Computer Science

with
Python
Textbook - XI
(As per CBSE Syllabus CODE 083)

Sarika Kaushal

www.bpbonline.com
 ii

FIRST EDITION 2022

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ISBN: 978-93-5551-140-9

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 iii

Dedicated to
My Parents
My Husband Dr Vimal Kaushal
My children Aviral & Rahul
 iv

About the Author

Sarika Kaushal is a Postgraduate in Computer Science and a Senior PGT in a reputed school of
Delhi with an experience of 23+ years of teaching. She has been conducting various workshops
on IT Skills. She is a Master Trainer with the AIEF (All India Educators Forum). She is an Adobe
Creative Educator and a Google Certified Educator. She has written many books on the Computer
Science curriculum for all classes. She is also the recipient of the Most Creative Educationist
Award 2020 from Educlouds.
 v

Acknowledgement

There are a few people I want to thank for the continued and ongoing support they have given
me during the writing of this book. First and foremost, I would like to thank my parents for
continuously encouraging me for writing the book — I could have never completed this book
without their support.

My gratitude also goes to the team at BPB Publication (including Surbhi and Anugraha) for being
supportive enough to provide me quite a long time to finish the first part of the book and also
allow me to publish the book in multiple parts, since image processing, being a vast and very
active area of research, it was impossible to deep-dive into different class of problems in a single
book, especially by not making it too voluminous.
 vi

Preface

Python is an easy to code Object Oriented programming language introduced by CBSE for grade
XI and XII. This book covers the curriculum as per the newly introduced pattern of Term1 and
Term2. The concepts are explained in an easy to understand language with a lot of examples. The
examples also include the type of questions that are frequently asked by the Board in their annual
examination. Real time examples are taken wherever needed to make students connect and relate
with the situation to make them understand the concept.

This book is divided into two subsections called Term1 and Term2. Term1 includes 9 chapters
with explanations of each topic in detail. Since the Term1 is MCQ based, there are ample number
of questions provided to make the concepts clear. Term2 has 6 chapters. Each chapter has good
amount of questions for hands on as well as for written pratice.

The following Learning Outcomes are kept in mind as suggested by the CBSE:

1. Develop basic computational thinking

2. Explain and use data types

3. Appreciate the notion of algorithm

4. Develop a basic understanding of computer systems - architecture, operating system and

cloud computing

5. Explain cyber ethics, cyber safety and cybercrime

6. Understand the value of technology in societies along with consideration of gender and
disability issues
 vii

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viii

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 ix

Contents

1. Basic Computer Organization................................................................................. 1

Introduction................................................................................................................ 1
What is a Computer?................................................................................................. 1
IPO Cycle................................................................................................................... 2
Computer’s Hardware Component............................................................................. 2
Computer’s Software Component.............................................................................. 7
Mobile Operating System........................................................................................... 9
Memory Unit............................................................................................................... 9
Quick Revision......................................................................................................... 10
Multiple Choice Questions....................................................................................... 12
Fill in the blanks....................................................................................................... 13
State whether the following statements are true or false......................................... 14
Short Questions....................................................................................................... 15
Long Questions........................................................................................................ 15

2. Boolean Algebra.................................................................................................... 17
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 17
Boolean Variable and Boolean Expression.............................................................. 17
Truth Table................................................................................................................ 17
Boolean Operators................................................................................................... 19
Quick Recap............................................................................................................. 20
Logic Gates.............................................................................................................. 20
Quick Recap............................................................................................................. 22
Decimal Number System......................................................................................... 29
Things to Remember................................................................................................ 34
Summary.................................................................................................................. 36
Multiple Choice Questions....................................................................................... 38
Fill in the blanks....................................................................................................... 39
 x
State whether the following statements are true or false......................................... 39
Short Questions....................................................................................................... 40
Long Questions........................................................................................................ 40

3. Encoding Schemes................................................................................................ 42
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 42
Operating System.................................................................................................... 45
Cloud Computing..................................................................................................... 48
Cloud Service Models.............................................................................................. 49
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)............................................................................ 50
Blockchain technology............................................................................................. 51
Artificial Intelligence (AI).......................................................................................... 51
Machine Learning (ML)............................................................................................ 53
Internet of Things (IoT)............................................................................................. 53
Summary.................................................................................................................. 53
Multiple choice questions......................................................................................... 55
Fill in the blanks....................................................................................................... 57
State whether the following statements are true or false.......................................... 57
Short questions........................................................................................................ 58
Long questions......................................................................................................... 58

4. Problem Solving..................................................................................................... 60
Introduction to problem solving................................................................................ 60
Steps for problem solving ........................................................................................ 60
Analyze the problem................................................................................................ 61
Develop an algorithm............................................................................................... 61
Write the Code......................................................................................................... 61
Algorithm.................................................................................................................. 61
Decomposition......................................................................................................... 68
Summary.................................................................................................................. 69
Multiple Choice Questions....................................................................................... 69
Subjective Questions............................................................................................... 70
 xi
5. Python..................................................................................................................... 71
Introduction to Python.............................................................................................. 71
Installing Python....................................................................................................... 72
Execution modes...................................................................................................... 75
Python character set................................................................................................ 79
Tokens...................................................................................................................... 79
Variables and Objects ............................................................................................. 86
Concept of l-value and r-value................................................................................. 87
Comments in Python................................................................................................ 88
Summary.................................................................................................................. 88
Multiple Choice Questions....................................................................................... 89
Subjective Questions............................................................................................... 91

6. Data Types.............................................................................................................. 92
Data Types............................................................................................................... 92
Mutable and Immutable data types ......................................................................... 97
Expressions.............................................................................................................. 99
Operator Precedence............................................................................................... 99
input() function....................................................................................................... 101
print() function........................................................................................................ 103
Type conversion..................................................................................................... 104
Errors..................................................................................................................... 107
Summary................................................................................................................ 109
Multiple Choice Questions..................................................................................... 110
Subjective Questions............................................................................................. 112

7. Flow of Control..................................................................................................... 114

Flow of control: An introduction.............................................................................. 114
Use of indentation.................................................................................................. 115
Conditional Statements.......................................................................................... 116
Summary................................................................................................................ 125
Multiple Choice Questions..................................................................................... 126
 xii
8. Iteration................................................................................................................. 129
for loop................................................................................................................... 129
while loop............................................................................................................... 132
break and continue statements in loops................................................................. 133
else clause with loops............................................................................................ 135
Nested Loop........................................................................................................... 137
Summary................................................................................................................ 142
Practice Questions................................................................................................. 142
Multiple Choice Questions..................................................................................... 143

9. Strings................................................................................................................... 147
Introduction to Strings............................................................................................ 147
String indexing....................................................................................................... 148
String operations ................................................................................................... 149
Traversing a string using loops............................................................................... 154
Built-in functions used with strings......................................................................... 155
Summary................................................................................................................ 169
Programs to practice.............................................................................................. 170
Multiple Choice Questions..................................................................................... 172

10. Lists....................................................................................................................... 175

Introduction to List.................................................................................................. 175
List indexing........................................................................................................... 176
Operations in Lists ................................................................................................ 176
Traversing a list using loops................................................................................... 180
List Comprehension............................................................................................... 181
Built in Functions ................................................................................................... 184
Summary................................................................................................................ 201
List Questions........................................................................................................ 202

11. Tuples.................................................................................................................... 209

Introduction to Tuple............................................................................................... 209
 xiii
Tuple indexing........................................................................................................ 210
Operations in Tuple ............................................................................................... 211
Traversing a Tuple using loops............................................................................... 215
Built in Functions used with Tuple.......................................................................... 216
Tuple Assignment................................................................................................... 223
Solved Examples................................................................................................... 225
Summary................................................................................................................ 227
Questions............................................................................................................... 228

12. Dictionary............................................................................................................. 231

Introduction to Dictionary....................................................................................... 231
Accessing the items in a dictionary........................................................................ 232
Why is dictionary a Mutable Object?...................................................................... 233
Traversing a dictionary object................................................................................. 234
Using membership operator with Dictionary Object............................................... 234
Built in functions used with Dictionary.................................................................... 235
Summary................................................................................................................ 247
Questions............................................................................................................... 248

13. Sorting Techniques............................................................................................. 253

Sorting techniques................................................................................................. 253
Summary................................................................................................................ 257
Questions............................................................................................................... 257

14. Python Modules................................................................................................... 259

Introduction to Python modules.............................................................................. 259
Importing module using ‘import’............................................................................. 259
Importing module using ‘from’ statement............................................................... 260
Importing random module ..................................................................................... 262
Importing statistics module.................................................................................... 263
Summary................................................................................................................ 265
Questions............................................................................................................... 266
 xiv
15. Society, Law and Ethics...................................................................................... 269
Digital Footprints ................................................................................................... 269
Digital society and Netizen..................................................................................... 269
Net etiquettes......................................................................................................... 270
Communication etiquettes...................................................................................... 270
Social media étiquettes.......................................................................................... 271
Data protection....................................................................................................... 271
Intellectual Property Right...................................................................................... 272
Cyber-crime........................................................................................................... 276
Preventing cyber crime ......................................................................................... 278
Cyber safety........................................................................................................... 278
Identity protection................................................................................................... 279
Confidentiality......................................................................................................... 279
Cyber bullying........................................................................................................ 279
Cyber trolling.......................................................................................................... 279
Safely accessing web sites.................................................................................... 280
Malware.................................................................................................................. 280
Viruses................................................................................................................... 280
Trojans.................................................................................................................... 280
Adware .................................................................................................................. 280
E-waste management............................................................................................ 281
Indian Information Technology Act (IT Act) ........................................................... 282
Summary................................................................................................................ 285
Questions............................................................................................................... 286
 Basic Computer
1 Organization

Introduction
In the current scenario, when everything has become automated, starting from a toy to a ‘smart’
Robot, it is an absolute necessity to have computer knowledge. Computers are used in various fields
starting from basic data entry for organizing the work to handle high-tech machines. Whether in
business or in companies, schools, or colleges, computers are used for various operations. New
technological tools are getting developed day by day to help students learn better. We are able to
access the information globally and quickly as the technology has made things convenient and easy
for all of us. Whether we want to get updated by what’s happening around the world or to know
the cricket score or to book airline tickets, things are just a click away. As technology continues to
advance, computers have become a part of everyday life. Since the technology has influenced our life
in a big way, it is more so important to keep ourselves aware and updated. The first step towards it is
to understand the term ‘Computer’ and its basic organization’.

What is a Computer?
A computer in simple language is a machine which takes data in the form of input, processes it
based on the given instructions and generates the output. We provide Data to the computer, which
is unprocessed. Data can be text, numbers, images, video or audio. The final result generated is
processed and hence it is called as Information. Information in other words is meaningful data. The
series of instructions which we provide to the computer is called a Program.
To understand how computer works, let us see a basic layout diagram, also called as IPO (Input
Process Output) Cycle :

IPO CYCLE
 2 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

IPO Cycle
There are two main components of Computer, namely, Hardware and Software. The physical
component of the computer which we can touch is called hardware. This component includes
input devices, output devices, system unit, storage devices, and communications devices (It enables
information to and from one or more computers or mobile devices). Software on the other hand
is the set of instructions stored as a program that governs the operation of a computer system and
makes the hardware run.

Computer’s Hardware Component

The IPO Cycle explains the sequence of steps which are used to convert the raw data into meaningful
information and this involves hardware and software both. When the input is given to the computer
through the input device, it goes to the processing unit and the instructions are stored temporarily in
the memory (RAM-Random Access Memory). The Control Unit, also called the brain of the computer,
fetches the instructions in a sequence and makes decisions on the basis of the task performed. For
example, if the calculation is required to be performed or some decision making is needed, then the
instructions are directed to ALU (Arithmetic or Logical Unit). And if the data is required to be stored,
then the instructions are directed to the MU (Memory Unit). Once the result is processed, the Control
Unit further redirects to the Output Device and the result is either displayed or printed. Thus, the IPO
Cycle undergoes three stages called as Input → Process → Output, which are now explained in detail
below:
1. Input: The raw data is provided as the input using the hardware device of the computer. Examples
of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras, joysticks, microphones etc.
It is important to note that if the input provided is not correct or appropriate then the result or
 Basic Computer Organization 3

output generated will also be incorrect and hence the concept “Garbage in – Garbage out”. We will
see few input devices using which we can provide the data to the computer in various ways:
a. 
Keyboard : Keyboard is the most common and widely used input device. The different types
of keys available on the keyboard are Alphabet keys, Function keys (F1, F2, F3) , Numeric
keys , Arrow keys, Command keys (insert, delete, home, end, page up/down). You can input
Text, numbers and instructions into the computer using a keyboard. Most keyboards use a
QWERTY key layout. This name comes from the first six letters on the top row of the alphabet
keys. Do you know that The QWERTY layout was devised and created in the early 1870s by
Christopher Latham Sholes.
Various keyboards are available in the market, like Ergonomic Keyboards (which are
designed to reduce strain on the body from typing), USB Keyboards (which connects to
your PC using a small device called a dongle, which you plug into your laptop’s USB ports),
Magic Keyboards (which are Bluetooth-enabled keyboards connect to Mac computers
automatically), Gaming Keyboards (which are designed for avid PC gamers, offering extra
durable and the quickest key response times for split-second action), Membrane Keyboards
(which are designed without space between the individual keys and the keys are pressure-
sensitive, with the different characters outlined on a flat surface.)

b. 
Mouse : This input device is used to send the signal to the computer
using the cursor which points at a particular application and hence
it is also called as a pointing device. The left button on the mouse
is used to select and open an application program while the right
mouse button is generally used to access the properties of the
application program. Today various types of mouse are available
in the market, like wired, wireless, Bluetooth, trackball, optical, laser, USB, Gaming, Vertical
etc.
c. Scanners : It takes the input from the paper (which has an image or text) and converts it into
digital data. The scanned data can be edited. There are many
different types of scanners available. Some of them are Flatbed
scanners (which has a flat surface on which we can lay down
the documents to be scanned), Handheld scanners, Sheet-fed
scanners (They are like small portable printers where we can
move the document to be scanned but the scan head is fixed),
Photo scanners (They are usually small in size and are used
to scan pictures. The scanned images are of high resolution),
Drum scanners (Used by publishing industry for high end
image scanning)
4 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

d. 
Digital cameras : They are used to capture pictures and can be transferred to the computer as
digital data for editing or sharing. They use an image sensor chip to capture the image

e. 
Joystick: Just like mouse it is also a pointing device which is used to control the cursor/pointer
on the screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all directions. They are used to
give a better gaming experience.

f. 
Microphones: Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital
form. The microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

f. 
OCR (Optical Character Recognition) : This input device is
used to read the text by optically scanning it character by
character and then converting the characters into computer
readable code. The scanned text can be handwritten, printed
or typed. It is used in various areas, like bank statements,
business cards, digital receipts etc. The best example where
this technique is used is in Google doc. Google doc uses
OCR technique to convert either a pdf or an image to a text
document.
g. 
MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition): This input device is
used to recognize characters by using magnetic ink or toner to
draw a set of digital numbers. This technology is used to verify the
legitimacy or originality of the document. Banks use MICR to verify
the validity of the authorized cheques. This technology is also used
to print financial forms, credit card invoices, and rebate coupons.
 Basic Computer Organization 5

h. 
Barcode Reader : A barcode consists of bars and spaces and is a
machine-readable representation of numbers and characters. To
read the barcode an optical scanner called Barcode reader is used,
which uses laser light to read a barcode symbol and then provide
an electrical output to a computer via a decoder and cable. The
decoder recognizes the type of barcode symbol and translates
the bar and space content and transmits data to a computer in a
human readable format. We see the barcode readers commonly in
shopping malls.
This is the feeding of collected data, raw and sieved data for processing. If the input is not given
properly or entered wrong, then the result will be adversely affected. This is because software
follows the rule of ” Utmost care should be taken to provide the right data and minimum errors
in data entry. The quality of input will determine the quality of output. An input device is a piece
of computer hardware equipment used to provide data and control signals to an information
processing system such as a computer or information appliance.
2. Processing: Once the data is taken from the input device, it is directed for processing. Since the
data taken is raw, it is converted into meaningful information using the Central Processing Unit,
also called the brain of the computer. The CPU has three important parts, MU (Memory Unit), CU
(Control Unit) and the ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit).
a. 
When the input is given, it goes to the Memory Unit. There are two types of memory in the
computer, Primary and Secondary. The input from the input device gets stored in the primary
memory (RAM) of the computer. The computer system cannot work without the primary
memory.
Primary memory is the computer’s main memory without which it cannot function.
i. 
Primary Memory consists of RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory).
RAM or Random Access memory is a volatile memory, which stores the data
1. 
temporarily and the data is erased when the computer reboots or shuts down. The
amount of RAM limits how large and how many programs and data files you can
have open at once. The data stored in RAM is used by the CPU of the computer for
processing the information.
ROM or Read Only Memory is a non-volatile memory, which stores the instructions
2. 
permanently and are not affected by the system rebooting or shut down. ROM
contains instructions which are required to boot, i.e. what computer should do when
it’s switched on (like loading the desktop). The instructions of self-check, like all
required hardware are properly working or not etc. are also stored in ROM. Initially,
the instructions written in ROM were not allowed to get modified, but now ROM is
available as EEPROM chip (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM), where the
motherboard includes special circuitry that allows the “permanent” contents of the
chip to be updated if needed.
Secondary Memory: This memory is used to store large data for a longer period of time. It
ii. 
is also called the Auxiliary memory or the Backup memory. Secondary memory is cheaper
compared to primary memory and the data is stored permanently in Secondary Memory
even when the power of the computer is switched off. Commonly used secondary storage
 6 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

devices are HDD (Hard Disk Drive), CD (Compact Disk), DVD(Digital Versatile Disc) Blue
Ray, SSD( solid-state drive) , Flash Drive, Optical Drive, USB (Universal Serial Bus) Drive,
Magnetic Tapes etc. The computer can work without a secondary storage device.
Cache Memory: It is a high-speed memory which stores frequently used data from the
iii. 
memory for fast access. It’s a memory between the Primary memory of the computer and
the CPU. When the processor needs to either read or write the data, it first checks the
cache and if only the data is not found, then the cache allocates a new entry and copies the
data from the main memory. This is done to make the processing faster.
The most important part of the CPU is the Control Unit. This unit doesn’t do actual processing
b. 
but it is responsible for controlling all the operations required for processing. Once the input
gets stored in the primary memory, it is the responsibility of the Control Unit to fetch the
instruction one by one and direct then to the required unit. If the instructions involve any
decision making or any calculations, then it is directed to the ALU. If the instruction tells to
store the data, then it is redirected to the MU and if the final result is required to be displayed
or printed, then it is sent to the Output Unit. All this happens through the Control Unit (CU)
c. 
Arithmetic and Logical Unit : This area of the IPO cycle is used to perform either arithmetic/
mathematical operations or Logical operations. Logical operations include decision making,
comparing, merging of data etc. For example, if we need to find the sum of two numbers A and
B, then A+B will involve addition, which is a mathematical operation but if we need to check
whether the sum is an even number or an odd number, then decision making is done. And this
is a logical operation. Both are taken care by the ALU of the Computer.
3. Output – This is the last step of the data processing cycle as the processed data is delivered in the
form of information/ results in this step. Once the result or output is received, it is either saved in
a file or is redirected to display or printed. Following are the few examples of the output devices:
a. 
VDU (Visual Display Unit) : Commonly known as a monitor, this output device is used to
display the processed information. Different types of Monitors are used starting from Desktop
Monitors (CRT - Cathode-ray tube) to Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) to LED (light-emitting
diodes)
b. 
Printer : They are used to print text, images on paper. Most commonly used printers are inkjet
and LaserJet which we use in our homes. Other printers are dot matrix, LED, 3D printers,
Daisy wheel, Drum Printer etc. Apart from printing the documents, all in one printers can also
be used to scan documents and send and receive faxes too.
c. 
Headphones: This output device is used to listen to audio, when connected to the computer.
There are many types of headphones available in the market, like, Bluetooth headphones,
On-Ear Headphones. Over-Ear Headphones. In-Ear Headphones. Earbuds, Noise-Cancelling
Headphones etc.
d. 
Speakers: It is a commonly used output device which takes input from the sound card of the
computer or any such audio device and generates audio by converting electromagnetic waves
to sound waves. The sound produced by speakers is defined by frequency and amplitude. The
frequency determines how high or low the pitch of the sound is while amplitude is determined
by the change in air pressure created by the speakers’ sound waves. Some of the commonly
used speakers are multimedia speakers, portable speakers, internal speakers etc.
 Basic Computer Organization 7

e. 
Projector: This output device is used to project an image on a larger area. They are
available in various shapes and sizes and can be portable or mounted. They are commonly
used in classrooms. Laboratories, auditoriums etc. Some projectors support Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth also.

Computer’s Software Component

The series of instructions given to the computer which direct the hardware of the computer to
respond is called as a software. Depending upon the operations performed, there are different types
of software. Three important software categories are :
1. System software 2. Application software 3. Utility software

System software
The series of instructions which are used to control the operation of the computer and make its
hardware run are called System software. Depending upon the task to be performed, the systems
software are further categorized as:
a. Operation System : It is the most common and important example of System software as it
provides the platform using which the user interacts with the computer system. It is an interface
between the computer and the user as it converts low level language to high level language and
vice-versa and controls system resources. Some of the common examples of operating system are
○ Mac OS ○ MS Windows ○ Ubuntu
○ Unix ○ Linux
 8 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

b. Device Drivers: To control the hardware attached to the computer, the system software used is
called as device drivers. They contain group of files which allow the hardware of the computer to
communicate with the operating system. Today’s operating systems have a lot of generic drivers
that allow hardware to work at a basic level without needing drivers or software. However, if that
device has features unknown to the operating system, it will not work without drivers. Some of
the devices which need drivers are HDD, mouse, keyboard, monitor, RAM etc.
c. Programming Language Translators : They are also used to convert high level program or user
understandable code to machine understandable code or low level program. A program which
is written by the programmer in a high level language is known as a source program. The source
program is converted into machine level instruction for execution. This converted program (in
the machine language) is known as an object program. The types of the translators are :
○ Assembler : It converts assembly language programs into machine understandable code.
○ Interpreter : It converts or translates the high level language programs to machine
understandable code line by line when the program runs. Interpreted code runs slower. Some
of the programming languages which use interpreter are python, JavaScript, Ruby etc.
○ Compiler : It converts user understandable code into machine code in one session and
creates a machine code file, which is further executed to see the result. Compiled code runs
faster. Some of the programming languages which use interpreter are C, C++, Java etc.
d. Firmware : These software are stored in the ROM(Read Only Memory) of the computer. They
provide essential information regarding how the device interacts with other hardware. One of
the examples of Firmware is BIOS. BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System and it allows you
to access and set up your computer system at the most basic level. It also includes a test referred
to as a POST (Power-On Self-Test) that helps verify the computer meets requirements to boot up
properly.

Application software
The software used to run a specific application or function is application software. For example, we
need a specific software to browse the internet. Similarly specific software is required to create a
presentation or to create a database. All the apps that we see on our smartphones are examples of
application software. Some of the examples of application software are Word processors, Graphics
software, Database software, Spreadsheet software, Presentation software, Web browsers, Multimedia
software etc.
To create presentations, we use application software like MS PowerPoint, Google Slide. Similarly , for
creating or editing drawings/pictures on the computer we use paint brush, photoshop etc.

Utility software
Utility software is used to enhance the maintenance of the computer. In other words, it does the
housekeeping task for the computer. This means that the computer can run without the utility software
but with the utility software, the performance of the computer definitely gets better. Examples are
Firewalls or Antivirus software, Disk Cleaner- which can remove unnecessary files and data, Disk
Defragmenter- which helps to access files quickly thus enhancing the performance of the computer,
Backup software- which can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore the data
when needed.
 Basic Computer Organization 9

Mobile Operating System

The way the operating system manages the resources of the computer, similar way the OS also
manages the applications stored on the mobile phone. So the function of the mobile operating system
is to define the way the mobile will respond to features and functions of the apps installed on it. The
mobile operating system manages the hardware and makes it possible for smartphones, tablets etc.
to run the apps and other programs in a user-friendly way. The operating system is specific to the
mobile. Some of the common mobile OS are:

iOS
It is Apple’s very own operating system and is available for apple products like, iPod, iPad, iPhone,
and Apple Watch. It is a secure operating system but it cannot be used for any other devices

Android OS
This operating system is owned by Google. It’s based on Linux and is an open source software specially
designed for touchscreen devices, which includes mobile, tablets etc.

BlackBerry OS
The BlackBerry OS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Research In Motion for
use on the company’s popular BlackBerry handheld devices. The BlackBerry platform is popular with
corporate users. It is well-liked for its enhanced security.

Symbian OS (NOKIA)
Symbian is a mobile operating system (OS) for mobile phones that offers a high-level of integration
with communication and personal information management (PIM) functionality. Some of the key
features of this OS is that it allows impressive battery life and has lower hardware requirements.

Memory Unit
It is the unit required to represent and measure the data which we store in the computer. It is
measured in bits, bytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes, Terabytes, Petabytes and so on.
Bit: It’s the smallest unit to measure the data stored in the computer. As we know that the data in
the computer is stored in binary or low-level language (language of 0 and 1), so a bit can be either
0 or 1.
Byte: A byte contains 8 bits. So if the data occupies 8 bits of memory in the computer, then its
equivalent to 1 Byte. It is also the fundamental unit to measure the data in the computer . Similarly,
if it occupies 16 bits (8+8 bits), then it occupies 2 bytes, 24 bits (8 X 3), then 3 bytes and so on.
Kilobyte (KB): 1 KB=1024 Bytes (210 bytes)
Megabyte (MB): 1 MB=1024 Kilobyte (220 bytes)
Gigabyte (GB): 1 GB=1024 Megabyte (230 bytes)
Terabyte (TB): 1 TB=1024 Gigabyte (240 bytes)
Petabyte (TB): 1 TB=1024 Terabyte (250 bytes)
 10 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

After Petabyte, the memory unit is exabyte, then zettabyte and yottabyte.
Table for quick Revision

Bit 1 Byte 1 Kilobyte 1 Megabyte 1 Gigabyte 1 Terabyte 1 Petabyte

0 or 1 8 bits 1024 Bytes 1024 KB 1024 MB 1024 GB 1024 TB
10242 Bytes 10242 KB 10242 MB 10242 GB

10243 Bytes 10243 KB 10243 MB

10244 Bytes 10244 KB

10245 Bytes

Quick Revision
Components of Computer System
1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit
a. MU (memory Unit)
i. Primary Memory
1. RAM
2. ROM
ii. Secondary Memory
b. CU (Control Unit)
c. ALU Arithmetic and Logical Unit)
3. Output Unit

RAM ROM
Random Access memory Read Only Memory
Volatile Non Volatile
Data can be read, modified or deleted Data in ROM is permanent
Its speed is high Its speed is comparatively slower.

Compiler Interpreter
Converts the high level language program into Converts the program into machine code line by
machine code as a whole. line
Compiler displays all errors and warnings at the The interpreter reads a single statement and
compilation time. So you need to fix the errors shows the error if any. You must correct the
before executing. error to interpret the next line.
After successful compilation, the compiler No intermediate file is created. The source code
creates an object file, which is executed. is directed executed line by line
Compiled code run faster Interpreted code run slower
 Basic Computer Organization 11

System Software Application Software Utility Software

It’s an interface between the It is used to run a specific It is used to enhance the
user and the computer application performance of the computer.
System software is must to run Computer can work without Though computers can work
the computer. application software without utility software but
without the utilities it would be
a lot harder for users to manage
and keep their computers
running optimally.
It runs independently Application software cannot Utility software is a part of
run independently. It needs system software
system software to run
Examples are Operating Examples are word processor, Examples are Disk
system, Assembler, Compiler, web browser, media player etc. defragmenter, Antivirus etc.
Interpreter etc.

The series of instructions given to the computer which direct the hardware of the computer to
respond is called software.
Three important software categories are:
o System software
o Application software
o Utility software

The series of instructions which are used to control the operation of the computer and make its
hardware run are called System software.

Operation System is the most common and important example of System software as it provides
the platform using which the user interacts with the computer system.

To control the hardware attached to the computer, the system software used is called device
drivers.

Programming Language Translators are also used to convert high level program or user
understandable code to machine understandable code or low level program.

A program which is written by the programmer in a high level language is known as a source
program.

The source program is converted into machine level instruction for execution. This converted
program (in the machine language) is known as an object program.
Assembler converts assembly language programs into machine understandable code.

Interpreter converts or translates the high level language programs to machine understandable
code line by line when the program runs.

Compiler converts user understandable code into machine code in one session and creates a
machine code file, which is further executed to see the result
Firmware software is stored in the ROM (Read Only Memory) of the computer.
 12 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

The software used to run a specific application or function is application software.


Utility software is used to enhance the maintenance of the computer. In other words it does the
housekeeping task for the computer.

The way the operating system manages the resources of the computer, similar way the OS also
manages the applications stored on the mobile phone. So the function of the mobile operating
system is to define the way the mobile will respond to features and functions of the apps installed
on it.
Some of the common mobile OS are:
o iOS
o Android OS
o BlackBerry OS
o Symbian OS (NOKIA)

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Basic architecture of computer was developed by:
a. Blaise Pascal b. Charles Babbage c. Konrad Zuse d. John Von Neumann
2. ___________ allows simultaneous write and read operations.
a. RAM b. ROM c. EROM d. PROM
3. __________ is not considered as a peripheral device.
a. CPU b. Keyboard c. Monitor d. Mouse
4. ________ computer memory is fastest.
a. Register b. Hard disk c. RAM d. ROM
5. _______ operations are performed by the ALU.
a. Data manipulation b. Exponential
c. Square root d. All of the above
6. __________ format is used to store data.
a. Decimal b. Octal c. Binary d. Hexadecimal
7. ________ memory of the computer is used to speed up the computer processing?
a. RAM b. ROM c. Cache memory d. Secondary memory
8. Components of a computer are connected to each other by:
a. Computer parts b. Computer architecture
c. Computer hardware d. Computer software
 Basic Computer Organization 13

9. The address in the main memory is called as:

a. Logical address b. Physical address
c. Memory address d. Computer address
10. _________ memory unit communicates directly with the CPU.
a. Main b. Secondary c. Auxiliary d. Cache
11. The collection of 8-bits is:
a. Byte b. Bit c. Nibbe d. Word
12. Computer stores its data in memory in the form:
a. Decimal b. Binary c. Octal d. Hexadecimal
13. _______ is equal to 4 bits.
a. Byte b. Kilobyte c. Nibble d. Record
14. EEPROM stands for:
a. Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read-Only Memory
b. Electronically Erasable and Programmable Read-Only Memory
c. Electrically Enabled and Programmable Read-Only Memory
d. Electrically Enabled and Programmable Random-Only Memory
15. The ________ is the computational center of the CPU.
a. Registers b. ALU c. Memory d. Control unit
16. CPU stands for
a. Central Program Unit b. Control Processing Unit
c. Central Processing Unit d. Control Program Unit
17. Mouse is an ______ device
a. Processing b. Output c. Display d. Input
18. IPO stands for
a. Internet Programs Output b. Input Program Output
c. Intelligent Processing Output d. Input Processing Output
19. The physical component of a computer which we can see and touch is known as _______
a. Software b. Hardware c. Data d. Information
20. ______ is an example of a Software
a. Monitor b. USB c. CD d. Microsoft Word

Fill in the blanks

1. A computer in simple language is a machine which takes data in the form of ____________, processes
it based on the given instructions and generates the output.
2. The physical component of the computer which we can touch is called ____________.
 14 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

3. ____________ is the set of instructions stored as a program that governs the operation of a computer
system and makes the hardware run.
4. The ____________ Cycle explains the sequence of steps which are used to convert the raw data into
meaningful information and this involves hardware and software both.
5. The ____________ is also called the brain of the computer.
6. The raw data is provided as the input using the ____________ device of the computer.
7. Data is taken from the input device; it is directed for ____________.
8. There are ____________ types of memory in the computer, Primary and Secondary.
9. ____________ Memory is used to store large data for a longer period of time.
10. ____________ Memory is a high speed memory which stores frequently used data from the memory
for fast access.
11. Arithmetic and Logical Unit is used to perform either arithmetic/mathematical operations or
____________ operations.
12. ____________ is the unit required to represent and measure the data which we store in the computer.
13. ____________ is the smallest unit to measure the data stored in the computer.
14. A ____________ contains 8 bits.
15. ____________ can be text, numbers, images, video or audio.

State whether the following statements are true or false

1. IPO is Input Process Output Cycle.
2. There are three main components of Computer.
3. Software is the set of instructions stored as a program that governs the operation of a computer
system and makes the hardware run.
4. The different types of keys available on the Mouse are Alphabet keys, Function keys (F1, F2, F3),
Numeric keys, Arrow keys, Command keys (Insert, delete, home, end, page up/down).
5. Mouse is used to send the signal to the computer using the cursor which points at a particular
application and hence it is also called as a pointing device.
6. Joystick is an input device to input sound that is stored in digital form.
7. A barcode consists of bars and spaces and is a machine-readable representation of numbers and
characters.
8. The CPU has three important parts, MU (Memory Unit), CU (Control Unit) and the ALU (Arithmetic
and Logical Unit).
9. Auxiliary memory is the computer’s main memory without which it cannot function.
10. ROM or Read Only Memory is a non-volatile memory, which stores the instructions permanently
and are not affected by the system rebooting or shut down.
11. Memory Unit. is responsible for controlling all the operations required for processing.
12. VDU (Visual Display Unit) is commonly known as a monitor, and is used to display the processed
information.
 Basic Computer Organization 15

13. Speaker is commonly used output device which takes input from the sound card of the computer
or any such audio device and generates audio by converting electromagnetic waves to sound
waves.
14. Memory Unit is the unit required to represent and measure the data which we store in the
computer.
15. If the data occupies 16 bits of memory in the computer, then its equivalent to 1 Byte.

Short Questions
1. What is a Computer?
2. Define the term Data.
3. What is program?
4. Define IPO cycle.
5. What does hardware comprise of?
6. What is the full form of RAM and ROM.
7. Name the computer’s hardware component.
8. Define the input unit and give two example.
9. Define the Output unit and give two example.
10. Name the types of ROM.

Long Questions
1. Explain the components of CPU.
2. Differentiate among primary memory and secondary memory.
3. Write a short note on cache memory.
4. Explain the function of Arithmetic and Logical Unit.
5. What is the use of speaker.
6. Explain the types of Memory unit.
7. Differentiate among RAM and ROM.
8. Explain the types of ROM.
9. Differentiate among VDU and projector.
10. Explain Auxiliary memory.
 16 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Answer:
Multiple choice questions
1. d 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. b
9. b 10. a 11. a 12. b 13. c 14. a 15. b 16. c
17. d 18. d 19. b 20. d

Fill in the blanks

1. input 2. hardware 3. Software 4. IPO 5. Control Unit
6. hardware 7. processing 8. two 9. Secondary 10. Cache
11. Logical 12. Memory unit 13. Bit 14. byte 15. Data

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True
6. False 7. True 8. True 9. False 10. True
11. False 12. True 13. True 14. True 15. False
 2 Boolean Algebra

Introduction
We know that the data stored in the computer is in the form of binary language 0 and 1 or True
and False signals where 0 is False and 1 is True. So how is an expression solved when we provide
the input signals in the form of 0’s and 1’s and in what form the result will be generated? In 1954,
George Boole invented the concept of Boolean logic, which is a core concept of Boolean Algebra and
a branch of mathematics. Boolean logic can be used to describe the manipulation and processing of
binary information. Digital electronic circuits and microprocessors based systems are made using
Gates which are formed using the boolean logic.

Boolean Variable and Boolean Expression

The expression which takes the input in the form of boolean variables and generates boolean result is
called a Boolean expression. The input in a boolean expression is given in the form of 0 or 1 through a
variable, which is called as a Boolean variable.
For example, if X,Y and Z are three boolean variables, such that they accept input in the form of 0 or 1,
then the expression formed from them would be a boolean expression, like
X+Y.Z
Or
X.Y+Z’
Or
X.(Y’+Z)

Truth Table
The binary inputs and the output of the boolean expression is displayed using a table called a Truth
Table. Truth table helps us to understand the behaviour of a boolean expression of a given logic circuit.
Truth table allows us to take all the possible combinations of input possible in a given expression and
its resultant output.
The possible number of input combinations provided in a boolean expression is based on the total no
of variables in that expression and that is 2N, where N represents total no of variables.
For example, a boolean expression with 1 variable X will have 21 inputs and thus its truth table will
be as follows:
X
0
1
 18 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

While the total number of inputs provided by two boolean variables in a boolean expression would
be 22=4. Its truth table will appear like this:
X Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Similarly for three variables, the possible number of inputs would be 23 = 8

X Y Z
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

And so on…
Simple rules to remember to create a Truth table for given sets of input.
1. 
The total number of inputs will be based on the number of variables in a boolean expression. The
inputs will be 2N, where N denotes the number of boolean variables.
2. We always write the input values in the table from right to left.
3. The right most boolean variable will have alternate 0 and 1 , starting from 0.
4. The next variable will have a series of two zeroes and two ones and so on.
5. The next variable will have a series of four zeroes and four ones and so on.
6. 
And now can guess the input for the next variable? Yes it will be a series of eight zeroes and eight
ones and so on.
Can you fill the Truth table for four boolean variables?
A B C D
 Boolean Algebra 19

A B C D

Boolean Operators
The operators used in boolean algebra are called Boolean operators. The three operators using which
the boolean expression is formed are AND/OR/NOT

AND operator
This operator when used with boolean variables will generate the result True if all the inputs are True
or 1 else it will be False or 0. AND operation is expressed using ‘.’ or ‘^’
X Y X.Y (or X^Y)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR operator
It generates the final result of a boolean expression True if either one input or all the inputs are True
or 1 else it will be False or 0. OR operation is expressed using ‘+’ or ‘∨’
X Y X+Y (or X∨Y)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT operator
It reverses the result of the input by negating its value by making True to False (or 1 to 0) and False
to True(or 0 to 1). NOT operation is expressed ‘~’ or ‘’’
 20 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

X ~X (or X’)
0 1
1 0

Quick Recap
Operator Symbol Input Output
AND (.) or (^)
X Y X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR (+) or (v)
X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT (‘) or (~)

X X’
0 1
1 0

Logic Gates
To carry out the logical operations where single or multiple binary inputs generate one binary output,
logic gates are used. In other words, logic gates are electronic circuits which generate a boolean
output based on the boolean inputs provided by the boolean variables. The different logical gates are
AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND, XOR.

AND Gate
This gate will achieve the output 1/True if all the inputs are 1 or True else the output will be False.
A B A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 Boolean Algebra 21

OR Gate
This gate will achieve the output 1/True if either one or all the inputs are 1 or True else the output
will be False
A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT Gate
This gate gives the complement of the input provided. If the
input is True or 1, the resultant complement would be 0 or
False and vice versa.

A A’
0 1
1 0

Universal Gate (NOR, NAND)

NOR and NAND are known as universal gates
as any boolean expression can be created or
converted into only “NAND’ or only ‘NOR
Gates, which we will learn in the next section.

NOR Gate (Not-of OR)

As the name suggests, it gives the complement of the result of the OR gate and thus the name NOR

A B (A+B) (A+B)’
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0

NAND Gate(Not-of-AND)
Just like NOR gate, NAND gate gives the
complement of the AND Gate, i.e. Not of AND
and hence the name.
 22 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

A B A.B (A.B)’
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

XOR Gate( Exclusive OR)

This gate will achieve the output 1/True if either both the inputs are different. With the same inputs
(whether True or False), the result will be False or 0. It is denoted by the symbol ⊕

A B A⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Quick Recap
Operator Symbol Truth Table Logic Gate
AND (.) or (^) A B A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR (+) or () A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT (‘) or (~) A A’

0 1
1 0
 Boolean Algebra 23

Operator Symbol Truth Table Logic Gate

NOR A B (A+B)’
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

NAND A B (A.B)’
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XOR ⊕ A B A⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Logic Circuits
Now we know that the Logic circuits are made using the logic gates based on the given boolean
expression. But these boolean expressions can further be simplified using certain laws and rules. Let
us study few important Laws along with their Truth table Verification

Postulates of Boolean Algebra

1. Identity Law
Its states that for a boolean variable X, the following holds True
X+0=X
X.1=X (by Duality)
Truth Table Verification

X 0 X+0
0 0 0
1 0 1

X 1 X.1
0 1 0
1 1 1
 24 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

2. Complement Law
It states that the AND of a boolean variable and its complement is always 0.
X.X’=0
X+X’=1 (by Duality)
Truth Table Verification of the Law

X X’ X.X’ X+X’
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1

3. Commutative Law
It states that for boolean variables X,Y,Z the following holds True:
X+Y = Y + X
X.Y=Y.X (by Duality)
Truth Table Verification of the Law

X Y X+Y Y+X
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

4. Associative Law
It states that for boolean variables X,Y,Z the following holds True:
X+(Y+Z) = (X+Y)+Z → Law 1
X.(Y.Z)=(X.Y).Z → Law 2 (By Duality)
Truth Table Verification of the Law

X Y Z (Y+Z) X+(Y+Z) (X+Y) (X+Y)+Z

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Boolean Algebra 25

5. Distributive Law
It states that for boolean variables X,Y,Z the following holds True:
X.(Y+Z) = X.Y + X.Z → Law 1
X+Y.Z = (X+Y).(X+Z) → Law 2 (By Duality)
Truth Table Verification of the Law 1

X Y Z (Y+Z) X.(Y+Z) X.Y X.Z X.Y+X.Z

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Can you do the Truth Table Verification of the Law 2?

X Y Z Y.Z X+Y.Z X+Y X+Z (X+Y).(X+Z)

0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

6. Duality Principle
It states that any boolean expression derived using the boolean laws remain unaffected, if we
A. Change the all AND operations to OR or vice versa and
B. Change all 0’s with 1 or vice versa.

7. Complement of Complement
It states that the complement to complement of a boolean variable is same as the boolean variable.
This means that:
X=((X)’)’
 26 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Truth Table Verification

X X’ (X’)’
0 1 0
1 0 1

Logic Circuit
While converting the given boolean expression into logic gate, we need to remember that the priority
is given to NOT, then AND and then OR (if no brackets are given)
Let us take few examples which help us understand how to draw the logic gate from the given Boolean
expression:
A+B’C

X.Y+Z

X’.(Y+Z)

De Morgan’s Law
It states that for boolean variables A1, A2, A3…..An, the complement of the product of all the terms is
equal to the sum of the complement of each term.
(A+B)’=A’.B’ → Law 1
(A.B)’=A’+B’ → Law 2 (By Duality)
 Boolean Algebra 27

Similarly, for n Boolean Variables

(A1+A2+A3+......An)’=A1’.A2’.A3’......An’
(A1.A2.A3.......An)’=A1’+A2’+A3’+......An’
Truth Table Verification of De Morgan’s Law 1

A B (A+B) (A+B)’ A’ B’ A’.B’

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Truth Table Verification of De Morgan’s Law 2

A B (A.B) (A.B)’ A’ B’ A’+B’

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Application of De Morgan’s Law

We use this law to convert the given boolean expression into alternative gates, where we can design
the logic circuit using only the universal gates, like only NOR or only NAND. Let us take an example to
understand the application of De Morgan’s Law:
To convert the given Boolean expression using NAND gate
A+B’.C
(applying complement to complement)
((A+B’.C)’)’
Applying De Morgan’s Law 1 (X+Y)’=X’.Y’ , by considering X as A and B’.C as Y
=> (A’.(B’.C)’)’
Logic Circuit

To convert the given Boolean expression using NOR gate

A+B’.C
 28 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

(applying complement to complement)

A+((B’.C)’)’
Applying De Morgan’s Law 1 (X.Y)’=X’+Y’ , by considering X as B’ and Y as C
=> A+((B’)’+(C)’)’
=> A+(B+C’)’
=>((A+(B+C’)’)’)’

Number System
When we send data to the computer through the programs we write , we use numeric as well as
alphanumeric data, both. But the data is not stored as it is in the computer. Rather, every input
given to the computer gets converted into numbers. This means that the computer understands only
numbers and thus every data provided to the computer, be it text or audio or video gets converted
into the digital form. Computer’s architecture supports many different types of numbers and thus to
represent the data in various digital formats as per computer architecture the technique of Number
System is Provided. So, the Number system helps us to understand how data is represented in various
formats. The following number systems are supported by the computer architecture:
1. Decimal Number system
2. Binary Number System
3. Octal Number System
4. Hexadecimal Number System
In this section we will learn in detail about the above number systems and how one number system
can be converted into another.

