10 4 1

N:~~:~':~as :-5,-..-y-,._.'r'~------,r'------:-::T''-'------,---'------;2;;:0,---="'0-'-----,----'----::-30"'--"'60'-'-----,----'---.,.,0,----'5"'0'-'---.------'-,..,5,.,0-,--N-au-ti-ca-l'"'M,...ite'"'~"'-'
° Kilometres

ELEVATIONS IN FEET Statute Miles 20 30 40 50 60 Statule Miles FOR EXAMINATION PURPOSES ONLY
SCALE t :500 000
Based on the original text by
"Sandy" A. F. MacDonald

Published by Aviation Publishers Co. Ltd.

Acknowledgments From the Ground Up®
The publisher wishes to express grateful appreciation for the 30th Edition
assistance and co-operation that has been received towards
ISBN 978-1-990849-02-2
the development of this edition of this title from the many
government and corporate sources from which material and/ © 2023 Aviation Publishers Co. Ltd. All rights reserved. No part
or recommendations were provided and collected. These of this publication may be reproduced, re-printed, transmitted
include: or translated in any form without the written permission of
the publisher.
Aircraft Owners & Pilots Association
Aspen Avionics Inc. No content in this textbook supersedes any regulatory
material or operational documentation issued by Transport
Aviation Supplies & Academics Inc
Canada, Nav Canada or any other regulatory or advisory
Avidyne Corporation
sources, including aircraft manufacturers or operators. The
BendixKing Canada Air Pilot (CAP}, Canada Flight Supplement (CFS},
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Canadian Owners & Pilots Association Aviation Regulations (CARs) which are issued subsequent to
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information contained herein.
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Contents
Part 1 Aircraft Operations Part 4 Navigation & Communications

I
1 The Aeroplane 7 Air Navigation
1.1
1.2
1.3
Aircraft Co mp onents
Aircraft Contro l Systems .. .
Airframe Construction Materials
.10
12
3
~:~ ~~~it~adr~h~ ~;:~~~~s:
7.3 Units of Distan ce & Speed.
. . . . . . . . ... . . . ~:~
203
1.4 Airframe Loads & Load Factors. 14 7.4 Aeronautical Charts 203
1.5 Aircraft Logbooks & Inspections 16 7.5 Navigation Problems. ... . 214
1.6 Aircraft Categories & Classes 16
8 Radio Communication
2 Theory of Flight
I 2.1 Aeronautical Fundamentals.
2.2 Flight Instruments
.. 19
... 39
1 8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Radio
Radio
Radio
Radio
Theory & Principals .
Communication Eq uipment
Communication & Air Traffic Services (ATS)
Communication Procedures .........................
227
231
233
239
3 Aero Engines
3.1 Definitio ns & Configurations .. .......... .53 9 Radio Navigation
3.2 The Fuel System ... 62 9.1 VHF Omni range Navigation System (VOR) ................... 251
3.3 The Carburetor & Fu el Injection ..................... ......... 65 9.2 Radio Beacons... 258
3.4 The Exhaust System ....................... 72 9.3 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) 258
3.5 The Ignition System 73 9.4 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) ... 263
3.6 The FAD EC System ..... 75 9.5 Instrument Landing System (ILS) 265
3.7 The Electrical System 75 9.6 Area Navigation 266
3.8 The Propeller. 76 9.7 Radar & Su rveillance Systems. 269
3.9 Engine Instruments... . .... 79 9.8 Navigation Systems & Displays ...... .274
3.10 Ope ration of the Engine 83 9.9 Emerge ncy Lo cator Transmitter (ELT) 276
3.11 Jet Propulsion .. 90
Part 5 General Airmanship
Part 2 Air Law
10 Airmanship
4 Aerodromes & Airspace 10.1 Care of the Aeroplane . ... 281

1 4.1 Aerodromes. .. ...

