, we drew nearer, peering in
the meanwhile into the dark shadows beneath the Wistaria. The
nearer we came to the arbour, the greater was the sense of mystery
which possessed us. The noises were weird and inexplicable. As we
came near, a discovery was made which excited us still more. After
the explosion of the shells, white sabers seemed to fall upon the
ground. Were the ghosts in battle? What could it all mean?
 “Loyal to the heroic determination to go straight to the seat of the
trouble, I walked beneath the Wistaria arbour feeling an atmosphere
charged with electricity as I went. We stood side by side looking
about and waiting, when suddenly a Fuji pod exploded before our
eyes. The seeds flew in different directions and the divided halves of
the pod fell to the ground and lay like sabers dropped in the attack of
battle. When the discovery was made, one of us called out to the
upstairs window that it was the explosion of the Wistaria pods that
caused the noises. There was a general laugh and the ghosts
disappeared. Not affected by rain or darkness, by heat or cold, by
human foot-steps or voice, there is one thing ghosts cannot endure;
to be laughed at literally slays them.”
In the Middle Ages, the Mandrake was a magical plant which was
reputed to shine like a candle at night and thrive particularly well
near the gallows. When pulled from the earth, it uttered uncanny
shrieks, and according to Shakespeare “living mortals hearing them
ran mad.”
Two centuries ago it was believed that every plant, as well as
every human being, was under the influence of some particular
planet. The plants over which Saturn claimed an ascendency were
characterized by ill-favoured leaves, ugly flowers and repellent
odours. On the other hand the plants of Jupiter displayed smooth
leaves and graceful, fragrant flowers. Today we believe that all plants
belong to only one planet, and that is the planet earth.
In the minds of agricultural folk, the moon has always had great
influence over vegetation. There are many rules still extant regarding
the proper time of that satellite’s phases in which to plant, reap and
perform a hundred other rustic acts. A medieval superstition stated
that when the moon was on the increase it imparted healing and
medicinal qualities to all herbs. During its decline, the same plants
generated poisons.
The mystic qualities of the flowers have been responsible for their
extensive ceremonial use throughout all history. Man attempts to
express all his more subtle emotions by their sweetness and purity.
He carries them alike to christenings, weddings and funerals, and
invariably sends them to his best girl. It is recorded that a certain
eastern king of antiquity was in the habit of offering a hundred
thousand flowers each day before the idol of a favourite god.
Flowers are still extensively used as signs and symbols. There are
ponderous volumes written on the “Language of Flowers.” All the
garden beauties have a natural symbolism written on their faces.
Rosemary, with its lingering colour, is an eternal emblem of
remembrance. “Violets dim but sweeter than the lids of Juno’s eyes
or Cytherea’s breath” speak of modesty in quiet tones. The spotless
Lily must always stand for purity.
Other floral symbols have been chosen for more remote but quite
apparent characteristics. Impatience is indicated by the Balsam
seed-pods, which, when ripe, curl up at the slightest touch, and
shoot forth their seeds with great violence. A popular name for the
plant is “Touch-Me-Not.” The very name of Heliotrope tells of its
constant turning toward the sun. It is often referred to as a symbol of
devoted attachment. Aspen, because of its tremulous motion has
been made a sign of fear. When people think of the Poppy and its
narcotic product, they likewise think of sleep and oblivion. A less
apparent symbol is found in the Wild Anemone, which is taken to
denote brevity because its frail petals are soon scattered by the
boisterous wind. The Snow-Drop, first flower of spring, peeping from
its immaculate snow bank, is an unmistakable emblem of purity.
The ancients were very liberal users of floral tokens; the Chinese,
Assyrians and Egyptians had many identical beliefs on the subject.
The Olive was and still is the universal badge of peace. Laurel was
the classic sign of renown with which the brows of prominent
athletes and statesmen were crowned. The Cypress was often an
index of mourning. The Rose and the Myrtle, having been dedicated
to Venus, were insignias of love. The Palm was a wide-spread
representation of victory. Bible students will recall that Palms were
scattered before Jesus Christ on the occasion of his triumphant entry
into Jerusalem.