Base or Radix of Number System

Every number system is identified by its base, where the base or the Radix of a number system tells
the number of digits allowed in it.
1. 
Since two digits 0 and 1 are allowed in a Binary number system, so its base is 2. We represent the
Binary number as (BinaryNumber)2.. For example (11011)2
2. 
In Decimal Number system, we use digits from 0-9, which makes up a total of 10 digits. Hence the
base of a decimal number system is 10. For example (128901)10 is a representation of a decimal
number.
3. 
In Octal Number System the digits allowed are 0-7, which means a total of 8 digits. So the Octal
number is identified by Base 8. Example (65723)8.
 Boolean Algebra 29

4. 
In hexadecimal Number system, there are 16 alphanumeric values allowed, which are 0-9 and
then A-F, which means (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F) total of 16 digits. Hence the base is 16.
Example (AB12)16

Decimal Number System

The features of this number system are as follows:
1. Its base is 10 as the digits allowed are 0 to 9.
2. We use this number system to send the data to the computer.
Let us see how a decimal number is expanded in mathematics:
(261)10= 102 X 2 + 101 X 6 + 100 X 1
We will apply the same methodology to convert Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal to Decimal.

Binary to Decimal: Take the base of Binary with the power of the number’s position starting from
power 0 going in increasing order in the direction from right to left and multiply with the binary
number at the given position..
(1011101)2=(?)10

26 25 24 23 22 21 20

1 0 1 1 1 0 1
=26X1 + 25X0 + 24X1 + 23X1 + 22X1 + 21X0 + 20X1
=64+0+16+8+4+0+1
=93
=>(1011101)2 = (93)10

Octal to Decimal: Take the base of Octal with the power of the number’s position starting from power
0 going in increasing order in the direction from right to left and multiply with the octal number at
the given position.
(124)8=(?)10

82 81 80

1 2 4
 30 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

=82X1 + 81X2 + 80X4

=64+16+4
=>84
=>(124)8=(84)10

HexaDecimal to Decimal: Take the base of Hexadecimal with the power of the number’s position
starting from power 0 going in increasing order in the direction from right to left and multiply with
the hexadecimal number at the given position... Here one important thing has to be remembered
while converting into decimal. The digits and alphabets allowed are (0-9) and (A-F). The numeric
representation for A is taken as 10, B as 11 and so on, while doing the base conversion.

0 → 0
1 → 1
2 → 2
3 → 3
4 → 4
5 → 5
6 → 6
7 → 7
8 → 8
9 → 9
A → 10
B → 11
C → 12
D → 13
E → 14
F → 15
(7AB)16=(?)10

162 161 160

7 A B
=162X7 + 161XA + 160XB
=256X7 + 16X10 + 1X11
=1792+160+11
=1963
=>(7AB)8=(1963)10
 Boolean Algebra 31

Now let us see how we can convert Decimal Number to Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal:

Decimal to Binary : Divide the Decimal no by the base of binary number, i.e. 2 and keep taking the
remainder till the quotient becomes zero.
(123)10=(?)2
Remainder

2 123
61 1
30 1
15 0
7 1
3 1
1 1

1
(123)10=(1111011)2
Can you recheck whether the answer generated is correct or not by converting the binary number to
decimal using the method we learned in the previous section?
(1111011)2= (?)10

Decimal to Octal : Divide the Decimal no by the base of Octal number, i.e. 8 and keep taking the
remainder till there is no quotient.
(123)10=(?)8
Remainder

8 123
15 3
1 7

(123)10=(173)8
 32 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Decimal to HexaDecimal : Divide the Decimal no by the base of Hexadecimal number, i.e. 16 and
keep taking the remainder till there is no quotient.
(123)10=(?)16
Remainder

16 123
7 11
(B)

(123)10=(7B)16

Binary Number System

Following are the features of Binary number system:
1. Its base is 2 as the digits allowed are 0 and 1.
2. A single binary digit takes 1 bit.
3. 1101 is a four-bit binary number while 101101 is a six bit binary number.
4. 
We use binary number system in computer applications. Programming languages use binary
number system.
5. 
For converting Binary into Octal or Hexadecimal numbers directly, we use the base conversion
table.
Base conversion table for Binary to Octal and Vice-versa
Since Octal number has the base 8 (which is 23), each octal digit occupies 3 bits, which are taken from
the table shown below. This table is nothing but the binary representation of the decimal number
from 0-7 in three bits. Extreme right column has alternate 0-1, then the second column will have
alternatively two 0’s and two 1’s and the first column will have group of four 0’s and four 1’s

0 0 0 → 0 (22X0+21X0+20X0=0)
0 0 1 → 1 (22X0+21X0+20X1=1)
0 1 0 → 2(22X0+21X1+20X0=2)
0 1 1 → 3(22X0+21X1+20X1=3)
1 0 0 → 4(22X1+21X0+20X0=4)
1 0 1 → 5(22X1+21X0+20X1=5)
1 1 0 → 6(22X1+21X1+20X0=6)
1 1 1 → 7(22X1+21X1+20X1=7)
Example 1
(125)8=(?)2
 Boolean Algebra 33

Referring to the base conversion table

1 2 5
001 010 101
So the answer is :
(125)8=(001 010 101)2

Example 2
(10100101)2=(?)8
Make a group of three digits from right to left. In case you are short of digits on extreme left then add
preceding 0, as shown in this example.
Referring to the base conversion table after making the group:
(10100101)

010 100 101

2 4 5
So the answer is :
(10100101)2=(245)8
Base conversion table for Binary to Hexadecimal and Vice-versa
Since the Hexadecimal number has the base 16 (which is 24), each hexadecimal digit occupies 4 bits,
which are taken from the table shown below. This table is nothing but the binary representation of
the decimal number from 0-9 in four bits. Extreme right column has alternate 0-1, then the second
column will have alternatively two 0’s and two 1’s, third column will have group of four 0’s and four
1’s and finally the extreme left column will have sequence of eight 0’s and eight 1’s

0 0 0 0 → 0 (23X0+22X0+21X0+20X0=0)
0 0 0 1 → 1 (23X0+22X0+21X0+20X1=1)
0 0 1 0 → 2(23X0+22X0+21X1+20X0=2)
0 0 1 1 → 3(23X0+22X0+21X1+20X1=3)
0 1 0 0 → 4(23X0+22X1+21X0+20X0=4)
0 1 0 1 → 5(23X0+22X1+21X0+20X1=5)
0 1 1 0 → 6(23X0+22X1+21X1+20X0=6)
0 1 1 1 → 7(23X0+22X1+21X1+20X1=7)
1 0 0 0 → 8(23X1+22X0+21X0+20X0=8)
1 0 0 1 → 9(23X1+22X0+21X0+20X1=9)
1 0 1 0 → A(23X1+22X0+21X1+20X0=10)
1 0 1 1 → B(23X1+22X0+21X1+20X1=11)
1 1 0 0 → C(23X1+22X1+21X0+20X0=12)
1 1 0 1 → D(23X1+22X1+21X0+20X1=13)
 34 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

1 1 1 0 → E(23X1+22X1+21X1+20X0=14)
1 1 1 1 → F(23X1+22X1+21X1+20X1=15)

Example 1
(ABC9)16=(?)2
Referring to the base conversion table

A B C 9
1010 1011 1100 1001
So the answer is :
(ABC9)16=(1010101111001001)2
Example 2
(1010100101)2=(?)16
Make a group of four digits from right to left. In case you are short of digits on extreme left then add
preceding 0, as shown in this example.
Referring to the base conversion table after making the group:
(001010100101)

0010 1010 0101

2 A 5
So the answer is :
(1010100101)2=(2A5)16

Note:
To convert Octal to Hexadecimal number, you can Convert Octal→ Binary and then Binary→
Hexadecimal.

Things to Remember
1. 
To convert a Decimal number to any other number system, divide the decimal number by the base
of the number to be converted and take the remainder in the reverse order from bottom to top.
2. 
To convert any number to the Decimal number system, take the sum of power of the base of the
number(to be converted) as per its position and multiply with the digit at that given position.
3. To convert Binary to Octal or Hexadecimal to Binary or vice versa, use the base conversion table.
4. 
To convert Octal to Hexadecimal, convert it first to Binary and then convert Binary to Hexadecimal.
Do the same while converting hexadecimal to Octal.
Features of Octal Number System are as follows:
1. The base of Octal number is 8 as it allows numbers from 0-7
2. 
Computer programmers use the Octal number system as it is easier to work with it because they
are shorter and easy to remember.
 Boolean Algebra 35

Features of Hexadecimal Number System are as follows:

1. The base of hexadecimal number is 16 as it allows numbers from 0-9 and alphabets from A-F
2. We use hexadecimal number system to define the memory location in the computer.
3. They are easy to convert to binary
4. 
They are used to represent colours where the format used is for three basic colors, Red, Green and
Blue as #RRGGBB

Binary addition
Addition in the binary number system is much easier than in the decimal number system as there are
only few rules to remember.
Rules
1. 0+0→ 0
2. 0+1→ 1
3. 1+0→ 1
4. 1+1→ 0 with carry 1
5. (1+1)+1→ (0 with carry 1) + 1→ 1 with carry 1
Let us take few examples to understand how Binary addition works
Example 1
1 1
10011
+ 11010
---------------------------
101101

Example 2
1 1
11001
+ 11010
---------------------------
110011
We can check the answer of the above Binary addition by converting binary number into decimal,
using this quick method:

32 16 8 4 2 1
(25)(24) (23) (22) (21) (20)
 36 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

(Add the numbers where the position value is 1)

1 0 0 1 1 → 16+2+1=19
+ 1 1 0 1 0 → 16+8+2=26
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1 0 1 1 0 1 32+8+4+1=45
-----------------------------------

Summary

In 1954, George Boole invented the concept of Boolean logic, which is a core concept of Boolean
Algebra and a branch of mathematics. Boolean logic can be used to describe the manipulation and
processing of binary information.

Digital electronic circuits and microprocessors based systems are made using Gates which are
formed using the Boolean logic.

The expression which takes the input in the form of boolean variables and generates boolean
result is called a Boolean expression. The input in a boolean expression is given in the form of 0
or 1 through a variable, which is called as a Boolean variable.

The binary inputs and the output of the boolean expression is displayed using a table called a
Truth Table. Truth table helps us to understand the behaviour of a boolean expression of a given
logic circuit.

The operators used in boolean algebra are called Boolean operators. The three operators using
which the boolean expression is formed are AND/OR/NOT.

AND operator when used with boolean variables will generate the result True if all the inputs are
True or 1 else it will be False or 0. AND operation is expressed using ‘.’ or ‘^’

OR operator generates the final result of a boolean expression True if either one input or all the
inputs are True or 1 else it will be False or 0. OR operation is expressed using ‘+’ or ‘∨’

NOT operator reverses the result of the input by negating its value by making True to False (or 1
to 0) and False to True (or 0 to 1). NOT operation is expressed ‘~’ or ‘’’

To carry out the logical operations where single or multiple binary inputs generate one binary
output, logic gates are used. In other words, logic gates are electronic circuits which generate
a boolean output based on the boolean inputs provided by the boolean variables. The different
logical gates are AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND, XOR.

AND gate will achieve the output 1/True if all the inputs are 1 or True else the output will be
False.

OR gate will achieve the output 1/True if either one or all the inputs are 1 or True else the output
will be False

NOT gate gives the complement of the input provided. If the input is True or 1, the resultant
complement would be 0 or False and vice versa.
 Boolean Algebra 37


NOR and NAND are known as universal gates as any boolean expression can be created or
converted into only “NAND’ or only ‘NOR Gates, which we will learn in the next section.

Just like NOR gate, NAND gate gives the complement of the AND Gate, i.e. Not of AND and hence
the name.

XOR gate will achieve the output 1/True if either both the inputs are different. With the same
inputs (whether True or False), the result will be False or 0. It is denoted by the symbol ⊕.

Logic circuits are made by using the logic gates based on the given boolean expression.

Identity Law states that for a boolean variable X, the following holds True.
o X+0=X
o X.1=X (by Duality)

Complement Law
Complement Law states that the AND of a boolean variable and its complement is always 0.
o X.X’=0
o X+X’=1 (by Duality)

Commutative Law states that for boolean variables X,Y,Z the following holds True:
o X+Y = Y + X
o X.Y=Y.X (by Duality)

Associative Law states that for boolean variables X,Y,Z the following holds True:
o X+(Y+Z) = (X+Y)+Z → Law 1
o X.(Y.Z)=(X.Y).Z → Law 2 (By Duality)

Distributive Law states that for boolean variables X,Y,Z the following holds True:
o X.(Y+Z) = X.Y + X.Z → Law 1
o X+Y.Z = (X+Y).(X+Z) → Law 2 (By Duality)

Duality Principle states that any boolean expression derived using the boolean laws remain
unaffected, if we
o Change the all AND operations to OR or vice versa and
o Change all 0’s with 1 or vice versa.

Complement of Complement states that the complement to complement of a boolean variable is
same as the boolean variable. This means that:
o X=((X)’)’

De Morgan’s Law states that for boolean variables A1, A2, A3…..An, the complement of the product
of all the terms is equal to the sum of the complement of each term.
o (A+B)’=A’.B’ → Law 1
o (A.B)’=A’+B’ → Law 2 (By Duality)
 38 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. To implement the Boolean functions ____________ is used.
a. Logical notations b. Arithmetic logics
c. Logic gates d. Expressions
2. Inversion of single bit input to a single bit output can be done by using ____________
a. NOT gate b. NOR gate c. AND gate d. NAND gate
3. A ____________ is a Boolean variable.
a. Literal b. String c. Keyword d. Identifier
4. (X+Y`)(X+Z) can be represented by ____________
a. (X+Y`Z) b. (Y+X`) c. XY` d. (X+Z`)
5. A ____________ value is represented by a Boolean expression.
a. Positive b. Boolean c. Recursive d. Negative
6. Which of the following is/are the universal logic gates?
a. OR and NOR b. AND c. NAND and NOR d. NOT
7. ____________ operator reverses the truth value of the operation.
a. AND b. OR c. NOT d. NAND
8. ____________ operator returns true, if all the sub-conditions are true.
a. NAND b. OR c. NOT d. AND
9. ____________ operator returns true, if any of the sub-condition is true.
a. AND b. OR c. NOT d. NAND
10. ____________ logical operator does not allow us to combine two or more conditions?
a. AND b. OR c. NOT d. NAND
11. The inputs of a NAND gate are connected together. The resulting circuit is ____________
a. OR gate b. AND gate c. NOT gate d. NAND gate
12. The NOR gate is OR gate followed by ____________
a. OR gate b. AND gate c. NOT gate d. NAND gate
13. Digital circuit can be made by the repeated use of ____________
a. OR gates b. NOT gates c. NAND gates d. AND gate
14. When an input signal 1 is applied to a NOT gate, the output is ____________
a. 0 b. 1 c. Either 0 & 1 d. None of the above
15. In Boolean algebra, the bar sign (-) indicates ____________
a. OR operation b. AND operation c. NOT operation d. NAND operation
 Boolean Algebra 39

Fill in the blanks

1. ____________ invented the concept of Boolean logic.
2. Boolean logic can be used to describe the manipulation and processing of ____________ information.
3. Digital electronic circuits and microprocessors based systems are made by using ____________
which are formed using the Boolean logic.
4. The expression which takes the input in the form of boolean variables and generates boolean
result is called a ____________.
5. The input in a boolean expression is given in the form of 0 or 1 through a variable, which is called
as a ____________.
6. The binary inputs and the output of the boolean expression is displayed using a table called a
____________.
7. The operators used in boolean algebra are called ____________.
8. The three operators using which the boolean expression is formed are ____________.
9. ____________ operator when used with boolean variables will generate the result True if all the
inputs are True.
10. ____________ operator generates the final result of a boolean expression True if either one input or
all the inputs are True.
11. ____________ operator reverses the result of the input by negating its value by making True to False
(or 1 to 0) and False to True (or 0 to 1).
12. ____________ are electronic circuits which generate a boolean output based on the boolean inputs
provided by the boolean variables.
13. ____________ gate will achieve the output 1/True if all the inputs are 1 or True else the output will
be False.
14. ____________ gate will achieve the output 1/True if either one or all the inputs are 1 or True else the
output will be False
15. ____________ gate gives the complement of the input provided.

State whether the following statements are true or false

1. If the input is True or 1, the resultant complement would be 0 or False and vice versa.
2. NOR and NAND are known as universal gates.
3. Like NOR gate, NAND gate gives the complement of the OR Gate, i.e. Not of AND and hence the
name.
4. XOR gate is denoted by the symbol ⊕.
5. Logic circuits are made by using the logic gates based on the given boolean expression.
6. Complement Law states that the OR of a boolean variable and its complement is always 0.
7. Commutative Law states that for boolean variables X,Y,Z the X+Y = X + Y.
 40 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

8. Duality Principle states that any boolean expression derived using the boolean laws remain
unaffected, if we change the all AND operations to OR or vice versa.
9. Complement of Complement states that the complement to complement of a boolean variable is
not the same as the boolean variable.
10. De Morgan’s Law states that for boolean variables A1, A2, A3…..An, the complement of the product
of all the terms is not equal to the sum of the complement of each term.
11. Digital electronic circuits and microprocessors based systems are made using Gates which are
formed using Boolean logic.
12. The expression which takes the input in the form of boolean variables and generates a boolean
result is called a Boolean expression.
13. The input in a boolean expression is given in the form of 0 or 1 through a variable, which is called
a Boolean variable.
14. The binary inputs and the output of the boolean expression is displayed using a table called a
Truth Table.
15. Truth table helps us to understand the behaviour of a boolean expression of a given logic circuit.

Short Questions
1. Define the term boolean variable.
2. What is a boolean expression?
3. What does truth table represent?
4. Write any two rules to remember to create a Truth table for given sets of input.
5. What is boolean operators?
6. Differentiate among the AND, OR, NOT operator.
7. Define the term Logic gate.
8. Name the universal gate.
9. How does NOR Gate (Not-of OR) works.
10. Define the term Logic circuit.

Long Questions
1. Explain the Identity Law
2. Write a short note on Complement Law.
3. Differentiate among states that the three Boolean operators.
4. What does Commutative Law states?
5. Explain the Associative Law
6. Differentiate among the Associative law and Distributive Law
7. Draw the Truth Table Verification of the Law 1.
 Boolean Algebra 41

8. Write a short note on Duality Principle.

9. Explain the meaning of Complement of Complement.
10. Design the logic circuit of X.Y+Z.

Answer:
Multiple choice questions
1. c 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. c 7. a 8. d
9. b 10. c 11. c 12. c 13. c 14. a 15. c

Fill in the blanks

1. George Boole 2. binary 3. Gates 4. Boolean expression
5. Boolean variable 6. Truth Table 7. Boolean operators 8. AND/OR/NOT
9. AND 10. OR 11. NOT 12. Logic gates
13. AND 14. OR 15. NOT

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True
6. False 7. False 8. True 9. False 10. False
11. True 12. True 13. True 14. True 15. True
 3 Encoding Schemes

Introduction
When we deal with the digital data in terms of sending or receiving information through our programs
or the applications, we are not restricted to use a specific language. Today people use various languages
to work on the computer but every key we press on the keyboard is encoded and provided a unique
code so that it can be converted into binary language. The process of converting the keys we press
on the keyboard into their equivalent code is called encoding. The code for a particular character
remains same for all keyboards. For example, if we press ‘a’, its equivalent code is 97. Similarly the
code for ‘A’ is 65. If we press a character in the Arabic language, then its equivalent code will be
different. All this is possible due to the different encoding schemes. In this chapter, we will study
some of the commonly used encoding schemes.

1. 
ASCII : It stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It was published in
1963. It uses 7 bits to represent a character. But it uses 8 bits of memory to store the character.
The total number of characters which are represented using this encoding system is 27= 128
(from 0-127). UNIX file systems use ASCII codes. ASCII character set includes:

a. Lower (a-z) having ASCII code from 97-122 and uppercase(A-Z) alphabets from 65-90

b. Digits (0-9) having ASCII code from 48-57

c. Control characters (which you cannot print, like Esc, Null, Tab etc.)

d. Special Characters

One of the limitations of ASCII is the limitation of representing the character sets for several
different language structures.
 Encoding Schemes 43

Extension of ASCII is called extended ASCII, which uses 8 bits to represent a character and thus uses
extra 128 characters in it, from 128-255. The extra characters represent characters from foreign
languages and special symbols for drawing pictures.
 44 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

2. 
UNICODE: The problem with the ASCII code is that it does not encode characters from other
scripts, such as Arabic or Greek.
Unicode was created to allow more character sets than ASCII. Unicode contains the alphabets of
almost all known languages, as diverse as Japanese, Chinese, Greek, Cyrillic, Canadian Aboriginal,
and Arabic. It was originally a 16-bit character set, but in 1995, with Unicode 2.0, it became 32
bits. The Unicode standard defines Unicode Transformation Formats(UTF). There are several
encoding schemes that can represent Unicode, including UCS-2, UCS-4, UTF-2, UTF-4, UTF-8, UTF-
16, and UTF-32 but the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8 and UTF-16. The first 65535
characters in Unicode cover most of the common languages. Unicode character sets are grouped
in scripts which include Latin, Korean, Greek languages etc.
Companies like Apple, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Microsoft use Unicode
3. 
UTF8: UTF-8 stands for “Unicode Transformation Format - 8 bits. UTF-8 encoding follows the UTF
character set. It uses 8-bit binary numbers to represent a character. Since the value of character A
in the UTF character set is decimal 65 ( or hexadecimal 41), UTF-8 encoding encodes character A
to 01000001 which is the binary equivalent of decimal value 65. UTA-8 is backward compatible
with ASCII and since it uses 1 byte to encode every character, the encoded file size which has
characters in ASCII character set would be the same as the file size which would have been
encoded using ASCII. Any character not in ASCII takes up two or more bytes in UTF-8. UTF-8 is
adopted very well in WWW due to its size and space efficiency. This is due to the reason that the
web pages have text files which contain characters generally not outside the ASCII character set,
so not much load in terms of size on the network. UTF8 is a variable length encoding system.
4. 
UTF32: UTF32 is a fixed length encoding system which uses 4 bytes per character. This means
that for simple English text, it would take 4 times more size than what it would have taken with
UTF-8 encoding system.
 Encoding Schemes 45

5. 
ISCII : It stands for Indian Script code for Information Interchange. It was established as a standard
by the Bureau of Indian Standards in 1991. It is an 8 bit encoding system used to encode Indian
scripts which includes Devanagari, Gujarati, Kannada etc. It consists of 256 characters where the
first 128 characters are the same as the ASCII codes while the rest characters from 128-255 are
the characters of different Indian languages.
Most of the characters of the Indian language are derived from the Brahmi script. The advantage of
ISCII is that its character set is easy to understand and translation from one language to another is
easy. We need a special keyboard for ISCII characters. Character encoding for Devanagari, Punjabi,
Gujarati, Oriya, Bengali, Assamese, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Roman scripts has
been standardized by the ISCII.

Difference between ASCII and UNICODE

ASCII UNICODE
ASCII supports 128 characters while the As per The Unicode Consortium, Unicode presently
Extended ASCII supports 256 characters supports 143,859 characters
DOS and UNIX support ASCII Most operating systems, databases, programming
languages and Web browsers currently support
Unicode.
ASCII used 8 bits to store a character where A disadvantage of the Unicode Standard is the
amount of memory required by UTF-16 and UTF-
32.
ASCII code uses English language characters. It can store characters from more than one
language
Requires/uses less storage space Takes more storage space

Difference between UTF-8/UTF-16/UTF-32

UTF-8 UTF-16 UTF-32

It is a variable length encoding It is a variable length encoding It is a fixed length encoding
system system system
An encoded character takes It requires either 16 or 32 bits It always requires 32 bits to
between 1 and 4 bytes. to encode a character encode a character.
UTF-8 file containing only UTF-16 encoding is not Even an English character will
ASCII characters has the same compatible with ASCII occupy 4 bytes of memory. So it
encoding as an ASCII file so it takes a lot of memory.
is backward compatible with
ASCII.

Operating System
Operating System is an interface between the user and the computer as its main job is to manage
the hardware of the computer, make other applications run and to convert high level language (user
understandable language) into low level language (or Binary language or computer understandable
 46 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

language) and vice versa. Examples of Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows (Windows 10,
Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP), Apple’s macOS, Google’s OS, BlackBerry
Tablet OS, Unix and Linux.

Need for an operating system

Will the computer run without an Operating System? The answer is Yes but it will merely be a box
which will not understand how to communicate with various parts or programs of the computer. In
other words a computer won’t be of any use without an operating system. So why is an operating
system required? The operating System allows you to do the following :
1. Interface: Using the operating system, the programs are able to communicate with the hardware
of the computer. When we send instruction to the computer through the program we write they,
interact with various parts of the computer which includes the central Processing Unit, Memory
unit, Arithmetic and logical unit. All this is possible because of the operating system because it
helps the various parts of the computer to coordinate with each other. So whenever the user sends
the instruction in user understandable language or high level language, the operating system
converts it into low level language or machine understandable language (or binary language,
language is 0 and 1) and vice versa.
2. Device Management: The operating system also helps various programs to run on different
hardware platforms as it acts as an interface between the Software and Hardware.
3. Multitasking: We can run multiple programs at the same time as the operating system allows
multitasking.
4. Memory Management: The operating system also helps in memory management. This means
then when the data is provided to the computer, it is the job of the operating system to decide
which application data will be stored where and will occupy how much memory.
5. Resource Management: The operating system controls input-output resources of the computer
and allocates them to the users or programs as per their requirement.

Types of Operating Systems

Batch Operating System : There are certain tasks of similar type which can be ‘batched’ or

combined together to speed up the process and the execution time. The job in the batch are
picked up one by one, sorted as per the similar needs and executed. The example is the Banking
Management System. This type of OS doesn’t interact with the computer.
Multitasking/Time Sharing OS: When there are multiple applications required to be run by

single or multiple users, or when multiple resources are required to be shared, then the CPU time
is divided among all the users on scheduled basis. This is done by the Time Sharing Operating
System. It is also known as Multitasking Operating System. The Operating System allocates a set
of time to each user. When this time expires, it passes control to the next user on the system. Time
taken by each task to get executed is called the quantum. Example of such operating systems are
Unix, Linux, Windows NT etc.
Multiprocessing OS: These Operating systems are capable of processing multiple tasks. This is

possible due to multiple processors being used in a single computer. The OS divides the task into
many subtasks and they are further redirected to the different Central Processing Units. This
 Encoding Schemes 47

OS is used when we need high execution speed for a process. They are expensive due to large
architecture. Examples are Solaris, Digital UNIX, Windows NT, SunOS Version 4, IOS etc.
Real Time OS: A Real Time OS is the one which manages the time and resources of a CPU by

splitting the given application into multiple tasks and runs the most important task first. It
keeps on switching between the tasks giving an impression of running multiple programs
simultaneously. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints,
otherwise the system will fail. This OS splits and prioritizes the application task and runs the
highest priority task that is ready first. It is a time-bound system that can be defined as fixed time
constraints. Some of the examples are air traffic control and medical systems.
Distributed OS: Computers over the network also communicate to perform a given task. The

system where independent computers over the network appear as a single system to the user in
spite of being separate are called distributed systems. This means that the processors of these
multiple computers work together to work on a real time application. Processors communicate
with each other through various communication lines (like high-speed buses or telephone lines).
Distributed OS has various advantages, like, failure of one system will not affect the rest of the
systems. Moreover, the speed of the application execution is very fast and thus provides better
service to the customers. Good example of this OS is the Online examination system where a single
question paper is distributed among all the systems(computers) and can accessed independently.
Network OS: A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that manages hardware of

the computers over the network and provides services to the Application software. The Network
Operating Systems can distribute their tasks and functions amongst connected nodes in the
network, which enhances the system overall performance. The NOS manages multiple requests
(inputs) concurrently and provides the security necessary in a multiuser environment. Popular
network operating systems are Novell Netware, Windows NT/2000, Linux, Sun Solaris, UNIX etc.
Mobile OS: As the name suggests, this software is specifically designed to run applications on

your mobile phone. Some of the commonly used mobile OS are iPhone’s OS, Apple iOS, Google’s
Android etc.
Some of the important functions of Operating System are:-
1. Process management:- Since multiple applications can run at a time on our computer, it is the
duty of the operating system to synchronize between various applications, allocate resources
so that the data can be shared. Tasks like creation, scheduling and termination of processes are
managed by the operating system for faster execution of multiple processes.
2. Memory management:- Every program/application running on the computer needs memory for
storing the data. It is the operating system which is responsible for allocation and deallocation of
memory for these programs.
3. File management:- We work on and store various types of files on our computer. The operation
system is responsible for not only creating files but also storing them at specific locations,
renaming them, sharing and protecting the files. Similarly, it also manages fast retrieval of files
when searching is done.
4. Device Management:- Device management keeps track of all devices which includes I/O, storage
devices and other networking devices etc. The operating system allocates and deallocates the
devices to the processes as and when needed. It needs device drivers ( which are programs to
 48 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

control the device and make them respond to I/O processes) to run the I/O devices. The OS stores,
registers and uses these drivers as per the requirement of the program.
5. Security:- Since the data stored on our computer is vulnerable to malware threats, the operating
system security allows different applications and programs to perform required tasks and stop
unauthorized interference by installing updated antivirus software, providing specific privileges
to files etc.

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is the evolution in the field of information technology where delivery of on-demand
computing services is done over the internet. In simple terms, cloud computing means storing and
accessing data and applications over the Internet instead of your computer’s local hard drive. The
concept of maximizing resource utilization by sharing is the foundation of cloud. Companies can rent
hardware as well as software and can access anything from application to storage from the service
provider. This helps the companies to avoid the extra cost of purchasing and further maintaining
them.
Many companies like Google, Microsoft are delivering cloud based services.
Benefits of Cloud Computing:
1. 
Cost : No extra money is to be spent for purchasing the hardware and software as everything is
handled online.
2. 
Security : Cloud service providers provide technologies to ensure that the data is safe and secure.
3. 
Speed : Most of the cloud services are not only easily available but are very fast too as the resources
are easily accessible by clicking a mouse button.
4. 
Performance : Cloud service providers keep themselves updated and upgrade themselves
regularly which results in good performance.
5. 
Reliability : The data stored in the cloud can be recovered under some disaster circumstance like
system crashing.
Main characteristics of Cloud computing are:
1. 
On demand service : You don’t need to go anywhere physically. As and when there is a requirement,
you can access the applications through the browser.
2. 
Resource pooling : The same services like, storage, networking capabilities, software can be used
by multiple users
3. 
Broad Network access : The service can be accessed from PCs, Mobile, Laptops etc. using the
Application Program Interface (API).
4. 
Rapid Elasticity: As and when the expansion of the services required, it can be done without any
complexity.

Types of Cloud Computing

There are a variety of Cloud Computing available depending upon the service demanded and the
solution expected. The three types of cloud computing are public, private and hybrid.
 Encoding Schemes 49

Public Cloud is the one where the services like server and storage are provided by a third-party cloud
service provider. The entire infrastructure is owned as well as maintained by these providers. Such
service supports multiple customers and is suited for less confidential information. The services
provided by them can be accessed using the browser. The customers have to pay as per the usage for
the CPU cycles, storage or bandwidth they consume. Examples are Gmail services provided by Google.
Its resources are shared by millions of people worldwide
Private Cloud is the one which is used exclusively by a business or a company as per their need and
requirement. The maintenance is done by third party providers on the private network of the company
and the company’s IT department is held responsible for the cost and accountability of managing the
private cloud. The cloud is set up on the company’s onsite data center. The customization is done as
per the requirement of the company. Moreover such service is comparatively made more secure using
the company firewalls and internal hosting so that the sensitive data is safe. Such service is costly.
Examples are Banking systems or Hospitals
Hybrid Cloud is the combination of Private and Public cloud. More flexibility is provided to the
business as the data can be moved between public and private cloud. More sensitive data can be
kept on the private cloud while the non-sensitive data can be on the public cloud. For example in
the Banking system, the details of the customers can be stored on the private cloud while the bank’s
policy details can be on public cloud. Hybrid cloud is cost effective, flexible and secure.
The services themselves have long been referred to as Software as a Service (SaaS). The datacenter
hardware and software is what we will call a Cloud. When a Cloud is made available in a pay-as-you-
go manner to the general public, we call it a Public Cloud; the service being sold is Utility Computing.
We use the term Private Cloud to refer to internal datacenters of a business or other organization, not
made available to the general public. Thus, Cloud Computing is the sum of SaaS and Utility Computing,
but does not include Private Clouds.

Cloud Service Models

Once a cloud is established, how its cloud computing services are deployed in terms of business models
can differ depending on requirements. These services include providing software applications,
programming platforms, data-storage or computing infrastructure. Cloud computing services
include Hardware, Software and Data Services. There are three types of models depending upon the
requirement of the customer. They are:-
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
 50 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

The first type of model provided by the cloud service provider includes computational resources
(hardware), software, servers, data storage, and communication. These services come under
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS). So as the name suggests, it provides the infrastructure for developing
your web app/website. In this case, they host users applications and handle tasks including system
maintenance, backup and planning. The customers pay as per their usage of the services. It is also
called Hardware as a service. More customer efforts are required in terms of technical knowledge
as only infrastructure support is given by the service provider. It is popular between developers
and researchers. The companies which provide IaaS are Amazon, Microsoft, Red Hat. Netflix rents
Amazon cloud to host the various streaming applications.

Platform as a Service (PaaS)

The second model after IaaS is Platform as a Service, where business development can happen which
saves both time and resources. The solutions provided by the service provider include virtualized
servers, databases and operating systems. The money to be spent on the hardware can be avoided and
it helps in easy collaboration too. PaaS provides tools for web development as so the basic knowledge
of the subject to setup is needed. PaaS is used by the developers and provides a runtime environment
for applications, development and deployment tools. Examples of PaaS service providers are Google
App Engine and Microsoft Azure.
 Encoding Schemes 51

Software as a Service (SaaS)

The third and final model of the cloud is Software-as-a-Service, or SaaS. It is sometimes referred
to as on-demand software. Any application hosted on a remote server that can be accessed over
the Internet using a web browser is considered a SaaS. It represents the capability provided to the
consumer to use the provider’s applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are
accessible from various client devices through an interface such as a web browser. This model hosts
the software and makes it available to the client to be used by the end-user. It is popular between
consumer and company. Examples are M.S office web, Facebook and google apps.

Software as a Service (SaaS) Platform as a Service (PaaS) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Used by End users Used by Developers Used by Network architect and
system administrators
It provides everything like Provide tools for web Provide Space for web development
Software, Infrastructure, development
Network and Application
Technical knowledge not Basic setup knowledge Technical knowledge required.
required required.
Not very Expensive Expensive Very Expensive
Not very flexible This model is flexible with This model is very flexible
limitations

Blockchain technology
Blockchain is a transparent money exchange system that defines the way transactions are done. It is
a database of records of transactions which is distributed, and which is validated and maintained by
a network of computers around the world. It is also referred to as digital gold. Instead of a single
central authority such as a bank, the records are supervised by a large community and no individual
person has control over it and no one can go back and change or erase a transaction history.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

You all must be aware of smart devices like Alexa, Siri, Microsoft cortana etc. Why they are called
smart is due to the reason that they understand what you say when you talk to them and respond
accordingly. When you say, ‘Hey Alexa play the song......’, the song is immediately searched and played.
Does that mean that the machine has become intelligent and has started thinking the way we do?
AI is a branch of science which enables machines to behave and respond intelligently to a given
task or a situation, the way humans do.
AI allows machines to do tasks quickly, modify the operations based on given situations and automate
the things.
We all know that machines understand the language of 0 and 1 (also called binary language). Whatever
input we provide to the computer is converted into the machine understandable language. We can
provide the input to the computer through speech, visuals, text etc. Artificial Intelligence is a huge
 52 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

branch which makes machines intelligent by providing the data using various modes of inputs and
then making predictions on the basis of the real time data.

Today AI is used in almost all fields, like:

Finance industry
Education Industry
Healthcare Industry
Insurance Industry etc.
As per the New Education policy also, there will be more emphasis on coding and AI due to the
following reasons:
Coding helps children learn to problem solve
Coding enhances thinking ability in a child.

Computer programming teaches children to experiment and gives them the confidence to be
creative.

Coding is more about teaching children how to think differently.

Coding helps children learn how to have fun with math.

Children should become innovative, adaptive, build problem solving and logical reasoning skills

Mathematics is essential due to its role in numerous upcoming fields and it requires computational
thinking.

Will raise awareness on issues of privacy, laws, standards associated with data handling and data
protection.

AI will add value to existing curriculum as its multidisciplinary nature will help to make
connections between different subjects.

AI based software can be developed and used by students to track their growth in school learning
years and to improve learning experience.
 Encoding Schemes 53

Machine Learning (ML)

As mentioned above, AI is a huge branch which has many subsets and one such subset is Machine
Learning.
Machine Learning is a branch of Artificial Intelligence which allows machines to learn from the data
stored in the computer or on cloud.
As the data grows, the predictions made by the model become more accurate. Machine learning works
for specific domains based on the designed algorithms. For example, teaching machines to identify
fruits correctly. If the data is limited, then a machine may predict a tomato as an apple as both are red
in color. So as we grow the data with all possibilities of an apple which includes color, dimensions etc.,
the machine model will become more accurate.
Some of the applications of machine learning are Google search algorithms, Facebook auto friend
tagging suggestions, Netflix suggestions etc.

Internet of Things (IoT)

You must have heard of smart devices, like smart lights which can be controlled using your mobile.
Car ACs can be switched on before you reach your car to get a comfortable temperature. All these
devices which can be connected to the internet and allow collection and sharing of data is called the
Internet of Things (IoT). The otherwise dumb devices are made intelligent by using sensors, software
and technology and thus allowing them to communicate with the real time data. The IoT has brought
the power of the internet, data processing and analytics to the real world of physical objects.
As per Wikipedia, the term IoT was coined by Kevin Ashton of P&G in 1999.
Note: You can check few interesting AI based experiments at the given links
https://mysteryanimal.withgoogle.com/ (MYSTERY ANIMAL)
https://mixlab.withgoogle.com/ (MIX LAB)
https://teachablemachine.withgoogle.com/ (TEACHABLE MACHINE)
https://quickdraw.withgoogle.com/ (QUICK DRAW)
https://experiments.withgoogle.com/ai/ai-duet/view/ (PIANO WITH RESPONSE)
https://shadowart.withgoogle.com/?lang=en-us (SHADOW ART)
https://www.autodraw.com/

Summary
1. The process of converting the keys we press on the keyboard into their equivalent code is called
encoding.
2. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
3. Unicode contains the alphabets of almost all known languages. UTF8: UTF-8 stands for “Unicode
Transformation Format - 8 bits. UTF32 is a fixed length encoding system which uses 4 bytes per
character.
4. ISCII stands for Indian Script code for Information Interchange.
 54 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

5. Operating System is an interface between the user and the computer as its main job is to manage
the hardware of the computer, make other applications run and to convert high level language
(user understandable language) into low level language (or Binary language or computer
understandable language) and vice versa.
6. Examples of Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows (Windows 10, Windows 8, Windows 7,
Windows Vista, and Windows XP), Apple’s macOS, Google’s OS, BlackBerry Tablet OS, Unix and
Linux.
7. The operating system also helps various programs to run on different hardware platforms as it
acts as an interface between the Software and Hardware.
8. We can run multiple programs at the same time as the operating system allows multitasking.
9. Memory Management means then when the data is provided to the computer, it is the job of the
operating system to decide which application data will be stored where and will occupy how
much memory.
10. Resource Management controls input-output resources of the computer and allocates them to the
users or programs as per their requirement.
11. Types of Operating Systems
Batch Operating System
Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
Multiprocessing OS
Real Time OS
Distributed OS
Network OS
Mobile OS
12. Some of the important functions of Operating System are:
Process management
Memory management
File management
Device Management
Security
13. Cloud computing means storing and accessing data and applications over the Internet instead of
your computer’s local hard drive.
14. Benefits of Cloud computing are cost, speed, security, performance and reliability.
15. Different types of cloud computing are Public, Private and Hybrid Cloud.
16. There are three types of models depending upon the requirement of the customer, which are:-
○ Software as a Service (SaaS)
○ Platform as a Service (PaaS)
○ Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
 Encoding Schemes 55

17. Blockchain technology is a database of records of transactions which is distributed, and which is
validated and maintained by a network of computers around the world.
18. AI is a branch of science which enables machines to behave and respond intelligently to a given
task or a situation, the way humans do.
19. Machine Learning is a branch of Artificial Intelligence which allows machines to learn from the
data stored in the computer or on cloud.
20. The devices which can be connected to the internet and allow collection and sharing of data is
called the Internet of Things (IoT).

Multiple choice questions

1. Operating system is:
a. collection of programs that manages hardware resources
b. system service provider to the application programs
c. interface between the hardware and application programs
d. all of the above
2. To access the services of the operating system, the interface is provided by:
a. System calls b. API
c. Library d. Assembly instructions
3. Operating system can handle__________ errors.
a. power failure b. lack of paper in printer
c. connection failure in the network d. all of the mentioned
4. Operating system is placed in:
a. low memory b. high memory
c. either low or high memory d. none of the mentioned
5. If case of a failure of a process, most operating system writes the error to:
a. log file b. another running process
c. new file d. Parent process
6. __________ is not a part of the operating system.
a. Input/output control program b. Job control program
c. Supervisor d. Performance monitor
7. Operating system is a collection of:
a. Software routines b. Input-output devices
c. Hardware components d. Software components
8. _________ is not an example of an operating system.
a. UNIX b. MS-DOS c. CP/M d. PASCAL
 56 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

9. ______ is the operating system which reads and reacts in terms of actual time.
a. Real time system b. Time sharing system
c. Quick response system d. Batch system
10. _________ software is used to simplify using of system software.
a. Time sharing b. Multi-tasking c. Operating environment d. Spreadsheet
11. To access the services of operating system, the interface is provided by the:
a. system calls b. API c. Library d. assembly instructions
12. __________ runs on computer hardware and serves as a platform for other system to run on
a. Operating system b. Application system
c. System software d. All of above
13. _______ is the layer of a computer system between the hardware and the user.
a. Operating environment b. Operating system
c. System environment d. None of these
14. Which is the first program run on a computer when the computer boots up?
a. System software b. Operating system
c. System operations d. None
15. Which of the following requires a device driver?
a. Register b. Cache c. Main memory d. Disk
16. ASCII stands for..
a. American Standard Code for Information Interchange
b. Accurate Standard Code for Information Interchange
c. American Suitable Code for Information Interchange
d. American Standard Code for Inter Interchange
17. Which of the following encoding systems include Korean, Greek, Latin and many such languages?
a. ASCII b. ISCII c. UNICODE d. PASCII
18. Which of the following is not the advantage of Cloud Computing?
a. Speed b. Security c. Reusability d. Reliability
19. Which cloud service refers to internal datacenters of a business or other organization, not made
available to the general public.
a. Hybrid b. Hierarchical c. Private d. Public
20. Expanded form of PaaS is:
a. Platform as a Service b. Poor as a Service
c. Packet as a Server d. Packet as as Service
21. Which technology is referred to as digital gold?
a. Brokerage Technology b. Blocking Technology
c. Backward Technology d. Blockchain Technology
 Encoding Schemes 57

22. Alexa, Siri, Microsoft Cortana etc. are the examples of

a. Augmented Reality b. Blockchain Technology
c. Artificial Technology d. None of the above

Fill in the blanks

1. Operating System is an _____ between the user and the computer as its main job is to manage the
hardware of the computer.
2. Using the operating system the programs are able to communicate with the ________ of the
computer.
3. Whenever the user sends the instruction in user understandable language or high level language
the operating system converts it into low level language or ________ understandable language.
4. The operating system also helps various programs to run on different hardware platforms as it
acts as an interface between the _________ and Hardware.
5. We can run multiple programs at the same time as the operating system allows________.
6. Job of the operating system to decide which application data will be stored where and will occupy
how much_______.
7. The operating system controls ___________ resources of the computer and allocates them to the
users or programs as per their requirement.
8. Certain tasks of similar type can be ________ or combined together to speed up the process and the
execution time.
9. Time Sharing Operating System is also known as _________ Operating System.
10. Time taken by each task to get executed is called the______.
11. Multiprocessing Operating systems are capable of processing ______ tasks.
12. A ________ OS is the one which manages the time and resources of a CPU by splitting the given
application into multiple tasks and runs the most important task first.
13. Computers over the network also ________ to perform a given task.
14. The system where independent computers over the network appear as a single system to the user
in spite of being separate are called__________.
15. A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that manages hardware of the
computers over the network and provides services to the __________ software.