4.2 The Canadian Airspace System
4.3 The U.S. Airspace System ..
97
107
114
10.2 Weight & Ba lance
10.3 Aeroplane Performance.
10.4 Wake Turbulence
286
291
299
10.5 Flight Preparations 302
5 Air Rules & Procedures
I 5.1 Rules of the Air ....
5.2 Air Traffic Rules & Procedures ..
... 117
122
10.6 Emergency Procedures...
10.7 Remote Area Flying: Having "Bu sh Sense"
10.8 STOL Aircraft..
319
........ 324
329
10.9 Ultralights 330
Part 3 Meteorology 10.10 Gliders ... .... .. 331
6 Aviation Weather 11 Human Factors
6.1 The Atmosphere
6.2 Clouds
137
138 I 11.1 Physical Factors ........... .
11.2 Psychosocial Factors
.. 333
.... 343
6.3 Pressure 141
6.4 Winds 144 12 Air Safety
6.5 Humidity, Temperature & Stability
6.6 Air Masses .
6. 7 Fronts
150
......... 154
156
1 12.1 State of Mind .. .... ... ...... .
12.2 Checklists for Safety ............ .
12.3 Ensuring Safe Outcomes .. .
.. 349
349
.. 354
6.8 Precipitation & Fog ........ 161
6.9 Thu nderstorms . 164 Part 6 Appendices
6.10 Icing . 168
6.11 Turbulence .... . .. 171 Appendix A
6.12 High Level Weather.. 173 • Exa mination Guide 359
6.13 Weather Awareness .. 174 Appendix B
6.14 Weather Information 174
• Wx Chart.. 377

Appendix C
• Glossary ... ... .... 379
Appendix D
• Index... 393

From the Ground Up • 30th Edition

Welcome to the From the Ground Up:
30th Edition A Heritage in Training
For over 80 years, From The Ground Up has stood as a literary The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) was a
benchmark for the teaching of the multitude of aviation-relat- joint military aircrew training program created by the United
ed concepts inherent in the stimulating topic of aeronautics, Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, during World
and the alluring activity of learning to fly. War II. It remains the single largest aviation training program
in history, and was responsible for training nearly half the
Through its evolving editions, several generations of readers
pilots and crew who served with the Royal Air Force, the Royal
have been ch allenged by the theories that require thorough
Australian Air Force, the Royal Canadian Air Force, and the
understanding in advance of the sought-after hours of flying
enjoyment that are the ultimate goal of all who seek to earn Royal New Zealand Air Force during the War.
their wings and expand their knowledge of flight theory and Can ada was chosen as the primary location for the BCATP
practice. owing to the vastness of its size and its consequent suitability
for training, its established industry for manufacturing of
The content of From The Ground Up touches upon a multitude
training aircraft, its abundance of supplies, and its security.
of topics, many of which may, at times, seem quite complex;
but the path to understanding the fundamentals of flight is In all, over 130,000 aircrew are estimated to have trained in
one that reaps much in the way of personal reward for all who Canada under the BCATP, with many of those trainees having
maintain the course. Indeed, it was by design that its origi- come from other countries such as France, Holland, Denmark,
Greece, Poland, and the United States.
nal author, "Sandy" A.F. MacDonald - a man recognized as a
"father" of what still stands today as the standard curriculum The Royal Canadian Air Force ran the plan in Canada. At its
for ground school instruction - devised this aeronautical book height, it included well-over 200 training locations, more than
to be comprehensive and current while conveying its material 10,000 aircraft, and approximately 100,000 military admin-
in such a way as to enhance the reader's understanding of the istrative personnel. At its conclusion, tens-of-thousands of
written word. pilots had been trained under the BCATP in Canada between
Not one to permit his vast experience to allow for foregone 1940 and 1945.
conclusions, "Sandy" MacDonald's meticulous care in the In his capacity as chief ground school instructor, Alexander
creation of From The Ground Up has become the hallmark for Forsyth MacDonald was responsible for the graduation, in
its widespread use and respect as the reference book of choice ground school subjects, of more than thirty-five percent of the
in hundreds of flying schools throughout Canada and around Elementary Flying Instructors engaged in the BCATP. It was
the world. during this period that the seeds were planted for From the
Ground Up. The structure devised for his courses became the
It has been said that there is probably not one airline pilot
material that served as the foundation upon which "Sandy"
flyin g in Canada today who has not, at one time or another,
MacDonald created the original version of this textbook.
studied from From the Ground Up. Indeed, the same may be
stated of virtually every student pilot who has ever studied In the passing of years since its first publication, From the Ground
in the nation since 1941 wh en this title was first introduced. Up h as received continual acclaim for its authorship and con-
Whatever part of the world it is in which you intend to fly tribution to the advancement of aviation and of flying. In many
- and whether you intend to fly commercially, recreation- ways, the storied history of the BCATP was the precursor that
ally or you simply want to obtain a better understanding of has contributed to the nation of Canada as being recognized
aviation's many facets - it is the publisher's hope that you will continually as one of the most significant countries in the world
gain every advantage in your understanding of the scope and in which to train as a pilot or aircrew.
breadth of aviation theory from this latest edition of this title. For its part in the development of a nation where flight training
Aviation Publishers Co. Limited is dedicated to maintaining leads by international example, From the Ground Up is a memorial
the vision and integrity that was intended for From The Ground to its original author, and to the thousands of men and women
Up from its origin. With this 30th edition, readers will find who, through their dedication, participation and sacrifice in the
the most up-to-date information on a wide, and essential BCATP, contributed to the establishment of a framework that
cross-section of topics that are fundamental to the safety, and h as since set the standard by which those who choose to look
ultimate personal gratification, of one's flying activities. skyward, can soundly earn their wings to fly.
As From The Ground Up soars into its ninth decade of publica-
tion, may this 30th edition be your launchpad into a whole
-..1'Jt"•P01tr,.~
new world of insight, experience and flying pleasure, as it
has been for hundreds of thousands of new aviators over the
course of the eight decades gone by.
(»,ti~
Haue a safe and enjoyable flight.
':!!1
Award of Excellence
Aviation Publishers Co. Limited
From the Ground Up
"... an outstanding contribution to the betterment of
the transportation industry... "