In their enthusiasm, flower-lovers have sometimes allowed their
imagination to carry them into unnatural and artificial symbolism. It is
not difficult to associate the White Lily with purity but when we are
told that the Flowering Almond represents hope, the Common
Almond indiscretion and stupidity, and the Floral Almond perfidity,
one is reduced to looking up this curious code in an indexed book.
When each variety of the Rose family has different and fluctuating
significance, a swain hesitates to summon the floral language of love
to his aid.
Many people believe that peculiar mystic attachments exist
between certain birds and flowers. The Persians claim that whenever
a Rose is plucked, the nightingale utters a plaintive cry as if to
protest against the wounding of the object of its love. Many other
birds show marked affection for various plants.
In the same manner, almost every man and woman has his or her
favourite flower. Certain persons of a temperamental type are often
emotionally affected by the presence of flowers with which they
appear to have a mysterious psychic connection. Certain people
claim to be able to discern such marked similiarity between human
beings and various flower affinities that they undertake to liken
various prominent people to different blossoms. There is much
chance for scientific investigation in this field. With Perdita we at
least know that “flowers of middle summer should be given to men of
middle age, but for our young prince we want flowers of the spring
that may become his time of day.”
Sometimes, through sentimental attachment, whole peoples elect
certain flowers to represent them before the world. Thus the United
States has chosen the Goldenrod for its national floral emblem, while
the Rose of England, the Thistle of Scotland, the Shamrock of
Ireland, and the Leek of Wales act in the same capacity for the
British Isles.
Man paid a high compliment to the mystic veneration in which he
holds the plant world when he, in his primitive beliefs, invariably
conceived of heaven as some terrestrial paradise of luxurious
vegetation. The Persians had their Mount Caucasus; the Arabians
dreamed about an Elysium in the Desert of Arden; the Greeks and
Romans had bright mental pictures of the Gardens of Hesperides;
and the Celts hoped to spend their postmortem existence on an
enchanted isle of wondrous beauty.
Such beliefs have fallen into disuse, but man is still a long way off
from a solution of the various mystic phenomena of the plant world.
Botanists should leave off indexing and classifying plants for a while
and endeavour to discover the subtle and fascinating laws of their
psychic existence.
 CHAPTER XIII
Plant Intelligence

“The Marigold goes to bed with the sun,

And with him rises weeping.”—Shakespeare
It is no new thing to believe in the existence of intelligence among
plants. As far back as Aristotle, various great minds in the earth’s
history have ascribed definite, thinking acts to our floral and
vegetable friends. Not a few have seen unmistakable evidences of
soul in plantdom. Even the most skeptical have become aware of
many things they cannot explain in purely mechanistic terms.
We are still living in an age which has deified human wisdom. Man
has built up vast systems of knowledge and law, all based on his
own deep-rooted convictions. He approaches every subject with
apriori beliefs and presumptions. He is slow to acknowledge thinking
powers to his companion creatures of a terrestrial universe.
 ALLIES OF THE DESERT ARM THEMSELVES WITH PRICKLES
AND THORNS AGAINST THEIR ANIMAL ENEMIES
To a person on a country road, the wayside trees and flowers are
too often mere happenings or creations. Their ways are so quiet and
undemonstrative, that, if he has never been taught differently, he
rarely thinks of classifying them as independent, free-acting beings.
The fact that they are anchored to the soil seems to remove them
from the realm of self-willed creation. Yet why should it? Are fishes
not doomed to pass all their days in the chemical combination of
hydrogen and oxygen we call water? Does not the delicate Canary
die if the air surrounding it goes below a certain temperature?
The fact is that many plants exhibit all the elemental qualities of
human intelligence and also have vague psychic expressions of their
own which we only understand in a very limited way.