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Mobile OS is specifically designed to run applications on your mobile phone.
2. Multiple applications can run at a time on our computer, it is the duty of the operating system to
synchronize between various applications, allocate resources so that the data can be shared.
3. Tasks like creation, scheduling and termination of processes are not managed by the operating
system for faster execution of multiple processes.
4. Every program/application running on the computer needs memory for storing the data.
 58 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

5. We work on and store various types of files on our computer.

6. The operation system is responsible for only creating files but not with storing them at specific
locations, renaming them, sharing and protecting the files.
7. Device management does not keep track of all devices which include I/O, storage devices and
other networking devices etc.
8. The operating system allocates and deallocates the devices to the processes as and when needed.
9. Operating system needs device drivers to run the I/O devices.
10. Operating System is an interface between the user and the computer.
11. Using the operating system the programs are able to communicate with the hardware of the
computer.
12. The operating system does not help various programs to run on different hardware platforms as
it acts as an interface between the Software and Hardware.
13. We cannot run multiple programs at the same time as the operating system allows multitasking.
14. The operating system also helps in memory management.
15. It is the job of the operating system to decide which application data will be stored where and will
occupy how much memory.

Short questions
1. Define the term operating system.
2. Write the main purpose of using an operating system.
3. Give any five examples of an operating system.
4. What is the need of an operating system?
5. Define the term device management.
6. What is multitasking?
7. What is memory management?
8. Write one difference between device management and memory management.
9. Define the term resource management.
10. Name the types of operating system.

Long questions
1. Explain batch operating system.
2. What’s the main purpose of an OS? What are the different types of OS?
3. Write a short note on multitasking operating system.
4. Differentiate between multiprocessing OS and real time OS.
5. Write a short note on distributed OS.
6. Explain network OS.
 Encoding Schemes 59

7. Explain the functions of operating system.

8. Differentiate among process management and memory management.
9. Explain the function of operating system device management.
10. What are the benefits of a multiprocessor system?

Answer:
Multiple choice questions
1. d 2. a 3. d 4. c 5. a 6. d 7. a 8. d
9. a 10. a 11. a 12. a 13. b 14. b 15. d

Fill in the blanks

1. interface 2. hardware 3. machine 4. software
5. multitasking 6. memory 7. input-output 8. batched
9. multitasking 10. quantum 11. multiple 12. real Time
13. communicate 14. distributed systems 15. application

State whether the following statements are true or false

1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True
6. False 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. True
11. True 12. False 13. False 14. True 15. True
 4 Problem Solving

Introduction to problem solving

There were times when for managing the records in the schools, offices, business there were piles
of registers required to be maintained. For doing any kind of calculation, either manual mode was
used or one had to rely on a calculator. There were possibilities of lack of accuracy and the work
was tedious too. But in today’s scenario things have been made convenient due to the automation
in almost every field. Be it generating a report card of a child, or doing train/air reservations, online
shopping of clothes or grocery, ordering food, accessing eBooks to study anytime and anywhere, the
list is endless. But all these things were not made convenient just like that. The people identified the
problems they were facing in different areas and started looking for the solution through computers
to make the task execution quick and accurate. Problem solving thus is the key feature of computers.
We use and need computers in almost every field for solving the problems in almost all areas.
Solving a problem requires many steps starting from identifying the actual need to breaking up the
problem into small sub problems and then working towards getting the desired output for each sub
problem and then doing the final compilation. Once it’s done then we need to test whether we were
able to achieve the result successfully or not. In this section we will study more about the concept of
problem solving and its techniques.

Steps for problem solving

Suppose while working on your laptop or desktop, you face an issue of sudden shutdown. What will
you do if the system is not able to boot? You will first try to find a problem. It could be because of the
virus or there could be some problem in the IC of the computer or could be a problem in the power
button. The possibilities are many. If we are not able to solve the issue ourselves then the next step
we follow is to take the system to the service center where the technical person checks the machine,
identifies the problem, rectifies it, tests your machine after rectification and once everything is
checked, returns your machine. So in the process of problem solving, certain steps are followed to
reach the desired result.
Same is the case when we need to do a task in computers. To perform a task, we need to follow some
steps to achieve the required result and they are:
Analyze the problem Develop an algorithm
Write the Code Test the Code and Debug if any issue
 Problem Solving 61

Analyze the problem

Before we start to work it is very important to understand the issue we need to solve. If the issue is
not clear then we can never reach the correct result. Suppose we want to find the sum of numbers.
So the problem we need to solve is to do addition so that the sum can be generated. We also need to
decide whether we want to find the sum of two numbers or more numbers.

Develop an algorithm
The next step is to know the requirements we need to solve the problem. This task is achieved when
we design the process from the requirement to the final result in natural and simple to understand
language. This is called an algorithm. So algorithms are the step-by-step procedure or set of rules
needed to reach the desired result.
In continuation to the above problem, if we want to develop algorithm of finding sum of 2 numbers
then the procedure we will follow will be:
a. We need to take one number
b. We need to take second number
c. We must add two numbers and store result in a temporary memory
d. We display the answer stored in the memory by extracting the result from it.

Write the Code

Once the algorithm is written we need to choose a programming language to write the program so
that the steps of algorithms are understood by the computer and the result can be generated. Coding
will be discussed in detail via Python Language in the later part of the chapter.

Test the Code and Debug if any issues

This is the final phase of problem solving, where the program written is checked by executing. If the
result is successfully generated as per the requirement, then the code is successful. There can be
possibilities where either the code doesn’t run due to the incorrect syntax rules or the code executes
but generates the incorrect result.
We must always remember the GIGO concept(Garbage in Garbage out) also. If we provide incorrect
input, the result will always be incorrect.
There are a number of testing tools used by the companies to test the code developed. Some of the
testing automation tools are Selenium, TestingWhiz, TestComplete, Ranorex etc.

Algorithm
Algorithms are the step-by-step procedure or set of rules needed to solve a given progroblem and
reach the desired result. Before we start writing the algorithms we must have the answers of few
questions like:
Do I understand the questions? What type of input and output can the problem have?
 62 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Are there multiple ways to solve the problem? If yes, then which one is most efficient?
Will working be the same for all cases and inputs?
If not then what exception should be included and how to handle them?

We must remember the following while writing an algorithm:

The steps of the algorithm must be clear and precise. It should not be conflicting or ambiguous.
Input and output should be defined precisely.
The algorithm must be effective and should be able to run with minimum number of resources
Algorithms should be able to work on any programming language.

There are two ways to write the algorithm:

1. Using Flowchart
2. Using Pseudo Code

Representation of algorithms using flowchart

Flowchart is a visual representation of algorithms. We use symbols to prepare flowchart. Following
is the list of symbols used to prepare flowchart.

Let us take a few examples to understand how flowchart is made.

Example 1: Write an algorithm to accept two numbers and find their sum. Also draw the flowchart
for the same.
 Problem Solving 63

Algorithm
1. Start the program 2. Accept number 1. 3. Accept number 2
4. Find the sum 5. Print the sum 6. Program ends
Flowchart

Example 2: Write an algorithm to accept a number and find whether it is an even number or odd. Also
draw the flowchart for the same.
Algorithm
1. Start the program
2. Accept a number.
3. Check if it is divisible by 2. The remainder will be 0 if the number is divisible by 2.
4. If remainder is 0 print the number is “Even”
5. If remainder is not 0 print the number is “odd”
6. Program ends
 64 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Representation of algorithms using pseudo code

Pseudocode is another way to represent algorithms. It’s the informal way by which the programmers
develop the algorithm. It is used for creating an outline or a rough draft of a program. It summarizes
the flow of the program. Pseudocode is not an actual programming language. It uses short terms
or simple English language syntaxes to write code for programs. The main advantage of writing a
pseudocode is that it Improves the readability of the algorithm as it acts like a bridge between the
program and the algorithm or flowchart.
Some of the keywords used in Pseudocode are :
INPUT PRINT INCREMENT DECREMENT
IF/ELSE WHILE TRUE/FALSE

Let us see the following examples to understand how to write Pseudocode and draw flowcharts.

Example 1
Write an algorithm using pseudocode and flowchart to accept a number and find whether it is an even
number or odd.
 Problem Solving 65

Pseudocode
1. Input number A
2. If A MOD 2==0 then
Print “EVEN”
Else
Print “ODD”
Flowchart

Example 2
Write an algorithm using pseudocode and flowchart to accept five numbers and find their average
Pseudocode
1. C=0 and S=0 2. While C<5 repeat steps 3 to 6
 66 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

3. Input Number N 4. Compute S=S+N

5. Compute C=C+1 6. Go back to step 2
7. Compute Average = S/5 8. Print Average

Flowchart

Example 3
Write an algorithm using pseudocode and flowchart to find the sum of first 10 even numbers starting
from 2
Pseudocode
1. C=1 and S=0 2. While C<=10 repeat steps 3 to 6
3. Compute N=2*C 4. Compute S=S+N
5. Compute C=C+1 6. Go back to step 2
7. Print Sum
 Problem Solving 67

Flowchart

Example 4
Write an algorithm using pseudocode and flowchart to accept a number and find whether it is a
multiple of 6 or just 3 or just 2 or the other number.
Pseudocode
1. Input number N
2. If N mod 6 ==0 then
Print Its multiple of 6
Else if N mod 3==0 then
Print its multiple of just 3
Else if N mod 2==0 then
Print its multiple of 2
Else
Print Multiple of other number
 68 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Flowchart

Decomposition
Sometimes the problem we want to work on is complex. By complex, it means it has a lot of sub
options or sub functions to perform. So it is always better to break up the complex tasks into subtasks
and work on them individually. This process of breaking large problems into small manageable small
problems is called decomposition.
Take an example of a school management system. The tasks performed by the school are not just the
result generation but also to manage the teachers records, transport details of students, fee details,
teachers salary, time table details, hostel details.
When each sub task is taken individually, it’s managed and handled properly. Moreover each sub task
can be handled by the specific team of members who are specialized in their respective areas. These
subtasks can later be combined to run a complete management system,
 Problem Solving 69

Summary
1. 
The steps for problem solving include Analyze the problem, Develop an algorithm, Write the
Code, Test the Code and Debug if any issues
2. 
Algorithms are the step-by-step procedure or set of rules needed to solve a given progroblem and
reach the desired result.
3. There are two ways to write the algorithm, Flowchart and Pseudo Code
4. Flowchart is a visual representation of algorithms.
5. Pseudocode is the informal way by which the programmers develop the algorithm.
6. 
Pseudocode improves the readability of the algorithm as it acts like a bridge between the program
and the algorithm or flowchart.
7. 
The process of breaking large problems into small manageable small problems is called
decomposition.
8. In flowchart
a. The oval symbol is used for start/end of program
b. The rectangle Symbol is used to represent arithmetic operations
c. The parallelogram symbol is used when we need to accept value or display the output.
d. Diamond symbol is used for making decisions
e. An arrow symbol is used for connecting the other symbols

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is not a step needed to solve a problem:
A. Analyze the problem B. Develop an algorithm
C. Copy the Code D. Test the Code and Debug if any issues
2. The step by step procedure or set of rules needed to solve a given progroblem and reach the
desired result is called as:
a. Coding b. Algorithm c. Output d. Testing
3. The symbol used to represent input or output is: (c)
a. b. c. d.

4. The symbol which is used for connecting other symbols is: (d)
a. b. c. d.

5. Arithmetic operations in a flowchart can be represented using the following symbol. (b)
a. b. c. d.
 70 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

6. Following is the flowchart which checks whether a number X is positive or negative. Choose the
correct option in the order of the blank boxes

FALSE TRUE

DISPLAY DISPLAY
“NEGATIVE” “POSITIVE”

a. Input X, Is X>=0, Stop b. Is X>=0, Stop, Input X

c. Stop, Input X, Is X>=0 d. Input X, Stop, Is X>=0
7. Which of the following is one of the ways to write the algorithm?
a. PseudoCode b. Decomposition
c. Chart d. None of the above
8 This process of breaking large problems into small manageable small problems is called
a. Analysis b. Decomposition
c. Problem breaking d. All the above

Subjective Questions
1. Write the steps required for problem solving.
2. What do you understand by Algorithm? Explain with the help of an example
3. Name the two ways to write the algorithm.
4. Write an algorithm using flowchart to
a. check if the number N is a positive or a negative number.
b. check if the number N is a multiple of 5 or not.
c. Find the largest of the two numbers A and B.
5. Draw the symbols used in flowchart to:
a. To decision making b. To accept input or display output
c. To perform arithmetic operations d. To start/end a program
 5 Python

Introduction to Python
Python is a general-purpose high-level programming language which was
conceived in the year 1980 and implemented in the year 1989 by Dutch
programmer Guido Van Rossum at CWI in the Netherlands as a successor to
the ABC programming language. Today, Python is one of the most widely used
programming languages with features like code readability with simple to
understand syntax and also to express the concepts/ programs in fewer lines
of codes. It’s an interpreted language which means you type the command and
get the result instantly.
It supports multiple programming paradigms like object-oriented as well as structured programming.
Python is an open-source language which means that anyone can contribute to it and anyone can
freely download it and use it. Today, Python is used in every part of our lives starting from web
searches to gaming, scientific and mathematical computing, and even in AI projects. Websites like
Instagram, YouTube use Python. Today, Python is used in AI, Machine learning, Data Mining, Data
Science, Graphic Design Applications, Product development, Testing, Automation Scripting and many
such fields.
Being an open-source language, Python can be downloaded free of cost from the website https://
www.python.org/downloads/ . The latest version of Python is 3.9.4 which was released on 4th April
2021 but we can work on version 3.6 and above.
Features of Python are as follows:
It is a simple and a versatile language. It can be run on various systems.

Beginners just learning to program appreciate Python’s simplicity and interactivity. It is an easy
to learn language.

Python can be learned quickly, and for many experienced programmers, the initial investment of
effort into learning enough about Python to use it practically is remarkably small.

Python is a free and open-source language. It is an example of FLOSS (Free/Libré and Open Source
Software). In simple terms, you can freely distribute copies of this software, read it’s source code,
make changes to it, use pieces of it in new free programs.
Python is a High Level Language.

Python can be easily ported to many platforms which allows python programs to work on any
platform without making any major changes. You can use Python on Linux, Windows, FreeBSD,
Macintosh, Solaris etc.

It is an interpreted language. This means that unlike other programming languages like, C, C++,
where the source code has to be converted to binary code by the compiler before execution,
 72 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Python converts the source code into an intermediate form called bytecodes and then translates
this into the native language of your computer and then runs it. And thus you see the execution of
the commands line by line as no intermediate file is created in Python.

Python supports Object Oriented programming, which means the program is built around objects
which include data and functionality. It also supports Procedure Oriented programming, where
the program is built around procedures or functions.
Python has extensive libraries, which can be used to develop a lot of applications.

Installing Python
1. 
Python is an open source language and hence it can be downloaded free from the website www.
python.org. To install python go to https://www.python.org/downloads/
2. Choose the operating system
3. You can choose any version from 3.6 and above. The current version is 3.9.4.
 Python 73

4. 
You must choose the executable installer from the various files shown. This is advisable for the
offline version.

5. 
When you start installing, make sure that you know the path where the python is getting installed
as it will be required later when we work with multiple modules. It is therefore advisable to create
a folder say python367 in C drive and install python within that folder. So click on Customize
installation→ Next→ Change the install location to C:\python367
74 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI
 Python 75

6. Once Python is installed, go to run → IDLE and the python interpreter window will appear.

Execution modes
There are two modes to execute a python commands/programs:
1. Interactive Mode
2. Script Mode

Interactive mode
This mode is also called as RELP (Read Eval Print Loop) where the single line commands written by
the user are executed. The commands are executed by Python shell. This mode comes with the python
installation.
To access python shell:
Open Terminal (or command prompt) of your Operating System (Mac / Windows) → Type Python
The following screen will appear in windows:
 76 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

The following screen will appear in mac:

>>> is called the prompt which tells that the shell is ready to execute the commands by the Python
interpreter. When you type the command, the shell immediately executes and displays the result.

Try it!
Type >>>help( ) .
You will be able to get the help related to python command and other python related topics, which we
will do in the following chapters.

Interactive mode is convenient to use especially when your script is small and you would like to
check the result quickly. It helps the beginners to check the python commands result / execution. But
for long programs the shell is not recommended. Also you cannot make changes in the commands
written in shell. You have to rewrite them to see the changed result. So the second mode called is
‘Script Mode’ is used.
 Python 77

Script Mode
This mode is used when you need to write a complete python program and save the file written in a
text editor like sublime with the file extension .py
There are two ways to work on the script mode:
a. 
Since the file gets stored in the default folder where python is installed, just write the file name
with the complete path at the command prompt. For example to execute a python file ‘try.py’, we
write the following at the command prompt

b. 
IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning Environment) comes with the Python installation
in Windows and Mac and it provides a text editor with features like syntax highlighting and auto
indentation. It allows you to execute single line python statements or complete Python program.
Go to run and type IDLE to open the editor window.
 78 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

To open a new file select File→ New File, write the ‘very first Python program’ and Save with the name
‘try.py’.
Program

To execute the program select Run→ Run Module. You can also use the function key F5 to execute your
program.

Quick recap of features of Python Language

1. Its free and open-source language
2. 
Python is an interpreted language. The interpreter reads the source code line by line, and
executes it.
3. Python file extension is .py
4. It’s a case sensitive language
5. Python language come which GUI based libraries to make GUI enabled applications
 Python 79

Python character set

Every programming language recognizes and allows a certain set of characters to be used in a program.
These are called character sets. Following are the character sets allowed by Python programming
language:
Letters A-Z / a-z
Numbers/Digits 0-9
Special characters + – * / % // ( ) [ ] { } \ # , ; :: ‘ ‘ “ “ @ _ < > = & ** != ==
Python can also recognize all ASCII and UNICODE characters too.

Tokens
The smallest unit in a programming language used in building a program is called Token. This includes
keyword, identifier, literal, operator, punctuator.
1. Keywords

Every programming language has some predefined words which have some meaning in the
programming language. These predefined words are called as keywords. To see the list of
keywords type the following in interactive mode:
>>>help(“keywords”)
OR type
>>> help( ) and then
help>keywords

There are 35 keywords as per version 3.6.7. One more keyword is added in the latest version 3.9
and above
2. Literal
The data which we use in a program is called a literal. Data can be numeric, alphanumeric, complex
no or any other value required for a program.
Following are the different types of literals:
 80 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

a. String literal : It’s any alphanumeric value represented in quotes. Examples are, “Num123”,
“Have a Great Day”, “Rahul” etc.
b. Numeric literal : They are further categorized as:
i. Integer literal- They are values without decimal. Examples are 12, 78 , 1234 etc.
ii. Float literal. They are values with decimal. Examples 12.0, 99.90, 3.1414 etc.
iii. 
Complex literal: This has two parts real and imaginary. It is represented as a+bj. Examples
are 12+5j, 12.3+45.3j, 89j etc.
iv. 
Binary literal : Python can store the binary number by prefixing it with ‘0b’. Examples of
binary literal are 0b1001, 0b1110 etc.
v. 
Octal literal: Octal numbers also can be directly represented in python by directly prefixing
the no with 0c. For example 0c234, 0c567 etc.
vi. 
Hexadecimal literal: Hexadecimal numbers are represented in python by directly prefixing
the no with 0x. For example 0xA34, 0x5B7 etc.
c. Boolean literal: This has only two values, True and False.
3. Identifier
They identify the memory location. They are the names given to a variable/object which store the
value. So we identify the memory location by giving them a name and thus is called a variable.
Rules for naming an identifier
It can have alphabets A-Z, a-z and numbers 0-9.
It cannot be a keyword
It cannot have a space
It cannot start with a number
The only special character allowed is _ (underscore)
Variable name can start with _ (underscore)
Few examples of a valid identifiers are : Num, Num123, Num_123, _Num123, Data_xyz, Else, IF
Few examples of invalid identifiers are : else, 23Num, Data XYZ, Data-XYZ, Num$123
In Python, the variables are declared by simply assigning a value or literal. The type of the variable
is implicitly assigned as per the value it points to. So variables must be assigned values before
they are used.
For example:
>>>X=12 #X is variable of the type integer
>>>PI=3.14 #PI is variable of the type float
>>>Name=”Kavin” #X is variable of the type string
>>>B=0b1101 #B is variable of the type Binary
4. Operators
There are various types of operations we can perform on a variable. Operators provide different
results as per their use. Following are the different type of operators:
 Python 81

1. Arithmetic : They perform arithmetic operations. Following are the arithmetic operators:

operator Purpose Example Output

+ (Addition) Used to add numeric values >>>12+34 36
>>>3+6.77 9.77
- (Subtraction) Used to subtract the given numeric >>> 34-67 -33
values >>> 22.123-6.78 15.343
* (Multiplication) Used to multiply the numeric >>> 9*7 63
values >>> 45*2.2 99.00000000000001
>>> 1.2*1.2 1.44

Note: Floating-point numbers are stored as binary fractions, as the computer only understands
binary (0 and 1) but most of the fractions cannot be accurately stored in our computer due to the
hardware limitation. Due to this reason, you might see the floating point calculations with long
fraction part. This is generally with odd fraction nos, like 1.1, 4.33, 7.89 etc
/ (Division) Used to divide numerator by >>>5/2 2.5
denominator and gives precise >>>4/2 2.0
answer >>>6.7/3 2.2333333333333334
Note: In python the final result is always a number with decimal point (float value) irrespective of
whether the numerator and denominator both are integers.
// (Floor Returns the nearest possible >>>4//2 2
Division) integer less than or equal to the >>> 4.0//2 2.0
result >>> 3//2 1
>>>-3//2 -2
Note: The final result will be float if either or both the numbers are float.
% (Remainder) Gives the remainder when >>>3%2 1
numerator is divided by >>>-3%2 1
denominator >>>3%-2 -1
>>>-3%-2 -1
>>>10.5%5 0.5
Note: Remainder can be found for the floating point data also. Remainder works using the given
formula:
N%D = N-(N//D * D)
Explanation of the above Examples:
3%2 → 3 - (3//2 * 2) → 3-(1 *2) → 3-2=1
-3%2 → -3 - (-3//2 *2 ) → -3 - (-2 * 2) → -3+ 4 → 1
3%-2 → 3 - (3//-2 *-2 ) → 3 - (-2 * -2) → 3- 4 → -1
-3%-2 → -3 - (-3//-2 *-2 ) → -3 - (1 * -2) → -3+ 2 → -1
10.5%5 → 10.5 - (10.5//5 * 5) → 10.5 - (2.0 *5) → 10.5-10.0 → 0.5
 82 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

** Results in power of a number (ab) >>>3**2 (32) 9

(Exponentiation) >>>2**3**2 512
(2 ** 3 ) → 2
2 9

Note: All operators work from left to right except the exponentiation operator, which is executed
from right to left, if occurs in an expression consecutively.
Examples:
15//2//3 → 7//3 → 2
15/2/3 → 7.5/3 → 2.5
15 ** 2** 3 → 15 ** 8 → 158→ 2562890625

2. Relational
These operators do the comparison when used with the operands/variables and give the
result in True and False. Following are the relational operators:

Example
Operator Purpose a=10 Output
b=20
> Returns True if the first operand is greater than the second >>>a>b False
operand else returns False. >>>15>a True
>>>10>a False
>= Returns True if the first operand is greater than or equal to the >>>a>=6 True
second operand else returns False. >>>a>=15 False
>>>10>=a True
< Returns True if the first operand is smaller than the second >>>a<14 True
operand else returns False. >>>a<b True
>>>a<10 False
<= Returns True if the first operand is greater than or equal to the >>>a<=14 True
second operand else returns False. >>>a<=b True
>>>a<=10 True
!= Returns True if the two operands are not equal to each other >>>a!=10 False
else returns False >>>a!=b True
== Returns True if the two operands are equal else returns False >>>a==b False

3. Logical
The operators which generate results by combining multiple conditions are called logical
operators. The final result generated is in terms of True or False. Following are the examples
of logical operators:-
 Python 83

Example
Operator Purpose a=10 Output
b=0
and It combines multiple conditions where the final result >>>a>5 and b>=0 True
will be true all the conditions in an expression are true. >>>a!=10 and b<1 False
or It combines multiple conditions and generates the final >>>a>5 or b>=0 True
result if either one or all the conditions are true. >>>a!=10 or b<1 True
not Returns True if the operand is False and Returns False >>>not a False
if the operand is True. >>>not b True
>>>not -10 False
>>>not 10 False
>>>not 0 True
Note the following:
1. A variable with a non zero value is True and with zero value is False. Hence if a=10, then not a
is False. Similarly, if b=0 (Which is False), its inverse, i.e. not b is True
2. When these Logical operators are used in a single expression without any bracket, then the
priority is in the hierarchy not→ and→ or.
Example:
>>> a=5
>>> b=10
>>> c=-23
>>> print(a>4 or b==10 and c>-25)
True

Steps of execution:
b==10 and c>=-25 → T and T → T
a>4 or T → T or T → True

>>> print(a>14 or b==10 and c>-25)

True

Steps of execution:
b==10 and c>=-25 → T and T → T
a>14 or T → F or T → True

>>> print(a>14 or b==10 and c>-20)

False
 84 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Steps of execution:
b==10 and c>=-20 → T and F → F
a>14 or F → F or F → False

>>> print(a>14 or b==10 and not c>-25)

False

Steps of execution:
not c>=-25 → not T → F
b==10 and F → T and F → F
a>14 or F → F or F→ False

>>> print(a>14 or b==10 and not c>-20)

True

Steps of execution:
not c>=-20 → not F → T
b==10 and T → T and T → T
a>14 or T → F or T→ True
4. Assignment Operator
This operator assigns the value to the operand.

Example
Operator Purpose a=10 Output
b=3
= It assigns the value to the operand. >>>a=10
>>>print(a) 10
5. Augmented Assignment:
These operators also work with two operands and modifies the first operand by taking values
from both the operands. Following are the augmented operators:

Example
Operator Purpose a=10 Output
b=3
+= It adds the values of the two operands a and b and >>>a+=b 13
restore the result a+b in the first operand a print(a)
-= It subtracts the values of the two operands a and >>>a-=b 7
b and restore the result a-b in the first operand a print(a)
*= It multiplies the values of the two operands a and >>>a*=b 30
b and restore the result a*b in the first operand a print(a)
 Python 85

Example
Operator Purpose a=10 Output
b=3
/= It divides the values of the two operands a and b >>>a/=b 3.3333333333333335
and restore the result a/b in the first operand a print(a)
//= It does the floor division of the values of the two >>>a//=b 3
operands a and b and restore the result a//b in print(a)
the first operand a
**= It finds the power the values of the two operands >>>a**=b 1000
as a b and restore the result a b in the first operand print(a)
a
%= It finds the remainder of the values of the two >>>a%=b 1
operands a and b and restore the result a%b in print(a)
the first operand a

6. Membership Operator:
The following membership operators are used to find substring / value in a given string/object.
The result is returned as True if the value is found else False.

Operator Purpose Example Output

in Returns True if the value/substring is found in >>>a=”AEIOU” False
a given string/value else returns False >>>print(“OK” in a) True
>>>print(“O” in a)
not in Returns True if the value/substring is not >>>a=”SCHOOL” False
found in a given string/value else returns False >>>print(“CH” not in a) True
>>>print(“LO” not in a)

7. Identity Operator:
This operator returns True if the operands point to the same value else returns False

Operator Purpose Example Output

is Returns True if the operands/objects point to >>>a=”AEIOU” False
the same value >>>print(“OK” in a) True
>>>print(“O” in a)
not is Returns True if the value/substring is not found >>>a=”SCHOOL” False
in a given string/value else returns False >>>print(“CH” not in a) True
>>>print(“LO” not in a)

8. Bitwise operators
These operators are used for bitwise calculations on integers where the data is converted into
binary language and then the operations are performed bit by bit. Following are the different
Bitwise operators:
 86 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Operator Name Example

& Bitwise AND x&y
| Bitwise OR x|y
~ Bitwise NOT ~x
^ Bitwise XOR x^y
>> Bitwise right shift x>>1
<< Bitwise left shift x<<2

Punctuator
They are the ASCII characters which separate the data.
“*, /, &, (, ), { , }, \, |,;,:” are the few delimiters used in python.

Variables and Objects

Everything stored in memory is considered as an object in python language. Each object has a unique
ID (identity) which remains there for the lifetime of the object till the time it is used in a program.
When we store the data in a variable the implicit declaration of the type occurs depending upon the
data stored and the variable points to the address which stores the data. The address of the object/
data can be accessed using the ID() function. Have a look at the example given below:
For example:
The objects ‘b’ and ‘c’ store the same value and thus point to the
same address. So their ID is same. But it’s different from the ID of
‘d’ as the object points to a different address because the value is
not ‘int’ but ‘float’

Different ways of assigning values to variables

Way-1 Way-2

Way=3 Way-4

 Python 87

Interesting thing to know:

When we perform operation on variables in a single statement, then it is important to remember that
the operations are performed on the original values and not the modified values as shown below:
a,b=10,20
c=40
a,b=c,a
#This means that the variable ‘b’ will take old value of ‘a’ which is #10 and not 40
print(“a=”,a,”b=”,b,”c=”,c)
Output

The above diagram indicates that the objects/variables point to the address which stores the value.
When the calculations happen, the variable points to the address of the new value. Hence the result.

Concept of l-value and r-value

In a programming language, when we use the assignment operator to assign the data to a variable, the
value on the left side of the assignment operator is called l-value, while the value on the right side of
the assignment operator is called the r-value.
The l-value is an assignable object which can be modified as it has an identifiable memory location.
R-value is the one which is fetched and stored in the l-value. Look at the examples given below:
Example: 1
>>>Num=43
Here the l-value is Num which fetches the r-value 43 and stores.
Example: 2
In the first command the l-value is Data1 which stores a constant
r-value 10.
But in the second command, the l-value Data2, fetches the value stored
in Data1 (which is an r-value) and changes in Data1 later doesn’t affect
the Data2.
 88 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Comments in Python
It is always a good practice to keep on providing the details of the task performed by your program
at various intervals. This not only helps you to recall the program but also to modify or update your
program whenever needed without going through the whole code. Since the details are not to be part
of the executable program but for programmer’s reference, they are provided as comment. Thus,
comment is a text which is a part of our program but doesn’t get executed. There are two ways to
write a comment in python:
1. 
Single line Comment : It is provided using #. The text after ‘#’ is taken as a comment and is not
executed. But it works for a single line, hence the name.
Example

Single line comment won’t work beyond single line as shown below

Correct Way

2. 
Multiline comment: When you need to provide comment which exceed single line, then instead of
using # before every comment line, you can enclose the comment either in :
a. ””” Comment….””” → Three starting and ending double quotes
b. ’’’ Comment….’’’ → Three starting and ending single quotes
Example:

Summary
1. 
Python is a general purpose high level programming language which was implemented in the
year 1989 by Dutch programmer Guido Van Rossum. It can be downloaded from the website
www.python.org.
2. Two modes to execute a python program are interactive and script.
 Python 89

3. 
The smallest unit in a programming language used in building a program is called Token. This
includes keyword, identifier, literal, operator, punctuator.
4. Keywords are predefined words which have some meaning in the programming language.
5. 
The data which we use in a program is called a literal. Data can be numeric, alphanumeric, complex
no or any other value required for a program.
6. Identifier is the name given to a variable/object which stores the value.
7. 
Different types of operators which can be used in python program are Arithmetic, Relational,
Logical, Assignment, Membership, Identity and Bitwise.
8. Arithmetic operators perform arithmetic operations. Examples are +,-,*,/,//,%,**
9. 
Relational operators do the comparison when used with the operands/variables and give the
result in True and False. Examples are >,>=,<,<=,!=,==
10. The operators which generate results by combining multiple conditions are called logical
operators. Examples are and, or, not.
11. Assignment operator assigns the value to the operand. Example =
12. Augmented assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a binary operation and an
assignment statement. Examples are +=,-=,*=,/=,//=,**=,%=
13. Examples of membership operators are in and not in. It is used to find substring / value in a
given string/object.
14. Identity operator returns True if the operands point to the same value else returns False. Examples
are is and not is.
15. Bitwise operators are used for bitwise calculations on integers where the data is converted into
binary language and then the operations are performed bit by bit.
16. When we use the assignment operator to assign the data to a variable, the value on the left side
of the assignment operator is called l-value, while the value on the right side of the assignment
operator is called the r-value.
17. Comment is a text which is ignored by the compiler during the execution of the program. Two
types of comments are single line comment (#) and multiline comment (“””)

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is a valid identifier:
a. True b. 12ABC c. _False d. one&two
2. Which of the following is a relational operator:
a. > b. ** c. in d. is
3. Choose the correct logical operator/s:
a. + b. /= c. and d. in
 90 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

4. Identify the membership operator from the following:

a. in b. not in c. both a and b d. None of the above
5. Choose the correct arithmetic operator/s
a. is b. += c. % d. in
6. What will be the correct output of the statement ?
>>>7//2.0
a. 3 b. 3.0 c. 3.5 d. .35
7. Choose correct output of the given statement :
>>> 4+2**2*10
a. 18 b. 80 c. 44 d. None of the above
8. Give the output of the following code:
>>>X,Y,Z=7,3,4
>>>X-Y**2+Z
a. 3 b. 2 c. 2.0 d. 3.0
9. Give the output of the following code:
>>> a,b = 7,3.5
>>> (a-b)//2**2
a. 7.0 b. 7 c. 0 d. 0.0
10. Give the output of the following code:
>>>a,b,c=1,2,3
>>> a//b**c+a-c*a
a. -2 b. -2.0 c. 2.0 d. None of the above
11. If a=1, b=2 and c=3 then which statement will give the output as : 2.0 from the following:
a. >>>a%b%c+1 b. >>>a%b%c+1.0
c. >>>a%b%c d. >>>a%b%c-1
12. Which statement will give the output as : True from the following :
a. >>>not -5 b. >>>not 5 c. >>>not 0 d. >>>not(5-1)
13. Give the output of the following code:
>>>2**3**2
a. 512 b. 64 c. 128 d. 27
14. Give the output of the following code:
>>>(2**3)**2
a. 512 b. 64 c. 128 d. 27
15. Choose the correct keyword from the given options:
a. Global b. Data c. continue d. never
 Python 91

16. True and False are which type of literals:

a. Arithmetic b. String c. Numeric d. Boolean
17. The two identity operators are:
a. in,not in b. is, not is c. and, or d. True, False
18. Identify the incorrect way of declaring variables:
a. a=10;b=20;c=30 b. a=10,b=20,c=30
c. a,b,c=10,20,30 d. None of the above
19. The symbol for giving a single line comment in Python is:
a. % b. $ c. & d. #
20. >> operator is also called as:
a. Bitwise left shift b. Bitwise right shift
c. Bitwise AND d. Bitwise OR

Subjective Questions
1. What are Tokens?
2. Name at least 2 tokens.
3. Differentiate between the following:
a. Arithmetic and relational operators
b. / and // operator
c. Keyword and identifier
d. and or logical operators
e. Membership and identity operators
4. Write single line Python statements for the following
a. Declare two variables ‘X’ and ‘Y’ with same value 0
b. Given a=89;b=98, display the remainder when a is divided by b
c. Print the identity of the above python object ‘a’
d. Check whether ‘a’ is greater than ‘b’ or not and display the result.
e. Display the average of the three variables N, M and W
f. Declare a string literal with the value ‘Calculate’
g. Declare an integer literal with the vale 99
5. Write rules to name a variable in python.
6. What are comments? How are single line and multi-line comments inserted in a program?
7. What is the extension of a python file?
 6 Data Types

Data Types
When we store data in a variable, the implicit type is assigned to the variable and the value stored
decides the data type of the object. Python provides the following types of data to be stored in python
objects:

1. Numeric Data Type : It stores number data. It can further be categorized as

a. integer- which store integer values, i.e values without decimal.
b. float - which allows values with decimal.
c. complex - which allows to store complex value having real and imaginary part
 ll the above numeric data types are immutable, which means as soon as the value is changed/
A
modified, the ID of the object changes.
Examples

Data type/ Class Example Description

integer All integer values (positive or negative) come
under class integer, like 12, 45, -90, 78 etc.

float
All decimal value data comes under float class
12.0,-9.89,56.8 etc
complex

Examples of complex data are in the format

a+bj (where a and b are real and imaginary
part respectively)
 Data Types 93

Example showing that the numeric data types are immutable. As soon as the values are modified,
the ID of the objects change.

Note: The type() function tells you the data type of the value and shows the class to which it belongs
as shown in the above examples.

2. Boolean: It stores only two values ‘True’ and ‘False’.

Data type/ Class Example Description

Bool Note that the two boolean values True
and False have the first letter capital.

3. 
None : ‘None’ is similar to Null value in other programming languages. It is not similar to 0 or
False. It is an instance of None class.

Data type/ Class Example Description

None Note that None is a keyword and belongs to
class NoneType

None value is not equal to any value. A

variable assigned None in Python points to
an instance of ‘NoneType’ class and since
there is only one instance of the NoneType
class, therefore all the variables with value
None point to the same object.
Note that None is taken as False. Hence not
None is True.

4. 
Sequence: Python language allows the storage of multiple values under a single object in an
ordered manner. This means the order in which the data is stored, in the same order it can be
accessed too. Few types of sequence data types are string, list and tuple.
 94 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

a. String : It is a collection of alphanumeric characters stored in quotes.

Example:

The characters in the string are stored in consecutive memory locations, where each character
is called an element and each element can be accessed using the subscript number, as shown
in the diagram. The subscript is enclosed in a square bracket. The subscript is also called as
key or index

P y t h o n L a n g u a g e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Once the value is stored, the sequence of the characters remains in an ordered manner. It is an
immutable data type, where the changes are not allowed.

b. List : It is a heterogeneous collection of data. Heterogeneous means any data of any type can
be an element of a list. The data is stored within a square bracket. It can store duplicate values
also. It is also called as a mutable data type, which means changes in the object in terms of
addition, updating Some of the examples of list are given below:

List1

10 12 56 90
0 1 2 3

List2

“one” “two” “three” “four”

0 1 2 3
 Data Types 95

List3

56 “Anu” “F” 89.5 True

0 1 2 3 3

The element of a list can be extracted using the subscript/key/index (similar to strings). Lists
are mutable, which means the changes can be made in a list. The following code will help you
understand it:

→ The first element changed to 10.

→ Since it is a mutable object, its ID is not
changed even after changing the element.

Note : To create a blank List , we write L=[], where L is the name of a List.

c. Tuple : The third type of sequence data type is Tuple. It is also a heterogeneous collection of
data where the elements are stored in a round bracket.

Tup1

1 3 5 2
0 1 2 3

You can access any element of a tuple by using the subscript/key/index

Tuple is an immutable data type where the changes are not allowed. That is, a new tuple can
be created but an existing tuple cannot be modified.
Note:
To create a blank tuple , we write T=(), where T is the name of a tuple.

But it is important to know that a tuple with one element is created in the following
manner:
T=(10,) and not T=(10). This is because T=(10) will create an object of type integer
 96 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

5. 
Set: It is an unordered collection of data, where no duplicate value is allowed. The elements in a
set are enclosed in a curly bracket. The data in a set is not sequenced, which means the order in
which the data is stored is not the same when extracted.

Set is also a mutable data type but it is interesting to note that only those values can be added
to a set which are immutable like integer, float, boolean, complex, string and tuple. Also, the
new element can be added or the existing elements can be removed, but the elements cannot
be modified. Also, since the sets are unordered, so they are not subscriptable, which means you
cannot extract the elements location-wise.

6. 
Mapping: It is a data type where a key is mapped with an object. This means that the key is not
default like in the case of list, tuple, string but is provided while declaring a mapping data type.
Example of mapping data type is dictionary.
A dictionary maps keys to values. Keys are immutable objects, while values can be of any data
type. Dictionaries are mutable objects. The values in dictionary are enclosed within curly bracket
as key:value pair in the following manner:

In the above example, a dictionary object D is created with three elements with keys 1,2,3 and
their respective values as “one”, ”two” and “three” respectively.
 Data Types 97

“one” “two” “three”

0 1 2

Few more examples:

“Ruhana” “Hitesh” “Bharat”

[89,78,90] [90,67,86] [67,56,67]

“pen” “Pencil” True

89 45 6.7

To extract the values, we need to provide the key in the following manner:

Note : Keys in a dictionary are immutable objects, while values can be of any data type. This means
the key can be either integer, float, tuple, complex, string but not list or dictionary. Key cannot be
duplicate also.

Interesting to know:
If you try to create a dictionary object with the same key, then instead of showing error, the last value
of the same key is accepted as shown in the example below:

Mutable and Immutable data types

The data types are broadly categorized into type types, mutable and immutable. A mutable object is
an object whose value can change once created. An Immutable object is an object whose value can’t
change once created. Mutable objects store a collection of data. Example: List, set and dictionary.
Examples of immutable objects are int, float, bool, str, tuple.
 98 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

We can use the id() function to check the mutability of an object. id() returns the identity of an
object as an integer. This integer usually corresponds to the object’s location in memory. After any
modification in an object, if the ID of that object remains same, then it indicates that the object is
mutable.

Let us see few examples to understand mutable and immutable objects

Example-1

We will make some changes in the above object X and see the result

→ The ID changes after making change in X

Example-2

Making changes in 1st element

→ ID remains same, which shows its mutability.

 Data Types 99

Expressions
An expression is a combination of values which include variables, literals, operators which evaluate
to a single result. Following are the few examples of expression:
>>>10-5+15 #Evaluate to 20
>>>X**2**4//2 #X is a variable with some value
>>>X+Y-7 #X and Y are variables
>>>12+7j + 34 #Evaluate to (46+7j)
>>>”One” + “Two” #Evaluate to ‘OneTwo’
>>>(7-2)*13//5**2 #Evaluate to 2

Operator Precedence
While solving an expression, some operators are given priority over others when the brackets are not
there. We need to remember the precedence to solve an expression. Follow the given rules of operator
precedence:

() Brackets, list display, dictionary display, set display

** Exponentiation
+x,-x,~x Positive, negative, bitwise NOT
*, /, //, % Multiplication, Division, Floor Division, Remainder (All same,
evaluated which comes from left to right)
+,- Addition, Subtraction ((All same, evaluated which comes from left
to right)
<<,>> Bitwise Shifts
& Bitwise And
^ Bitwise XOR
| Bitwise OR
in, not in, is, is not, Comparison Operator including membership and identity tests
<, <=, >, >=, !=, ==

not Boolean NOT

and Boolean AND
or Boolean OR
if else Conditional Statement
lambda Lambda Expression
 100 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Note:
1. Operators in the same box have the same precedence.
2. 
Operators in the same box group and evaluated from left to right (except for exponentiation,
which groups and evaluates from right to left)
3. 
Comparisons, membership tests, and identity tests, all have the same precedence whichever
comes from left-to-right

Examples: Evaluate the following expression

a. 12%3**2+6*7
Steps:
(12%3**2+6*7) → 12%9+6*7
(12%9+6*7) → 3+6*7
(3+6*7) → 3+42
45

b. 4*2**2**3 #1024
Steps:
(4*2**2**3) → 4*2**8
(4*2**8) → 4*256
1024

c. 56//12/3 #1.3333333333333333
Steps:
(56//12/3) → 4/3
1.3333333333333333

d. 2 + 3 * 4
Steps:
(2 + 3 * 4) → 2+12
14

e. (2 + 3) * 4
Steps
(2 + 3) * 4 → 5*4
20

f. 56>45 and not 7!=8 or 4<2

Steps:
(56>45 and not 7!=8 or 4<2) → 56>45 and False or 4<2
(56>45 and False or 4<2) → True and False or 4<2
 Data Types 101

(True and False or 4<2) → False or 4<2

(False or 4<2) → False or False
False

g. “S” in “SUBJECTS” and 7<7 or 10 in [78,34,10] #True

Steps:
“S” in “SUBJECTS” and 7<7 or 10 in [78,34,10]
True and 7<7 or 10 in [78,34,10]
True and True or 10 in [78,34,10]
True or 10 in [78,34,10]
True or True
True

input() function
When we work on a program, data is required which we provide using variables. We can assign the
values to variables to provide the data. But to make our program more flexible and interactive, we
also need to take the data from the user during the execution of the program. The function which is
used to accept the data into a python object while the program is running is the input() function. By
default, the data accepted using this function is in the form of a string.
Using Interactive Mode Using Script Mode Output

In the above example, it is clear that function accepts the value at the runtime, but the value accepted
is not stored anywhere to be used later in the program. So we use an object to accept the value, in the
following manner:
Syntax :
<Object Name>=input(“Message which is optional”)
Example:

Note: The value accepted using the input () function is by default a string.
To accept the values in other data types, we use the following functions:
1. 
int() : For accepting the integer value at the run time, we can use this function in the following
manner:
 102 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Note: Error will occur if we try to enter a value if we try to put a float value or an alphabet

2. 
float() : For accepting the floating point value at the run time, we can use this function in the
following manner:

Integer value entered is also taken as float as shown below:

Note : Error will occur if we try to enter a value if we try to put an alphabet value.