What causes the radicle or root of the smallest sprouting seedling
always to grow down and the plumule or stem always to grow up? It
cannot be gravity because that great earth pull would affect both
parts equally. This same radicle, when it has developed into a full-
fledged root, feels and pushes its way through the earth in a
marvellous fashion searching out water and traveling around
obstructions with unerring exactness. The slightest pressure will
serve to deflect it; aerial roots have been observed to avoid
obstacles without actually coming in contact with them. The plants
use their roots to feel their way to moisture and nourishment just as
a man would feel his way with his hands. The great Darwin, himself,
wrote many years ago: “It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the
tip of the radicle thus endowed, and having the power of directing the
movements of the adjoining parts, acts like the brain of one of the
lower animals.”
In the same way, plant tendrils seek and search out the best
supports, after the manner of animal tentacles. When fully wound
around a prop, they drag the body of the plant up after them.
Practically all plants show a full knowledge of the importance of
sunlight to their life processes. They usually strain all their energies
and exert all their ingenuity in an effort to display as great a leaf
surface as possible. That this action is not always purely instinctive
is indicated by the response of certain carnivorous plants to light.
Having learned that success in capturing their prey depends upon a
static position of their leaves, they make no effort to adjust their parts
to strong or concentrated light. This is clearly a case of intelligent
adjustment to environment.
It is interesting to note that the plant cells which are sensitive to
light often become tired or partially blinded just like the retina of an
animal eye. Darwin found that plants kept in darkness were much
more responsive to light than those which dwelt habitually in the
sunshine.
Many plants are wonderful weather prophets and keepers of time.
Their reactions to the coming of night, showers, heat, cold and other
natural phenomena show much wisdom. That plants require the rest
which accompanies sleep is indicated by the weakened and
degenerate condition of individuals which are sometimes forced to
exceptionally rapid development by continual exposure to electric
light.
A human faculty which few people associate with plants, is an
acute sense of taste. How else do the plants know what elements to
absorb out of the soil? Certain experiments have enabled
investigators to discover marked taste preferences of a number of
microscopic plants. Bacteria are exceptionally fond of kali salts.
Though they thrive equally well on glycerine, they can be lured from
it at any time by the toothsome kali solution.
A sense of taste plays a remarkable part in the fecundation of
Moss. The male element is composed of swift-swimming cells
equipped with vibratory hairs. When deposited by the wind or other
means on the cups of the female flower, they swim about in the
moisture until they are eventually enticed to the unfertilized eggs at
the bottom by their taste for malic acid. That this is no idle theory can
be proved in the laboratory. The seed-animalcules of some of the
Ferns also are urged to the act of impregnation by their preference
for the sugar in the seed cups.
All through the plant world we see actions and habits which are
the reverse of automatism or mere instinctive response. Every plant
continually has to meet new and trying conditions, and while its
reactions, just like those of man, are frequently in the terms of racial
and individual experience, it is constantly called upon to make new
and novel decisions.
Consider the intelligence of a wild Service Tree described by
Carpenter. As a seed, it sprouted in the crotch of an Oak, and at
once sent a lusty root down toward the earth. As it descended the
Oak trunk and neared the ground, its further progress was barred by
a large stone slab. It is authentically recorded, that, when still one
and one-half feet away, the tip of the root, by direct perception or
occult means, discovered the presence of the obstruction, and, at
once splitting into two equal branches, passed on either side of the
stone.
A more remarkable case is that of a tropical Monstera, which,
coming into life on top of a greenhouse, sent canny and vigorous
roots directly down to certain water tanks on the ground.
Isolated instances of plant intelligence might be mere
coincidences if it were not for the fact that they multiply greatly the
further one investigates. The common Potentillas and Brambles
show remarkable sagacity in searching out hidden veins of soil
among the rocks where they grow. Nothing is more ingenious than
the way in which Hyacinths, Primroses and Irises smother
competitive seedlings by putting forth large, low-lying leaves to cut
off the light of neighbours.
Plants are great inventors, and by continual experimentation have
perfected thousands of ingenious devices to help them in their life
struggles. Many of these have to do with the all-important processes
of reproduction and cross-fertilization. The elaborate organs which
oftentimes force visiting insects to aid the flowers in their love-
making are conclusive proofs of directing intelligence. If, as is
generally believed, vegetable life preceded animal life on this planet,
then the plants must have developed these special reproductive
organs in which insects act as the fertilizing agents as direct
attempts to benefit the race by cross-breeding.