We will do some more functions later.

 Data Types 103

print() function
To display the output of the program, print() function is used.

Output:

To display multiple values using the same print () function, we separate it with comma ‘,’

There are two important parameters of the print() function, which are explained below:
a. sep b. end
The sep parameter is called as a separator. It is used to separate multiple values when used with
a single print(). By default the multiple values are separated by a single column space. The sep
parameter only takes a string value. The given examples will make the function sep more clear:

The three values “one”,”two”,”three” are separated by a single space.

By default the values are separated by a single column space. But to separate the values with another
string, we specify it explicitly with the parameter as shown below:

→ In this last print statement, sep value ‘@’ is not displayed as the separator value is displayed
between the multiple values used with a single print function, which is not happening in this case.
Few more examples:

The end parameter is used to specify how the print function should terminate. By default every
print() terminates with a line break also written as ‘\n’.
 104 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Example1: Without using end parameter. Output

Example2: With using end parameter. Output

Example3:

Output

Example4: Here ‘\n’ used with a string will give a line break.

Output

Type conversion
When we write a statement or an expression, it is evaluated as per certain programming norms/
rules. The final result gets converted either automatically using certain commands/functions. The
expression in python is evaluated using :
a. Explicit conversion
b. implicit conversion

Consider the example given below:

And the output:

 Data Types 105

Since the requirement of the program was to accept a number and to find the sum, we didn’t get
the correct result as the data is accepted as a string by default. So ‘concatenation’ happened using
addition, which means the same string ‘A’ is added one after the other. Similarly, ‘repetition’ happened
using multiplication, so the string was repeated 5 times and hence the above result. To get the desired
output, we need to explicitly convert the data. This is called Explicit Conversion. Following functions
are used to explicitly convert data into specific data type:

Function Purpose Example Output

int() This function converts a string or float a,c=”12”,3.9 24
number into an integer. Note that the string b=int(a) 3
must be a numbers from 0-9 print(2*b)
print(int(c)) #Error
x=”89.7”
print(int(x))
float() This function converts a string or integer a,c=”78.5”,99 83.5 99.0
number into float. Note that the string must print(float(a)+5)
be a numbers from 0-9 print(float(c))
chr() It takes integer as a parameter and converts a,b=65,48 A
it to character, where the integer value is the print(chr(a)) 0
ascii code of the character returned. Note that print(chr(b))
the ascii code for ‘A’ is 65, ‘0’ is 48, ‘a’ is 97
ord() It converts and displays the ascii code of the a,b=’A’,’g’ 65
character which is passed as parameter. print(ord(a)) 103
print(ord(b))
str() It converts anything passed as a parameter to print(str(34)) 34
string. print(str(34.7)) 34.7
print(str(2+8j)) (2+8j)
L=[3,4,5] [3, 4, 5]
print(str(L)) (Note: all
the above
are string
values)
list() It is used to convert an iterable to a list S=”data” [‘d’, ‘a’,
L=list(S) ‘t’, ‘a’]
print(L)
[12, 45, 78]
T=(12,45,78)
print(list(T)) [‘301’,’083’]
D={“301”:”Eng”,
”083”:”CS”}
print(list(D))
 106 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Function Purpose Example Output

tuple() It is used to convert an iterable to a tuple S=”data” (‘d’, ‘a’,
T=list(S) ‘t’, ‘a’)
print(T)
(12,45,78)
L=[12,45,78]
print(list(T)) (‘301’,’083’)

D={“301”:”Eng”,
”083”:”CS”}
print(tuple(D))
dict() It is used to convert a list or tuple of pair of a=((1,2),(2,3)) {1: 2, 2: 3}
values into a dictionary. >>>dict(a)
{1: 2, 2: 3}
b=[(1,2),(2,3)]
>>>dict(b) {1: 2, 2: 3}

c=[[1,2],[2,3]]
>>>dict(c)
complex() It converts the two parameters passed as real a=12 (12+0j)
and imaginary values to complex no. >>> complex(a)
(12+6j)

Note that the first arguments can be a b=6

string(with number value) or a number. But it >>>complex(a,b) #Error
cannot take the second argument as a string.
a=”68” (68+0j)
>>>complex(a,a)

a=”68”
>>>complex(a)
hex() It converts an integer value to hexadecimal a=hex(23) ‘0x17’
string print(a) <class ‘str’>
print(type(a))
oct() It converts an integer value to Octal string a=oct(99) ‘0o143’
print(a)
bin() It converts an integer value to binary string a=89 ‘0b1011001’
print(bin(a))

Implicit Conversion is done by the interpreter when data of different types are involved in calculation.
We will see the following examples to understand it:
 Data Types 107

→
When any arithmetic operation occurs between integer value and float value, the result is converted
into float, as shown in the above example:

→
The only arithmetic operator which can be used with a string data is asterisk (*), which is used to
repeat the given string some specific number of times.

Errors
When we write a program, there is a possibility when either the program doesn’t run successfully or
runs but doesn’t generate correct output. This means that there is/are errors in the program. To make
the program run successfully, one needs to identify the type of errors. There are three types of errors
which can occur in a program:
Syntax errors
Logical errors
Runtime errors

Syntax Error
The error which occurs due to wrong syntax of the code is called as Syntax error
Some of the examples of syntax errors are:
inappropriate use of operators

#Wrong use of augmented assignment operator in the above example.

wrong indentation

→
 108 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Missing brackets, quotes

#brackets missing with print()

Logical Error
The error which occurs by giving the wrong output/result is called a Logical Error. Since the program
executes but generates an incorrect result and due to this, these errors are difficult to find. Logical
errors are also called as Semantic errors. A good example to illustrate it is to find the average of three
numbers 13,15,45.

Incorrect average is calculated due to missing bracket. The program executes but gives the wrong
result. The correct code would be:

Runtime error
The error which occurs due to inappropriate values taken at the runtime of the program is called
runtime error. The interpreter will stop the execution if it comes across a runtime error. Few examples
are given below:
Example 1: Division by zero

Example 2: Extractive the element from an iterable which doesn’t exist.

 Data Types 109

Summary
1. Numeric Data Type stores number data.
2. Boolean data type stores only two values ‘True’ and ‘False’.
3. Python language allows the storage of multiple values under a single object in an ordered manner
called a sequence. Examples are strings, lists, tuples.
4. String is a collection of alphanumeric characters stored in quotes.
5. List is a heterogeneous collection of data which can store data of any type. The data is stored
within a square bracket. Eg L=[“XI”,32,”CS”]
6. Tuple is also a heterogeneous collection of data where the elements are stored in a round bracket.
7. Set is an unordered collection of data, where no duplicate value is allowed. The elements in a set
are enclosed in a curly bracket.
8. A dictionary object is a mapping data type where the data is inserted in the form of items. Each
item is a key value pair. The values in the dictionary are enclosed within the curly bracket.
9. A mutable object is an object whose value can change once created. An Immutable object is an
object whose value can’t change once created. Mutable objects store a collection of data. Example:
List, set and dictionary.
10. Immutable objects are the one which doesn’t allow the data to change once stored. Examples are
String, Tuples.
11. The following operator precedence is followed to solve an expression brackets→ **(Exponentiation)
→ Bitwise Operators → *,/,//,% → +,- → Bitwise operators → comparison operators → Logical
operators → if else
12. The function which is used to accept the data into a python object while the program is running
is the input() function. By default, the data accepted using this function is in the form of a string.
13. int() is used to convert the data into integer.
14. float() is used to convert the data into floating point value.
15. print() is used to display the output of the program.
16. sep parameter of the print() is used to separate multiple values when used with a single print().
The default value of the sep function is a single column space. The sep function takes string value
17. end parameter is used to specify how the print function should terminate. By default every
print() terminates with a line break also written as ‘\n’. The end parameter takes string value.
18. chr() takes integer as a parameter and converts it to character, where the integer value is the
ascii code of the character returned.
19. str() converts anything passed as a parameter to string.
20. There are three types of errors which can occur in a program, namely, Syntax errors, Logical
errors and Runtime errors.
21. The error which occurs due to wrong syntax of the code is called as Syntax error.
22. The error which occurs by giving the wrong output/result is called a Logical Error.
23. The error which occurs due to inappropriate values taken at the runtime of the program is called
runtime error.
 110 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Choose the correct type of error in the codes given below:
a. >>>print 10+20
1. Syntax 2. Logical 3. Runtime 4. No Error
b. >>>a,b=12,13
>>>print(“Sum is”,a-b)
1. Syntax 2. Logical 3. Runtime 4. No Error
c. >>>X,Y=12,0
>>>print(X//Y)
1. Syntax 2. Logical 3. Runtime 4. No Error
d >>>X=12
>>>print(sep=”*”, “The correct value is”,X)
1. Syntax 2. Logical 3. Runtime 4. No Error
e >>> print(ord(“X”))
1. Syntax 2. Logical 3. Runtime 4. No Error
f >>> Num=23
>>> Num*=10
>>> print(“Number is :”,num)
1. Syntax 2. Logical 3. Runtime 4. No Error
(The above program will generate runtime NameError)
g >>>S=input(“Enter a no”)
>>> print(34+S)
1. Syntax 2. Logical 3. Runtime 4. No Error
(The above program will generate runtime TypeError)
2. The following object is declared in a python program. Which type of Object is this?
>>>L=[23,77,12,90,66]
1. Set 2. Dictionary 3. List 4. Tuple
3. To declare a tuple with a single value, which of the following command is used:
1. T=(23) 2. T(23) 3. T=(23,) 4. T=23
4. The example of a mapping data type is…
1. List 2. Dictionary 3. Tuple 4. String
 Data Types 111

5. An example of Immutable data type is:

1. String 2. List 3. Dictionary 4. Set
6. An example of Mutable data type is:
1. String 2. List 3. Tuple 4. All the above
7. The output of the following command will be:

1. The remainder of: 23 and 45 is**23

2. The remainder of:**23**and 45 is 23**
3. The remainder of:**23**and**45**is**23
4. The remainder of:**23 and 45**is**23
8. Write the output of the following python expression:

9. >>>A=B=10
>>>print(str(A)+str(B))
1. 20 2. 10 3. 1001 4. 1010
10. T=”Good Day”
print(T[2],T[6],sep=”89”)
1. 89a 2. O89 3. o89a 4. 890a
11. Boolean Data Type is
1. Mutable data type
2. Immutable data type
3. Can be mutable and immutable data type
4. Neither mutable nor immutable data type
12. The operator which calculates the power of two numbers is:
1. // 2. % 3. && 4. **
13. 33>55 and not 5!=9 or 3<4
1. True 2. False 3. 33 4. 0
14. The function which accepts the value at the runtime is:
a. int() b. input() c. float() d. print()
15. The two parameters of the print() are:
a. break and input b. end and input
c. end and sep d. int and sep
16. print(float(34//12)) will generate the output :
a. 2 b. 2.0 c. 2.8 d. 2.83333
 112 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

17. Give the output of the commands given below

CLASS=’[“one”,”two”,”three”]’
print(type(CLASS))
a. <class ‘list’> b. <class ‘str’>
c. <class ‘tuple’> d. <class ‘set’>
18. Which type of operator is !=
a. Augmented assignment b. Relational
c. Logical d. Assignment
19. Give the output for the following commands:
U=10;V=25
U+=20
V-=5
W=2*(2*V+U)
print(U,V,W,sep=’###’)
a. 20###30###140 b. 30###30###140
c. 30######140 d. 30###20###140
20. print(int(3>7)+int(15.5+6),not(5<3+1)+190/10,sep=” OR “)
a. 21 OR 22 b. 21 OR False c. True OR False d. 21 OR True

Subjective Questions
1. What is the difference between the following?
a. Mutable and Immutable data types
b. “55” and 55
c. Logical and Syntax Errors
d. Implicit and Explicit conversion
e. int() and float()
2. Write Python single liner codes for the following statements:
a. Assign the values “Tank” and 1500 to the python objects Name and Price
b. 
Calculate the 10% of the above price using formula and store the result in another object
called Discount.
c. 
Find the TotalPrice by subtracting discount from Price and display the Name and TotalPrice
on the same line.
 Data Types 113

3. Write a program to accept three sides of a triangle and check if the triangle is an isosceles triangle
or not.
4. Rewrite the following code after removing the errors from it. Underline each of the corrections
done by you.

5. Write at least two features of Python Programming language

 7 Flow of Control

Flow of control: An introduction

Suppose you want to eat an icecream (orange bar) from the vendor outside your house. What steps
will you follow to achieve it? You will go outside your house and then go to the ice cream vendor. You
will ask for an ice cream. You will ask specifically for an orange bar. If the vendor has an orange bar, he
will give you and you will come back home and eat it. If the vendor doesn’t have an orange bar, then
you won’t take any other ice cream and come back home without it. To achieve a goal, one needs to
follow some simple steps.
Similarly, in programming also we need to follow steps to achieve a task. For doing so, we need to
break the task into simple and small steps and execute them in a specific order. The order in which an
operation in a programming language is executed is called flow of control.
In python, the following are the flow of control statements:
1. Sequential
2. Conditional statements
3. Loop Control statements/iterative flow

Sequential flow of control happens when the statements are executed one after the other in a given
sequence. For example:

Execution:

In programming, when we execute a task based on the condition criteria, then this is called a
conditional flow of statement. For example, we can check whether the average of the two numbers
calculated in the above example is an even number or an odd number. If the average is even, then the
result ‘EVEN’ should be printed, otherwise, the result ‘ODD’ should be printed. This follow of control
needs an if else statement, which will be discussed in the later section.
 Flow of Control 115

When a given task or series of instructions are required to be repeated a certain number of times then
this flow of control is known as iterative flow. We use for and while loop for loop flow of control. In
continuation to the above example, if we want to repeat the message “EVEN” or “ODD” say 15 times,
then we use a loop.

Use of indentation
A block of code is the series of instructions which should be executed in a sequential order one after
the other. In programming languages like C, C++, a block is written within curly brackets. In python, a
 116 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

block is specified using indentation. Thus, the space given in the beginning of the block of code is called
indentation. Using indentation, it is specified that a particular series of instructions/commands is a
part of a specific block. We use indentation in conditional and looping statements, with functions etc.
To illustrate the concept of indentation, we will take the above example of finding the number as even
or odd using if else statement:
N1=10
N2=int(input(“Enter a number”))
Avg=(N1+N2)/2
print(“Average of two numbers is :”,Avg)

if Avg%2==0:
print(Avg,end=’***’) #block 1
print(“is an EVEN Number”)

else:
print(Avg,end=’***’) #block 2
print(“is an ODD Number”)

print(“Program Over”)

Conditional Statements
While writing a program, there can be cases where the execution of the commands is based on a
decision made on a given condition. For example, if the number accepted is >5, or is the color of the
ball ‘Red’, or is the factorial of a number N even or odd. These are all conditions which result in True
or False. The statement which does decision making based on a condition is called a Conditional
Statement. Following are the conditional statements:
if
if-else
if-elif-else

if conditional Statement
Syntax:
if <condition specified is True> :
Commands to be executed
 Flow of Control 117

#Program 1: To accept a number and print the message “BIG” is the number accepted is greater than
10
Num=int(input(“Enter a number”))
if Num>10:
print(“BIG”)

Note: If the number accepted is not greater than 10, then no result will be printed as we didn’t give
statements to handle the case when the condition is False.

#Program 2: Accept first name of a student. If the name accepted is “John” then print the last name
as “Mathew”
Name=input(“Enter first name”))
if Name==”John”:
print(Name, “Mathew”)

if else conditional Statement

We have seen in the above examples that the ‘if construct’ will handle the True case and would not
display anything if the case is False. else does that. So else contains statements which should be
executed if the condition specified with if goes False. We will modify the above programs and see the
difference in the output.
Syntax:
if <condition specified is True> :
Commands to be executed
else :
Commands to be executed if the condition is False

#Program 1: To accept a number and print the message “BIG” is the number accepted is greater than
10 else print “SMALL”
Num=int(input(“Enter a number”))
if Num>10:
print(“BIG”)
else:
print(“SMALL”)
 118 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Flowchart Explanation:

#Program 2: Accept first name of a student. If the name accepted is “John” then print the last name as
“Mathew” else print the message “Unknown Name”
Name=input(“Enter first name”)
if Name==”John”:
print(Name, “Mathew”)
else:
print(“Unknown Name”)

#Program 3: Accept a number and find its Absolute value

Num=int(input(“Enter a no”))
if Num<0:
print(“Absolute Value”,-1*Num)
else:
print(“Absolute Value”,Num)

#Program 4: Accept a number Num and check whether it is an even number or an odd number
Num=int(input(“Enter a no”))
if Num%2==0:
print(Num,”is an Even No”)
else:
print(Num,”is an Odd No”)
 Flow of Control 119

#Program 5: Accept a number N and Check whether it is a factor of M or not, where M is also accepted
by the user. (Note that N will be factor of M if M is divisible by N)
N=int(input(“Enter first Number”))
M=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
if M%N==0:
print(N, “is a factor of”, M)
else:
print(N,”is not a factor of”, M)
 120 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

#Program 6: Accept a number N and display the result after checking whether the number is a positive
number or negative (considering 0 as a positive number)
N=int(input(“Enter a No”))
if N>=0:
print(N, “is a positive no”)
else:
print(N, “is a negative no”)

#Program 7: Accept two numbers A and B and find the Larger and Smaller Number (assuming that
the user is not entering same nos in A and B)
A=int(input(“Enter first Number”))
B=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
if A>B:
print(A, “is Larger No”)
print(B, “is Smaller No”)
else:
print(B, “is Larger No”)
print(A, “is Smaller No”)

#Program 8: Accept two numbers A and B. Display them. If the two numbers are not equal, then swap
(interchange) the values of A and B and redisplay the result.
A=int(input(“Enter first Number”))
B=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
print(“A=”,A, “B=”,B)
if A!=B:
A,B=B,A
print(“Numbers Swapped”)
print(“A=”,A, “B=”,B)
else:
print(“Numbers are equal”)

Ternary operator in Python

We can use if else in single line too in python. Following is the syntax:
<var>=<value if condition is True> if <condition> else <value if condition False>
Example 1: Result:

 Flow of Control 121

Other alternative:

Example 2:

Since the condition N> M is False, so 3 is added 5 and 8 is stored in R. Hence the output 8

Another way of using Single liner decision making statement

Syntax:
Val=[Value/“Msg if condition is False”, Value/“Msg if condition is True”][Condition”]
OR
print([Value/“Msg if condition is False”, Value/“Msg if condition is True”][Condition”])
Example 1: To display message True, if the number Num is a multiple of 5 else display False
Num=int(input("Enter a number"))
print(["False","True"][Num%5==0])
Output:
Enter a number12
False
Example 2: To increase the value of N by 10% if N<50 else increase by 5%
N=int(input("Enter a number"))
N=N+[N*5/100,N*10/100][N>=50]
print(N)
Output:
Enter a number45
47.25

if elif else conditional Statement

Simple if else will work if we have exactly one condition which results in True or false. But if there are
multiple conditions to be evaluated, then we expand the if statement to if elif..else. Here the conditions
are specified everytime if occurs. Referring to the above #program 7, we explicitly mentioned that the
user enters unequal values for A and B. But if the user enters the same number for A and B, both, then
we need to modify the above program.
Syntax:
if <condition 1 specified is True> :
Commands to be executed
 122 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

elif <condition 2 specified is True> :

Commands to be executed
elif <condition 3 specified is True> :
Commands to be executed
.
.
.
.
else :
Commands to be executed none of the above condition is True

#Program 1: Accept two numbers A and B and find the Larger and Smaller Number.
A=int(input(“Enter first Number”))
B=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
if A>B:
print(A, “is Larger No”)
print(B, “is Smaller No”)
elif B>A:
print(B, “is Larger No”)
print(A, “is Smaller No”)
else:
print(A,”and”, B, “are same”)

#Program 2: Accept three numbers A, B and C and find the Largest of the three Numbers.
A=int(input(“Enter first Number”))
B=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
C=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
if A==B==C:
print(“All numbers are same”)
elif A>=B and A>=C:
print(A, “is Largest No”)
elif B>=A and B>=C:
print(B, “is Largest No”)
else:
print(C, “is Largest No”)
 Flow of Control 123

#Program 3: Accept three numbers and arrange then in ascending order. Display the final result.
A=int(input(“Enter first Number”))
B=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
C=int(input(“Enter Second Number”))
if A>B:
A,B=B,A
if C<B:
if C<A:
A,B,C=C,A,B
else:
A,B,C=A,C,B

print(“Numbers in ascending order :”,A,B,C)

#Program 4: Accept marks of a child in 5 subjects. Calculate the percentage and display the grade
based on the following criteria:
Grade A+ : 91-100
Grade A : 81-90
Grade B+ : 71-80
Grade B : 61-70
Grade C+ : 51-60
Grade C : <51

Method 1
A=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub1”))
B=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub2”))
C=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub3”))
D=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub4”))
E=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub5”))
per=(A+B+C+D+E)/5
print(“Your Percentage is:”,per,”and you got”,end=’ ‘)
if per>50:
if per>60:
if per>70:
if per>80:
if per>90:
print(“Grade A+”)
124 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

else:
print(“Grade A”)
else:
print(“Grade B+”)
else:
print(“Grade B”)
else:
print(“Grade C+”)
else:
print(“Grade C”)

Method-2
A=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub1”))
B=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub2”))
C=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub3”))
D=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub4”))
E=float(input(“Enter Mks in Sub5”))
per=(A+B+C+D+E)/5
print(“Your Percentage is:”,per,”and you got”,end=’ ‘)
if 100>=per>90: #per>90 and per<=100
print(“Grade A+”)
elif 90>=per>80: #per>80 and per<=90
print(“Grade A”)
elif 80>=per>70: #per>70 and per<=80
print(“Grade B+”)
elif 70>=per>60: #per>60 and per<=70
print(“Grade B”)
elif 60>=per>50: #per>50 and per<=60
print(“Grade C+”)
else:
print(“Grade C”)
 Flow of Control 125

#Program 5: Accept the year and check if it’s a leap year or not.
Year=int(input(“Enter Year”))
if Year%400==0:
print(“Leap Year”)
elif Year%4==0:
if Year%100!=0:
print(“Leap Year”)
else:
print(“Not a Leap Year”)
else:
print(“Not a leap Year”)

Note: A leap year is the one which is either divisible by 400 or if divisible by 4 and not divisible by
100.

Summary
1. Sequential flow of control happens when the statements are executed one after the other in a
given sequence.
2. The space given in the beginning of the block of code is called indentation.
3. The statement which does decision making based on a condition is called a Conditional Statement.
if, if-else, if-elif-else are conditional statements.
4. We can also use if-else in single line. For example to display “Positive”/”Negative” message
depending upon whether a number is less than 0 or not, we can write single liner if else in the
following manner:
print(“Positive”) if Num>=0 else print(“Negative”)
 126 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

5. There are two ways to write single liner if else decision making statements:
a. First Method:
var>=<value if condition is True> if <condition> else <value if condition
<
False>
b. Second Method:
al=[Value/“Msg if condition is True”, Value/“Msg if condition is False”]
V
[Condition”]]

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. a = 100
b = 20
print(“a”) if a > b else print(“b”)
a. 100 b. 20 c. a d. b
2. Print “Good Work” if a is not equal to b
a = 20
b = 10
________a _______b_________
print(“Hello World”)
a. if,!=,: b. if,<>,: c. if,<!,: d. if,<,:
3. number = 0
if number > 0:
print(“positive”)
else:
print(“negative”)
a. positive b. negative c. 0 d. None of the above
4. Can we write if-else in a single line in python?
a. Yes b. No
c. Only possible with loops d. None of the above
5. Which one of the following is a valid Python if statement?
a. if a>=100 : b. if (a >= 100)
c. if (a => 100) d. if a = 100
 Flow of Control 127

6. Give the output of the given below program?

if 1 + 3 == 7:
print(“Yes”)
else:
print(“Invalid”)
a. Yes b. Invalid c. No Output. d. Error

7. Give the output

a=25
if a < 15:
print(“Hi”, end=”**”)
if a <= 30:
print(“Hello”,end=”&&”)
else:
print(“Know Program”)
a. Hello&& b. Hi&& c. Know Program d. Hi**Known Program

8. a, b, c = 2,4,6
if a > 0:
if b >= 4:
print(“Inside”)
elif c > 5:
print(“Super Inside”)
else:
print(“None”)
a. Inside b. Super Inside c. None d. Error

9. X,Y=0,0
if X+Y:
print(“False”)
else:
print(“True”)
a. False b. True c. No output d. Error

10. What is the output of the given below program?

a = b = false
if (a and b):
print(“Yes”)
 128 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

else:
print(“No”)
a. Yes b. No
c. Compiled Successfully, No Output. d. Error

11. Which of the following is not a decision-making statement?

a. if-elif statement b. for statement
c. if -else statement d. if statement

12. Give the output

if True:
print(2021)
else:
print(2022)
a. 2022 b. 2021 c. Error d. 202122

13. If you have multiple conditions, then which clause can be used to specify them?
a. else if b. elseif c. elif d. None of the above
14. The ……………… statement is used for decision making in Python.
a. if else if b. if elif else c. For ; d. for
15. In Python, ………………… defines a block of statements.
a. block b. loop c. indentation d. {}
16. The two membership operators are ..................... and .....................
a. in, not in b. true , false c. =,== d. None
17. A graphical representation of an algorithm to solve a problem is called ……………
a. flow of data b. barchart c. flow chart d. None
18. What is the logical expression for the following?
Either A is greater than B or A is less than C
a. A>B or A<C b. A>B and A<C c. A>Band C d. A>B or C
19. Give the statement for the following case
Either name is SK or age between 45 and 55
a. name==SK and age >=45 and age<=55 b. name==SK and age >=45 or age<=55
c. name==SK or age >=45 and age<=55 d. None
20. Which statement will check if a is equal to b or not?
a. if a = b: b. if a == b: c. if a === c: d. if a == b
 8 Iteration

Repetition of a series of instructions in programming is called iteration. We use loops to perform

iteration. In Python, iteration is performed by for and while loop.

for loop
There are different ways to use the for loop. One way is using the range function.
Syntax:
for <variable> in range(start, end, step):
statements
Example:

Output:

The variable (i) in the above for loop takes the value from the range( ) function. range() function has
three parameters.

start It provides the starting value of the range. It is an optional value. In the above example,
If start is not provided, then its default value is taken as 0. the starting value of i is
taken as 1.
end It provides the ending value of the range. It is not an optional In the above example,
value. It’s compulsory to provide an end value. The loop will the end value is taken as
execute till end-1. This means that if end value is 5, then the last 5-1=4
value taken by the range function will be 5-1=4.
step It provides the step value. It is also an optional value and is In the above example,
taken as 1 if not provided. the step value is not
provided, so it is taken
as 1.

Explanation of the above example:

1. The loop begins with i=1. The condition is True as i<5. So the control goes inside the loop.
2. “Learning Loops” is printed and then the control goes back to the loop.
 130 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

3. Because of the step value, the value of i changes to 2 (i=1 + step value). Since i<5 (2<5), the control
again goes inside the loop. Again ‘Learning Loops’ is printed for the second time. The control goes
back to the beginning of the loop and changes the value of i to 3 (2+1)
4. Since 3<5, Learning Loops is printed 3rd time. Again the value of i changed to 4 and 4<5 so the
condition is True and Learning Loops is printed 4th time. The value of i changes to 5 now.
5. Since 5<5 condition is False, so the loop terminates and hence the above result.

Few examples of range function with for loop

start=0 (default)
end=5-1=4
step=1 (default)

Hence numbers printed from 0 to 4

start=2
end=6-1=5
step=1 (default)

Hence numbers printed from 2 to 5

start=2
end=6-1=5
step=2
Hence numbers printed 2, 4(2+2)
start=2
end=6-1=5
step=-1
Since the loop is expected to be in reverse order due
to -1 step, the condition became false in the very
first statement and hence no result.
start=6
end=2+1=3 (as the loop is going in reverse order,
i>2 or 1>=3)
step=-1
Hence numbers printed from 2 to 5
Very Important In this example, note that the value of i printed
outside the loop is 9 and not 11. This is because the
range function behaves as if it’s a list and returns the
successive items of the desired sequence. And the
last element in the list in this example is 9. Hence 9
printed outside the loop.
Note: the range function can only have integer values. Any other type value will give an error.
 Iteration 131

for loop with iterables

Unlike other programming languages, it is important to know that for loop in Python can iterate over
the iterable objects of python like a list or a string or a tuple or dictionary as shown in the examples
below:
Syntax:
for <variable> in <iterable Object>:
statement/statements
Example1: Output

Example2: Output

Example3: Output

The above programs can be done using the range function also, using the len function. The len
function returns the length of an iterable, which means the count of the total number of elements
in the iterable. In the example below, the start value will be 0 by default and step value will be 1 by
default.
Example 1:

Example 2:
 132 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Example 3:

Output

while loop
While loop is the other way to perform iteration. This loop is used to execute the statements till the
given condition is True. Here is the syntax of the while loop:
Syntax:
while <condition is True>:
...statements…..
Example:

#To print Python 5 time Here a variable C is initialized with the

value 1. Till the value is less than or equal to
5, the control will move inside the loop and
the statements are executed. That is why
the string “Python” is printed 5 times

This program is similar to the above

example except the value of C being printed
in this case.

Alternate method to do this program is:

C=2
while C<=10:
print(C)
C+=2
Alternate method to do this program is:
C=1
while C<=10:
print(C)
C+=2
 Iteration 133

Note: Unlike range function in for loop, in while loop object of any data type can be used to provide
the condition.

Also, we need to be careful with the conditions provided. The while loop can go infinite, if the False
condition is not reached as shown in the example below:

→ Here the loop will go infinite as the value of C will always be smaller than 5.

break and continue statements in loops

break statement is used to terminate the loop. The statements after the loop continue to get executed.
Let us see few examples to understand the break statement:
Example 1

The above program accepts 5 numbers using for loop. But the loop will terminate as soon as the
number accepted is 0.
 134 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

In this case, all the numbers accepted are non-zero. Thus the loop runs 5 times.

In this second execution, the third number accepted is zero. Thus the loop terminates after executing
the loop 3 times.

Example 2:

This program will find the sum of all the numbers accepted in the loop. But as soon as the number
accepted is multiple of 7, the loop terminated.

continue statement is used to continue with the loop by skipping the rest of the statements in the
loop, if it is encountered. For example, to print only the odd numbers between 1 and 10, program
below, skips the statements in the loop if the counter C is an even number and that’s why the print
statement is also ignored.

Can you guess the output if the above program is modified as shown below:

→?
 Iteration 135

else clause with loops

It is interesting to know that in python we can use the else statement not only with if else construct
but with loops also. A loop’s else clause runs when no break occurs. else at the end of the loop will
only be executed if the loop is not terminated and the loop completes all its iterations. If the loop
terminates due to the encounter of the break statement, then the else written after the loop is not
executed. The following example shows the use of else with for and while loops, both.

Sum of all the elements of a list L is

calculated. Since the loop completes
its iterations so else will be executed
and hence the result :

Sum of only the first two elements of

list L is calculated as the third element
is even and hence the result.

Program checks whether the number

N is a prime number or not. A prime
number is the one which is not divisible
by any number from 2 to half of the
number. If divisible, then the loop is
terminated. If the loop stops without
completing the iterations, then else
will not be executed.
 136 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Flowchart representation of loops using examples:

Program to print sum of 1st five numbers

Program to display the first 10 multiples of 3

 Iteration 137

Nested Loop
When one loop is used within another, then we say the loop is nested. In a nested loop, we can use
for within another for loop or while within another while loop or for within while loop or vice versa.
In a nested loop, it is to be remembered that for every value of the outer loop, the inner loop gets
executed completely. For example:
Example 1
for i in range(1,5):
for j in range(1,3):
print(i,j,i+j)
print(i)
In the above example, the execution goes in the following manner:
i j print(i,j,i+j) Output
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
2 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
print(i) 1
2 1 2 1 3 2 1 3
2 2 2 4 2 2 4
2
print(i) 2
3 1 3 1 4 3 1 4
2 3 2 5 3 2 5
3
print(i) 3
4 1 4 1 5 4 1 5
2 4 2 6 4 2 6
6
print(i) 4

Example 2: Program to generate the following pattern till N rows, where N is accepted by the user:
1
12
123
1234 till N rows

N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
for i in range(1,N+1):
for j in range(1,i+1):
print(j,end=’ ‘)
print()
 138 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

In the above example, the execution goes in the following manner for N=5:
i j print(j,end=’ ‘) Output
1 1 1

print()
2 1 1 2
2

3 1 1 2 3
2
3
4 1 1 2 3 4
2
3
4
5 1 1 2 3 4 5
2
3
4
5

Example 3: Find the output of the program below:

Output

Solved examples of questions suggested in the syllabus

1. #Find the factorial of a number N.

N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
fact=1
for i in range(1,N+1):
fact*=i
print(“Factorial of”,N, “is”,fact)
 Iteration 139

2. #Find the sum of first N odd numbers

N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
S=0
for i in range(1,N+1):
if i==N:
print(2*i-1,end=’ ‘)
else:
print(2*i-1,end=’+’)
S+=2*i-1
print(“=”,S)
3. #Find the sum of given series
#x - x2 + x3 - x4 + .............xn
N=int(input(“Enter number of terms”))
X=float(input(“Enter value of X”))
S,pro=0,X
for i in range(1,N+1):
if i%2!=0:
S+=pro
print(pro,end=’-’)
else:
S-=pro
print(pro,end=’+’)
pro*=X
print(“=”,S)
4 #Find the sum of given series
#x/1! + x2/2!+ x3/3!+ x4/4!- .............
xn/n!
N=int(input(“Enter number of terms”))
X=float(input(“Enter value of X”))
S,pro,fact=0,1,1
for i in range(1,N+1):
pro*=X
fact*=i
S+=pro/fact
if i==N:
print(pro,”/”,fact,sep=’’,end=’ ‘)
else:
print(pro,”/”,fact,sep=’’,end=’+’)
print(“=”,S)
140 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

5 #Determine whether a number is a perfect

number or not
(A perfect number is a positive integer
that is equal to the sum of its positive
divisors, excluding the number itself)
N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
S=0
for i in range(1,N):
if N%i==0:
S+=i
if N==S:
print(N,”is a perfect number”)
else:
print(N,”is not a perfect number”)
6 #Check whether number N is a perfect number
or not. Repeat the task till the number N
is not entered as 0
while True:
N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
if N==0:
break
S=0
for i in range(1,N):
if N%i==0:
S+=i
if N==S:
print(N,”is a perfect number”)
else:
print(N,”is not a perfect number”)
7 #Determine whether a number is an armstrong
number
(An armstrong number is the number that is
equal to the sum of cube of all its digits
(for a three-digit number))

N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
N1,SUM=N,0
while N1>0:
 Iteration 141

SUM+=(N1%10)**3
N1//=10
if N==SUM:
print(N,”is an armstrong number”)
else:
print(N,”is not an armstrong number”)
8 #Determine whether a number is a palindrome.
(A palindrome number is the one which remains
unchanged when its digits are reversed.)

N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
N1,rev=N,0
while N1>0:
rev=rev*10+N1%10
N1//=10
if N==rev:
print(N,”is a palindrome”)
else:
print(N,”is not a palindrome”)
9 #Display the terms of a Fibonacci series.

N=int(input(“Enter a number”))
a,b=0,1
for i in range(1,N+1):
print(a,end=’,’)
a,b=b,a+b
10 #Compute the greatest common divisor and
least common multiple of two integers

N=int(input(“Enter a number N”))

M=int(input(“Enter a number M”))
small=N if N<M else M
for i in range(small,0,-1):
if N%i==0 and M%i==0:
HCF=i
break
LCM=int(N*M/HCF)
print(“LCM=”,LCM,”and HCF=”,HCF)
 142 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Summary
1. Repetition of a series of instructions in programming is called iteration.
2. In Python, iteration is performed by for and while loop.
3. The statement used to terminate the loop is break. The statements after the loop continue to get
executed.
4. continue statement is used to continue with the loop by skipping the rest of the statements in the
loop, if it is encountered.
5. A loop’s else clause runs when no break occurs.
6. When one loop is used within another, then we say the loop is nested.

Practice Questions
1. Write a program to calculate the sum of first N natural numbers, where N is accepted by the user.
2. Write a program to keep on accepting the numbers till the user wants and at the end it should
display the count of positive numbers, negative numbers and zeros entered.
3. Write a program to print out all Armstrong numbers between 1 and 999.
4. Write a program to print the result of the following series till N terms
a. 1 - 1/2 + 1/3 - 1/4 + 1/5 -... 1/N!
b. 2+4+6+8+10+........
c. 1!+2!+3!+4!+..............N!
d. 2!+4!+6!+8!+.................
e. 1!+3!+5!+7!+9!+..................
f. X+X3+X5+X7+....................

g. X2+X4+X6+X8+.....................
h. 1+(1+2)+(1+2+3)+(1+2+3+4)+................
i. 2+(2+4)+(2+4+6)+..............

j. 1+(1+3)+(1+3+5)+..................

k. X+X3/3!+X5/5!+X7/7!+.............
5. Write a program to print the following patterns till N rows

1 1 1
1 2 2 2 2 1 2
1 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5
 Iteration 143

5 5 1 2
45 54 23 24
345 543 456 246
2345 5432 78910 2468
12345 54321 1112131415 246810

6. Store 10 elements in a list L. iterate it, and display numbers divisible by five. Stop the loop iteration
if the element is greater than 150.
7. Accept a number N and count the total number of digits in it.
8. Write a program to display all prime numbers within a range from 1 to N, where N is accepted by
the user.
9. Find the sum of the series 2 +22 + 222 + 2222 + .. N terms
10. Choose the correct options.

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. x = 33 / 4 * (5+ 2) * 4 + 2
print(x)
a. 233.0 b. 37.0 c. 233 d. 235
2. for x in range(0.5, 3.5, 0.5):
print(x)
a. 0.5*1.0*1.5*2.0*2.5*3.0* b. 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0*
c. 0.5*1.0*1.5*2.0*2.5*3.0*3.5* d. Error
3. One = 5 ** 2
Two = 5 ** 3
print(One,end=’&’)
print(Two,end=’@’)
a. 32&27@ b. 25&125@ c. 125@25& d. 32&125@
4. for i in range(5, 19, 3):
print( i, end=’, ‘)
a. 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, b. 8, 11, 14, 17,
c. 17,14,11,8,5, d. 5,6,7,8……..18
5. Which operator has higher precedence in the following list
a. % Modulus b. & BitWise AND c. **, Exponent d. > Comparison
 144 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

6. x=0.5
while x<3.5:
print(x,end=’*’)
x+=0.5
a. 0.5*1.0*1.5*2.0*2.5*3.0* b. 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0*
c. 0.5*1.0*1.5*2.0*2.5*3.0*3.5* d. Error
7 for num in range(-2,-5,-1):
print(num, end=”8”)
a. -8-8-48 b. -2-3-48 c. 28 38 48 d. -28-38-48
8 for num in range(11, 14):
for i in range(3, num):
if num%i == 1:
print(num)
break

a. b. c. d. None
9 Which of the following is/are valid operator in Python:
a. */ b. is c. ^ d. like
10 Which of the following is/are Keywords in Python ?
a. break b. Check c. range d. for
11 x = 0
a = 0
b = -5
if a > 0:
if b < 0:
x = x + 5
elif a > 5:
x = x + 4
else:
x = x + 3
else:
x = x + 2
print(x)
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
 Iteration 145

12 var = 10
for i in range(10):
for j in range(2, 10, 1):
if var % 2 == 0:
continue
var += 1
var+=1
else:
var+=1
print(var)
a. 34 b. 56 c. 21 d. 97
13 x = 0
a = 5
b = 5
if a > 0:
if b < 0:
x = x + 5
elif a > 5:
x = x + 4
else:
x = x + 3
else:
x = x + 2
print(x)
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
14 x = 6
y = 2
print(x ** y,end=’+’)
print(x // y)
a. 6+36 b. 36+3 c. 3+36 d. 36 3 +
15 What is the output of print(5%10)
a. 0 b. 2 c. 5 d. Error
16 What is the output of print(2**3**2)
a. 512 b. 64 c. 256 d. 128
146 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

17 Give Output
for i in range(2.0):
print(i)
a. 1 b. 1 2 c. Error d. None of the above
18 i=1
while True:
if i%3==0:
break
print(i,end=’ ‘)
i+=1
a. 1 b. 1 2 c. Error d. None of the above
19 i=1
for i in range(0,10,3):
print(i+2,end=’*’)
i+=2
a. 2*5*8*11* b. 0*2*5*8* c. 3*8*11*13* d. 2*8*8*11*
20 while True:
i=10
print(i+5,end=’8’)
if i%5==0:
break
else:
i=i+2
a. 58 b. 15 c. 158 d. 185
 9 Strings

Introduction to Strings
Strings are the series of characters stored in a sequence within single, double quotes or triple quotes.
For example, the name of a person/product, address etc.
>>>a=’Python Language’ #String declaration within single quotes
>>>a
‘Python Language’
OR
>>>a=”Python Language” #String declaration within double quotes
>>>a
‘Python Language’
OR
>>>a=”””Python Language””” #String declaration within triple double quotes
>>>a
‘Python Language’
OR
>>>a=’’’Python Language’’’ #String declaration within triple single quotes
>>>a
‘Python Language’

Some of the key features we need to know about strings are:

1. Any data enclosed either in single or double quotes is a string in Python.
2. String is an iterable object which stores characters in a sequence
3. String is an immutable object, which means we cannot change a specific character in a string.
4. 
To know the total number of characters in a string, we use a function called len(string). For
example:
>>>a=”Good Day”
>>>print(len(a))
8 #Total letters in String are 8, from index 0 to 7
 148 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

5. 
We can use escape sequence (\) to include line break (\n) or tab (\t) or to show quotes with a
string as shown in the examples:
>>>a=”Python\nLanguage” #using \n as Newline
>>>print(a)
Python
Language

>>>a=”Python\tLanguage” #using \t as tab

>>>print(a)
Python Language
>>> a=’\’Python\’ Language’ #using \ to include quotes with a string
>>> print(a)
‘Python’ Language

>>>a=”Python: It’s a very interesting Language”

>>>print(a)
Python: It’s a very interesting Language
#To include single quotes within a string, enclose the string in double quotes.

>>>a=’Python: It’s a very interesting Language’ #Error

>>>a=’”Python” Language’
>>>print(a)
“Python” Language
#To include double quotes within a string, enclose the string in single quotes.

String indexing
Since a string is an iterable object, each character has an index number using which the character of
a string can be extracted.
a=’Python Language’

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P y t h o n L a n g u a g e
-15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

Each character in the string has a positive index as well as negative index number, using which the
character can be extracted. The index number is provided in a square brackets as shown below:
>>>print(a) #Python Language
>>>print(a[5]) #n
>>>print(a[-5]) #g
 Strings 149

String operations
Following operations are possible in this iterable object:
a. Concatenation : Concatenation means combining 2 or more strings. Concatenation is possible
using ‘+’ (plus) sign. Following example illustrate concatenation in strings:
Example 1
>>> a=”Twinkle”
>>> b=”Little Star”
>>> a+b
‘TwinkleLittle Star’
Note:
1. Concatenation is possible only between strings.
2. 
Also, two or more string literals (i.e. the ones enclosed between quotes) next to each other are
automatically concatenated as shown below:
Example 2
>>> “Twinkle” +12
#Error

Example 3
>>> “Twinkle” “Little Star”
‘TwinkleLittle Star’
Example 4
>>> X=”PY” “thon”
>>> X
‘PYthon’
Example 5

→
Example 6
 150 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

b. Repetition: We can repeat a strings using asterisk (*) in the following manner:
Example 1
A=”•” #this character is printed using Option+8 (in Mac)
print(A*10) #The character is repeated 10 times
print(“WOW”) →
print(A*10)

Note that repetition in string is possible when the string is multiplied only with an integer
Example 2

Example 3

Output

c. Membership: There are two membership operators ‘in’ and ‘not in’. They are used to find a
substring in a given string (when used with string)
in : The ‘in’ operator results True if the given value/string is found in the given variable.
Example 1

Explanation: In the above example, the substring to be searched can either be a single character

or a substring, irrespective to the whether the substring appears once or more times in the string.
‘Fresh’ substring is present in string A and hence gives True result. Similarly, ‘e’ is present and
hence True. But ‘every’ is not similar to ‘Every’ as Python is case sensitive and hence it generates
False result.
Output
 Strings 151

not in: Evaluates to true if the given value/string is not found in the given variable.
Example 2

Example 3

Output

#Since ‘A’ is not same as ‘a’

d. Slicing: It is a feature which allows you to extract a part of the string using the index numbers. To
understand slicing we will refer to the following string
a=’Python Language’

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P y t h o n L a n g u a g e
-15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

There are 3 parameters which can be provided in slicing.

String[start:end:step]
start → specifies the beginning index number. If not provided, then it’s 0.
end → specifies the ending index. If it’s not provided, then it takes the length of the strings (which
is the count of the total number of characters in the string). The last character printed is always
end-1
step → It is also optional. If not provided then it’s taken as 1. It specifies that by how many steps
the index should be jumped to display the next character. If the step provided is positive then the
direction of display of the element is from left to right. If the step is negative, then the direction of
152 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

display of the element is from right to left. Also, if step is negative, then start becomes len(string)-1
by default while end goes till the first character on left.
Examples with reference to above string ‘a’, with explanation:
>>> print(a)
Python Language #String printed

>>> print(a[:]) #Start is default 0 and end is default < len(a)

Python Language

>>> print(a[::])#Start is default 0 and end is default < len(a)

Python Language

>>> print(a[1:4]) #start is 1 and end is <4, step=1 (default)

yth

>>> print(a[6:]) #Start is 6, end is < len(a)

Language

>>>print(a[::2]) #Start and end default, but step is 2

Pto agae

>>>print(a[::-1])
egaugnaL nohtyP


#As step is negative, the direction of printing characters is from right to left,
hence reverse string printed
>>> print(a[::-3])
euant
 Strings 153

#The step is negative, so direction is right to left. Also, every third character
is printed from right to left as step=-3

>>> print(a[1:8:3])
yoL

#Start =1, while end<8. step=3 will print every third character starting from index
1.

>>> print(a[1:8:-1])
#This won’t print anything as direction of printing of characters should be right
to left, but the values of start and end indicate left to right direction

>>> print(a[-1:-5:-1])
egau

#Here negative indexing is specified, so according to the index number as shown in

the picture we see characters from -1 till -4 from right to left direction

>>> print(a[3:-5])
hon Lan


#In this example, there is a combination of positive and negative indexing. Start is
3, end one less than -5 position and since the step is 1 by default and the direction
of index is also from left to right, the characters as per the index are printed.

>>> print(a[-4:-12:-1])
ugnaL no
 154 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Traversing a string using loops

Since a string is an iterable object, we can reach each and every element of the string one after the
other in a sequence using loops.
Two ways to traverse a string
#Here character is taken from the string #Here the index is extracted using the range
A and given to i, which is printed function and to display the character, the
index is specified in square brackets with
string variable.

Example1: To count the number of vowels in a string accepted by the user

Example 2: Input a string and determine whether it is a palindrome or not.

 Strings 155

Built-in functions used with strings

Following are the functions which can be used for string manipulation as well as to check or extract
a desired output from the string.

Function Description Syntax

1 len() This function finds the length of the string, which len(string)
means it returns the total number of characters in
a string.
Example:

2 capitalize() This function returns a new string after converting string.

the first letter of the string to uppercase and the capitalize()
rest of the letters to lowercase. The original string
remains unchanged.
Example: >>>a=”Python. Interesting Language”
>>>print(a.capitalize())
Python. interesting language

>>>print(a)
Python. Interesting Language

>>> print(“wow. Nice”.capitalize())

Wow. nice
3 title() This function displays the string after converting string.title()
the first letter of every word in uppercase. The
original string remains unchanged
Example: >>>A=”Change the world by being yourself.”
>>>print(A.title())
Change The World By Being Yourself.

>>>print(A)
Change the world by being yourself.
4 lower() It displays the string after converting all the letters string.lower()
of the string in lowercase. The original string
remains unchanged
156 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Example: >>>A=”Whatever you do, do it well. By Walt Disney”

>>>print(A.lower())
whatever you do, do it well. by walt disney

>>>print(A)
Whatever you do, do it well. By Walt Disney
5 upper() It displays the string after converting all the letters string.upper()
of the string in uppercase. The original string
remains unchanged
Example: >>>A=”Whatever you do, do it well. By Walt Disney”
>>>print(A.lower())
whatever you do, do it well. by walt disney

>>>print(A)
Whatever you do, do it well. By Walt Disney
6 count() This function counts and displays the total string.

number of occurence of a substring in a string. count(Substr,
start,end)

For searching in a specific part of the string, the
start and the end index number of the string for
search can be provided. #The searching is
If start and end parameter is not provided then from start index

the whole string is searched till end-1 index
Example: >>>A=”If you tell the truth you do not have to remember anything”
>>>print(A.count(“you”))
2 #’you’ appears 2 times in the string A

>>>print(A.count(“you”,0,5))
0 #’you’ doesn’t occur between index 0 and 4.

>>>print(A.count(“you”,0,6))
1 #’you’ occurs once between index 0 and 5.

>>>print(A.count(“e”))
6 #’e’ appears 6 times in the entire string A.
#If you tell the truth you do not have to remember anything
 Strings 157

7 find() find( ) function returns the smallest beginning string.find(Substr,


index of the substring if it is found in the string. start,end)

Returns -1 if the substring is not found.
The start and the end index number of the string #The searching is

for search can be provided. from start index
till end-1 index

If not provided then the whole string is searched.
Example: >>> S=”One little two little three little cups”
>>> S.find(“little”)
4
#One little two little three little cups
>>> S.find(“little”,5)
15
#One little two little three little cups
>>> S.find(“little”,16)
28
#One little two little three little cups
>>> S.find(“little”,16,len(S))
28
#One little two little three little cups
>>> S.find(“little”,16,22)
-1
#One little two little three little cups
8 index() index( ) function returns the smallest beginning string.

index of the substring if it is found in the string. index(Substr,
start,end)

Generates ‘ValueError’ exception if the substring
is not found.
The start and the end index number of the string #The searching is

for search can be provided. from start index
till end-1 index

If not provided then the whole string is searched.
Example: >>> S=”One little two little three little cups”
>>> S.index(“little”)
4
#One little two little three little cups
>>> S.index(“little”,5)
15
158 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

#One little two little three little cups

>>> S.index(“little”,16)
28
#One little two little three little cups
>>> S.index(“little”,16,len(S))
28
#One little two little three little cups
>>> S.index(“little”,16,22)
#ValueError: substring not found
ONLY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN find( ) and index( )
If substring is not found find( ) returns -1 but index( ) raises ValueError exception
9 endswith() This function returns True if the string ends with str.endswith(sub-
the given substring, else it returns False. You can string, start,
also provide tuple of substrings. You can provide the end)
start and end position of the main strings in which #The searching is
searching is done. If not provided, then default the from start index
whole string is With optional start, test beginning at till end-1 index
that position. With optional end, stop comparing at
that position.
>>>A=”One little two little three little cups”
>>> A.endswith(‘ ‘)
False #as the string doesn’t end with space

>>> A.endswith((‘ ‘,’le’,’ps’))

True #as the string doesn’t end with space or ‘le’ but ends with
‘ps’

>>> A.endswith(‘ ‘,1,4)

True #as the ending string is space from index no 1 to 3 ‘ne ‘

>>> A.endswith(‘ ‘,1,3)

False #as the ending string is not space from index no 1 to 2
‘ne‘
10 startswith() This function returns True if the string starts with str.startswith(-
the given substring, else it returns False. You can substring, start,
also provide tuple of substrings. You can provide the end)
start and end position of the main strings in which #The searching is
searching is done. If not provided, then default the from start index
whole string is With optional start, test beginning at till end-1 index
that position. With optional end, stop comparing at
that position.
 Strings 159

Examples: >>>A=”One little two little three little cups”

>>> A.startswith(‘ ‘)
False #as the string doesn’t start with space

>>> A.startswith((‘ ‘,’One’,’one’))

True #as the string doesn’t start with space or ‘one’ but ends
with ‘One’

>>> A.startswith(‘n’,1,5)
True #as the starting string is ‘n’ from index no 1 to 3 ‘ne l‘

>>> A.startswith(‘e’,10,15)
False #as the starting string is ‘e’ from index no 10 to 14
‘ two‘
11 isalnum() Returns True if all the characters in the string are string.isalnum( )
either alphabets (A-Z,a-z) or digits (0-9) or their
combination else it returns False
Example: >>>a=”Hello Everyone”
>>>print(a.isalnum())
False #as space(special char) is there and is not allowed

>>>b=”Hello Every123”
>>>print(b.isalnum())
False #as space(special char) is there and is not allowed

>>>c=”Hello”
>>>print(c.isalnum())
True #as characters are part of alphanumeric and are allowed

>>>d=”123”
>>>print(d.isalnum())
True #as numbers are part of alphanumeric and are allowed

>>>f=”Hello123”
>>>print(f.isalnum())
True #as numbers and characters are alphanumeric

>>>g=”45%”
print(g.isalnum())
False #as %(special char) is there and is not allowed
160 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

12 isalpha() It returns True if the characters in a string are string.isalpha( )

alphabets only (A-Z, a-z) else it returns False .
If the string has special characters or digits then
isalpha( ) will return False
Examples: >>>a=”What a Great Work!”
>>>print(a.isalpha())
False #due to spaces and ! (exclamation mark)

>>>b=”GREAT WORK”
>>>print(b.isalpha())
False #due to spaces

>>>c=”GREAT”
>>>print(c.isalpha())
True

>>>d=”123”
>>>print(d.isalpha())
False #due to numbers which are not alphabets

>>>e=”GREAT123”
>>>print(e.isalpha())
False #due to numbers

>>>f=”GREAT***”
>>>print(f.isalpha())
False #due to special characters

>>>g=”***%%***”
>>>print(g.isalpha())
False #due to special characters

>>>h=”GREATwork”
>>>print(h.isalpha())
True #as the string has only alphabets
13 isdigit() This function returns True if the characters in a string.isdigit()
string are digits only (0-9) else it returns False . So
if the string has special characters or alphabets then
isdigit( ) will return False
 Strings 161

Examples: >>>a=”What a Great Work!”

>>>print(a.isdigit())
False #due to presence of characters

>>>b=”GREATWORK”
>>>print(b.isdigit())
False #due to presence of characters

>>>c=”GREAT123”
>>>print(c.isdigit())
False #due to presence of characters

>>>d=”123”
>>>print(d.isdigit())
True

>>>e=”**123”
>>>print(e.isdigit())
False #due to presence of special characters **

>>>f=”123 456”
>>>print(f.isdigit())
False #due to special character space
14 islower() It returns True if ALL the characters in the string string.islower( )
are in lowercase (a-z) else it returns False
Example >>>a=”What a wonderful Day!”
>>>print(a.islower())
False #due to the presence of uppercase letters also.

>>>b=”what a wonderful day”

>>>print(b.islower())
True #as all letters are in lowercase

>>>c=”day”
>>>print(c.islower())
True #as all letters are in lowercase

>>>d=”123”
>>>print(d.islower())
162 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

False #as only digits are there

>>>e=”wonderful 1-2-3 days”

>>>print(e.islower())
True #as all letters present are in lowercase

>>>f=”***wonderful days***”
>>>print(f.islower())
True #as lowercase letters are there

>>>g=”**$$**”
>>>print(g.islower())
False #as only special characters present
15 isupper() It returns True if ALLthe characters in the string string.isupper( )
are in uppercase (A-Z) else it returns False
Example: >>>a=”What a wonderful Day!”
>>>print(a.isupper())
False #due to the presence of lowercase letters also.

>>>b=”WHAT A WONDERFUL DAY!”

>>>print(b.isupper())
True #as all letters are in uppercase

>>>c=”WONDERFUL”
>>>print(c.isupper())
True #as all letters are in uppercase

>>>d=”123”
>>>print(d.isupper())
False #as only digits are there

>>>e=”HAVE 1-2-3 AWESOME DAYS”

>>>print(e.isupper())
True #as all letters present are in uppercase

>>>f=”***WONDERFUL DAYS***”
>>>print(f.isupper())
True #as uppercase letters are there
 Strings 163

>>>g=”**$$**”
>>>print(g.isupper())
False #as only special characters present
16 isspace() Returns True if ALL the characters in a string are string.isspace( )
whitespace characters else it returns False
Example >>>a=””
>>>print(a.isspace())
False #as no whitespace characters

>>>b=” “
>>>print(b.isspace())
True #as whitespace characters are present

>>>c=”Good Luck”
>>>print(c.isspace())
False #as alphabets are present

>>>d=”123 SPACE”
>>>print(d.isspace())
False #as digits and characters are there
17 lstrip() lstrip( ) function returns a copy of the string after string.
removing the specified character/ characters lstrip(‘str’)
from the left side of the string, if they exist. If the
parameter is not provided, then leading whitespaces
are removed
>>> A=” train on track “
>>> A.lstrip()
‘train on track ‘#spaces in beginning removed but not at the end

>>> A=”ttrain on track”

>>> A.lstrip(‘t’)
‘rain on track’ #’t’ removed from the left of string

>>> A=”train on track”

>>> A.lstrip(‘tt’)
‘rain on track’ #’t’ removed from the left of string

>>> A=’*.ttrain of track’

164 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

>>> A.lstrip(‘*.’)
‘ttrain of track’ #if either ‘*’ or ‘.’ appears, its removed
from left of string

>>> A=’*.*ttrain of track’

>>> A.lstrip(‘*.’)
‘ttrain of track’ #if either ‘*’ or ‘.’ appears, its removed
from left of string

>>> A=’*.*ttrain of track’

>>> A.lstrip(‘*’)
‘.*ttrain of track’ #‘*’removed from the left side of the
String. Since the second ‘*’ comes
after ‘.’, it is not removed
18 rstrip() rstrip( ) function returns a copy of the string after string.
removing the specified character/characters from rstrip(‘str’)
the right side of the string, if they exist. If the
parameter is not provided, then trailing whitespaces
are removed
Examples >>> A=” train on track “
>>> A.rstrip()
‘ train on track’#spaces at the end removed but not in the
beginning

>>> A=”ttrain on track”

>>> A.rstrip(‘k’)
‘rain on track’ #’k’ removed from the right of string

>>> A=”train on track”

>>> A.lstrip(‘t’)
‘train on track’ #’t’ is not present on the right side of
the string so nothing removed.

>>> A=’**.ttrain of track.**’

>>> A.lstrip(‘*.’)
‘**.ttrain of track’ #if either ‘*’ or ‘.’ appears on the
right side of the string, it is removed
 Strings 165

>>> A=’*.*ttrain of track*.**’

>>> A.lstrip(‘*’)
‘*.*ttrain of track*.’ #‘*’ removed from right side of the
string
19 strip() strip( ) function returns a copy of the string after string.
removing the specified character /characters from strip(‘str’)
the beginning as well as from the end of the string,
if they exist. If the parameter is not provided, then
leading and trailing whitespaces are removed
Example: >>> A=” train on track “
>>> A.strip()
‘train on track’ #spaces at the beginning as well as the end
removed

>>> A=”ttrain on track”

>>> A.strip(‘tk’)
‘rain on trac’ #if either ‘t’ or ’k’ appears either on the
left or right side of the string then it is
removed.

>>> A=”train on track”

>>> A.strip(‘t’)
‘rain on track’ #’t’ present either on left or right side of
the string removed.

>>> A=’**.ttrain of track.**’

>>> A.strip(‘*.’)
‘ttrain of track’ #if either ‘*’ or ‘.’ appears on either
side of the string, it is removed

>>> A=’*.*ttrain of track*.**’

>>> A.strip(‘*’)
‘.*ttrain of track*.’ #‘*’ removed from either side of the string
20 replace() replace( ) function returns a copy of the string after string.replace
replacing ‘old’ string with ‘new’ string. It also allows (‘old’,’new’,c
us to specify the number of replacements to be ount=’no of
done. If not specified, then all the ‘old’ strings are replacements from
replaced with ‘new’ left side’)
166 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Examples >>>A=”One little two little three little cups”

>>>print(A.replace(‘little’,’big’))
One big two big three big cups #all replacements done

>>>print(A.replace(‘little’,’big’,1))
One big two little three little cups #only 1 replacement done

>>>print(A.replace(‘little’,’BIG’,2))
One BIG two BIG three little cups #2 replacements done

>>>print(A.replace(‘LITTLE’,’big’,1))
One little two little three little cups #No replacement done
21 join() This function takes an iterable as an argument in string.join(iter-
the form of a string. It concatenates the string with able)
the elements of the iterable.
Note that if the iterable contains a non-string value
then the exception is raised.
Examples: >>>A.join()
TypeError #One argument compulsory

>>> A="HI"
>>> A.join("RED")
'RHIEHID' #String A concatenated with iterable string RED →
R+HI+E+HI+D → RHIEHID

>>> A=" HI "

>>> A.join("RED")
'R HI E HI D' #String A (this time with spaces) concatenated with
iterable string RED → R+ HI +E+ HI +D → R HI E HI D

>>>A=" Present "

>>> print(A.join(("Nisha","Vibha","Kusum")))
'Nisha Present Vibha Present Kusum'
#Here the iterable has 3 elements and hence the result is Nisha+
Present +Vibha+ Present +Kusum

>>>B=" Present\n"
>>>print(B.join(("Nisha","Vibha","Kusum")))
Nisha Present
Vibha Present
Kusum
#Because of ‘\n’ in string B, the like break appears after
‘Present’ and hence the above result
 Strings 167

22 partition() This function searches for a specified string and string.parti-

returns a tuple of three elements. The first element tion(‘str’)
is the string before the specified string. The second
element is the specified string and the third element
is the string after the specified string.
Examples >>> A=”We should work together”
>>> A.partition(“We”)
(‘’, ‘We’, ‘ should work together’) #’We’ found so it’s the second
element. No string before ‘We’, so the first element is blank
string. Everything after ‘We’ till the end is the third element
of the tuple.

>>> A.partition(“WE”)
(‘We should work together’, ‘’, ‘’) #’WE’ is not found as Python
is case sensitive, so second and third elements are blank strings
and the rest of the string is first element

>>> A.partition(“work”)
(‘We should ‘, ‘work’, ‘ together’) #’work’ is present in the
string, so all characters before it will be the first element, and
all characters after ‘work’ will be the third element and ‘work’
is the second element.

>>> A.partition(“together”)
(‘We should work ‘, ‘together’, ‘’)#All characters before
‘together’ is first element, ‘together’ is second element and
since nothing is left so blank string is the third element.
23 split() This function is one of the most important and str.split(‘separa-
frequently used functions of string. tor’, ‘max no of
splits’)
Using this function, the string is divided into a
list of strings based on the given separator. If the Max no of splits
separator is not provided then the string is divided specifies the max-
on the occurrence of a space. imum no of times
split will occur
Note: the character used in split doesn’t appear in
the list.
Examples >>>A=”this is split function”
>>>print(A.split())
[‘this’,’is’,’split’,’function’]
#The words are split into a list of strings on the basis of space.

>>>print(A.split(‘ ‘,2))
[‘this’,’is’,’split function’]
 168 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

#2 specifies that a maximum of 2 splits of spaces will occur. This

means this is split function”

split-1 split-2
>>>print(A.split(‘is’))
[‘th’, ’ ’ , ’split function’]
#’is’ occurs twice in the string, so
this is split function

split-1 split-2
>>>print(A.split(‘i’,3))
[‘th’,’s ‘, ‘s spl’, t function’]

#To display the words in a string #in different lines

A=input(“Enter a string”)
for i in A.split():
print(i)

Example1: To Count and display the number of vowels, consonants, uppercase, lowercase characters
in string.
Name=input(“Enter a string”)
vow=con=upper=lower=total=dig=spchar=0
for i in Name:
if i.isalpha()==True:
if i in “AEIOUaeiou”:
vow+=1
else:
con+=1
if i.isupper()==True:
upper+=1
else:
lower+=1
elif i.isdigit()==True:
dig+=1
else:
spchar+=1
print(“Total Characters :”,len(Name))
 Strings 169

print(“Total Consonants :”,con)

print(“Total Vowels :”,vow)
print(“Total Uppercase letters :”,upper)
print(“Total lowercase letters :”,lower)
print(“Total Digits :”,dig)
print(“Total Special Characters :”,spchar)

Example2: To Count and display the number of words in a string. Also convert all letters in uppercase
and display the string

Name=input(“Enter a string”)
words=Name.split()
print(“Total Words :”,len(words))
print(“String in uppercase”,Name.upper(),sep=”\n”)

Summary
1. Strings are the series of characters stored in a sequence within single, double quotes or triple
quotes.
2. Concatenation means combining 2 or more strings. Concatenation is possible using ‘+’ (plus) sign.
Concatenation is possible only between strings.
3. We can repeat a strings by multiplying string with an integer, using asterisk (*).
4. There are two membership operators ‘in’ and ‘not in’. They are used to find a substring in a given
string (when used with string)
5. Slicing is a feature which allows you to extract a part of the string using the index numbers.
6. The process of extracting every character from a string using a loop is called traversing.
7. len() function finds the length of the string.
8. capitalize() function returns a string after converting the first letter of the string to uppercase
and rest of the letters to lowercase.
 170 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

9. title() function returns a string after converting the first letter of every word in uppercase.
10. lower() function displays the string after converting all the letters of the string in lowercase.
11. upper() function displays the string after converting all the letters of the string in uppercase.
12. count() function counts and displays the total number of occurence of a substring in a string.
13. find() function returns the smallest beginning index of the substring if it is found in the string.
14. index() function returns the smallest beginning index of the substring if it is found in the string.
15. endswith() function returns True if the string ends with the given substring, else it returns False.
16. startswith() function returns True if the string starts with the given substring, else it returns
False.
17. isalnum() function returns True if all the characters in the string are either alphabets (A-Z,a-z)
or digits (0-9) or their combination else it returns False.
18. isalpha() returns True if the characters in a string are alphabets only (A-Z, a-z) else it returns
False .
19. isdigit() function returns True if the characters in a string are digits only (0-9) else it returns
False.
20. islower() returns True if all the characters in the string are in lowercase (a-z) else it returns
False.
21. isupper() returns True if all the characters in the string are in uppercase (A-Z) else it returns
False.
22. isspace() returns True if all the characters in a string are whitespace characters else it returns
False
23. lstrip() function returns a copy of the string after removing the specified character/ characters
from the left side of the string, if they exist.
24. rstrip() function returns a copy of the string after removing the specified character/characters
from the right side of the string, if they exist.
25. strip() function returns a copy of the string after removing the specified character /characters
from the beginning as well as from the end of the string, if they exist.
26. replace() function returns a copy of the string after replacing ‘old’ string with ‘new’ string. It
also allows us to specify the number of replacements to be done.
27. join() function concatenates the string with the elements of the iterable.
28. partition() function searches for a specified string and returns a tuple of three elements.
29. split() function is used to divide the string into a list of strings based on the given separator.

Programs to practice
1. Accept a string and print the number of characters in each word. Example If the string is “Welcome
to the world of programming”, then the result should be
Welcome : 7
to : 2
 Strings 171

the : 3
world : 5
of : 2
programming : 11
2. Accept two strings A and B and form a new string, which is the combination of first, middle and
the last characters of strings A and B. For example, A=”Great” B=”Work”
NewString=”GWertk”
3. Accept description of product in the form of a sentence. Display the occurrence of a word “the” in
the sentence. The case sensitivity should be ignored.
For example: if
A=”Toothpaste comes in a variety of colors and flavors, intended to encourage use
of the product. The three most common flavorants are peppermint, spearmint, and
wintergreen.”
Count: 2
4. Accept a string, which is the combination of lowercase and uppercase letters. Form a new string
with lowercase letters in the beginning and uppercase letters in the end.
For example: A=”ThisGReatwORk”, the Newstring: hiseatwkTGROR
5. Accept a string from the user and replace all white spaces with an asterisk.
6. Accept a string and display its reverse using a loop.
7. Accept a string and display the work with the maximum length. For example If the string is
“Welcome to the world of programming”, then the result should be ‘programming’
8. Accept a string and print all the words in reverse. For example is the string A=”Python Programming
Language”. Then the result should be :
nohtyP
gnimmargorP
egaugnaL
9. Accept a string and Replace all instances of a substring ‘in’ with ‘IN’ in a string
10. Accept a string and remove all the special characters and digits, if any, except space from the
string. For example, if string is A=”If you %%cannot be &123a poet, then be a poem”, then
the final string should be A=”If you cannot be a poet then be a poem”.
11. Write a program to accept a string and remove the word ‘the’ from it and print the modified
string.
12. Write a program to accept two string and check if the two strings are Anagrams or not. Two words
are said to be Anagrams if the letters of one word can be rearranged to form the other word. For
example, madam and adamm are anagrams of each other.
 172 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
1. str = “POSITIVE”
print (str[1:3])
a. SO b. PO c. OS d. IT
2. Which operator is used to concatenate two strings?
a. + b. * c. ^ d. .
3. What will the following commands do?
S = “California Video Library”
print(s[::-1])
a. Print the String S as it is. b. Prints the last character of the string S
c. Prints the String S in Reverse d. None of the above
4. For checking the palindrome of a string using slice, which of the following is correct?
Text = “MalayalaM”
a. text[:]==text[-1] b. text[:]==text[:-1]
c. text[:]==text[::-1] d. None of the above
5. Which function is used to convert each word in a string into capital letter and the rest of them in
small?
a. title() b. capitalize() c. capitalise() d. capital()
6. s = “The most important thing is to respect”
x = s.split()
print(x[-3] + “ “ + x[-1] + “ “ + x[2] )
a. respect is important b. important is respect
c. is respect important d. thing is to
7. string = ‘We must ask madam’
print(string[-5:],end=”#”)
print(string[0:-14],end=”#”)
print(string[5:2:-1],end=”#”)
a. madam We sum# b. madam# sum#We
c. #madam#We #sum# d. madam#We #sum#
8. What will be the output of the following Python statement?
>>>”Coolday”[2:]
a. olday b. Cool c. day d. oold
 Strings 173

9. ‘It is a great work’.split(‘ ‘,3)

a. [‘It’, ‘is’, ‘a’, ‘great work’]
b. [‘It is’, ‘a’, ‘great work’]
c. [‘It’, ‘is a’, ‘great work’]
d. [‘It’, ‘is’, ‘a’, ‘great’, ‘work’]
10. What will be the output of the following Python code?
Ex = “snow world”
Ex[3] = ‘s’
print(Ex)
a. snow b. snow world c. Error d. snos world
11. What will be the output of the following Python code?
Data = “Well Done”
print(Data.find(“e”))
a. -1 b. 1 c. 0 d. Error
12. What will be the output of the “hello” +1+2+3?
a. hello123 b. hello c. Error d. hello6
13. Say Data=”Good Day” what will be the return value of type(Data)?
a. int b. bool c. str d. String
14. What will be the output of the following Python code?
print(“United NATION S”.capitalize())
a. UNITED NATION S b. uNITED nATION s
c. United Nation S d. United nation s
15. What will be the output of the following Python code?
print(“MALAYALAM”.count(‘LA’))
a. 2 b. 0 c. 1 d. None of the mentioned
16. What will be the output of the following Python code?
print(“MALAYALAM”.count(‘LA’,-7,-2))
a. 2 b. 0 c. 1 d. Error
17. What will be the output of the following Python code?
print(‘TRUE’.isalnum())
a. True b. False c. None d. Error
18. What will be the output of the following Python code snippet?
print(‘\n’.isspace())
a. True b. False c. None d. Error
19. What will be the output of the following Python code?
174 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

print(‘XMas is coming’.partition(‘g’))
a. (‘XMas is comin’, ‘g’) b. (‘XMas’, ‘is coming’)
c. (‘XMas’ ‘g’,is comin’) d. (‘XMas is comin’, ‘g’, ‘’)
20. s1 = “Good”
s2 = “Good”
print(id(s1) == id(s2),s1>s2)
a. True False b. True True c. False False d. False True
 10 Lists

Introduction to List
List is another iterable object in python which can store multiple values of various data types. We will
understand lists by first knowing the important features of a list.
1. List is a heterogeneous collection of data, which can store data of all types.
2. The values of Lists are enclosed within a square bracket.
#List declaration
L=[]
L1=[10,30,60]
L2=[“Python”,”C”,”Java”,”HTML”]
L3=[“Primary”,200,98.9]
3. Duplicate values are allowed in a list.
L1=[10,30,10,30,10,10]
4. 
Each value in a list is called an element and each element of a list can be extracted using its index
number. The index number starts from 0.
L1=[10,30,60]
print(L1[0])
print(L1[2])

5. List is a mutable Python object, where the values are allowed to change.
L1=[10,30,60]
print(id(L1))
L1[1]+=100
print(id(L1))
print(L1)
 176 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

6. To know the total number of elements in a list, len() function is used.

L2=[“Python”,”C”,”Java”,”HTML”]
print(len(L2))
#4
7. The elements of a list can be any other data structure like string/tuple/list/dictionary etc
L=[[0,2,4],[1,3,5],[‘a’,’b’,’c’]]
L=[(1,2,3),”data”,{1:12,2:23}]

List indexing
Since a list is an iterable object, each element in a list has an index number using which it can be
extracted.
L=[1,’Python’,3.9.5,’Language’,17]

0 1 2 3 4
1 Python 3.9.5 Language 17
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1

Each element in the list has a positive index as well as negative index number, using which the element
can be extracted. The index number is provided in a square brackets as shown below:
>>>print(L) # [1,’Python’,3.9.5,’Language’,17]
>>>print(L[3]) # Language
>>>print(L[-4]) # Python

Operations in Lists
Following operations are possible in this iterable object:
a. Concatenation : Concatenation means combining 2 or more lists. Concatenation is possible using
‘+’ (plus) sign. Here, the second list is combined with the first to get a new list. The length of
the new list will therefore be the sum of length of list 1 and list 2. Following example illustrate
concatenation in lists:
Example 1
L1=[34,13,90,56] #Length: 4
L2=[16,89,16] #Length: 3
L3=L1+L2 #concatenation
print (L3,len(L3),sep=”\n”) #Length: 4+3=7

Note: Concatenation in list is possible only between lists.

 Lists 177

Example 2
B=[5,6,7]
C=23
print(B+C)
#Error

Example 3
L1=[“Mango”,”orange”,”Pineapple”]
L2=[120,60,54]
L3=L2+L1
print(L3)

b. Repetition: Repetition in a list means repeating the element of a list specific number (N) of times.
Repetition is possible when the list object is multiplied with an integer. We can repeat a list using
asterisk (*). The final result is also a list. See the following example to understand repetition:
Example 1
L1=[“Mango”,”orange”,”Pineapple”]
print(L1*2) #The list is repeated 2 times

Note that the two lists cannot be multiplied. Repetition is possible when a list is multiplied with
an integer
Example 2
L1=[“Mango”,”orange”,”Pineapple”]
print(L1*L1)

c. Membership: There are two membership operators ‘in’ and ‘not in’. They are used to find an
element in a given list.
in : The ‘in’ operator results True if the given value/element is found in the given list
Example 1
a=12
L=[1,2,12,45,12]
if a in L:
print(‘Present’)
else:
print(‘Not Present’)
 178 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Explanation: In the above example, the value 12 is to be searched which is present at index

number 3. So the condition is True and hence Present displayed.
Output

not in: Evaluates to true if the given value/element is not found in the given list
Example 2

a. Slicing: It is a feature which allows you to extract element/ elements from a list using the index
numbers. The final result is also a list. To understand slicing we will refer to the following list
L1=[10,23,10,56,11,23,13,56]

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 23 10 56 11 23 13 56
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
There are 3 parameters which can be provided in slicing.
List[start:end:step]
start → specifies the beginning index number. If not provided, then it’s 0.

end → specifies the ending index. If it’s not provided, then it takes the length of the list (which is
the count of the total number of elements in the list). The last index taken is always end-1

step → It is also optional. If not provided then it’s taken as 1. It specifies that by how many steps
the index should be jumped to display the next element. If the step provided is positive then the
direction of display of the element is from left to right. If the step is negative, then the direction of
display of the element is from right to left. Also, if step is negative, then start becomes len(list)-1
by default while end goes till the first element on left.
Examples with reference to above list ‘L1’, with explanation:
>>> print(L1) #List printed
 Lists 179

>>> print(L1[:]) #Start is default 0 and end is default < len(L1)

>>> print(L1[::]) #Start is default 0 and end is default < len(L1)

>>> print(L1[1:4]) #start is 1 and end is <4, step=1 (default)

[23,10,56]

>>> print(L1[6:]) #Start is 6, end is < len(a)

[13,56]

>>>print(L1[::2]) #Start and end default, but step is 2

[10,10,11,13]

>>>print(L1[::-1])
[56,13,23,11,56,10,23,10]

#As step is negative, the direction of printing element is from right to left, hence
reverse list printed
>>> print(L1[::-3])
[56, 11, 23]

#The step is negative, so direction is right to left. Also, every third element is
printed from right to left as step=-3
>>> print(L1[1:8:3])
 180 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

[23, 11, 56]


#Start =1, while end<8. step=3 will print every third element starting from index
1.
>>> print(L1[1:8:-1])
#This won’t print anything as direction of printing of elements should be right to
left, but the values of start and end indicate left to right direction
>>> print(L1[-1:-6:-1])
[56, 13, 23, 11,56]

Here negative indexing is specified, so according to the index number as shown in

#
the picture we see elements from -1 till -5 from right to left direction
>>> print(L1[2:-2])
[10,56,11,23]

#In this example, there is a combination of positive and negative indexing. Start is
2, end one less than -2 position and since the step is 1 by default and the direction
of index is also from left to right, the elements as per the index are printed.
>>> print(L1[-4:-8:-1])
[11,56,10,23]

Traversing a list using loops

Since a List is an iterable object, we can reach each and every element of the list one after the other
in a sequence using loops.
 Lists 181

Two ways to traverse a list

#Here element is taken from the list L #Here the index is extracted using the range
and given to i, which is printed function and to display the element, the
index is specified in square brackets with
list object.

List Comprehension
It is another way to create a list from the existing list or create a new list based on a criteria. It is
considered a faster as well as smart way to use loops to create lists. Following example will make it
more clear:
>>> a=[i for i in range(1,10,2)]
>>> print(a)
[1, 3, 5, 7, 9] #List of odd numbers created

#creating a list of all multiples of 7 from an existing list L

>>>L=[67,3,66,72,49,35,12,14,90,84,91,51]
>>>S=[i for i in L if i%7==0]
>>>print(S)
[49, 35, 14, 84, 91]

#Creating a list of vowels present in the Name N

N=input(“Enter a name”)
S=[i for i in N if i in “AEIOUaeiou”]
print(S)

Interesting thing to know:

You can accept elements in a list using list comprehension also in the following manner:
x = [int(x) for x in input(“Enter multiple value separated by space: “).split()]
print(“List elements are: “, x)
 182 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Output:

Note: If the conditions are too long and complicated, then we should avoid using list comprehension
else the code appears complicated.
Example 1: To find the minimum and maximum element from the list.

Example 2: To find and display the mean of numeric values stored in a list L.

Note:
1. 
It is important to note that if we copy a list in another object, then the changes made in the
original list will be seen in another object also. This is because when we duplicate a list then it
means the two objects with different names point to the same address where the elements of the
list are stored. So, changes are reflected back. In other words a clone if original list is made
>>> L=[45,67,90]
>>> L1=L #List L copied to L1
>>> print(id(L))
140535619898624
 Lists 183

>>> print(id(L))
140535619898624
>>> L[1]+=34 #Second element of List L changed
>>> print(L)
[45, 101, 90]
>>> print(L1) #Changes are seen when L1 is accessed
[45, 101, 90]
2. 
If you make a copy of the list using the list function, then the exact copy is made but will be
independent of each other. This is shown in the example below:
>>> L=[45,67,90]
>>> L1=list(L) #List L copied to L1 using list()
>>> print(id(L)) #id different
140535619904000

>>> print(id(L1)) #id different

140535619904320

>>> L[1]+=100
>>> print(L)
[45, 167, 90]

>>> print(L1)
[45, 67, 90] #Changes are not reflected in L1, when L is changed
Another way to make exact copy but independent of the original List, we can use copy() function
as shown below:
L=[45,67,90]
L1=L.copy() #List L copied to L1 using copy()
print(id(L))
print(id(L1)) #id different
L[1]+=100
print(L)
print(L1)
184 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Built in Functions
Function Description Syntax
1 len() This function finds the length of the list, which means it returns len(List)
the total number of elements in a list.
Example: L=[12,23,44,”One”]
print(len(L))
4
print(len([2,2,4,5,7,9]))
6
S=len(L)+ 2
print(S)
6

W=len(L*3)
print(W)
12 #Here L*3 will first result in
[12, 23, 44, ‘One’, 12, 23, 44, ‘One’, 12, 23, 44, ‘One’]
Hence the length 12
2 list() It converts an iterable object into a list. If no parameter is l i s t ( i t e r -
provided then a blank list is created able)
Example: >>> S=”Hello”
>>> L=list(S)
>>> print(L)
[‘H’, ‘e’, ‘l’, ‘l’, ‘o’] #Each character in a string becomes an
element of list

>>> T=(“Y”,”R”,”G8”)
>>> L1=list(T)
>>> print(L1)
[‘Y’, ‘R’, ‘G8’] #Tuple can be converted to a list

>>> D={“Y”:”you”,”R”:”are”,”G8”:”great”}
>>> L2=list(D)
>>> print(L2)
[‘Y’, ‘R’, ‘G8’] #By default only the key becomes the elements of the
list

>>> L3=list()
>>> print(L3)
[ ] #Blank list created
 Lists 185

>>> L=list(12)
TypeError: ‘int’ object is not iterable
3 append() This function is used to insert an element in a list. list.append(-
object)
There is no other way to insert an element in the list.

Single element is inserted using this function and thus
every time this function is used, the length of the list is
increased by one.
Example >>> L=[]
>>> L.append(10)
>>> L.append(“Value”)
>>> L.append(78.90)
>>> print(L)
[10, ‘Value’, 78.9] #One value at a time is inserted

>>> L.append([‘*’,’&’])
>>> print(L)
[10, ‘Value’, 78.9, [‘*’, ‘&’]] #list is passed as a single element

>>> L.append((1,2))
>>> print(L)
[10, ‘Value’, 78.9, [‘*’, ‘&’], (1, 2)] #Tuple can also be passed as
a single element

>>> L.append(11,34)
TypeError: list.append() takes exactly one argument (2 given)
4 extend() This function is used to extend the list by adding the iterable list.ex-
provided as a parameter. The list with which this function is tend(iter-
used is modified. The length of the modified list is increased by able)
the count of elements in the iterable.
Example >>>L=[10,12,15]
>>> L.extend(“DATA”)
>>> print(L)
[10, 12, 15, ‘D’, ‘A’, ‘T’, ‘A’]
#string is an iterable and each character is stored as an element.
Length of the list L is increased by 4 and hence the length of L
becomes 7.

>>> L=[10,12,15]
>>> L.extend([89,98])
>>> print(L)
186 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

[10, 12, 15, 89, 98]

#List is an iterable and thus 2 elements are added to the list L, thus
elements increased from 3 to 5.

>>> L=[10,12,15]
>>> L.extend((89,98))
>>> print(L)
[10, 12, 15, 89, 98]
#Tuple is an iterable and thus 2 elements are added to the list L, thus
elements increased from 3 to 5.

>>> L=[10,12,15]
>>> L.extend({“G”:1,”O”:2,”D”:3})
>>> print(L)
[10, 12, 15, ‘G’, ‘O’, ‘D’]
#Dictionary is an iterable and by default its keys are added as
elements, thus elements increased from 3 to 6.

>>> L=[10,12,15]
>>> L.extend(10)
TypeError: ‘int’ object is not iterable
#The parameter allowed is iterable not object.
5 insert() This function is used to insert an element at a given index List.in-
number. sert(index-
Note: ,Value)
If the index is positive but beyond the range, then the
element is inserted at the end of the list
If the index is negative but beyond the range, then the
element is inserted at the beginning of the list.
insert( ) function inserts one lament at a time and thus the
length of the list is increased by 1.
Example >>> L=[10,30,50,22,78,89]
>>> L.insert(100,2)
>>> print(L)
[10, 30, 50, 22, 78, 89, 2]
#index 100 is out of range and since 100 is a positive number, 2 is
inserted at the end of the list.

>>> L.insert(-100,13)
 Lists 187

>>> print(L)
[13, 10, 30, 50, 22, 78, 89, 2]
#index -100 is out of range and since -100 is a negative number, 13 is
inserted in the beginning of the list.

>>> L=[12,14,16,18,20,22,24]
>>> L.insert(-12,100)
>>> print(L)
[100, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24]
#index -12 is out of range and since -12 is a negative number, 100 is
inserted in the beginning of the list.

>>> L.insert(100,90)
>>> print(L)
[100, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 90]
#index 100 is out of range and since 100 is a positive number, 90 is
inserted at the end of the list.

>>> L.insert(2,”one”)
>>> print(L)
[100, 12, ‘one’, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 90]
#string “one” is inserted at index 2 and all the elements from index
2 till the end are shifted to the right side.

>>> L.insert(-1,”two”)
>>> print(L)
[100, 12, ‘one’, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, ‘two’, 90]
#string “two” is inserted at index -1 and the element 90 which was at
-1 index is therefore shifted to the right.

>>> L.insert(-4,”three”)
>>> print(L)
[100, 12, ‘one’, 14, 16, 18, 20, ‘three’, 22, 24, ‘two’, 90]
#string “three” is inserted at index -4 and all the elements from
-4 index onwards (i.e 22, 24, ‘two’,90) are therefore shifted to the
right.

>>> L=[10,30,50,22,78,89]
>>> L.insert(2,(“abra”,”dabra”))
>>> print(L)
188 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

[10, 30, (‘abra’, ‘dabra’), 50, 22, 78, 89]

#Tuple is inserted as a single element at index number 2 and all the
elements from index 2 till the end are shifted to the right.
6 count() This function returns the number of occurrences of a value in List.
a list. If the value is absent in the list then 0 is returned. This count(value)
function takes only one parameter
>>> L=[12,13,14,15,(12,13),14,13,15]
>>> print(L.count(12))
1
# 12 appears once. The second 12 at index 5 is not a single element,
it’s a tuple (12,13), so it’s not included.

>>> print(L.count(13))
2
# 13 appears twice. 13 at index 5 is not a single element, it’s a tuple
(12,13), so it’s not included.

>>> print(L.count(10))
0
#10 is not present in the list and hence 0.

>>> print(L.count((12,13)))
1
#(12,13) appears at index 5 as a single element and is present only
once. Hence the function returns 1.

>>> print(L.count([12,13]))
0
#(12,13) appears at index 5 as a single element but it is a tuple not
a list. Hence the function returns 0.

>>> print(L.count(12,13))
TypeError: list.count() takes exactly one argument (2 given)
7 index() index( ) function returns the beginning index of the first List.

occurrence of value found in the list. index(Value,
start,end)

Generates ‘ValueError’ exception if the value is not found.
#The

The start and the end index number of the elements for
searching is
search can be provided.
from start

If not provided then the whole list is searched. index till
end-1 index
 Lists 189

Example: >>> L=[1,2,3,5,2,11,6,5]

>>> print(L.index(5))
3
#5 is present at two locations, 3 and at 7. But the first occurrence
is 3 and hence the result.

>>> print(L.index(5,0,3))
ValueError: 5 is not in list

>>> print(L.index(5,0,4))
3
#5 is present at once at location 3 from index 0 and 4-1. Hence the
result.

>>> print(L.index(6))
6
#6 is present at location 6.
8 remove() Removes the first occurrence of the value, if found. If the value List.
is not found then the function raises ValueError. The parameter remove(value)
it takes is value.
>>> L=[1,2,3,5,2,11,6,5,(8,9)]
>>> L.remove(5)
>>> print(L)
[1, 2, 3, 2, 11, 6, 5, (8, 9)]
# The first occurrence of 5 is at location 3, so it is removed.