While cross-fertilization is vitally necessary for the maintenance of
a vigorous and hardy stock, inbreeding either between flowers of the
same plant or even between the organs of a single bi-sexual flower
is often practiced. In the love-making of the Grass of Parnassus and
the Love in the Mist (Nigella), we have a very pretty and intelligent
act. The flowers are unisexual and, as the females usually grow on
much longer stalks than the males, the latter would not have much
chance of showering their pollen on their consorts, if it were not for
the fact that, at the proper season, without outside stimulation, the
“tall females bend down to their dwarf husbands.” This surely is as
intelligent and conscious as the mating of animals.
The carnivorous plants act with uncanny wisdom. The insect-
devouring Sundews pay no attention to pebbles, bits of metal, or
other foreign substances placed on their leaves, but are quick
enough to sense the nourishment to be derived from a piece of
meat. Laboratory specimens have been observed to actually reach
out toward Flies pinned on cards near them. So highstrung are these
sensitive organisms that they can be partially paralyzed if certain
spots on their leaves are pricked.
Many people have no hesitancy in ascribing considerable
intelligence to the higher animals; why do they balk at making the
same concession to plants? If you concede intelligence to a single
animal, you concede some measure of brain-power to all animals
down to the one-celled Amoeba, and so must grant the same favour
to the plant world. Plants and animals, besides having many habits
in common, in their simplest forms are often indistinguishable. Both
reduce themselves to single-celled masses of protoplasm. The
Myxomycetes are both so plant-like and at the same time so animal-
like that their classification “depends rather on the general
philosophical position of the observer than on facts.” Possibly they
are both animal and plant at the same time—a sort of “missing link”
connecting the two kingdoms of life.
Anent the same question Edward Step says, “Modern thought
denies consciousness to plants, though Huxley was bold enough to
say that every plant is an animal enclosed in a wooden box; and
science has demonstrated that there is no distinction between the
protoplasm of animals and plants, and that if we get down to the very
simplest forms in which life manifests itself we can call them animals
or plants indifferently.”
When one considers the rooted, plant-like life of Mollusks and
Hermit Crabs, and then the active, animal-like life of the free-
swimming Moss spores and the wind-borne Fungi, he is tempted to
wonder if, after all, this talk of plants and animals, is not just another
of man’s arbitrary classifications, which may be superceded in time
by some other system of nomenclature.
Of only one thing are we sure, and that is that all life is one—an
expression of the intelligence and power which pervades the
universe.
Many readers may vaguely feel and believe these facts and yet
not be certain that plants are individually and personally intelligent;
long training makes them still feel that the many admittedly clever
and ingenious acts recorded every day in plantdom are but the
indications of some external mind or force working through Nature.
The plants act in certain ways because they have no choice in the
matter; they are passive tools in the hands of such craftsmen as
“instinct,” “heredity,” and “environment.” The answer to this is that
you can ascribe an exactly similar fatalistic interpretation to every
human thought, word or deed. What you consider the freest decision
of will you made today can be shown conclusively to be the result of
a long train of acts and influences which stretches back to Adam. It
would have been impossible for you to have acted differently.
Such blanket reasoning leads nowhere. If you believe that you are
a free, independent, decision-making soul (and who does not?)
logically you must grant the same rights to the humble Squash.
Even in the terms of man’s own science, the plants can be shown
to be intelligent. The psychologist Titchner classifies the three stages
of mental processes as (1) Sensations (2) Images and (3) Affections.
The term “affection” is here used in the special sense of a capacity
for entering into intellectual states of pleasure or pain.
In view of what has already been said, it hardly seems necessary
to prove the existence of sensation in plants. The very fact that all
life is a constant response to stimuli and the adjustment to
environment presupposes the existence of plant sensation. Only a
few hours passed in the investigation of plant habits will show our
vegetable friends giving definite responses to heat, cold, moisture,
light, and touch, while laboratory experiments show their sensitive
powers of taste and hearing.