>>> L.remove(66)
ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

>>> L.remove((8,9))
>>> print(L)
[1, 2, 3, 2, 11, 6, 5]
#The element to be removed is a Tuple and is removed

>>> L.remove(2)
>>> print(L)
[1, 3, 2, 11, 6, 5]
# The first occurrence of 2 was at index 1, which is removed and hence
the result.
190 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

9 pop() Removes the value at the provided index number and List.

returns the value, if found. pop(index)

If the index number doesn’t exist then the function raises
IndexError.

The parameter it takes is index.

Note, if the index is not provided then the last element is
deleted and its value is returned.

Index provided can be positive or negative
Example >>> L=[67,34,”Python”,888.99,”Programs”,(10,11)]
>>> print(L.pop(3))
888.99
#Value at index 3 is 888.99, which is returned and printed

>>> T=L.pop()
>>> print(T)
(10, 11)
#Since no parameter is provided, the last index is deleted and its
value is stored in the object T, which is further printed.

>>> print(L.pop(8))
IndexError: pop index out of range

>>> print(L)
[67, 34, ‘Python’, ‘Programs’]
>>> print(L.pop(-2))
Python
#Second element from the right is deleted and printed

>>> print(L)
[67, 34, ‘Programs’]
10 re- This function is used to reverse the elements of the list. List.re-
verse() The original list is modified. The function doesn’t take any verse()
parameter.
>>> L=[67,”one”,55,12,”two”,98.4,”three”]
>>> print(L)
[67, ‘one’, 55, 12, ‘two’, 98.4, ‘three’]
>>> print(id(L))
 Lists 191

140315847811776

>>> L.reverse()
>>> print(L)
[‘three’, 98.4, ‘two’, 12, 55, ‘one’, 67]
>>> print(id(L))
140315847811776
#id is same indicating that the List is mutable object

>>> L=[67,(1,2),[6,33,88],”two”]
>>> L.reverse()
>>> print(L)
[‘two’, [6, 33, 88], (1, 2), 67]
11 sort() This function arranges the elements of the list either in List.sort(re-

ascending or in descending order. verse=True)

By default, the list is sorted in ascending order.

To sort the list in descending order, reverse=True
parameter is used.

The original List is modified.

Note that the sort function will work with data of similar
type, i.e. all numbers or all strings. For heterogeneous data,
function will generate error
Example >>> L=[56,23,78,44,90,12]
>>> L.sort()
>>> print(L)
[12, 23, 44, 56, 78, 90]
#numeric values are sorted in ascending order by default

>>> L.sort(reverse=True)
>>> print(L)
[90, 78, 56, 44, 23, 12]
#numeric values are sorted in descending order

>>> L=[“Bhavna”,”Manya”,”Anika”,”Charu”]
>>> L.sort()
>>> print(L)
[‘Anika’, ‘Bhavna’, ‘Charu’, ‘Manya’]
192 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

#Values are sorted in alphabetical order. Note that the ASCII values
of uppercase letters are smaller than of lowercase letters. So
>>> L=[‘Anika’, ‘anika’,’Bhavna’, ‘Charu’, ‘Manya’,’charu’]
>>> L.sort()
>>> print(L)
[‘Anika’, ‘Bhavna’, ‘Charu’, ‘Manya’, ‘anika’, ‘charu’]

>>> L=[‘three’, 98.4, ‘two’, 12, 55, ‘one’, 67]

>>> L.sort()
TypeError: ‘<’ not supported between instances of ‘float’ and ‘str’

>>> L=[67,(4,2,6),(2,67,1),90]
>>> L.sort()
TypeError: ‘<’ not supported between instances of ‘tuple’ and ‘int’

>>> L=[(6,7.4),(4,2,6),(2,67,1),(9,0,8)]
>>> L.sort()
>>> print(L)
[(2, 67, 1), (4, 2, 6), (6, 7.4), (9, 0, 8)]
#Since all elements are tuples, they can be sorted. The first element
in each tuple is compared and sorted. If two tuples have the same first
element then the second element is compared and sorted and so on.
>>> L=[(2,5,3),(2,3),(2,5),(3,2,5),(3,2,4)]
>>> L.sort()
>>> print(L)
[(2, 3), (2, 5), (2, 5, 3), (3, 2, 4), (3, 2, 5)]

>>> L=[(6,7.4),(4,2,6),[2,67,1],(9,0,8)]
>>> L.sort()
TypeError: ‘<’ not supported between instances of ‘list’ and ‘tuple’
12 sorted() This function returns a new list, which contains elements sorted(it-

arranged in ascending order by default. erable,re-
verse=True)

To sort in descending order, reverse=True parameter is
used.
The original List is not modified.

 Lists 193


Note that the sorted function will work with data of similar
type, i.e. all numbers or all strings. For heterogeneous data,
function will generate error
>>> L=[78, 45, 90.56, 22]
>>> print(sorted(L))
[22, 45, 78, 90.56]

>>> L=[(2, 67, 1), (4, 2, 6), (6, 7.4), (9, 0, 8)]
>>> print(sorted(L,reverse=True))
[(9, 0, 8), (6, 7.4), (4, 2, 6), (2, 67, 1)]

>>> A=(67,23,56,77)
>>> print(sorted(A))
[23, 56, 67, 77]

>>> A={23:8,5:34,6:67}
>>> print(sorted(A))
[5, 6, 23]
#The keys are taken from dictionary to form the sorted list

>>> A=(67,23,56,77)
>>> print(sorted(A,reverse=True))
[77, 67, 56, 23]

>>> A=”SCHOOL”
>>> print(sorted(A))
[‘C’, ‘H’, ‘L’, ‘O’, ‘O’, ‘S’]
# If the iterable is a string then the each character becomes the
element of the list, sorted alphabetically in ascending order, by
default
13 min() It returns the minimum value from a given list. The data type of min(iterable)
elements in the list should be same.
>>> L=[‘Anika’, ‘anika’,’Bhavna’, ‘Charu’, ‘Manya’,’charu’]
>>> print(min(L))
Anika
# This is because the ASCII value of “A” is smallest amongst all

>>> L=[67,34,61,35,12,90]
194 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

>>> print(min(L))
12

>>> L=[(2, 67, 1), (4, 2, 6), (6, 7.4), (9, 0, 8)]
>>> print(min(L))
(2, 67, 1)
#The first element is smallest in all the tuples in the list

>>> L=[67,”one”,55,12,”two”,98.4,”three”]
>>> min(L)
TypeError: ‘<’ not supported between instances of ‘str’ and ‘int’
14 max() It returns the maximum value from a given list. The data type max(iterable)
of elements in the list should be the same.
>>> L=[‘Anika’, ‘anika’,’Bhavna’, ‘Charu’, ‘Manya’,’charu’]
>>> print(max(L))
charu
# This is because the ASCII value of “c” is largest amongst all

>>> L=[67,34,61,35,12,90]
>>> print(max(L))
90

>>> L=[(2, 67, 1), (4, 2, 6), (6, 7.4), (9, 0, 8)]
>>> print(max(L))
(9,0,8)
#The first element is smallest in all the tuples in the list

>>> L=[67,”one”,55,12,”two”,98.4,”three”]
>>> max(L)
TypeError: ‘<’ not supported between instances of ‘str’ and ‘int’

#We can also provide multiple values to find the maximum

>>> max(12,78,45,22)
78
 Lists 195

15 sum() It returns the sum of numbers in the List. It works only for s u m ( i t e r -

numeric values. able,start)
It has two parameters, iterable and start

It returns the sum of start value + sum of elements of
iterable.
If start is not provided, then it’s taken as 0.
>>> L=[78,45,90.56,22]
>>> print(sum(L))
235.56

>>> print(sum(L,10))
245.56
#235.56 added with 10

>>> print(sum(L,40))
275.56
#235.56 added with 40

>>> print(sum(L,10.5))
246.06
#235.56 added with 10.5

>>> print(sum(L,[23,45]))
#Error
Nested list
When a list has many other sublists as its elements, it is called a nested list. We need to understand
how each element in a nested list can be accessed and modified too as the list is an iterable object.
A=[[4,1,7,1],[3,11,21],[8,33,9],99,88]
To access each element of the list, if we use the loop, we will get the following result:

Output:

To understand the output further, let us understand it diagrammatically.

196 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

The above list has 5 elements from 0 to 4.

The first element is [4,1,7,1]
The second element is [3,11,21]
The third element is [8,33,9]
Fourth and fifth elements are 99 and 88 respectively
Each element of the first element can further be accessed using its respected index number.
A
0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 0 1 2 0 1 2 99 88

4 1 7 1 3 11 21 8 33 9

So A[0][0] → 4
A[0][1] → 1
A[0][2] → 7
A[0][3] → 1

A[1][0] → 3
A[1][1] → 11
A[1][2] → 21

A[2][0] → 8
A[2][1] → 33
A[2][2] → 9

A[3] → 99
A[4] → 88

#Program to store elements in a nested list and print then using a single loop. (Assuming each
sublist further has 3 elements)
 Lists 197

If a nested list has same number of element in the sub list, then this is another way to access the
element. Three variables i,j,k as three elements in the sublist

#Program to display the type of each element of a list

#Program to sort each sublist of a given list in descending order and display the final result.

Note: In a nested list, note that the changes were made in i but were reflected in L. This is because
each sublist in a list is referenced through the address and not the value. So changes made in the
child list/sublist are reflected back in the main list.

Example 1: Program to search a number from the list of numbers, using Linear search.
 198 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Output:

#Python method to do the above program:

Example 2: Program to accept 5 numbers and store them in a list. Find the sum of numbers stored.

Example 3: Program to count the frequency of elements in a list.

L=[12,67,13,45,89,67,12,12,13,45]
F=[]
F1=[]
for i in L:
if i not in F:
F.append(i)
F1.append(L.count(i))

print(“In list “,L)

 Lists 199

for i in range(len(F)):
print(F[i],”occurs”,F1[i],”Times”)

Example 4: Program to find max and min value in a List.

A=[3,6,12,56,90,23,2]
Ma=Mi=A[0]
for i in range(1,len(A)):
if Ma<A[i]:
Ma=A[i]
if Mi>A[i]:
Mi=A[i]
print(“Maximum : “,Ma, “Minimum :”,Mi)
#Python method to do the program:
A=[3,6,12,56,90,23,2]
print(max(A),min(A))

Example 5: Program to find mean of numeric values stored in list.

A=[3,6,12,56,90,23,2]
M=0
for i in range(len(A)):
M+=A[i]
print(“Mean :”,M/len(A))
#Python method to do the program:
A=[3,6,12,56,90,23,2]
print(“Mean is : “,sum(A)/len(A))

Example 5: Program to accept elements in a list and swap element at the even location with the
elements at the odd location.
L=[]
while True:
L.append(int(input(“Enter no”)))
ch=input(“More elements : Y/N”)
if ch in [‘n’,’N’]:
 200 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

break
N=len(L) if len(L)%2==0 else len(L)-1
print(“Original List”,L)
for i in range(0,N,2):
L[i],L[i+1]=L[i+1],L[i] #Note that swapping occurs simultaneously
print(“Modified List”,L)

Example 6: Create a list of pair of two consecutive numbers from 1 to 20

#List comprehension method is used
S=[(i,i+1) for i in range(1,21,2)]
print(S)

OR
S=[]
for i in range(1,21,2):
S.append((i,i+1))
print(S)
Can you guess what will be the output if we modify the above code to…?
S=[]
for i in range(1,21,2):
S+=((i,i+1))
print(S)
 Lists 201

Summary
1. List is a heterogeneous collection of data, which can store data of all types. The values of Lists are
enclosed within a square bracket.
2. The operations allowed in a list are concatenation, and repetition.
3. Concatenation is possible using ‘+’ (plus) sign. [3,4,5]+[1,2,3] → [3,4,5,1,2,3]
4. Repetition in a list means repeating the element of a list specific number (N) of times. [5,6,”one”]*3
→ [5, 6, ‘one’, 5, 6, ‘one’, 5, 6, ‘one’]
5. The ‘in’ membership operator results True if the given value/element is found in the given list
while ‘not in’ membership operator results True if the given value/element is not found in the
given list.
6. Reaching each and every element of the list one after the other in a sequence using loops is called
Traversing.
7. List comprehension is used to create a list from the existing list or create a new list based on a
criteria.
8. len() function finds the length of the list, which means it returns the total number of elements in
a list.
9. list() function converts an iterable object into a list.
10. append() function is used to insert an element in a list. The function accepts only 1 parameter and
adds only 1 element at the end of the list.
11. extend() function is used to extend the list by adding the iterable provided as a parameter. The
length of the modified list is increased by the count of elements in the iterable, which is passed as
a parameter.
12. insert(L,N) function is used to insert an element N at a given index number L. If the index
number is much beyond the range and is positive then the element is inserted at the end of the
list. If the index number is much beyond the range and is negative then the element is inserted in
the beginning of the list.
13. count() function returns the number of occurrences of a value in a list. If the number doesn’t
exist then 0 is returned.
14. index()function returns the beginning index of the first occurrence of value found in the list.
‘ValueError’ exception is generated if the value is not found.
15. remove() function removes the first occurrence of the value, if found. If the value is not found then
‘ValueError’ exception is raised.
16. pop() function removes the value at the provided index number and returns the value, if found. If
the index number doesn’t exist then the function raises IndexError.
17. reverse() function modifies the original list by reversing the elements of the list.
18. sort() function arranges the elements of the list either in ascending or in descending order. The
default is ascending order. reverse=True parameter is used to arrange the list is descending
order
 202 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

19. sorted(L) function returns a new list, which contains elements of the list L arranged in ascending
order by default. reverse=True parameter is used to arrange the list in descending order.
20. min(L) function returns the minimum value from a given list L. The elements must be homogenous.
21. max(L)function returns the maximum value from a given list L. The elements must be homogenous.
22. sum(L)function returns the sum of values from a given list L. The elements must be numeric.

List Questions
1. Choose correct option/options
L= [“Data”, [1 8, 2, 16]]
print(L[0][1])
print(L[1][3])
1. 16,a 2. D,16 3. t, 16 4. a,16
2. A = [7, 10, 95, 25]
print(A[::-2])
1. [25, 10] 2. [95, 10] 3. [10, 25] 4. [25, 25]
3. L= [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80]
print(L[2:3],end=”**”)
print(L[::4],end=”**”)
print(L[5:])
1. [30] [10, 50] [60, 70, 80]** 2. [30]**[10, 50]**[60, 70, 80]
3. [20,30]**[10, 50]**[70, 80] 4. [30]**[50,10]**[80, 70, 60]
4. L = [10, 80, 30, 70, 50]
L.append(60*2)
print(L)
1. [10, 80, 30, 70, 50, 120] 2. [10, 70, 50, 120]
3. [10, 80, 30, 70, 60, 120] 4. [10, 80, 30, 70, 60, 60]
5. L = [4, 8, 12, 16,90,56,87]
L[1:4] = [20, 24, 28]
print(L)
1. [20, 24, 28, 90, 56, 87] 2. [4, 28, 90, 56, 87]
3. [4, 20, 24, 28] 4. [4, 20, 24, 28, 90, 56, 87]
6. L = [89, 56, 10, 20, 30, 40]
del L[1:4]
print(L)
1. [89] 2. [89, 30, 40] 3. [89, 40, 30] 4. [56, 10, 20]
 Lists 203

7. Which of the following commands will create a list?

1. list1 = list() 2. list1 = []
3. list1 = list([1, 2, 3]) 4. all of the mentioned
8. L=[245,133,124,123], what is max(L)?
1. 245 2. 133 3. 124 4. 123
9. L=[2, 33, 222, 14, 25], What is L[-1]?
1. Error 2. None 3. 25 4. 2
10. L=[2, 33, 222, 14, 25], What is list1[:-1]?
1. [2, 33, 222, 14] 2. Error
3. 25 4. [25, 14, 222, 33, 2]
11. L=[13, 4, 1, 5, 70, 3]
L.extend([4, 8])
print(L)
1. [13, 4, 1, 5, 70, 3, 4, 8] 2. [13, 4, 1, 5, 70, 3]
3. [4, 8, 13, 4, 1, 5, 70, 3] 4. [8, 4, 4, 1, 5, 70, 3, 4]
12. L=[3, 4, 5, 20, 5, 25, 1, 3]
L.pop(-2)
print(L)
1. [3, 4, 5, 20, 5, 1, 3] 2. [3, 4, 5, 20, 5, 25, 3]
3. [3, 4, 5, 20, 5, 25, 1] 4. [3, 4, 5, 20, 5, 5, 3]
13. Data= [[1, 2, 3, 4],
[4, 5, 6, 7],
[8, 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14, 15]]
for i in range(0, 4):
print(Data[i][2], end = “ “)
1. 1 4 8 12 2. 2 5 9 13 3. 3 6 10 14 4. 4 7 11 15
14. points = [[5, 12], [5, 9.9], [4.9, 2.5]]
points.sort()
print(points)
1. [[5, 9.9], [9.9, 2.5], [5, 12]] 2. [[4.9, 2.5], [5, 9.9], [5, 12]]
3. [[5, 12]], [5, 9.9],[4.9, 2.5]] 4. [[4.9, 2.5], [5, 12], [5, 9.9]]
15. a=[1,2,3]
a.append((4,8))
print(a)
204 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

1. [1, 2, 3, 4, 8] 2. [1, 2, 3, 8, 4]
3. [1, 2, 3, (4, 8)] 4. [1, 2, 3, (8, 4)]
16. a=[14,52,7]
b=a.copy()
print(b is a)
1. True 2. False 3. None 4. Error
17. a=list((45,)*4)
print((45)*4,end=’&’)
print(a)
1. 180&(45, 45, 45, 45) 2. 180&[45, 4]
3. 180&[45, 45, 45, 45] 4. 180&[4, 4, 4, 45]
18. a= [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
for i in range(1, 5):
a[i-1] = a[i]
for i in range(0, 5):
print(a[i],end = “ “)
1. 1 2 4 5 5 2. 2 3 4 5 5
3. 2 3 3 4 5 4. 3 3 4 4 5
19. L1 = [“Homi”, “Kevin”, “Nikita”]
L1.insert(2, “Uma”)
print(L1)
a. [‘Homi’, ‘Kevin’, ‘Uma’, ‘Nikita’] b. [‘Homi’, ‘Uma’,’Kevin’, ‘Nikita’]
c. [‘Nikita’, ‘Uma’,’Kevin’, ‘Homi’] d. [‘Kevin’, ‘Uma’,’Nikita’, ‘Homi’]
20. No = [6,3]
Data = [“TV”, “PS5”]
for x in Data:
for y in No:
print(y, x, sep=” are the “)

a. b.

c. d. Syntax Error
 Lists 205

21. Write a Python program that accepts 5 elements in a list and find the largest number from a list.
22. Write a Python program that accepts 5 elements in a list and find the smallest number from a list.
23. Write a Python program that accepts N elements in a list. Remove the duplicate elements from the
list, if any.
24. Write a Python program to accept a number. Remove the number from a given list, if it is present.
25. Write a Python program that accepts N elements in a list. Remove all the values except integer
values from the list.
26. Write a Python program to convert a given list of strings into a list of lists.
For example,if the original list of string is:
S=[“Jack”,”and”,”Jill”’]
The final result should be:
[[‘J’, ‘a’, ‘c’, ‘k’], [‘a’, ‘n’, ‘d’], [‘J’, ‘i’, ‘l’, ‘l’]]
27. Write a Python program to add two given lists of different lengths from right to left.
For example,if
L1=[2, 9, 7, 10, 5, 8]
L2=[13, -3, 2, -7]
L=[2, 9, 20, 7, 7, 1]

#Sample Solution
L2=[2, 9, 7, 10, 5, 8]
L1=[13, -3, 2, -7]
L=[]
x,y=len(L1),len(L2)
if x<y:
L1,L2=L2,L1

t=len(L1)-len(L2)
L.extend(L1[:t])
for i in range(len(L2)):
L.append(L1[t]+L2[i])
t+=1
print(L)
28. Write a Python program to find the maximum and minimum values in a given list within specified
index range.
 206 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Original list:
L=[4, 3, 0, 5, 3, 0, 2, 3, 4, 2, 4, 3, 5]
Index range:
2 to 7
Maximum and minimum values of the said given list within index range:
(5, 0)
29. Write a Python program to compute the sum of digits of each number of a given list separately.
For example, if
L=[110, 223, 156]
Output generated :
2,612
30. Write a Python program to reverse each sub list in a given list of lists.
For example, if
L=[[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11, 12], [13, 14, 15, 16]]
Output:
L=[[4, 3, 2, 1], [8, 7, 6, 5], [12, 11, 10, 9], [16, 15, 14, 13]]
31. Write a Python program to find common element(s) in a given nested lists.
For example, if
L=[[12, 18, 23, 25, 45], [7, 12, 18, 24, 28], [1, 5, 8, 12, 15, 16, 18]]
Output:
Common Elements:
[18, 12]
32. Write a Python program to find the sum of all the numeric values in a given heterogenous list.
For example, if
L=[“Data”,89,2.7,”77”,”numbers”,6]
Output:
97.7
31. Write a Python program to swap the first half of the element of the list with the second half.
Original List
L=[45,78,12,55,88,90]
Modified List
L=[55,88,90,45,78,12]
32. Write a Python program to display the count along of all those elements which are multiple of 7.
Also display the elements
 Lists 207

33. Give the output for the python codes below:

X= 8 a = [1, 3, 5, 7]
B = [0] * X b = a
W= 1.0 / X print(b)
for i in range(X): for i in range(len(a)):
low = i * W b[i]+=(i+1)*a[i]
high = low + W print(a)
B[i] = 3*i+1
print (B)
X=[34,78,1,2,56,77,9] L=[]
for i in range(0,len(X),2): Y=(2,6,25,9,3)
print(X[i:len(X)]) L.extend(Y)
L.insert(2,7)
L.insert(-3,4)
L.append(45)
print(L)
L.sort()
print(L)

34. Write single line statements for the following:

a. Create a blank list LT.
b. Add the elements 6,4,3 in it.
c. Insert 89 at the 2nd position
d. Insert 7 at the last position
e. Print the elements at the even position
f. Remove the element at the last position
g. Remove the value 4 from the list.
h. Print the final list
35. Write a program to accept three values each in two lists L1 and L2. Find the sum of elements of
the two lists and store the resultant sum in the third list L3 in the manner given below:
L1=[9,5,7] L2=[4,6,5]
Sum=957+465=1422
L3=[1,4,2,2]
36. Write a program to accept a number N from the user. Store the odd numbers from 1 to N in the
list followed by even numbers in the reverse order from 1 to N in the same list in the following
manner:
 208 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

if N=9 then the resultant list should be

L=[1,3,5,7,9,8,6,4,2]
37. Write a program to accept N elements in a list such that they are either 0, 1 or 2. Display the list
and then arrange it in such a manner that the list is sorted according to 0, 1 and 2. Note that the
sort function should not be used. For example
if L=[0,2,1,0,1,0,0,1] (if N=8)
Resultant List : L=[0,0,0,0,1,1,1,2]]
38. Store elements in two lists L1 and L2. Sort them in ascending order. Merge the two lists and store
the elements in the third list L3 in the following manner:
if L1=[1,4,6,8,10], L2=[2,4,9,10,15],
then the resultant list should be
L3=[1,2,4,4,6,8,9,10,10,15]
 11 Tuples

Introduction to Tuple
Tuple is also an iterable object in python which can store multiple values of various data types. We
will understand tuple by understanding it’s important features:.
1. Tuple is a heterogeneous collection of data, which can store data of all types.
2. The values of a Tuple are enclosed within a round bracket.
#Tuple declaration
T=()
T1=(10,”XII”,60,”XI”)
T2=(78,98.5,12)
T3=(“Primary”,”secondary”,”Sr Secondary”)
3. Duplicate values are allowed in a Tuple.
T=(10,30,10,30,10,10)
4. 
Each value in a Tuple is called an element and each element of a Tuple can be extracted using its
index number. The index number starts from 0.
T=(10,30,60)
print(T[0])
print(T[2])

5. Tuple is an immutable Python object, where the values are not allowed to get changed.
T=(10,30,60)
print(id(T))
140398952728192

T[1]+=100 #Error

6. To know the total number of elements in a tuple, len() function is used.

T=(“Python”,”C”,”Java”,”HTML”)
print(len(T))
#4
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7. The elements of a Tuple can be any other data structure like string/tuple/list/dictionary etc
T=((0,2,4),(1,3,5),(‘a’,’b’,’c’))
T=([1,2,3],”data”,{1:12,2:23})
8. A tuple with single element is created in the following manner:
T=(12) # It creates an integer object
print(type(T))
T=(12,) # It creates a Tuple with single element
print(type(T))

9. 
Packing and unpacking in Tuples: In packing, insert the values into a tuple, but in unpacking, we
extract all those values stored in the tuples into variables as shown in the following example:
X,Y,Z=67,”33Km/H”,”90Km”
T=X,Y,Z
print(T) #(67, ‘33Km/H’, ‘90Km’) → Packing
Y=(“Neha”,90,”XII”)
(Name,per,Class)=Y # → Unpacking
print(“Name:”,Name) #Name: Neha
print(“Percentage:”,per) #Percentage: 90
print(“Class:”,Class) #Class: XII

Tuple indexing
Since a tuple is also an iterable object, each element in a tuple has an index number using which it
can be extracted.
T=(1,’Python’,3.9.5,’Language’,17)

0 1 2 3 4
1 Python 3.9.5 Language 17
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
Each element in the tuple has a positive index as well as negative index number, using which the
element can be extracted. The index number is provided in a square brackets as shown below:
>>>print(T) # [1,’Python’,3.9.5,’Language’,17]
>>>print(T[3]) # Language
>>>print(T[-4]) # Python
 Tuples 211

Operations in Tuple
Following operations are possible in this iterable object:
a. Concatenation : Concatenation means combining 2 or more tuples. Concatenation is possible
using ‘+’ (plus) sign. Here, the second tuple is combined with the first to get a new tuple. The
length of the new tuple will therefore be the sum of length of tuple 1 and tuple 2. Following
example illustrate concatenation in tuple:
Example 1
T1=(44,43,90,56) #Length: 4
T2=(166,19,16) #Length: 3
T3=T1+T2 #concatenation
print (T3,len(T3),sep=”\n”) #Length: 4+3=7

Note: Concatenation in list is possible only between lists.

Example 2
B=(5,6,7)
C=23
print(B+C)
#Error

Example 3
T1=(“Red”,”Yellow”,”Black”)
T2=(1,2,3,4,5)
T3=T2+T1
print(T3)

b. Repetition: Repetition in a tuple means repeating the element of a tuple specific number (N) of
times. Repetition is possible when the tuple object is multiplied with an integer. We can repeat a
tuple using asterisk (*). The final result is also a tuple. See the following example to understand
repetition:
Example 1
T1=(“Tic”,”Tac”,”Toe”)
print(T1*3) #The tuple is repeated 3 times

Note that the two tuples cannot be multiplied. Repetition is possible when a tuple is multiplied

with an integer
212 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Example 2
T1=(“Mango”,”orange”,”Pineapple”)
print(T1*T1)

c. Membership: There are two membership operators ‘in’ and ‘not in’. They are used to find an
element in a given tuple.
in : The ‘in’ operator results True if the given value/element is found in the Given tuple
Example 1
a=12
T=(1,2,12,45,12)
if a in T:
print(‘Present’)
else:
print(‘Not Present’)
Explanation: In the above example, the value 12 is to be searched which is present at index

number 3. So the condition is True and hence Present displayed.
Output

not in: Evaluates to true if the given value/element is not found in the given tuple
Example 2
even=(2,4,6,8)
odd=(1,3,5,9)
T=(2,5,6,1,56,2,3,9,10,8,7)
for i in T:
if i in even:
print(i,”in even list”)
elif i in odd:
print(i, “in odd list”)
else:
print(i, “not in the list”)
 Tuples 213

a. Slicing: It is a feature which allows you to extract element/ elements from a tuple using the index
numbers. The final result is also a tuple. To understand slicing we will refer to the following tuple
T=(1,2,0,5,11,23,3,6)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 0 5 11 23 3 6
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
There are 3 parameters which can be provided in slicing.
Tuple[start:end:step]
start→ specifies the beginning index number. If not provided, then it’s 0.
end→ specifies the ending index. If it’s not provided, then it takes the length of the tuple (which is
the count of the total number of elements in the tuple). The last index taken is always end-1
step→ It is also optional. If not provided then it’s taken as 1. It specifies that by how many steps
the index should be jumped to display the next element. If the step provided is positive then the
direction of display of the element is from left to right. If the step is negative, then the direction of
display of the element is from right to left. Also, if step is negative, then start becomes len(list)-1
by default while end goes till the first element on left.
Examples with reference to above list ‘L1’, with explanation:
>>> print(T) #Tuple printed

>>> print(T[:]) #Start is default 0 and end is default < len(L1)

214 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

>>> print(T[::])#Start is default 0 and end is default < len(L1)

>>> print(T[1:4]) #start is 1 and end is <4, step=1 (default)

(2,0,5)

>>> print(T[6:]) #Start is 6, end is < len(a)

(3,6)

>>>print(T[::2]) #Start and end default, but step is 2

(1,0,11,3)

>>>print(T[::-1])
(6, 3, 23, 11, 5, 0, 2, 1)

#As step is negative, the direction of printing element is from right to left, hence
reverse tuple printed
>>> print(T[::-3])
(6, 11, 2)

#The step is negative, so direction is right to left. Also, every third element is
printed from right to left as step=-3
 Tuples 215

>>> print(T[1:6:2])
(2, 5, 23)

#Start =1, while end<6. step=2 will print every second element starting from index
1.
>>> print(T[1:8:-1])
#This won’t print anything as direction of printing of elements should be right to
left, but the values of start and end indicate left to right direction
>>> print(T[-1:-6:-1])
(6, 3, 23, 11, 5)

Here negative indexing is specified, so according to the index number as shown in

#
the picture we see elements from -1 till -5 from right to left direction
>>> print(T[2:-2])
(0, 5, 11, 23)

#In this example, there is a combination of positive and negative indexing. Start is
2, end one less than -2 position and since the step is 1 by default and the direction
of index is also from left to right, the elements as per the index are printed.
>>> print(T[-4:-8:-1])
(11, 5, 0, 2)

Traversing a Tuple using loops

Since a List is an iterable object, we can reach each and every element of the list one after the other
in a sequence using loops.
 216 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Two ways to traverse a Tuple

#Here element is taken from the tuple T #Here the index is extracted using the
and given to i, which is printed range function and to display the element,
the index is specified in square brackets
with tuple object.
T=(“India”,”UK”,”China”,”USA”)
T=(“India”,”UK”,”China”,”USA”)
for i in T:
for i in range(len(T)):
print(i,end=”**\n”)
print(T[i],end=”*\n*”)

Example1: To find the minimum and maximum element from the Tuple.

Example 2: To find and display the mean of numeric values stored in a tuple.

Built in Functions used with Tuple

Function Description Syntax
1 len() This function finds the length of the tuple and returns len(Tuple)
the total number of elements in a tuple.
Example: T=(22,13,100,”Tuple”)
print(len(L))
4

print(len((2,2,4,5,9)))
 Tuples 217

5
S=len(T)* 2
print(S)
8

W=len(T*3)
print(W)
12 #Here T*3 will first result in
(22, 13, 100, ‘Tuple’, 22, 13, 100, ‘Tuple’, 22, 13, 100, ‘Tuple’)
Hence the length 12
2 tuple() It converts an iterable object into a tuple. If no tuple(iterable)
parameter is provided then a blank tuple is created
Example: >>> S=”TUPLE”
>>> T=tuple(S)
>>> print(T)
(‘T’, ‘U’, ‘P’, ‘L’, ‘E’) #Each character in a string becomes an
element of the tuple

>>> T=[“RR”,”GG”,”BB”]
>>> T1=Tuple(T)
>>> print(T1)
(‘RR’, ‘GG’, ‘BB’) #List can be converted to a Tuple

>>> D={“Y”:”you”,”R”:”are”,”G8”:”great”}
>>> T=tuple(D)
>>> print(T)
(‘Y’, ‘R’, ‘G8’) #By default only the key becomes the elements of the
Tuple

>>> T=list()
>>> print(T)
( ) #Blank Tuple created

>>> L=tuple(12)
TypeError: ‘int’ object is not iterable
3 count() This function returns the number of occurrences of a tuple.count(value)
value in a list. If the value is absent in the tuple then 0
is returned. This function takes only one parameter
218 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

>>> T=(12,13,14,15,(12,13),14,13,15)
>>> print(T.count(12))
1
# 12 appears once. The second 12 at index 5 is not a single element,
it’s a tuple (12,13), so it’s not included.

>>> print(T.count(13))
2
# 13 appears twice. 13 at index 5 is not a single element, it’s a
tuple (12,13), so it’s not included.

>>> print(T.count(10))
0
#10 is not present in the tuple and hence 0.

>>> print(T.count((12,13)))
1
#(12,13) appears at index 5 as a single element and is present only
once. Hence the function returns 1.

>>> print(T.count([12,13]))
0
#(12,13) appears at index 5 as a single element but it is a tuple not
a list. Hence the function returns 0.

>>> print(T.count(12,13))
TypeError: tuple.count() takes exactly one argument (2 given)
4 index() index( ) function returns the beginning index of Tuple.index(Value,

the first occurrence of value found in the tuple start,end)

Generates ‘ValueError’ exception if the value is not
found. #The searching is
The start and the end index number of the from start index till

elements for search can be provided. end-1 index

If not provided then the whole tuple is searched.
Example: >>> T=(45,11,78,90,”Kite”,”rope”,78,56,12,11)
>>> print(T.index(78))
2
#78 is present at two locations, 2 and at 6. But the first occurrence
is 2 and hence the result.
 Tuples 219

>>> print(T.index(15,0,3))
ValueError: tuple.index(x): x not in tuple

>>> print(T.index(11,3))
9
#11 is present at once at location 9 from index 3 and len(T)-1. Hence
the result.

>>> print(T.index(“rope”))
5
#”rope” is present at location 5.
5 sorted() This function returns a new list, which contains sorted(iterable,re-

elements arranged in ascending order by default. verse=True)

To sort in descending order, reverse=True
parameter is used.

Note that the sorted function will work with data
of similar type, i.e. all numbers or all strings. For
heterogeneous data, function will generate error
>>> T=(4,1,8,5,9,0,3,6,9,2,5)
>>> print(sorted(T))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 8, 9, 9]

>>> T=([2, 67, 1], [4, 2, 6], [6, 7.4], [9, 0, 8])
>>> print(sorted(T,reverse=True))
[[9, 0, 8], [6, 7.4], [4, 2, 6], [2, 67, 1]]

>>> T=(67,23,56,77)
>>> print(sorted(T))
[23, 56, 67, 77]

>>> D={3:”Grade 3”,1:”Grade 1”,12:”Senior Secondary”,10:”Secondary”}

>>> print(sorted(D))
[1, 3, 10, 12]
#The keys are taken from dictionary to form the sorted list

>>>A=(67,23,56,77)
>>> print(sorted(A,reverse=True))
[77, 67, 56, 23]

>>> A=”TERRIBLE”
220 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

>>> print(sorted(A))
[‘B’, ‘E’, ‘E’, ‘I’, ‘L’, ‘R’, ‘R’, ‘T’]
# If the iterable is a string then the each character becomes the
element of the list, sorted alphabetically in ascending order, by
default
6 min() It returns the minimum value from a given tuple. The min(iterable)
data type of elements in the tuple should be same.
>>> colors=(“Orange”,”Red”,”Purple”,”Green”,”Black”,”White”)
>>> min(colors)
‘Black’

# This is because the ASCII value of “B” is smallest amongst all

>>> No=(67.5,34.32,61.9,67.55,67.4,90)
>>> print(min(No))
34.32

>>> T=((2, 67, 1), (4, 2, 6), (6, 7.4), (9, 0, 8))
>>> print(min(T))
(2, 67, 1)
#The first element is smallest in all the tuples in the tuple

>>> L=(67,”one”,55,12,”two”,98.4,”three”)
>>> min(L)
TypeError: ‘<’ not supported between instances of ‘str’ and ‘int’
7 max() It returns the maximum value from a given tuple. The max(iterable)
data type of elements in the list should be same.
>>> T=(‘Anika’, ‘anika’,’Bhavna’, ‘Charu’, ‘Manya’,’charu’)
>>> print(max(T))
charu
# This is because the ASCII value of “c” is largest amongst all

>>> T=(67/99,34,61,35,12,90.67)
>>> print(max(T))
90.67

>>> T=([2, 67, 1], [4, 2, 6], [6, 7.4], [9, 0, 8])
>>> print(max(T))
[9,0,8]
 Tuples 221

#The first element is smallest in all the lists in the tuple

>>> T=(67,”one”,55,12,”two”,98.4,”three”)
>>> max(T)
TypeError: ‘<’ not supported between instances of ‘str’ and ‘int’
15 sum() It returns the sum of numbers in the tuple. It sum(iterable,start)

works only for numeric values.

It has two parameters, iterable and start

It returns the sum of start value + sum of elements
of iterable.

If start is not provided, then it’s taken as 0.
>>> T=(78,45,90.56,22)
>>> print(sum(T))
235.56

>>> print(sum(T,10))
245.56
#235.56 added with 10

>>> print(sum(T,40))
275.56
#235.56 added with 40

>>> print(sum(T,10.5))
246.06
#235.56 added with 10.5

>>> print(sum(T,(23,45)))
#Error
Nested Tuple
When a tuple has many other iterables as its elements, it is called a nested tuple. We need to
understand how each element in a nested tuple can be accessed.
T=((14,3,1,9,1),(13,5,11,21),(1,8,33,9),(99,88)]
To access each element of the list, if we use the loop, we will get the following
result:
222 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Output:

To understand the output further, let us understand it diagrammatically.

The above list has 4 elements from 0 to 3.

The first element is (14,3,1,9,1)
The second element is (13,5,11,21)
The third element is (1,8,33,9)
The fourth element is (99,88)
Each element of the first element can further be accessed using its respected index number.
T
0 1 2 3

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1

14 3 1 9 1 13 5 11 21 1 8 33 9 99 88

So T[0][0] → 14
T[0][1] → 3
T[0][2] → 1
T[0][3] → 9
T[0][4] → 1

T[1][0] → 13
T[1][1] → 5
T[1][2] → 11
T[1][3] → 21
 Tuples 223

T[2][0] → 1
T[2][1] → 8
T[2][2] → 33

T[2][3] → 9

T[3][0] → 99
T[3][1] → 88
#Program to display the type of each element of a tuple
T=((14,3,1,9,1),[3,5,11],(1,8,33,9),”Strange”,99.45)
for i in T:
print(“Type of”,i,”is”,type(i))

#Program to display the elements of a tuple in separate lines. Each sub element should be
separated by ‘*’, if it’s an iterable object.
T=((14,3,1,9,1),[3,5,11],(1,8,33,9),”Strange”,99.45)
for i in T:
if type(i)in [int,float]:
print(i)
else:
for j in i:
print(j,end=’*’)
print()

Tuple Assignment
It is one of the important and unique features in Python in Tuple, where the tuple of variables can be
assigned values from the tuple on the right side of the assignment.
 224 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

For example

Another way to do the above program:

Note that the number of variables and the assignment values should be the same.
>>>(a,b,c)=(10,20)

Interesting thing about Tuple!

We know that a tuple is an immutable object but if any element of a tuple is a mutable object, then
all the functions applicable to a mutable object will be applicable to that mutable element. Following
example illustrate it
#Program to sort the element of the list stored in a tuple T

Similarly we can update or delete the elements of mutable elements of a tuple too.
#Program to increase the even number by 10 and odd number by 20 for mutable elements of a tuple.
Also 0 is present in the mutable element, make it 100.
 Tuples 225

Solved Examples
Example 1: Program to search a number from the tuple of numbers, using Linear search.
T=(56,2,15,112,56,89,90,32,56)
N=int(input(“Enter the number to be searched in a Tuple”))
for i in T:
if N==i:
print(“Number”,N,”found”)
break
else:
print(“Number”,N,”not present in the tuple”)

Output:

#Python method to do the above program:

T=(56,2,15,112,56,89,90,32,56)
N=int(input(“Enter the number to be searched in a Tuple”))
if T.count(N)!=0:
print(“Number”,N,”found”)
else:
print(“Number”,N,”not present in the tuple”)

Example 2: Program to store 5 numbers in a tuple. Find the sum of numbers stored.
 226 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Example 3: Program to count the frequency of elements in a tuple.

Example 4: Program to find max and min value in a tuple.

A=(3,6,12,56,90,23,2)
Ma=Mi=A[0]
for i in range(1,len(A)):
if Ma<A[i]:
Ma=A[i]
if Mi>A[i]:
Mi=A[i]
print(“Maximum : “,Ma, “Minimum :”,Mi)
#Python method to do the program:
A=(3,6,12,56,90,23,2)
print(max(A),min(A))

Example 5: Program to find mean of numeric values stored in list.

A=(3,6,12,56,90,23,2)
M=0
for i in range(len(A)):
M+=A[i]
print(“Mean :”,M/len(A))
#Python method to do the program:
A=(3,6,12,56,90,23,2)
print(“Mean is : “,sum(A)/len(A))
 Tuples 227

Example 6: Program to accept 5 numbers and store in a Tuple

#We know that tuple is an immutable object so we will use a technique to redeclare tuple with
the loop.

Summary
1. 
Tuple is an immutable iterable object in python which can store multiple values of various data
types. Since it’s immutable, changes are not allowed.
2. The elements of the tuple are stored in round brackets.
3. The operations allowed in a tuple are concatenation, and repetition.
4. Concatenation is possible using ‘+’ (plus) sign. (3,4,5)+(1,2,3) → (3,4,5,1,2,3)
5. 
Repetition in a tuple means repeating the element of a tuple specific number (N) of times.
(“A”,”E”,”I”)*3 → (“A”,”E”,”I”,”A”,”E”,”I”,”A”,”E”,”I”)
6. 
The ‘in’ membership operator results True if the given value/element is found in the given tuple
while ‘not in’ membership operator results True if the given value/element is not found in the
given tuple.
7. 
Reaching each and every element of the tuple one after the other in a sequence using loops is
called Traversing.
8. 
len() function finds the length of the tuple, which means it returns the total number of elements
in a tuple.
9. tuple() function converts an iterable object into a tuple.
10. count() function returns the number of occurrences of a value in a tuple. If the number doesn’t
exist then 0 is returned.
11. index()function returns the beginning index of the first occurrence of value found in the tuple.
‘ValueError’ exception is generated if the value is not found.
 228 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

12. sorted(T) function returns a new list, which contains elements of the tuple T arranged in
ascending order by default. reverse=True parameter is used to arrange the tuple in descending
order.
13. min(T) function returns the minimum value from a given tuple T. The elements must be
homogenous.
14. max(T)function returns the maximum value from a given tuple T. The elements must be
homogenous.
15. sum(T)function returns the sum of values from a given tuple T. The elements must be numeric.

Questions
1. Write a Python program to store 4 elements in a tuple
2. Write a Python program to find the sum of all the elements of a tuple.
3. Write a Python program to find the largest element in a tuple.
4. Write a Python program to find the smallest element in a tuple.
5. Write a Python program to find the second largest element in a tuple.
6. Write a Python program to find the second smallest element in a tuple.
7. Write a Python program to print the reverse of a tuple.
8. Write a python program to accept the Name, Brand and price of a car in three variables. Pack the
three values into a tuple T.
9. Given a list L=[5,7,1,2,5]. Write python code to convert it into a tuple.
10. Find and correct the syntax errors in the code given below. Underline the corrections also.
T1 = (12,5,6,13,9,56,3)
print T1*T1
print(2+T1)
print(len[T1] * 2)
11. Write two differences between Tuple and List. also give an example for each one of them.
12. Choose the functions which will work with a tuple from the given set of built in functions. Also
specify the reason for the functions not chosen.
count(), append(), insert(), index(), len(), sort(), sorted(), sum()
13. Give output for the following python codes:
T = () T = X=(“Python”, [12,6.4, 6], (4, 5.6,
for item in range(5): “Objects”))
T = T + (item,) print(T[0][1])
print(T) T[1].sort()
print(T)
print(sorted(X[0]))
 Tuples 229

P=(3,5,7,11,13,11,7); S =(“South”,)
print(P.count(11)) W=(“West”,)
print(P.index(11)) print(S)
print (3 in P, 43 in P) print(type(W))
print((S+W)*2)

14. Choose the correct way to access value 56 from the following tuple
T = (“Colors”, [34,56,78], (5, 15, 25))
1. print(T[1:2][1]) 2. print(T[1:2](1))
3. print(T[1:2][1]) 4. print(T[1][1])
15. What is the type of the variable T
T = (“Calculator”)
print(type(T))
1. list 2. tuple 3. array 4. str
16. If T = (1, 2, 4, 3),which of the following is incorrect?
1. print(T[3]) 2. T[3] = 45 3. print(max(T)) 4. print(len(T))
17. T=(78,34,66,12,78)
print(T[1:3])
1. (78, 34) 2. (34, 66) 3. (66, 12) 4. (34, 66, 12)
18. T = (1, 2, 4, 3, 8, 9)
R=[T[i] for i in range(0, len(T), 2)]
print(R)
1. [1, 4, 8] 2. [1, 2, 4] 3. [1, 4, 9] 4. [1, 2, 9]
19. T = (6,5)
print(2 * T)
1. (11, 11) 2. (5, 6, 5, 6) 3. (6, 5, 6, 5) 4. (12, 10)
20. t1 = (1, 2, 4, 3)
t2 = (1, 2, 3, 4)
print(t1 == t2)
1. True 2. False 3. None 4. Error
21. If a=(1,2,3,4) then print(a[1:-1]) is _____________
1. (2, 3) 2. (1,2,3) 3. (2, 3,4) 4. (1,2,3,4)
22. a=(1,3,5)
print(sum(a,10))
1. 16 2. 17 3. 18 4. 19
230 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

23. (a,b,c)=(1,2,3)
print( a,b,c)
Will print….
1. [1,2,3] 2. (1,2,3) 3. 1 2 3 4. Syntax Error
24. a=(1,3)
b=(2,4)
c=a+b
print(c)
1. (1, 2, 3, 4) 2. (1, 3, 1, 3) 3. (4, 3, 2, 1) 4. (1, 3, 2, 4)
25. a,b=1,3
a,b=b,a
print(a,b)
1. 3 1 2. 1 3 3. 3 3 4. 1 1
26. a=[(4,9),(4,6),(4,8)]
a.sort()
print(a)
1. [(4, 9), (4, 6), (4, 8)] 2. [(4, 8), (4, 6), (4, 9)]
3. [(4, 9), (4, 8), (4, 9)] 4. [(4, 6), (4, 8), (4, 9)]
 12 Dictionary

Introduction to Dictionary
Dictionary is another iterable object which stores not only values but their respective keys also. Let
us understand dictionary through its important features:
1. It is a mutable object. Changes are allowed in a dictionary object.
2. 
It is a collection of items enclosed in curly brackets. Each item is a key value pair separated by a
colon.
Syntax:

Following are the examples which show the declaration of the dictionary object.
>>> D={}
>>> print(D)
{} #Blank dictionary object created

>>> D={12:”Twelve”,4:”Four”,7:”Seven”}
>>> print(D)
{12: ‘Twelve’, 4: ‘Four’, 7: ‘Seven’}

#Three items are stored in dictionary D. item_1 is 12: ‘Twelve’, item_2 is 4:
‘Four’, item_3 is 7: ‘Seven’
3. 
The values are accessed using the respective keys. So a dictionary object doesn’t have predefined
keys (0,1,2..) unlike lists and tuples.
>>> D={12:”Twelve”,4:”Four”,7:”Seven”}
>>>print(D[12]) #Accessing value of item 1
Twelve

>>> print(D[7]) #Accessing value of item 3

Seven

>>> print(D[1])#There is no key ‘1’

#KeyError as key 1 doesn’t exist in the dictionary.
 232 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

4. 
The key can be any immutable object, like integer, float, string or tuple. The value can be any
object. Moreover keys in a dictionary cannot be repeated while values can be.
>>> D={12:”Class Twelve”,(12,13):”Numbers”,”Value”:99.99,True:”Yes”}
#Key in item 1 is integer 12 => allowed
#Key in item 2 is tuple (12,13) => allowed
#Key in item 3 is string ‘Value’ => allowed
#key in item 4 is Boolean True => allowed

>>> D={[12,13]:”Numbers”,67:90}
#Key in item 1 is list [12,13] => NOT allowed as the key can only be an immutable
object
TypeError: unhashable type: ‘list’
5. The key must be unique, while the values may be repeated.
>>>D={1:11,2:22,3:33,4:11,5:22}
#Note that the value of D[1] and D[4] both is 11. Same way D[2] and D[5] value is
22. This is allowed

But, if the key is repeated in a dictionary, then it takes the last value assigned to the same key. For
example
>>>D={1:11,1:22,3:33,4:11,1:29,3:56}

Last value for key ‘1’ is 29, ‘3’ is 56. Hence the last values are taken.
>>>print(D)
{1: 29, 3: 56, 4: 11}

Accessing the items in a dictionary

The item is accessed using a key. For example, in the given dictionary declaration,
>>>D={56:’strength’,89:’average’}
 Dictionary 233

We need to use the key in square brackets to get the value

>>> print(D[89])
average
>>> print(D[56])
strength
>>> print(D[0])
KeyError: 0
We can also get the items using a loop.
#Printing Keys of items
for i in D:
print(i)

#Printing Values from Keys of items

for i in D:
print(D[i])

#Printing Keys and values both

for i in D:
print(i, D[i],sep=’-->’)

Why is dictionary a Mutable Object?

Mutability means ability to modify or change and that’s what a dictionary object also allows. We can
change the value and key (in an indirect way) of the dictionary Object. Adding and modifying an item
in a dictionary is very easy.
D={“Roll”:11,”Name”:”Jatin”,”Class”:12} #Dictionary object created print(D)
D[‘Age’]=17 #’Age’ key doesn’t exist so its created
D[‘Roll’]=10 #’Roll’ key already present so its value is changed from 11 to 10
print(D) # Modified Dictionary object

#Original Dictionary
#Changed Dictionary
 234 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Traversing a dictionary object

Since, keys are specified in a dictionary declaration, there are various ways to access the items of the
dictionary.
To access each item of a dictionary object using a loop, we can use the name of the dictionary as
shown in the example below:
#Simple way to access each item in a dictionary
D={“Roll”:11,”Name”:”Jatin”,”Class”:12}
for i in D: #By default keys are accessed when dictionary name is used in loop
print(i,”has value”,D[i])

#using List comprehension to display the items of a dictionary

D={“Roll”:11,”Name”:”Jatin”,”Class”:12}
R=[(i,D[i]) for i in D]
print(R)

There are exclusive functions to access only keys or only values or items of the dictionary which we
will study in the later part of the chapter.

Using membership operator with Dictionary Object

We can use ‘in’ and ‘not in’ membership operators to check whether a key is present in the dictionary
or not.
#Program to accept a key and check whether it exists in the dictionary D or not.
 Dictionary 235

Built in functions used with Dictionary

Function Description Syntax
1 len() This function finds the length of the dictionary and returns len(dictionary)
the total number of items in it.
Example: D={“Roll”:11,”Name”:”Jatin”,”Class”:12}
print(len(D))
3
print(len({1:6,2:7,3:8,4:9})
4
2 dict() It is used to create a dictionary object, either blank or from dict()
a key value pair, given through an iterable. dict(iterable)
dict(mapping)
>>>D=dict() # Blank Dictionary created
>>>print(D)
{}

#Dictionary can be created by providing the value to reactive keys.

You don’t have to provide the keys in quotes as it will be taken as
an expression.
>>>D=dict(A=22,B=994,C=’N’)
>>>print(D)
{‘A’: 22, ‘B’: 994, ‘C’: ‘N’}
>>>D=dict(RollNo=12,Name=’Nisha’,Class=’XI’)
>>>print(D)

#Dictionary can be created using mapping of (key, value) pairs,

provided within iterable.
>>> D=dict(((‘A’,22),(‘B’,994),(‘C’,’N’)))
>>> print(D)
{‘A’: 22, ‘B’: 994, ‘C’: ‘N’}
OR
>>> D=dict([(‘A’,22),(‘B’,994),(‘C’,’N’)])
>>> print(D)
{‘A’: 22, ‘B’: 994, ‘C’: ‘N’}
236 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

OR
>>> D=dict(([‘A’,22],[‘B’,994],[‘C’,’N’]))
>>> print(D)
{‘A’: 22, ‘B’: 994, ‘C’: ‘N’}
OR
>>> D=dict([[‘A’,22],[‘B’,994],[‘C’,’N’]])
>>> print(D)
{‘A’: 22, ‘B’: 994, ‘C’: ‘N’}

>>>D=dict(((‘RollNo’,12),(‘Name’,’Nisha’),(‘Class’,’XI’)),Age=17)
>>>print(D)
{‘RollNo’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Nisha’, ‘Class’: ‘XI’, ‘Age’: 17}
3 keys() It is used to extract the list of available keys from the given d i c t i o n a r y .
Dictionary Object. keys()
>>>D={‘RollNo’:12,’Name’:’Anna’,’per’:89}
>>>print(D.keys())
dict_keys([‘RollNo’, ‘Name’, ‘per’])

#Using the keys() function with loop

D={‘RollNo’:12,’Name’:’Anna’,’per’:89}
for i in D.keys():
print(i, “=”, D[i])

Note that the above program can also be done without using the keys(
) function.
D={‘RollNo’:12,’Name’:’Anna’,’per’:89}
for i in D:
print(i, “=”, D[i])
4 values() It is used to extract the values of items from the given d i c t i o n a r y .
Dictionary Object. values()
>>>D={‘RollNo’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Nisha’, ‘Class’: ‘XI’, ‘Age’: 17}
>>>print(D.values())
dict_values([12, ‘Nisha’, ‘XI’, 17])

#Using the values() function with loop

D={‘RollNo’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Nisha’, ‘Class’: ‘XI’, ‘Age’: 17}
for i in D.values():
print(i,end=’ , ‘)
 Dictionary 237

The above program can also be done without using the values( )
function.
D={‘RollNo’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Nisha’, ‘Class’: ‘XI’, ‘Age’: 17}
for i in D:
print(D[i],end=’ , ‘)

#Program which accepts a number and checks whether it exists in the

value or not.

5 items() It returns a copy of the dictionary’s list of (key, value) pairs d i c t i o n a r y .

where the key value pairs are in the form of tuples. items()
#item() returns the list of tuples of key value pair
D={‘RollNo’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Nisha’, ‘Class’: ‘XI’, ‘Age’: 17}
print(D.items())
dict_items([(‘RollNo’, 12), (‘Name’, ‘Nisha’), (‘Class’, ‘XI’),
(‘Age’, 17)])

#D.items generates list of tuples which are printed using loop

D={‘RollNo’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Nisha’, ‘Class’: ‘XI’, ‘Age’: 17}
for i in D.items():
print(i)

#Another way of printing key value pair

D={‘RollNo’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Nisha’, ‘Class’: ‘XI’, ‘Age’: 17}
for i,j in D.items():
print(i, “ : “,j)

6 get() This function returns the value of the key if it exists in a Dictionary.get
dictionary otherwise returns “default value”. If default is (key, default)
not provided, it returns “None”
238 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

P={“PID”:12,”Name”:”Brush”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
print(P.get(“Pname”))
None #Pname key is not present in dictionary hence None returned

print(P.get(“Pname”,”Not Present”))
Not Present #Pname key is not present in dictionary hence default
value ‘Not Present’ returned

print(P.get(“Name”))
Brush #The value ‘Brush’ returned as the key ‘Name’ is found

print(P.get(“Name”,”Not Present”))
Brush #The value ‘Brush’ returned as the key ‘Name’ is found and
hence the default value is ignored

P={“PID”:[12,13],”Pname”:[“Brush”,”Pencil”],”Qty”:[200,100],”-
Price”:[20,50]}
print(P.get(“Pname”))
[‘Brush’, ‘Pencil’]#The value is returned as the key ‘Pname’ is
found.

print(P.get(“Pname”,”Not Present”))
[‘Brush’, ‘Pencil’] #The value is returned as the key ‘Pname’ is
found and hence default is ignored

print(P.get(“Quantity”))#Quantity key is not present in dictionary

hence None returned as no default value is specified.
None
7 update() It is used to update the dictionary object with either key/ Dictionary.up-
value pair or with another dictionary object. If the key date(key=value
exists, then its value is replaced in the dictionary otherwise /dictionary/it-
the dictionary is updated by adding a new item. erable)

P={“PID”:12,”Name”:”Brush”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
print(P)#Dictionary printed
{‘PID’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Brush’, ‘Qty’: 200, ‘Price’: 20}

P={“PID”:12,”Name”:”Brush”}
P.update([(“Qty”,200),(“Price”,20)])#Updating using elements
provided in a list
print(P)
{‘PID’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Brush’, ‘Qty’: 200, ‘Price’: 20}

P.update(Name=”Pasta”)
print(P)#Name exists in the object D, so its value is updated to
‘Pasta’
{‘PID’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Pasta’, ‘Qty’: 200, ‘Price’: 20}
 Dictionary 239

P.update(Code=”001”)
print(P)#Code doesn’t exist in the object so its added as the last
item in the object
{‘PID’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Paste’, ‘Qty’: 200, ‘Price’: 20, ‘Code’: ‘001’}

D1={“Country”:”India”,”State”:”New Delhi”}
D2={“Population”:10909012,”State”:”Delhi”}
D1.update(D2)#State changed from ‘New Delhi’ to ‘Delhi’, ‘Population’
added to D1
print(D1)
{‘Country’: ‘India’, ‘State’: ‘Delhi’, ‘Population’: 10909012}
8 del del command is used to delete either the item by providing del <mutable
the key if it exists or it raises a KeyError, if the key doesn’t object/key>
exist. It can also delete the complete Object.
P={‘PID’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Brush’, ‘Qty’: 200, ‘Price’: 20}
del P[‘Name’]#Name key deleted
print(P)
{‘PID’: 12, ‘Qty’: 200, ‘Price’: 20}

del P[‘Name’]#Name key was already deleted so error will occur

KeyError: ‘Name’

del P
print(P)#Since the object P was deleted, it doesn’t exist anymore
NameError: name ‘P’ is not defined
9 clear() This function is used to remove all the items from a d i c t i o n a r y .
dictionary and it becomes blank. Note that this function clear()
doesn’t remove or delete the object. It just makes its empty
P={‘PID’: 12, ‘Name’: ‘Brush’, ‘Qty’: 200, ‘Price’: 20}
P.clear()#Dictionary becomes empty as all items are deleted
print(P)
{}
10 fromkeys() It is used to create a new dictionary with a given set of d i c t . f r o m -
keys. Default value provided to the keys is ‘None’. Though keys(iterable,
a value can be provided to the keys, but it will be the same value=None)
for all the keys.
#Keys are taken from the existing dictionary P for a new object S.
But its values are not taken so, the default values for all keys
become null
P={“PID”:12,”Name”:”Brush”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
S=dict.fromkeys(P)
print(S)
{‘PID’: None, ‘Name’: None, ‘Qty’: None, ‘Price’: None}
240 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

#Keys are taken from the existing dictionary P for a new object S.
But this time the value from the ‘Val’ object is assigned to all the
keys of new dictionary S.
P={“PID”:12,”Name”:”Brush”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
Val=”Data”
S=dict.fromkeys(P,Val)
print(S)
{‘PID’: ‘Data’, ‘Name’: ‘Data’, ‘Qty’: ‘Data’, ‘Price’: ‘Data’}

#In this example, the keys are taken from the list. The values of
all keys are taken from the object Val
Key=[‘a’,’e’,’i’,’o’,’u’]
Val=’Vowel’
S=dict.fromkeys(Key,Val)
print(S)
{‘a’: ‘Vowel’, ‘e’: ‘Vowel’, ‘i’: ‘Vowel’, ‘o’: ‘Vowel’, ‘u’:
‘Vowel’}

#Here the keys are taken from the tuple (iterable object) and each
of them have value taken from Val object (which is a tuple)
Key=(‘a’,’e’,’i’,’o’,’u’)
Val=(‘Alphabet’,’Vowel’)
S=dict.fromkeys(Key,Val)
print(S)
{‘a’: (‘Alphabet’, ‘Vowel’), ‘e’: (‘Alphabet’, ‘Vowel’), ‘i’:
(‘Alphabet’, ‘Vowel’), ‘o’: (‘Alphabet’, ‘Vowel’), ‘u’: (‘Alphabet’,
‘Vowel’)}

#Here also the keys are taken from the list(iterable object) but
each key is assigned the value None)
Key=[‘a’,’e’,’i’,’o’,’u’]
S=dict.fromkeys(Key,None)
print(S)
{‘a’: None, ‘e’: None, ‘i’: None, ‘o’: None, ‘u’: None}
11 copy() It creates a shallow copy of the object. This means it makes d i c t i o n a r y .
a duplicate copy of the object. So any modification in the copy()
object will not be reflected in the copy. It doesn’t have any
parameter
>>> E={“EID”:100,”Ename”:”Vinayak”,”Dept”:1}
>>> F=E.copy() #Copy created
>>> E[‘Sal’]=1200000 #Original dictionary object modified
>>> print(E)
{‘EID’: 100, ‘Ename’: ‘Vinayak’, ‘Dept’: 1, ‘Sal’: 1200000}
 Dictionary 241

>>> print(F) #Copy is not affected

{‘EID’: 100, ‘Ename’: ‘Vinayak’, ‘Dept’: 1}
Note: If we directly copy the object without any function, then the new object
will refer to the same address where the original object points. So any changes
made in either of the objects will be seen in both.
>>>E={‘EID’: 100, ‘Ename’: ‘Vinayak’, ‘Dept’: 1, ‘Sal’: 1200000}
>>> F=E
>>> F[‘GradePay’]=4500

>>> print(F)
{‘EID’: 100, ‘Ename’: ‘Vinayak’, ‘Dept’: 1, ‘Sal’: 1200000,
‘GradePay’: 4500}

>>> print(E)
{‘EID’: 100, ‘Ename’: ‘Vinayak’, ‘Dept’: 1, ‘Sal’: 1200000,
‘GradePay’: 4500}
#Changes are reflected in E and F both whenever any changes are done
either in E or F
12 pop() It is used to remove the item whose key is provided and its Dictionary.pop
value is returned. If the key doesn’t exist, it returns the (Key,default=-
default value else a KeyError is raised. Unlike in list, this None)
function cannot be used with a parameter.
P={“PID”:12,”PName”:”Pen”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
print(P.pop(“PName”,”No such Key”))
Pen #Key PName exist so its value is returned

P={“PID”:12,”PName”:”Pen”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
print(P.pop(“NAme”))
KeyError: ‘NAme’ (as NAme doesn’t Exist)
#KeyError raised as the the default value is not specified
And the key ‘NAme’ doesn’t exist

P={“PID”:12,”PName”:”Pen”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
print(P.pop(“NAme”,”No Such Key”))
No Such Key

#We can use pop( ) to change the key in the dictionary. The code
below changes the key from ‘Qty’ to ‘Quantity’
P={“PID”:12,”PName”:”Pen”,”Qty”:200,”Price”:20}
P[“Quantity”]=P.pop(“Qty”)
print(P)
{‘PID’: 12, ‘PName’: ‘Pen’, ‘Price’: 20, ‘Quantity’: 200}
13 popitem() It removes the last item inserted in the dictionary. It d i c t i o n a r y .
returns the key and value of the item deleted as a tuple. popitem()
Will show KeyError if the dictionary is empty. It doesn’t
take any parameter.
242 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

>>> Code={“R”:1,”G”:2,”B”:3}
>>> Code.popitem()
(‘B’, 3)
#the last item is removed and returned as key value pair

>>> Code.clear()#Making the dictionary object empty

>>> Code.popitem() #Error as there is no key to delete
KeyError: ‘popitem(): dictionary is empty’
14 s e t d e - This function returns the value of the key provided as the dictionary.set-
fault() attribute. If the key doesn’t exist, then it is added in the default(key,de-
dictionary with the default value. If no default value is fault=None)
provided, then ‘None’ is added as a value.
>>>Code={“R”:1,”G”:2,”B”:3}
>>> Code.setdefault(“G”)
2 #The key ‘G’ exist in the dictionary, so its value is returned,
which is 2

>>> Code.setdefault(“g”)
>>> print(Code)
{‘R’: 1, ‘G’: 2, ‘B’: 3, ‘g’: None} #The key ‘g’ doesn’t exist so
its inserted in the dictionary. Since its value is not provided, the
default ‘None’ is taken as the value

>>> print(Code.setdefault(“g”,4))
None #Since the key ‘g’ was inserted in the previous command, so
None returned.

>>> Code.setdefault(“G”,”X”))
2 #Since the key ‘G’ exists, 2 returned and the value ‘X’ is ignored

>>>Code.setdefault(“b”,33))
33 #The key ‘b’ doesn’t exist so it’s inserted in the dictionary
with the value 33.
>>> print(Code)
{‘R’: 1, ‘G’: 2, ‘B’: 3, ‘g’: None, ‘b’: 33}
15 max() It returns the maximum ‘key’ or ‘value’ in the Dictionary. max(iterable)
Note that the data type of all keys or all values must be
same
>>> N={7:”Seven”,4:”Four”,9:”Nine”,3:”Three”}
>>> max(N)#By default, the maximum of key values is returned, if not
explicitly specified
9
OR
>>> max(N.keys())#Same result as above generated
9
 Dictionary 243

>>> max(N.values())
‘Three’#Returns the minimum value from the values in the dictionary.
For strings, the search is done as per the alphabet’s ASCII code.

>>> max(N.items())#It returns the tuple which has a key-value pair.

But the max value returned is with respect to the key. So the item
returned is the one which has the largest key
(9, ‘Nine’)
16 min() It returns the minimum ‘key’ or ‘value’ in the Dictionary. min(iterable)
Note that the data type of all keys or all values must be
same
>>> N={7:”Seven”,4:”Four”,9:”Nine”,3:”Three”}
>>> min(N)#By default, the minimum of key values is returned, if not
explicitly specified
3
OR
>>> min(N.keys())#Same result as above generated
3

>>> min(N.values())
‘Four’#Returns the minimum value from the values in the dictionary.
For strings, the search is done as per the alphabet’s ASCII code.

>>> min(N.items())#It returns the tuple which has a key-value pair.

But the min value returned is with respect to the key. So the item
returned is the one which has the smallest key
(3, ‘Three’)
17 sorted() It returns a sorted list of the specified iterable. Default s o r t e d ( i t -
sorting is in ascending order erable,re-
verse=True)
>>>a={‘p’:12,’s’:13,’a’:55,’b’:23,’n’:11}
>>>print(sorted(a))#returns the sorted list of keys
[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘n’, ‘p’, ‘s’]

>>>print(sorted(a.values())) #returns the sorted list of values

[11, 12, 13, 23, 55]

>>>print(sorted(a.items()))#returns the sorted list of tuple of

items with respect to keys
[(‘a’, 55), (‘b’, 23), (‘n’, 11), (‘p’, 12), (‘s’, 13)]

>>>print(sorted(a.items(),reverse=True)) #returns the sorted list

of tuple of items in reverse order
[(‘s’, 13), (‘p’, 12), (‘n’, 11), (‘b’, 23), (‘a’, 55)]
 244 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Example1: Program to accept Name and Salary of an employee and store it in a dictionary.

Example 2: Program to accept Names and Salaries of employees and store in a dictionary in the
format {Name: [Name 1, Name 2…..], Sal:[Sal1, Sal2...]}. Do it for N number of employees

Example 3: Program to combine two dictionaries by adding the values of common key. The
dictionary D1 should be modified. For example
D1={“Data1”:100,”Data2”:200,”Data3”:600}
D2={“Data1”:500,”Data4”:800,”Data3”:100}
The modified dictionary D1 should be
D1={‘Data1’: 600, ‘Data2’: 200, ‘Data3’: 700, ‘Data4’: 800}
 Dictionary 245

Example 4: Program to find min, max and sum all the values in a dictionary.

Example 5: Program to create a dictionary of items in the form (N, N*N), for N numbers where N is
accepted by the user. For example
If N=3
D={1:1,2:4,3:9}

Example 6: Program to accept a key and remove it from a dictionary

Example 7: Program to sort the items of the dictionary as per the key in ascending order.
 246 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Example 8: Program to sort the items of the dictionary as per the value in ascending order.

Example 9: Program to count the occurrence of each character in a string and store it in a
dictionary D

Example 10: Program to display unique values from a dictionary D

Example 11: Create a dictionary with the roll number, name and marks of n students in a class and
display the rollno and names of students who have scored marks above 75.
 Dictionary 247

Note: if the format for storing the data is not specified then the program can be done in variety of
ways

Summary
1. Dictionary is a mutable iterable object which stores not only values but their respective keys also.
2. Keys in a dictionary are unique and can be any immutable object while values can be repeated
and can be of any data type.
3. Each key-value pair in a dictionary is called an item. The items are enclosed in curly brackets.
4. len() function finds and returns the length of the dictionary.
5. dict() function is used to create a dictionary object.
6. keys() function is used to extract the list of available keys from the given Dictionary Object.
7. values() function is used to extract the values of items from the given Dictionary Object.
8. items() function returns a copy of the dictionary’s list of (key, value) pairs where the key value
pairs are in the form of tuples.
9. get() function returns the value of the key if it exists in a dictionary otherwise returns “default
value”. If default is not provided, it returns “None”
10. update() used to update the dictionary object with either key/value pair or with another
dictionary object.
11. del command is used to delete either the item by providing the key if it exists or it raises a
KeyError, if the key doesn’t exist. It can also delete the complete Object.
 248 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

12. clear() function is used to remove all the items from a dictionary and it becomes blank. Note that
this function doesn’t remove or delete the object.
13. fromkeys() is used to create a new dictionary with a given set of keys. Default value provided to
the keys is ‘None’.
14. copy() function creates a shallow copy of the object.
15. pop() function is used to remove the item whose key is provided and its value is returned. It must
have a parameter
16. popitems() function is used to remove the last item inserted in the dictionary. It doesn’t have any
parameters.
17. setdefault() function returns the value of the key provided as the attribute. If the key doesn’t
exist, then it is added in the dictionary with the default value.
18. max() returns the maximum ‘key’ or ‘value’ in the Dictionary. If a dictionary object is passed
without any function , like keys() or values(), then it returns the maximum of key values.
19. min() returns the minimum ‘key’ or ‘value’ in the Dictionary. If a dictionary object is passed
without any function, like keys() or values(), then it returns the maximum of key values.
20. sorted() function returns a sorted list of the specified iterable. If the dictionary object is passed
as a parameter without keys(), values(), items() functions, then the list of sorted keys is returned.

Questions
1. Given two dictionary objects D1 and D2. Create a third dictionary object by merging both the
objects as shown below:
D1={1:11, 2:22}
D2={3:33, 4:44}
NewD : {1: 11, 2: 22, 3: 33, 4: 44}
2. Write a Python code to accept the Pcode and Pname for a few products and store them in dictionary
D. Accept a code and check if it’s existing in the Dictionary D and print the product name.
D={“P11”:”Mobile”,”P2”:”Blanket”,”P45”:”Table”}
Accept Code: P2
Product Name: Blanket
3. Write a Python code to accept a number N and generate a dictionary that contains items in the
form of num, num* num from 1 and N.
If N=5, then the dictionary created should be
D={1:1,2:4,3:9,4:16,5:25}
4. Accept N elements in two lists L1 and L2, such that L1 contains the names of the cricketers and
L2 contains their best score in One Day match. Create a dictionary object such that the elements
of L1 become the key and the elements of L2 become their value and print the result.
If
L1=[“Rahul Dravid”,”Dhoni”,”Sachin”]
 Dictionary 249

L2=[177,183, 200]
Then
D={“Rahul Dravid”:177,”Dhoni”:183,”Sachin”:200}
5. Write a python code to store N items as “JeweleryName”:”Price” in a dictionary object D. Arrange
the Dictionary object by their keys in alphabetical order. For example, if
D={“earrings”:100,”bracelet”:250,”necklace”:8000}
Then the sorted result should be:
{‘bracelet’: 250, ‘earings’: 100, ‘necklace’: 8000}
6. Given a dictionary object D, accept a key which should be removed.
7. Write a Python code to combine two dictionary adding values for common keys.
If D1 = {‘a’: 100, ‘b’: 200, ‘c’:300}
D2 = {‘a’: 300, ‘b’: 200, ‘d’:400}
R={‘a’: 400, ‘b’: 400, ‘d’: 400, ‘c’: 300}
8. Write a python program to accept a string from the user and create a dictionary object which
stores the vowels as keys and their count in the string as their values. For example:
Enter a string welcome to the world of magic
{‘a’: 1, ‘e’: 3, ‘i’: 1, ‘o’: 4, ‘u’: 0}
9. Write a python program to find the name of the Item with maximum quantity from the dictionary
D which stores items as keys and their quantity as value.
For example
D={‘item1’:67,’item2’:55,’item3’:77}
Result: item3
10. Write a Python Code to represent the data of the list Buses and tuple Mileage in the dictionary
Transport. Dictionary Transport should contain each value from Buses as key and corresponding
value from tuple Mileage.
Buses=[“Ashok Leyland”,”Tata Starbus”,”Mahindra Cruzio”]
Mileage=(100,90,110)
Find the following from the dictionary Transport
Maximum and Minimum mileage, Average Mileage, Total Mileage and the Bus name with maximum
and minimum mileage
For example:
Transport
{“Ashok Leyland”:100,”Tata Starbus”:90,”Mahindra Cruzio:110”}
Maximum mileage - 110 Minimum mileage - 90
Average mileage - 100 Total mileage - 300
Bus name with maximum mileage - Mahindra Cruzio
Bus name with minimum mileage - Tata Starbus
 250 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

11. Give the output

a. A =”GREAT WORK”;
D={True:1,False:0}
for I in A:
print(D[I not in “AEIOU”],end=’#’)
b. A={1:”X”,2:”Y”,3:”Z”}
for i,j in A.items():
print(i,j,end=”*”)
c. d={“name”:”Ravi”,”DOB”:”22-04-2007”,”Per”:77}
d1={“Name”:”Rahul”}
d1=d.copy()
print(“d1 :”,d1)
d. d={“name”:”Ravi”,”DOB”:”22-04-2007”,”Per”:77}
d1={“Name”:”Rahul”}
d.update(d1)
print(“d :”,d)
print(“d1 :”,d1)
12. MCQ
A. If a is a dictionary with some key-value pairs, what does a.popitem() do?
a. It will removes all the key-value pairs
b. It will removes the key-value pair for the key given as an argument
c. It will remove the last item from the dictionary but doesn’t return it
d. It will remove and return the last item from the dictionary
B. Which of the statement(s) is/are correct.
a. Dictionary is an iterable object.
b. Python dictionary is a mapping of unique keys to values
c. Dictionary is mutable.
d. All the above.
C. Keys of the dictionary must be
a. Same b. Unique
c. can be similar or unique d. All of these
D. The function used to remove all items from a dictionary object.
a. clear( ) b. pop( ) c. del d. keys( )
E. The function which will return key-value pair of the dictionary
a. key( ) b. values( ) c. items( ) d. dict( )
 Dictionary 251

F. To create a dictionary , key-value pairs are separated by…………….

a. Semicolon (;) b. Comma ( , ) c. Colon (:) d. Slash ( / )
G. Which of the following statements create a dictionary?
a. d = { } b. d = {“john”:40, “peter”:45}
c. d = {40 : “john”, 45 : “peter”} d. All of the mentioned above
13. Differentiate between Dict.setdefault() and Dict1.update()functions used with a data type
dictionary with suitable examples of each.
14. Name the function which can be used to perform the following on the python dictionary object
a. Returns list of values of dictionary Dict
b. Removes all the items from a dictionary
c. Returns a list of (key, value) tuple pairs
252 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI
 13 Sorting Techniques

Sorting techniques
Arranging the elements of an object in increasing or decreasing order is called sorting. Though sorting
is very easily possible in Python and can be implemented by using the sort() function, we still need
to understand the techniques behind the concept of sorting. There are a variety of sorting techniques
which are used on the basis of data and efficiency. Some of them are Bubble Sort., Selection Sort.
Merge Sort, Insertion Sort, Quick Sort and Heap Sort. in this section we will understand two very
commonly used sorting techniques:
1. Bubble Sort
2. Insertion Sort
Bubble sort is a technique where two consecutive elements are compared and the largest of the two
is shifted to the right. The process is repeated depending on the number of elements in the list.
Let us understand the method diagramatically:
In Task-1, the largest element is moved to the right side. So 97 is shifted to the right and
becomes the last element. The same task is to be repeated for second largest, third largest and
so on.
 254 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

In Task 2 the same process is repeated but till the second last index number as the appropriate
value has already reached the last index number.

Task 3 and 4 are performed in the similar manner

Elements
Final Program-1
#Bubble Sort method to sort element of list in ascending order
L=[34,12,67,97,67]
for i in range(len(L)-1):
for j in range(len(L)-i-1):
if L[j]>L[j+1]:
 Sorting Techniques 255

L[j],L[j+1]=L[j+1],L[j]
print(L)

#Output
[12, 34, 67, 67, 97]

Program-2
#Bubble Sort method to sort element of list in descending order
L=[34,12,67,97,67]
for i in range(len(L)-1):
for j in range(len(L)-i-1):
if L[j]<L[j+1]:
L[j],L[j+1]=L[j+1],L[j]
print(L)
[97, 67, 67, 34, 12]

Insertion Sort is the method, where we assume that the list is divided into two parts, the left side
sorted with one element and right side with the rest of the elements which are unsorted. The logic is
that one element at a time is picked from the unsorted part and shifted to a sorted area.

Original List
256 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Program-1
#Insertion Sort method to sort element of list in ascending order

List Sorted
L=[34,12,67,97,67]
for i in range(1,len(L)):
k=i-1
temp=L[i]
while temp<L[k] and k>=0:
L[k+1]=L[k]
k-=1
L[k+1]=temp
print(L)

Program-2
#Insertion Sort method to sort element of list in descending order
L=[34,12,67,97,67]
for i in range(1,len(L)):
k=i-1
temp=L[i]
while temp<L[k] and k>=0:
L[k+1]=L[k]
k-=1
 Sorting Techniques 257

L[k+1]=temp
print(L)

Summary
1. Arranging the elements of an object in increasing or decreasing order is called sorting. Some of
the types of sorting are Bubble Sort., Selection Sort. Merge Sort, Insertion Sort, Quick Sort and
Heap Sort.
2. Bubble sort is a technique where two consecutive elements are compared and the largest of the
two is shifted to the right.
3. Insertion Sort is the method, where we assume that the list is divided into two parts, the left side
sorted with one element and right side with the rest of the elements which are unsorted.

Questions
1. Write a program to accept 5 elements in a list L and arrange them in descending order using the
bubble sort method.
2. Write a program to accept 7 names of flowers in a list L and arrange them in ascending order as
per their length using any sorting method.
For example:
L=[Lavender, Rose, Lotus, Jasmine, Sunflower, Daisy, Magnolia]

Sorted List:
[Rose, Lotus, Daisy, Jasmine, Lavender, Magnolia, Sunflower]

3. Write a program to accept names of your 5 friends in a list L and arrange them in descending
order as per their last letter in the name using the insertion sort method.
For example:
L=['Angel', 'Prisha', 'Nidhi', 'Jasmine', 'Rajiv']
Sorted List:
['Prisha', 'Jasmine', 'Nidhi', 'Angel', 'Rajiv']
4. The following program will sort all the elements of the given list in descending order, if all the
blanks are filled in correctly.
L=[55,12,89,34,9]
for i ____ range(______):
for ____ in range(______):
if L[j]_____L[j+1]:
L[j],L[j+1]______L[_____],L[j]
 258 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

5. The following program will sort all the modes of transportation stored in the given list in ascending
order using the insertion sort method, if all the blanks are filled in correctly.
L=["bus", "car", "bike", "rikshaw", "scooter", "plane"]
for i in ____(1,len(L)):
k=i-1
temp=______
while _______<len(L[k]) and k____0:
L[k+1]=L[k]
k=_____
L[____]=temp
print(L)
 14 Python Modules

Introduction to Python modules

When you write python programs, there is always a possibility where you need to use few of the
already written program tasks in other programs too. But as soon as you close a program, the
commands written inside it cannot be accessed by other programs and you need to write them again.
Similarly when your program becomes too long, it is always convenient to break the task into various
files as this will allow easy modification and reusability. To accomplish this task, python allows you to
make files with some commonly used functions or scripts so that they can be accessed as and when
needed. They are called modules. So, we can say that a python module contains definitions of tasks
and commands which can be used as and when needed in other programs.
For example, you can create a module which can find the square root and cube root of a number and
use them as per the program requirement. As said earlier, the modules are also Python programs, so
their file extension is .py. You will learn to create modules in class XII.
To use the module in your python program, you have two options:
1. Using import keyword
2. Using from statement.

Importing module using ‘import’

You can use import <module name> either in the interpreter or script mode to start accessing the
functions inside it.
>>>import math #will allow your program to access the functions in the math module
When using this method, you need to prefix the name of the module to the name of the function.
>>>math.sqrt(10)
3.1622776601683795
Also, you can access all the functions defined inside the module
You can also temporarily change the name of the module using this method of accessing module
functions
>>>import math as M #Math module will be referred as ‘M’ in the current program
>>>M.sqrt(10)
 260 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Importing module using ‘from’ statement

Syntax:
>>>from <module name> import *
When using this method, you don’t have to prefix the module name to the function name. Using this
method, all functions can be imported except those beginning with an underscore(_).
>>>from math import *
>>>sqrt(8)
2.8284271247461903
If you do not wish to import all the functions of a module, then you can specify the names of the
functions to be imported.
>>>from math import sqrt
>>sqrt(8)
2.8284271247461903
>>>ceil(4)
NameError: name ‘ceil’ is not defined

Importing math module : We will study the following mathematical related functions available in
the math module.

functions/
commands
Purpose Example Output
in math
module
pi It provides the value for π import math Area of circle : 78.
= 3.141592…, to available r=5 53981633974483
precision.
print(“Area of circle
:”,math.pi*r*r)
e It provides the value for import math e= 2.71
mathematical constant e print(“e=”,math.e) 8281828459045
= 2.718281…, to available
precision.
sqrt(x) This function returns the import math
square root of x. It returns float print(math.sqrt(2)) 1.41421….
answer
print(math.sqrt(6.2)) 2.48997..
print(math.sqrt(4.0)) 2.0
print(math.sqrt(-2)) ValueError
 Python Modules 261

ceil(x) This function returns the import math

smallest integer greater than print(math.ceil(4)) 4
or equal to x.
print(math.ceil(4.0)) 4
print(math.ceil(4.9)) 5
print(math.ceil(0.4)) 1
floor(x) This function returns the import math
largest integer less than or print(math.floor(4)) 4
equal to x.
print(math.floor(3.7)) 3
print(math.floor(4.9)) 4
print(math.floor(0.4)) 0
pow(x,y) This function returns x raised to import math
power y. The answer returned print(math.pow(2,4)) 16.0
is a float value as it converts
print(math.pow(2.1,2)) 4.41
both arguments x and y to float.
print(math.pow(1.1,2.2)) 1.2332...
Note that if x is negative and y
is float, then the function raises print(math.pow(2,-1)) 0.5
ValueError. print(math.pow(2,1/2)) 1.41421...
print(math.pow(-2,3)) -8.0
It is different from ** print(math.pow(2,0)) 1.0
(Exponentiation) operator as it
print(math.pow(0,3)) 0.0
generates float result while **
generates integer result if both print(math.pow(-2,3.1)) ValueError
x and y are integers #ValueError

fabs(x) This function returns the import math

absolute value of x. The answer print(math.fabs(-4)) 4.0
returned is a floating point
print(math.fabs(4.0)) 4.0
answer.
print(math.fabs(4.9)) 4.9
print(math.fabs(-0.4)) 0.4
sin(x) This function returns the sine import math
of x radians. for i in range(1,10):
print(math.sin(i))
 262 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

cos(x) This function returns the import math

cosine of x radians. for i in range(1,10):
print(math.cos(i))

tan(x) This function returns the import math

tangent of x radians. for i in range(1,5):
print(math.tan(i))

Importing random module

This module is used to generate random numbers on various criterias.

functions/
commands
Purpose Example Output
in random
module
random It generates a floating point random import random
number in the range from 0.0 to 1.0, for i in range(1,6):
where 1.0 is not included
print(random.random())

randint(x,y) It generates an integer random number import random

between x and y, where both x and y can for i in range(1,5):
be included
print(random.randint(1,10))
 Python Modules 263

randrange It generates an integer random number For example :

(start,end,- between start and end-1 (both included), randrange(1,7) can have possible
step) the interval of random number depends random numbers as (1,2,3,4,5,6)
on step value.
randrange(1,7,2) can have possible
Default step value is 1 if not provided. random numbers as (1,3,5)
Default start value is 0, if not provided
randrange(10,2,-2) can have
possible random numbers as
(10,8,6,4)
randrange(-5,1) can have possible
random numbers as (-5,-4,-3,-2,-
1,0)
import random
for i in range(1,5):
print(random.randrange(1,20),
end=’,’)

Importing statistics module

This module is used for calculating mathematical statistics of numeric data.

functions/
commands
Purpose Example Output
in statistics
module
mean(data) It is used to calculate the average of >>> from statistics import *

numeric data provided in the form of an >>> a=[4,7,8,1,2]
iterable or a sequence. >>> b=(44,6.7,3)

It takes only one argument. >>> d={1:89,5.5:99}

The numeric data can be integer or float, >>> mean(a)
positive or negative. 4.4 #mean->(4+7+8+1+2)/5

The result is always a float value.
>>> mean(b)
17.9 #mean->(44+6.7+3)/3
>>> mean(d)
3.25 #mean->(1+5.5)/2

>>> mean([12,56,89])
52.333333333333336
264 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Median It returns the middle value of the numeric >>> from statistics import *

(data) data provided in the form of an iterable. >>> X=[45,12,5,1,8]

If there are even data values, then the >>> median(X)
median is calculated by taking the average 8 #[1,5,8,12,45]
of the middle two values.
Note that if the data items are provided >>> Y=[1,4,7,9]

in an unsorted manner then they are first >>> median(Y)
arranged in ascending order and then 5.5#(4+7)/2=5.5
median is calculated.

The numeric data provided can be >>> Z=(1.1,6,6.2,7,7.5)
positive, negative, integer or float data. >>> median(Z)

If the data is empty, then StatisticsError is 6.2 #(1.1,6,6.2,7,7.5)
raised
>>> median((-9,-3,-4))
-4 #(-9,-4,-3)

>>>median(())
StatisticsError: no median
for empty data
mode(data) It returns the single most common data >>> A=[1,2,3,4,5]

from the given data values. >>> mode(A)

If there is no common data, then the first 1 #No common value so the
one in the list is returned. first value 1 is returned
If there are multiple modes with the same >>> A=[7,4,2,6,3]

frequency, then the first one in the list is >>> mode(A)
returned. 7 #No common value so the

It can take non numeric parameters also. first value 7 is returned

If the data is empty, then StatisticsError is
raised >>> A=[3,3,2,3,5,6]
>>> mode(A)
3 #Common/repeated value is 3
so 3 is returned

>>> A=[3,3,2,2,5,6]
>>> mode(A)
3#Common/repeated value is
3 and 2 both and they both
occur 2 times. But the first
occurrence is of 3 so 3 is
returned
 Python Modules 265

>>>A=[“one”,”-
three”,”two”,”one”,”-
three”,”three”]
>>> mode(A)
‘three’#As three is occur-
ring most number of times

>>> A=()
>>> mode(A)
StatisticsError: no median
for empty data

Summary
1. Modules are python files which contain a set of functions or objects that you want to include in
your program. There are two ways to use modules in a python program. One is using ‘import’
keyword and other is using ‘from <module> import <function/object names>’
2. Some of the functions/commands in math module are pi, e, sqrt(), ceil(), floor(), pow(),
fabs(), sin(), cos(), tan()
3. pi returns the value for π = 3.141592
4. e returns the value for mathematical constant e = 2.718281
5. sqrt(x) function returns the square root of x.
6. ceil(x) function returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
7. floor(x) function returns the largest integer less than or equal to x.
8. pow(x,y) function returns x raised to power y.
9. fabs(x) function returns the absolute value of x.
10. sin(x) function returns the sine of x radians.
11. cos(x) function returns the cosine of x radians.
12. tan(x) function returns the tangent of x radians.
13. Some of the functions/commands in the random module are random(), randrange(), randint().
14. random() function generates a floating point random number in the range from 0.0 to 1.0, where
1.0 is not included
15. randint(x,y) function generates an integer random number between x and y, where both x and
y can be included.
16. randrange(X,Y,Z) function generates an integer random number between X and Y-1 (both
included), with a step interval of Z. default step is 1.
17. Some of the functions/commands in the statistics module are mean(), median(), mode()
18. mean(L) function is used to calculate the average of numeric data provided in the form of an
iterable or a sequence L.
 266 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

19. median(L) function returns the middle value of the numeric data provided in the form of an
iterable L.
20. mode(L) function returns the single most common data from the given data values.