The touch sense of the Sundew is developed to such an extent
that it can detect the pressure of a human hair one twenty-fifth of an
inch long. The tendrils of the Passion Flower attempt to coil up at the
slightest contact of the finger and as quickly flatten out upon its
removal. The stamens of the Opuntia or Prickly Pear have
specialized papillae of touch exactly similar to the papillae of the
Hermione Worm. When rubbed by the body of an insect, they
transmit an impulse which causes the anthers to let loose a shower
of pollen on the intruder. The animal world cannot exhibit a higher
sensitiveness to touch than that displayed by the celebrated Venus
Fly-Trap. On each side of the leaf midrib stand three sharp little
bristles. They are the sense organs controlling the closing of the
vegetable spring. Quick must an insect be to escape their vigilance.
Sensation and imagery are so closely connected in the human
brain that the existence of one would seem to predicate the other.
Fortunately, we have very good evidence to indicate the faculty of
plant memory, which must necessarily be built up of images of one
kind or another.
If a plant which is accustomed to folding its leaves together in
sleep on the setting of the sun, be placed in a completely dark room,
it will continue to decline and elevate its foliage at regular intervals,
indicating that it remembers the necessity for rest even with the
reminder of outside stimuli lacking.
By what faculty do plants become aware of the approach of
spring? Only occasionally are they deceived by January thaws, and
no matter how unseasonably cold a March may be, they go right
ahead with the preparation of April buds and leaves. So accurate is
plant knowledge about the seasons that Alpine flowers often bore
their way up through long-lingering snow, even developing heat with
which to melt the obstruction, when they feel that spring has really
come. What gives plants such courage in the face of contradicting
elements, if not an accurate sense of the passage of time and
therefore the memory of other seasons, which implies imagery?
Until we develop a workable system of thought communication
with plants, we can never scientifically prove that plants are capable
of psychological “affections” or emotions. Mental states are purely
personal matters. We would never be sure that any other human
being went through feelings of love, anger, hate and pity, similiar to
our own, if he were not able to tell us of them. Until the plants can
describe to us their inner emotions, we can never definitely know
whether they have real feelings, and if they parallel the human
variety in any degree. But just as we have become able to read a
man’s mental processes by his facial expressions, tone of voice and
bodily posture, so we can guess at plant emotion by external
manifestations. When a flower greets the morning sun with
expanded petals, uplifted head and a generally bright appearance,
why should we not say it is happy and contented? When an
approaching storm causes a plant to droop its body and contract its
petals and leaves into the smallest compass possible, why is not
fear, apprehension and melancholy indicated? When the jaws of the
Venus Fly-Trap close on its hapless victim, they must do so with a
savage joy akin to that of a Tiger springing on its prey.
There are those who relegate a certain amount of intelligence to
plants but deny them consciousness. They are unwilling to admit that
plants are aware of their own physical and mental processes. This
would seem to be the merest quibbling over terms and an entrance
into that metaphysics which does away with all consciousness.
If plants were not conscious, at least under stimulation, they would
have long since perished from the earth through inability to react to
new conditions. Francis Darwin says: “We must believe that in plants
exists a faint copy of what we know as consciousness in ourselves.”
Many scientists believe that life and consciousness always precede
and are superior to organization. It is urged that possibly many
plants possess consciousness without self-consciousness or
introspection.
After a thoughtful consideration of such facts as these, only the
blindest prejudice can continue to laugh at plant intelligence. Why
then has the world of human thought been so long and reluctant to
acknowledge it? Simply because it always reasons along authentic
and established lines. For many years it has been taught to
associate animal movement with special groups of cells called
muscles and intelligence with special groups of cells called nerve
tissue. Failing to find any trace of nerve tissue in plants, it ignores a
hundred convincing facts to the contrary, and declares that plant
intelligence is a myth. Failing to detect a mechanism of sensibility, it
denies the existence of sensibility, even though in the little Mimosa
the sense of touch travels from leaf to leaf before our eyes.
It must be realized that the animal brain merely acts as the
electrical motor for the life-power which drives the universe. This
motor and all of its auxiliaries are absent in Protozoa and other one-
celled animals, but the power is not. In the same way, they are
absent throughout all plantdom, but the eternal life principle
manifests itself in many mighty acts.