Questions
1. Name the module required to import to use the following functions in python. Also explain each
one of them with examples
a. cos() b. random() c. median() d. ceil()
2 For the given program, what are the possible random values that can be generated:
​​import random
for i in range(10):
print(random.randrange(-3,2))
3 Give the output for the following commands:
print(math.pow(2,3))
print(math.pow(3, 2))
print(math.ceil(7.99))
print(math.floor(7.99))
print(math.sqrt(256))
4 Choose the incorrect option:
a. from math import % b. from math import *
c. import math d. import math as M
5 What will be the output of the following Python code?
print(random.randrange(0,100,5))
a. 56 b. 3 c. 75 d. 91
6 Given the following program, what could be the possible values for X and Y both
import random
X=random.randint(1,3)
Y=random.randint(1,4)
for i in range(X+1):
for j in range(i,Y+1):
print(i,j)
7 Choose the possible output/outputs for the program given below. Also tell the maximum and the
minimum values for both X and Y
import random
X = random.random()
Y= random.randrange(0,4)
print(int(x),”:”, y+int(x))
a. 0:1 b. 0:4 c. 1:3 d. 1:0
 Python Modules 267

8. Give the output for the commands given below:

import math
print(abs(math.sqrt(49)))
print(abs(math.sqrt(49.0)))
print(math.ceil(3.4))
print(math.floor(-9.9))
9. Write all the possible output for the python code given below:
import random
L= [“glass”,”water”,”milk”,”tumbler”,”shake”]
for i in range(2):
X=random.randrange(-1,-4,-2)
print(L[X],end=” “)
10. Differentiate between the following built in functions along with the examples in the form of a
python code along with the output
a. mode() and median() b. ceil() and floor()
c. pow() and sqrt() d. randint() and randrange()
11. Rahul wrote the following python program to generate 4 digit OTP.
import random
otp=””
i=0
while True:
otp+=str(random.randint(0,9))
i+=1
if i==4:
break
print(otp)
You need to modify the above program in such a manner that the otp generated should have only
even digits excluding 0. Can you help think of another way to redo the above program? Pls suggest
12. Write a program to fill the empty list L[] with 5 elements making sure that each element is of
three digits.
13. Fill in the blanks:
a. The module used to find the mean of given numbers stored in a list is ___________.
b. 
random module has a function which allows you to generate a random 2 digit odd number.
Can you name the function? __________
c. 
A function which generates a floating point number between 0 and 1 is _____________ and it is
accessed using __________ module.
d. 
The pow(a,b) function which comes under __________ module returns ab and the result is never
an integer but __________
 268 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

e. ________________ function of the random module takes no argument.

f. 
While using the function mode(X), if X is empty then _____________ exception is raised. This
function is used under ___________ module.
g. print(random.random()*900 + 100) will always generate a _________ digit number.
14. Read the program given below carefully:
import statistics
L=[1,2,3,4,5]
s=0
for i in L:
s+=i
print(s//len(L))
What is the above program generating? Can you suggest a simpler way to do the above program?
You can use any built in function.
 15 Society, Law and Ethics

Digital Footprints
How do you express your presence on the internet.? When you feel happy or you want to share
something with your friends you upload either the picture or the text on social networking sites like
Facebook or Instagram. Every time you share something on the digital platform like some write up
or some pictures you leave an impression of yours in the online world. The posts which are shared by
you online leave an impression about you which is visible to the virtual world. This not only includes
the posts shared by you, the sites you searched or visited or the comments you make on a post but
also the information available online about you.
Digital footprint is the information shared by you or is about you available online. Digital footprint
is used by the apps or the companies to know more about you. Have you ever noticed that when you
search for a particular product online then you start receiving similar suggestions whenever you surf
the net. Your login credentials and your preferences are stored by the cookies. Though these cookies
are not harmful, they do keep track of your preferences to make your search fast.
You should keep in mind that anything you share online, whether text or images, has the potential to
be available online forever.
So you should decide about the ‘Your Digital’ footprints in this virtual world. The way you mark your
presence in the real world through your actions and create an impression about yourself with full
consciousness, same way you should be very carefully making an impression about yourself in the
virtual world through the posts you share or the searches you do or the comments you make. You can
take advantage of the online platform to represent your best qualities which can help you to excel in
your academic and professional life.
To check and manage your digital footprint:
You can search your name on various search engines and see the result.
You must also separate your professional account with your personal account.
You should be aware of the privacy settings of your social networking platform.
You must monitor your linked accounts (facebook, instagram, twitter etc)

Digital society and Netizen

Digital technologies have permeated our everyday tasks and interactions as they have changed the
way we learn, work and socialise. Every aspect of our lives is affected by the digitalisation of data.
With access to the internet, digital services have become an essential part of people’s lives. Today,
people have easy access to information sources and technologies which have enabled them to get
involved in a lot of online activities including social, educational and political fields too.
 270 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

This technological revolution has given rise to a new term called ‘Digital Society’. Digital society is the
society where everything is paperless and runs on digital technology. And this is due to the adoption
of ICT(Information and Communication Technologies) in all areas including home, education,
workplace etc Today, The commonly used terms in digital society are 5g, IoT (Internet of Things),
Cloud computing, Big Data etc.
The people who use digital tools on the internet are known as Netizens. It is a combination of two
words, Internet and Citizens. Hence, Netizens are also known as digital citizens. We all are netzens
as we all use the internet. As a netizen we must follow some etiquettes. The etiquettes practiced in
the digital world is categorized in the following categories:
Net etiquettes
Communication etiquettes
Social media étiquettes

Net etiquettes
When we interact with our friends physically we follow some etiquette and rules. Similarly, when
we meet a stranger we know whether to talk to him or not, whether or not to reveal our personal
information. Same way when we are online we should follow certain rules and behavior. This is
important for our safety and security. The rules we should follow when we are online are called net
etiquettes. We must follow these basic net etiquettes as an ethical netizen whenever we are online::

We should always be aware of what we post online. We must respect the privacy of our friends
and family before sharing any mail or content on the social networking platform. Also while
forwarding the mail, we must use BCC (blind carbon copy) rather than CC (carbon copy) if we are
sending something out to more than one person. This will avoid the email addresses of others to
get publicized.

Never say untrue things about anyone on the public forum. Sharing of fake news must be avoided.

We often use audio, video or images from various sources. As an ethical netizen, we must give
credit to the source if we use someone’s content.

The Internet was created to share meaningful information and spread awareness and knowledge.
We must do the same on the online platform as a responsible netizen.

We must respect different cultures and the opinions of others.

We must act responsible by making sure that we do not harass, or provoke anyone. Threatening
online, posting personal information about someone else, expressing deliberately offensive
opinions about someone etc come under cyberbullying. Cyberbullying or stealing someone’s
identity is a serious crime and we must not engage or involve ourselves in it.

Communication etiquettes
In the digital world, we communicate using text (through mails and chats), audio and video
conferencing, live chats on social networking sites etc. We need to follow certain rules when
communication is done via digital mode.
 Society, Law and Ethics 271

The following communication etiquettes must be practiced:


We should be precise in delivering the message. Long emails should be avoided as we need to
respect everyone’s time. At the same time mails with bulky attachments should not be sent. This
can consume a lot of bandwidth while opening the attachment.

We should be polite while communicating, especially during audio and video chats. Everyone’s
viewpoint should be respected and listened to. Suggestions, if any, should be made with politeness
and cordial behavior should be shown.

Our behaviour is judged by the etiquettes we show and the comments we make on the online
platform. Similarly, we judge the other person on the basis of the comments he/she receives. So
we need to be very responsible while sharing anything in writing on the digital platform about
anyone.

Social media étiquettes

Today, people from every age group are active on social media. Facebook has more than a billion
users. There are a million active accounts on Twitter, Instagram and LinkedIn. People communicate
with others on social media and share their videos and build their audience too, like on youtube. So
you need to follow some basic etiquettes while handling social media platform:

Be very cautious while posting or tagging someone. While posting a group picture, it is advisable
to post the photo with the caption “Tag yourself” to encourage others to take the initiative.

Be careful in providing the passwords to your social media accounts as these accounts are
vulnerable to hacking.

Do not accept the friend invitation from anyone and everyone as we don’t come to know who is
hiding behind the screens.

We should never chat with online strangers.

Never share personal details like name, address, contact details etc online on social media
platforms. It can be misused.

Unless you’re sending a private message, your social media posts should have well-placed,
appropriate and respectful sense of humor as what humour for you might be a serious matter for
others.

Avoid getting into your own social media arguments. If you tag things on social media related to
any argument then your words and actions can be saved and can be provocative too.

It is unethical to misrepresent yourself by taking the credit of others.

Before you become an active user of a new social media platform, read up on its best practices as
different platforms have their own set of rules they follow.

Data protection
In this digital world when everything from a small not so important to highly confidential data is
stored and maintained on the cloud, it becomes really important to protect it from getting misused
or leaked. Examples of sensitive data include biometric information, company’s financial records,
or other personal documents, images,audios,videos, health related data etc. Data protection thus is
 272 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

a very important concept to prevent and protect your important information. It provides tools and
policies to actually restrict access to the data. The purpose of data protection is to define when and
on what conditions personal data can be accessed or processed. It is important to know that the data
protection and privacy laws and regulations vary from country to country. Some of the commonly
used practices and technologies to protect data include

Firewalls- which will ensure that only authorized users are allowed to access or transfer data

data Encryption- which protects your data from unauthorized access even if data is stolen as the
data can only be accessed with the right encryption key

Authentication which allows you to verify credentials and give access accordingly.

Intellectual Property Right

People do startups, use their ideas to promote their business. They give an exclusive name to their
company, get a logo designed for it. But what if the name or the logo they design is used by someone
else? Or what if their original idea is used by another person or company pretending to be theirs?
Is there any way to preserve their rights and protect their original inventions which includes
expressions, designs, symbols, names, logos etc. The rights which protect an individual or a company
and prevent their original content and invention to be used by others without their permission are
called Intellectual Property Rights. It allows people to seek legal advice. Intellectual Property Rights
are legal rights governing the use of creations of the human mind.
For example, in the case of Movies the producers are the owner of the movie as they finance it. It is
their “ intellectual property” and they have the right to decide whether they want to allow others to
reproduce, translate, remake, copy or adapt their intellectual property.
In India, three important Intellectual Property Rights recognised under statute are
The Patents Act, 1970
The Trade Marks Act, 1999
The Copyright Act, 1957
Note that the IPRs are exclusive rights and therefore there is always a challenge to strike a balance
between the interests of innovators and the interests of the society at large.

Copyright
Copyright is an intellectual property right which protects the literary and artistic creations of
authors, artists, musicians etc. A copyright can give its owner exclusive rights to their original work.
Works covered by copyright range from books, music, paintings, sculpture, and films, to computer
programs, databases, advertisements, maps, and technical drawings. Copyright protection extends
only to expressions, and not to ideas, procedures, methods of operation. In the majority of countries
copyright protection is obtained automatically without the need for registration. Copyright in a work
is considered as infringed only if a substantial part is made use of unauthorizedly. For example, if
a lyricist copies a phrase from another lyricist’s song, there is likely to be infringement even if that
phrase is very short and that is covered under copyright.
 Society, Law and Ethics 273

Patent
A patent is an exclusive right granted for a new invention or discoveries. “New invention” means any
invention or technology which has not been anticipated by publication in any document or used in
the country or elsewhere in the world before the date of filing of patent application with complete
specification. A patent provides protection for the invention to the owner of the patent and gives full
control to the patentee to decide whether or how the invention can be used by others. A patent is a
limited-duration protection.

Trademark
A trademark includes a name, logo, word, or sign that differentiates goods from the goods of other
enterprises. Trademark symbolizes the value or goodwill associated with the goods and its specific
source and it distinguishes one company from others. It is due to the trademark which helps
consumers identify and purchase a product. It would be difficult to distinguish the duplicates if there
are no trademarks. For example, the BPB symbol which nearly all could easily recognize and
identify–is an example of trademark. While patents and copyrights can expire, trademark rights come
from the use of the trademark, and therefore can be held indefinitely. Registration of a trademark is
not required.

Violation of IPR
Intellectual property rights can be violated in many ways. Some are listed below:

Plagiarism
The word “plagiarism” is derived from the Latin term “plagiare”. It means to copy or take ideas from
someone else’s work. When someone’s work is copied and used or falsely claimed of authorship
then this act is called Plagiarism. It may be intentional or unintentional. Based on the type of copy,
plagiarism is categorized as Ghost Writer, Photocopy, Potluck Paper, Self Stealer. In Ghost copy the
entire content is copied as it is without making any modifications. In photocopy the part of the text is
copied and used without making any changes. In Potluck Paper the material is copied from various
resources and presented after making very minor alterations. Self Stealer is an interesting plagiarism
where the author copies his or her own content and reuses it again. To prevent plagiarism, either
quote the original work and indicate the source.

Copyright Infringement
In Plagiarism, the original idea is copied and used irrespective of the fact whether the actual source
is protected by copyright or not. But in copyright infringement the laws of the copyright holder
are violated. This is because in copyright infringement the source which is copied is protected by
copyrights and in spite of that the material is copied and reused. An example was given in the previous
section where the producer of the movie can decide whether the others can reproduce, translate,
remake or copy his movie as he has copyright on his movie. But if someone without taking permission
remakes the movie then it will become an act of copyright infringement. Copyright infringement is a
criminal offense.
 274 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Trademark infringement
Trademarks are given the status of intellectual property across the globe. There are many organisations,
both international and national, that endeavour to protect intellectual properties such as trademarks.
When a person who is not authorised by the holder of a registered trademark to use the name, logo,
sign etc but he violates it by using it, then this is called Trademark infringement.

OpenSource Softwares and licensing

Open Source software is computer software which is available for people to use freely, to access
and modify the source code and to distribute the modified version of the software. The word Open
means ‘collaboration is open to all’ and Source means source code is freely shared. One of the main
advantages of open source is its visibility, which makes it easy to troubleshoot problems.
There are a variety of open source softwares available starting from Operating system to Open office
presentation softwares to open office Browser and so on. Some of the commonly used operating
system software are
Operating Systems (all Linux distributions)
Wordpress- Free web software to create websites or blogs
GIMPShop-Image editor similar to Adobe Photoshop
Web Browser-Mozilla Firefox

open office (word processing, spreadsheet and presentation software available in 21 different
languages http://www.openoffice.org)
WebServer Software-Apache
Database-MySQL
Perl, PHP, Python (scripting languages)
When we say that the open source softwares is free to use and modify, it doesn’t mean that they
are free to be used and modified without any specific guidelines and permissions. A clear set of
permissions and guidelines are documented and shared between the creator of the software and its
users, which governs how the software can be used, modified, reused and reshared. This document is
called a license. The license will determine whether you are allowed to make changes in the original
source code and fix issues, if you find. The license indicates how the software may be used. OSS is
unique in that it is always released under a license that has been certified to meet the criteria of the
Open Source definition. There are many open source license, some of them are discussed below:
GNU General Public License: It is one of the most popular open source licenses. It was written by
Richard Stallman. According to it, any software that is written based on any GPL component must be
released as open source. A popular example of software that uses GPL is WordPress. Features of GNU
GPL are:
1. The program governed by the GPL license, even if modified, must be subject to the GPL again.
2. 
It gives freedom to run the program. It also gives freedom to study how the program works and
modify it to suit the needs. One needs to have access to the source code for doing any modification.
The license allows distribution in source code
 Society, Law and Ethics 275

3. 
It gives freedom to redistribute copies and distribute modified versions of the program, so that
the community can benefit from your improvements.
4. 
You can also charge for the software but the copy of the GNU GPL has to be given. This will make
the person aware that the same software is available for free too.
5. 
You can copy the software and there is no limit to that. It can be copied either on your or your
client’s server.
6. 
Software that uses any GPL-licensed component has to release its full source code and all rights
to modify and distribute the entire code.

Linux is available under the GPL license

Creative Commons licenses are for all kinds of creative works which include websites, scholarship,
music, film, photography, literature, courseware, etc. CC are not really open source. You can visit the
site to know more about it http://www.creativecommons.org
Features of CC are:
1. 
It allows the authors to share and redistribute their copyright work and make some uses of their
work.
2. 
It also gives the author the liberty to decide the additional permissions of licensing and how they
want their work to be used.
3. 
It allows licensors to redistribute the work but not for commercial use. If the work is used for
commercial purposes then proper credit must be given.
4. It allows modification or copying of the work but only under CC License.
Apache: The Apache License is recognised by the Open Source Initiative as a popular and widely
deployed license. Apache License version 2.0 rights can be applied to both copyrights and patents.
Anyone who uses open source software licensed under Apache 2.0 must include original copyright
notice, license copy, statement of any significant changes made to the original code.
The licensor can copy, modify and distribute the covered software in source and/or binary forms
All copies, modified or unmodified, are accompanied by a copy of the license
Apache license doesn’t require renewal. It can be used forever.

Apache rights are granted irrespective of the geographical boundaries. It means the license is
applicable in all countries.

All notices of copyright, trademark and patent rights are reproduced accurately in distributed
copies
You can redistribute the code but with credits.
This License does not grant permission to use trademarks

Unlike GPL license, Software that uses any Apache-licensed component has no compulsion to
release the modified version.
Apache web servers, Apache OpenOffice are licensed under Apache 2.0 License.
 276 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Cyber-crime
The word cyber means anything related to information technology (IT), computers and network
and crime means an action considered as an offence and is punishable by law. So Cybercrime is the
crime committed via the Internet and computer systems. Cyber crime is an unlawful act wherein
the computer is either a tool or target or both . Cybercrime is not restricted to any geographical
boundaries and is committed online. It affects the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data and
computer systems. The person committing cybercrime can get unauthorised access to someone else’s
computer or accounts and can do things like identity theft, fraud, data stealing, data manipulation
etc. Cybercrime has been on the rise for years. Few reasons which have given rise to cybercrime are
greed to earn quick money, lack of awareness or knowledge among computer users, negligence, weak
cybersecurity, easy access to computers etc.

Types of Cybercrime
Hacking
Hacking is a process where someone unknown gains access to your computer with the wrong
intention of either deleting the data or stealing sensitive information. Skilled programmers who have
good knowledge of machine code and computer operating systems are called hackers. Using their
knowledge they can identify the flaw in the security system of the computer. It is very important to
know that not all hackers hack the computer with wrong intentions. Hacking itself is not an illegal
activity unless the hacker is compromising a system without the owner’s permission. Today many
companies and government agencies hire these skilled programmers to know the vulnerabilities in
their system so that the security issue can be sorted and their system can work without threat of
losing any sensitive information. There are three types of hackers named the white, hat grey hat and
Black hat.
White hat hackers are officially hired by the agencies so that the problem or the loopholes in the

security system can be identified. White hat hackers are therefore called ethical hackers. So what
this article happens to is completely legal and is not covered under cyber crime.
Black hat hackers are the one which gets into security systems or computer networks by bypassing

the protocols only with wrong intentions. The intention is to steal the sensitive information or
money. Black hat hackers are cyber criminals as they crack the security system of the company.
This process is called Cracking.
Grey hat hackers are the one which we can say are between white hat and Black hat. This is

because they get into the security system without the knowledge or permission of the owner.
Usually, grey hat hackers will not exploit the found vulnerabilities. Their intent is to bring the
weakness to the attention of the owners and of course to earn money.

Eavesdropping
It is stealing of information by unauthorized interception of a conversation as it is transmitted over
a network by a computer, or phone. Special programs are developed by hackers to record parts of
sensitive data communications from insecure networks. So, in eavesdropping, people are completely
unaware that their communication is being intercepted and data is being stolen. Cell phones,
computers, and laptops are first hacked and then used by the attackers to fabricate information
according to their wishes. To avoid eavesdropping, you should
 Society, Law and Ethics 277


Avoid public wi-fi networks.

Keep your antivirus software updated.

Use strong passwords.

Phishing and fraud emails:

Phishing is a cybercrime where attackers try to acquire personal information or data of people like
username, password, and credit card details etc, by impersonating themselves as trusted entities.
Fake sites are created which appear like the real website, which tempt people to give huge discounts
and in return ask to fill forms with personal information. Phishing attacks are one of the most common
types of cyber attacks which are conducted through electronic media, like emails and telephone calls.
Phishing emails may try to trick you to download attachments such as word, pdf or zip files. Links on
phishing emails could also lead you to a fake website and will be enough to download a virus on your
computer.
You must be careful when you receive messages like
confirm the personal information or
click on a link to make payment or
a message on government refund or
free coupon

Message saying that there is a problem with your account and asking you to reauthorise by
verifying the personal information.
You should avoid clicking any unidentified link and any suspicious mail or message can be reported
to www.cybercrime.gov.in to avoid any phishing attack.

Ransomware
There are some malicious softwares which are dangerous to your organisation to the extent that
after gaining the access to the company’s computers they target the company’s database, file server
and other applications so that the organisation is not able to access its own data. Ransom is then
demanded to provide the access. The software used to take away the access and then demand for
the ransom is called ransomware. So we can say that ransomware is an extortion software which
locks the computer and demands money to unlock it. It is a growing threat by cybercriminals and
inflicting significant damage and expenses for business and government organizations. In many
cases, the victim must pay the money to cybercriminals because of the risk of losing access forever.
Since malware attacks are often deployed by cyberthieves, paying the ransom doesn’t ensure access
will be restored.
Some of the tips by which you can protect yourself from ransomware are :
Backup your data
Secure your backups
Use security software and keep it up to date.
Use secure networks
Practice safe surfing
 278 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

Preventing cyber crime

Few measures you can take to prevent cyber crime are:
Install a good antivirus software and keep it updated. You must also turn on the firewall.
Never install pirated softwares

Use strong passwords and avoid using the same passwords for different accounts. Also, keep on
changing the password as often as possible.

Try to avoid talking to strangers on social networking sites. You should not accept the friend
request of the person you are not familiar with.

You should not share any personal information publicly or on a social networking site. It can be
easily misused.

Avoid working on free Wi-Fi or whenever you use a public Wi-Fi network in a hotel or airport,
using a VPN is always a good idea.

Don’t click on the links or attachments which you are not sure of or which are shared through
online advertisements, spam mails or some unidentified posts. It can contain virus.
It is always a good idea to log off your computer when you are not using it.

If your computer is always connected, it increases the risk of being attacked by hackers and your
data can be stolen. To go offline when you are not using the internet.
Always keep a backup of your data.

In case you work on someone else’s computer you should make sure that your passwords are not
auto saved. And when the work is done you should safely log out before leaving the machine.

Whenever you do online transactions or e-banking make sure that the sites are trusted and secure.
The Government of India has developed a portal www.cybercrime.gov.in called National Cyber Crime
Reporting Portal, where any person aggrieved of cyber crime can submit his complaint online.

Cyber safety
Today the internet has made things very easy and convenient for all of us but we should never ignore
the risks with it which can have serious results. It is therefore important that whenever we are online
we should follow safe practices and act in a responsible manner to minimise the online danger of
Cyber crime.
The ability to use the ICT tools in a safe and responsible manner is called cyber safety. Cyber safety
includes the following.
We must avoid sharing our personal pictures.
We must also avoid talking to strangers.
We should keep strong passwords and should not share them with anyone.
We must check the privacy settings of our social media account
We must browse safely by not visiting unverified websites or opening unknown links
 Society, Law and Ethics 279

Identity protection
Identity theft is any kind of scam, or crime that results in the loss of personal information such as
passwords, ID numbers, credit card numbers and are misused without your permission to commit
fraud and other crimes. Thus, one needs to be careful while working online making sure that the
sensitive and personal details are protected and are not misused. So, we must know how to be safe
when surfing the web and follow certain guidelines. Protecting yourself from the online threat by
following certain safe practices is called identity protection. Some of them are listed below:
Never share your personal details on social networking websites.
Never open suspicious emails.

Keep scanning your computer from time to time and always keep your Firewall on. The antivirus
should always be up to date.
Your profile should always be private on the social networking site.

You should not use simple and same passwords for different networking profiles. Your passwords
should be a combination of letters, numbers and special characters and they must be updated on
a regular basis.

If you feel that your account is being misused or someone is posting messages on your behalf
from your account, then you must report this matter either to your teacher or to your parents.

Confidentiality
Confidentiality ensures that data is protected from unauthorized users. The people with valid
authorisation are only able to access the data. Thus avoiding getting it into the wrong hands by
taking more stringent measures in terms of data security. The more sensitive the data, the higher
the level of confidentiality. Therefore, all sensitive data should always be controlled and monitored.
There are a number of measures that can be taken to assist with confidentiality including multi-
factor authentication, strong passwords, encryption, segregation of data, and assigning users with
appropriate user privilege levels.

Cyber bullying
Posting hurtful messages and commenting on a photo or a video posted by others is called cyber
bullying. This includes sending text messages or email to hurt the sentiments of the other person.
Cyber bullying happens when someone is targeted online specifically with the reason to make
someone upset or to spoil its image. In cyber-bullying individuals are targeted. In cyber bullying, the
cyberbullies post vicious things about a single person with a goal of shaming or intimidation.

Cyber trolling
Trolls have sadly become a “normal” part of internet life. People who partake in ‘trolling’ are referred
to as ‘trolls’. Trolling is recognised as deliberately inflicting hatred, racism or just simple provoking
arguments between others. Trolls seek to rile online communities and attract attention to themselves.
Whether they comment on blog posts or online news sites, they are looking to grab the attention of
other visitors and disrupt discussion that would otherwise be about the page’s content. So, they want
 280 Computer Science with Python Textbook - XI

to shift attention from the author’s content and conversations about the content onto themselves. The
more attention they get, in the form of comments directed at them, the happier the troll is.

Safely accessing web sites

The internet has brought revolution in our lives by making things comfortable for us from every
perspective, like entertainment, elearning, easy access of information, flight booking, shopping,
banking and carry out many other everyday tasks. However, there are a number of risks associated
with going online. These result from either visiting malicious websites or inadvertent disclosure of
personal information. Some of them are listed below:

Malware
Malware is a computer program designed to cause extensive damage to data and systems or to gain
unauthorized access to a network. Malware can infect systems by being bundled with other programs
or attached as macros to files. Malware include viruses, adware, spyware etc

Viruses
The word ‘virus’ stands for ‘Vital Information Resource Under Siege’. A computer virus is a small
software program that spreads from one computer to another and might corrupt or delete data.
They are the most commonly-known form of malware and potentially the most destructive. A virus
usually comes as an attachment in an email that holds a virus payload, or the part of the malware
that performs the malicious action. Once the victim opens the file, the device is infected. Some of the
examples are ILOVEYOU, Nimda, Stuxnet etc

Trojans
A Trojan horse, or Trojan, is a malicious software that looks legitimate but can take control of your
computer. It is designed to damage, disrupt, steal, or in general inflict some other harmful action on
your data or network. Once the Trojan malware is downloaded and activated, cyber criminals can
spy on your activities, steal sensitive data and take full control of your computer. If you feel that your
computer is running slow or it starts behaving strangely or there is a sudden increase in the popup
then there could be a possibility that your computer might be affected by a trojan horse. Some of the
examples of Trojans are Banking Trojans, ArcBombs, Clickers etc

Adware
Adware is a software that shows unwanted advertisements while you surf the net. Malicious adware
can redirect you to the advertising sites to collect your information and can change the browser
settings. Adware normally comes in software that you download from the internet – usually freeware
or shareware – and it secretly installs itself onto your device without your knowledge. It keeps track
of your browsing history and details like your location and preferences, which is further sold to the
third party by the programmer to earn extra money. Examples are Fireball, Appearch, DollarRevenue,
Gator etc
 Society, Law and Ethics 281

Simple steps to keep your Computer safe from Malware, Virus, Trojans, adwares:
Keep Personal Information Professional and Limited
Keep Your Privacy Settings On
Be Careful What You Download
Choose Strong and unique passwords
Make Online Purchases From Secure Sites
Be Careful What You Post
Be Careful Who You Meet Online
Keep Your Antivirus Program Up To Date
Download files and applications from websites that you trust, such as official app stores.
Don’t click on links in unexpected and unknown messages.

If you think a link looks suspicious then before you click, hover over that link to see the actual web
address. If you do not recognise or trust the address, try searching for relevant key terms in a web
browser.
Be careful of offers that seem too good to be true.
Don’t agree to friend requests from people you don’t know on social media networks.

E-waste management
Disposal of e-waste is an emerging global environmental and public health issue, as this waste has
become the most rapidly growing segment. The waste arising from end-of-life electronic products
such as computers and mobile phones, is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world today.
Discarded computers, televisions, fax machines, electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment and
batteries if improperly disposed can leach lead and other substances into soil and groundwater.
Electronic equipment contains many hazardous metallic contaminants such as lead, cadmium, and
beryllium and brominated flame-retardants which requires recycling in a scientific manner. Children
are particularly vulnerable to lead poisoning – more so than adults because they absorb more lead
from their environment and their nervous system and blood get affected. Many of these products can
be reused, refurbished, or recycled in an environmentally sound manner so that they are less harmful
to the ecosystem.
The mantra of “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle” applies in the case of e-waste too.

You should try to Reduce your e-waste generation by taking good care of your products and
maintaining them well so that you are able to use them for a longer duration.

You should Reuse your electronic equipment by either donating or selling it to someone who can
still use it.
Recycle those products that cannot be repaired. Computer monitors, televisions and other
electronic equipment should NOT be disposed of with regular garbage. There are companies and
organisations which manage your electronics for recycling,
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As a responsible student you can contribute in e-waste management in the following manner:
You can donate your old electronic devices to NGOs as they need basic devices to teach basic
1. 
computer skills to young children and women from underprivileged backgrounds.
2. You can donate to a college or school in rural areas.
Since a number of electronics manufacturers are willing to buy back used products, you can
3. 
either Sell them back to manufacturers or exchange them for new.
4. 
The safest way to dispose of e-waste is by giving it to a certified e-waste recycler as they also
refurbish it to make new products.
It is important to make sure to format your electronic devices before disposing of them in a proper
manner
Note: IT Department, South DMC has developed and launched website https://ewaste.mcdservices.
online for SDMC offices/ Citizens/ Markets/ RWA for submission of online request for disposal of e-waste-
old/obsolete/unserviceable IT equipment. The e-waste will be collected on the basis of requests received
through the online system.”

Indian Information Technology Act (IT Act)

The Information Technology Act, 2000 or ITA, 2000 or IT Act, was notified on October 17, 2000 and
was passed in a budget session of parliament and signed by President K.R. Narayanan in 2000. It is
the law that deals with cybercrime and electronic commerce in India.
The IT Act 2000 applies to companies that do business in India. This includes entities registered in
India, outsource there, and maintain servers within the country’s borders. The act covers all activity
involving online exchanges and electronic documents. It covers the companies which are located and
registered in India as well as those which aren’t located in India but have their servers in India.
Following are the objectives of the Acts:
i. 
It grants legal recognition to all transactions done via electronic exchange of data or other
electronic means of communication in place of the earlier paper-based method of communication.
ii. 
It gives legal recognition to digital signatures for the authentication of any information or matters
requiring legal authentication
iii. It facilitate the electronic filing of documents with Government agencies and also departments
iv. It facilitate the electronic storage of data
v. 
It gives legal sanction and also facilitate the electronic transfer of funds between banks and
financial institutions
vi. 
It grants legal recognition to bankers under the Evidence Act, 1891 and the Reserve Bank of India
Act, 1934, for keeping the books of accounts in electronic form.

Technology & Society

Gender and disability issues while teaching and using computers
Today, technology has allowed people to shape the physical world and the world of knowledge to
meet their needs and wants. The internet allows access to unlimited information and knowledge and
 Society, Law and Ethics 283

provides a platform for economic, social and political participation. Digital skills could help transform
our society for the better but only if they are not the preserve of a few: women and men from different
backgrounds and with different experiences must be able to benefit from them. Currently, the digital
skills gap is wider for older, less educated and poor women, and those coming from rural areas and
developing countries. Research shows that female and male students in undergraduate computer
science programs view computer culture differently and there is a huge difference in the ratio of
girls:boys who opt for programming. School is often the first place where children are introduced to
technology as well as learning the literacy and numeracy skills to make the most of the digital tools.
But there are some of the common Gender issues faced while teaching and using computers:
1. 
The most common problem faced is lack of interest and motivation in children. The girls are not
encouraged to choose career options which require technical skills.
2. Less opportunities given to girls.
3. Problems faced by those coming from rural areas or low economic backgrounds.
4. Lack of Role Models.
Gender equality is essential to ensure that both men and women can contribute fully to the betterment
of society and the economy in general. The segregation of the two genders prevents us from reaching
inclusive prosperity and equality, and this especially true of the gender digital divide. Compulsory
education helps to eliminate the digital gender divide. Compulsory schooling is crucial to ensure that
individuals gain the basic skills and competences needed for full participation in the society.
People with disabilities meet barriers of all types. However, technology is helping to lower many
of these barriers. By using computing technology for tasks such as reading and writing documents,
communicating with others, and searching for information on the Internet, students and employees
with disabilities are capable of handling a wider range of activities independently. Some of the
commonly faced disability issues (including physical and learning, both) while teaching and using
computers are:
1. 
Physical disability like blindness, due to which sometimes children find it difficult to know about
the right software and understand it on their own. There is special coaching to teach how to
access information from the computer and there are specially trained teachers too. This causes
limitation and restriction with those who are visually challenged and are not able to access the
visual material present on the computer. Even teachers find it difficult to help such children if
they are not properly trained.
2. 
Another important disability issue faced is learning disability which can be of various types.
Children with learning disabilities need specialized training, personal attention and trained
teachers to help them to cope up. Some of the learning disabilities are:
a. Dyscalculia (which affects a person’s ability to understand numbers)
b. Dysgraphia (which affects a person’s handwriting and motor skills)
c. Dyslexia (which affects a person’s reading and related language based skills)
d. Non Verbal Learning Disabilities
e. Oral /written language disorder
3. 
Another problem faced by the teachers and the student’s is the unavailability of the teaching
material and the proper hardware support system especially in rural areas due to lack of funds.
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How technology has helped in overcoming disability issues in classrooms to make learning
possible as well as effective
Assistive technologies, which includes softwares to help students overcome obstacles they face due
to any learning disability.
a. 
Assistive technology (AT) can help people with learning disabilities or other cognitive challenges.
For example, screen readers can improve the skill of reading. Screen reading software reads aloud
whatever text is on the computer screen. This device is used by people with low or no vision. As
the words are read aloud, they are highlighted on the screen. Few examples of the softwares are
text-to-speech (Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction
capabilities (WordQ), and graphic organizers (Inspiration).
b. 
Laptop computers and tablet devices are beneficial for students with handwriting disabilities
as they are able to take notes on a laptop or computerized device. Using a word processor can
help students to complete work that is more organized and includes less spelling errors than
handwritten work.
c. 
Students with writing skills disabilities can us softwares like Batorowicz, Missiuna, & Pollock-2012.
Phonetic spelling software is designed to automatically convert the student’s typing into the word
that they intended to write.
d. 
The voice recognition systems (VRS) allow people to get the thoughts on paper without
experiencing the challenges that can accompany handwriting or computer keyboarding such as
letter drawing or “slow typing speed”, respectively.
e. 
There are assistive technology keyboards which have altered appearances and easier
functionalities than a typical keyboard. There are many computer keyboards for students with
disabilities, each customized to meet the user’s unique needs.
Today the digital transformation provides new avenues for the economic empowerment of women
and can contribute to greater gender equality. The Internet, digital platforms, mobile phones and
digital financial services offer “leapfrog” opportunities for all and can help bridge the divide by giving
women the possibility to earn additional income, increase their employment opportunities, and
access knowledge and general information. Some of the suggestions which can help to bridge the gap
are:
1. More teachers should be trained to handle children with various disabilities
2. 
Specialized material and curriculum should be designed keeping in mind the students of all needs
as students with different disabilities need different types of teaching aids/materials.
3. 
More special needs teachers should be hired in the school to help and motivate the students to
excel in the field of Technology and set an example for others.
4. 
Extensive use of the latest technology should be introduced wherever possible. Most individuals
who are blind use standard keyboards, however, Braille input devices are available. Braille key
labels can assist with keyboard use. Most individuals who are blind use standard keyboards,
however, Braille input devices are available. Braille key labels can assist with keyboard use.
5. 
Girls should be motivated by giving examples of female role models in the field of Technology so
that more girls are inspired to get themselves inclined in computer science.
 Society, Law and Ethics 285

Summary
1. Digital footprint is the information shared by you or is about you available online.
2. Digital society is the society where everything is paperless and runs on digital technology.
3. 
The people who use digital tools on the internet are known as Netizens. It is a combination of two
words, Internet and Citizens. Hence, Netizens are also known as digital citizens.
4. 
The rules we should follow when we are online are called net etiquettes. We must be very careful
with what we post online. We must give credit to the source if we use someone’s content.
5. 
The commonly used practices and technologies to protect data are Firewalls, data Encryption and
Authentication.
6. Firewalls ensure that only authorized users are allowed to access or transfer data.
7. 
Data Encryption protects your data from unauthorized access even if data is stolen as the data can
only be accessed with the right encryption key.
8. Authentication allows you to verify credentials and give access accordingly.
9. 
The rights which protect an individual or a company and prevent their original content and
invention to be used by others without their permission are called Intellectual Property Rights.
10. Copyright is an intellectual property right which protects the literary and artistic creations of
authors, artists, musicians etc.
11. A patent is an exclusive right granted for a new invention or discoveries.
12. A trademark includes a name, logo, word, or sign that differentiates goods from the goods of other
enterprises.
13. Plagiarism means to copy or take ideas from someone else’s work. Based on the type of copy,
plagiarism is categorized as Ghost Writer, Photocopy, Potluck Paper, Self Stealer.
14. Open Source software is computer software which is available for people to use freely, to access
and modify the source code and to distribute the modified version of the software.
15. GNU General Public License: It is one of the most popular open source licenses where any software
that is written based on any GPL component must be released as open source.
16. Creative Commons licenses are for all kinds of creative works which include websites, scholarship,
music, film, photography, literature, courseware, etc.
17. The Apache License is recognised by the Open Source Initiative as a popular and widely deployed
license. Apache License version 2.0 rights can be applied to both copyrights and patents.
18. Cybercrime is the crime committed via the Internet and computer systems. Cyber crime is an
unlawful act wherein the computer is either a tool or target or both.
19. Hacking is a process where someone unknown gains access to your computer with the wrong
intention of either deleting the data or stealing sensitive information.
20. Eavesdropping is stealing of information by unauthorized interception of a conversation as it is
transmitted over a network by a computer, or phone.
21. Phishing is a cybercrime where attackers try to acquire personal information or data of people
like username, password, and credit card details etc, by impersonating themselves as trusted
entities.
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22. The software used to take away the access and then demand for the ransom is called ransomware.
23. We must install good antivirus software, prevent pirated softwares, use strong passwords, and
prevent sharing personal information on social media platforms to prevent cyber crime.
24. Protecting yourself from the online threat by following certain safe practices is called identity
protection.
25. Confidentiality ensures that data is protected from unauthorized users.
26. Posting hurtful messages and commenting on a photo or a video posted by others is called cyber
bullying.
27. Trolling is recognised as deliberately inflicting hatred, racism or just simple provoking arguments
between others.
28. Malware is a computer program designed to cause extensive damage to data and systems or to
gain unauthorized access to a network.
29. A Trojan horse, or Trojan, is a malicious software that looks legitimate but can take control of
your computer.
30. Adware is a software that shows unwanted advertisements while you surf the net.
31. The waste arising from end-of-life electronic products such as computers and mobile phones, is
one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world today. This is called E-waste
32. IT Act grants legal recognition to all transactions done via electronic exchange of data or other
electronic means of communication in place of the earlier paper-based method of communication.
33. Digital skills could help transform our society for the better.
34. Gender equality is essential to ensure that both men and women can contribute fully to the
betterment of society and the economy in general.
35. Today the digital transformation provides new avenues for the economic empowerment of
women and can contribute to greater gender equality.

Questions
1. Whenever pictures, videos, or comments are posted online they become a part of our:
a. Digital Thumbprint b. Digital Footprint
c. Digital data d. Digital setup
2. One of your friends has posted a video of you on the internet and you don’t like it. You’ve asked
him to take it down but they’ve said no because it’s funny. What should you do?
a. Keep asking your friend until they take it down
b. Speak to your teacher or parents and tell why you don’t like it and ask for help
c. Leave it as you can’t do anything else about it
d. Post his video in return
3. You are guilty of plagiarism if you:
a. You take reference from other’s work for knowledge purposes.
b. You take ideas from an online resource and create your own presentation.
 Society, Law and Ethics 287

c. 
You take reference from an online resource, create your project but mention it in
acknowledgement.
d. Use the work of another and misrepresent it as your own.
4. Everything that you post online is saved for how long?
a. Always b. Few years c. One year d. Its never saved
5. You receive a mail from a branded clothing company saying that you have just won a lottery ticket
of Rs 10 lakh as your mail was randomly chosen by the company. They need your credentials to
verify. What should you do?
a. Never Click any link that appears in the message.
b. Never open any attachments in it
c. Immediately delete such mails.
d. All the above
The above case is the example of which attempt?
6. Select the strongest passwords from the given options:
a. tyT5#$9&uY b. great123 c. Googledevice d. 67temp67
7. What do you understand by Digital Footprint? What all is included in it?
8. Explain Plagiarism. What are the different types of plagiarisms?
9. If a stranger online asks you to send a picture of yours, what should you do and why?
10. Who all can see what you post online?
11. If you want only specific people to see your profile on social media, then what should you do?
12. One of your friends tells you that in an online gaming group, a person is making fun of him
by calling him weird names. This online harassment is an example of ___________________. What
suggestion will you give to your friend?
13. A friend of yours wants to create an email account. He wants your suggestion on the password so
that the account should be secured. What are the things you as a friend will suggest?
14. You created a password for your website. A friend of yours wants you to tell her the password.
Will you tell her? Why?
15. “Whatever information available on the Internet is true and we can use or repost it”.
How true is the above statement? Give reason/reasons.
16. If someone sends you a friend request online with a picture of your classmate, should you
immediately accept it? Give reasons.
17. I installed an antivirus on my computer. After a month, I realized that my computer starts hanging
and I am suspecting a virus in it? What could be the reason?
18. I’m online and I meet someone my age in a chat room. Is it OK to give him or her my address or
phone number?
19. Mention a few online threats that you may encounter.
20. _____________ are messages that try to trick you into providing sensitive information.
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21. What are cookies?

22

Clicking ads and pop-ups like the one shown in this image could expose your computer to
_____________.
23. You’re working on a group project. When practicing your presentation, one person in your group
says something that doesn’t make sense to you. They say that the information is from an online
article so it must be true. What should be your response? Will you reverify it?
24. Mention few etiquettes you should follow when you are online
25. Explain Intellectual Property rights. Name three important Intellectual Property rights.
26. a. GNU stands for __________________
b. 
The license which covers works line websites, scholarship, music, film, photography, literature,
courseware is ___________
c. __________ license doesn’t require any renewal and is applicable in all countries.
d. An example of an operating system under GPL is _____________
e. __________, __________ and ____________ are the few types of cyber crime.
f. 
Posting hurtful messages and commenting on a photo or a video posted by others is called
_____________
27. Hacking is always illegal? Do you agree with the statement?
28. Recently I went to a place where free wifi was available and I used it. Is my important data at risk?
If it is stolen that it would be called as _____________
29. Your parents wanted to do some online transactions and they were apprehensive about the risks
while using netbanking. So they approached you and asked what precautions should be taken.
What will you suggest?
30. Mention few measures to prevent cyber crime
31. Explain the following with an example:
a. Trojan b. Malware c. Adware
32. Suggest a few ways to manage E-waste.
33. What is the IT Act? It is also called ITA 2000. Why?
34. Give few objectives of the IT Act.
35. What are the different types of disabilities which may cause hindrance while teaching?