What is a nervous system, anyhow? It is a group of cells, the
specialized function of which is to transmit impulses from one to the
other by certain obscure chemical reactions. Why cannot ordinary
tissue cells do the same thing, possibly in a feebler, less efficient
way? Plant cells are all joined together by fine connecting strands,
forming a “continuity of protoplasm” through which such impulses
could readily travel. Whether investigators agree to this or not, it is
an indisputable fact that it is true.
Though science is now beginning to verify the fact of plant
intelligence most conclusively great and independent thinkers of all
times have long felt its truth. Certain minds are always in advance of
their age. While science laboriously proves every step of its way with
painstaking and commendable exactness, they are soaring far
ahead in new and fascinating fields. Sometimes they go astray, but
quite as frequently they are the pioneers of great and progressive
ideas.
 CHAPTER XIV
The Higher Life of Plants

“I swear I think now that everything, without exception, has

an immortal soul!
The trees have, rooted in the ground! the weeds of the sea
have! the animals!
I swear I think there is nothing but immortality!”
—Walt Whitman
Maurice Maeterlinck, in one of his delightful essays, pays a
remarkable tribute to the spiritual powers of plants.
“Though there be plants and flowers that are awkward or
unlovely,” he says, “there is none that is wholly devoid of wisdom
and ingenuity. All exert themselves to accomplish their work, all have
the magnificent ambition to overrun and conquer the surface of the
globe by endlessly multiplying the form of existence which they
represent. To attain this object, they have, because of the law which
chains them to the soil, to overcome difficulties much greater than
those opposed to the increase of animals.... If we had applied to the
removal of the various vicissitudes which crush us, such as pain, old
age, and death, one-half the energy displayed by any little flower in
our gardens, we may well believe that our lot would be very different
from what it is.”
No truer thought was ever set on paper. Though man prides
himself upon his imagined superiority to non-human creation, and
even denies the capacity for the higher things of life to animals and
plants, he, in reality, nearly always shows himself vastly inferior to
them in actual applications of moral and spiritual principles.
Have the plants souls and spirits? No man who has carefully and
conscientiously studied them can wholly deny it. They exhibit a
pluck, a determination, a moral perseverance which awaken all our
admiration. Where we are weak, they are strong. Where men would
lie down and die, they go steadily forward. When a plant perishes in
the struggle for existence, it is because the odds have been too
great. To make the most of heredity and environment is an axiomatic
rule in plantdom.
Man’s mind has developed at the expense of man’s body. The
plants always maintain an admirable balance between the two.
There are degenerates and unscrupulous individuals among them,
but they never forget that their first duty is to themselves. Self-culture
is with them a passion. Whoever heard of a plant over-eating or
over-drinking or giving way to any of those indulgent vices which are
the bane of the human world? They have their faults, but they are
sources of strength rather than weakness.
In relation to its companions of the vegetable realm, the Murderer
Liana is a double-dyed villain, yet it is only practicing in an open and
frank way, the food-getting methods, which all life, by its very nature,
is forced to adopt. To live by the destruction of others is the sad lot of
both the smallest plant and the most highly developed animal.
Aside from the peculiarly human susceptibility to self-indulgence, it
is hard to find a single spiritual trait not exhibited by some member of
the plant kingdom.
Love? There is no higher devotion than that shown by the water
plant called Vallisneria. The female flowers reach the surface of the
water at the end of long, tapering, spiral-like stalks, but the males are
compelled to remain far down near the bottom. At the flowering
season, the males, responding to the universal mating instinct,
deliberately break themselves from their stalks and rise to the
surface to be near their loves for a little while. All too soon, however,
they are carried away by unruly currents to an untimely death,
leaving behind them, in their pollen, the principle from which another
generation of their species shall arise. They have presented
themselves a living sacrifice on the altar of love.
Courage? Think of all the hardy trees which dwell in the high and
cold places of the earth—places that are so exposed and desolate
that the trees and plants find it necessary to contract themselves into
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