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 that they not only rate officially as Grade A pilots and navi-
So You Want To gators but also as thorough technicians who are completely
versed in every last-minute detail of their profession both on
Be A Pilot the ground and in the air.
"But," you may point out, "I have no ambition to become an
airline captain. I am only interested in learning to fly as a pri-
So you want to learn to fly. You are about to join a very select vate pilot. Is it necessary that I should learn all this technical
fraternity of those privileged individuals who h ave, in the stuff as well?"
words of the poet]. G. Magee, "slipped the surly bonds of earth
and danced the skies on laughter-silvered wing." Of course, it is necessary. Is your own life not every bit as
precious to you as are the lives of its passengers to an airline
Learning to fly is easy. The skill to handle an aeroplane in the company?
air and during landing and take-off is acquired with a few
hundred hours of patient application. Learning to be a profi- An aeroplane moves in a medium known as the atmosphere.
cient, professional and safe pilot is not so simple. It is a skill This layer of air surrounding the earth for a depth of thou-
acquired through experience, judgment, persistent practice sands of feet is a turbulent region of shifting winds, cross
and ongoing training. It is, in fact, a challenge that never ends. currents, storms, gusts and squalls. Invisible giants, the polar
and equatorial air masses forever in conflict, make this atmo-
Professional pilots are, and always will be, highly-sought, sphere of ours a perpetual proving ground for the science of
well-paid individual specialists becau se they are master air navigation by frequent blanketing of entire areas with
craftsm en in their trade. So, what are the special skills that dense drop-curtains of cloud, fog, rain or snow.
the professional pilot has?
An aeroplane moves in three-dimensional space which
Weather sense, for one thing: a knowledge of squall lines and involves three-fold problems in its control. It lacks buoyancy,
thunderstorms and icing conditions, of stable and unstable is heavier than air and, hence, is dependent on the power
air masses, of cold fronts, dewpoint and all the odds and ends from its engine to sustain it in flight . A forced landing, while
that go to make up the science of meteorology. not necessarily a hazardous undertaking, is nevertheless an
They are expert navigators and understand how to plot head- undesirable course of action. Reliability is therefore a matter
ings and bearings. They have in depth knowledge of wind and of vastly greater importance in the air than on land or sea.
drift problems. They are thoroughly conversant with such And reliability refers not only to the mechanical perfection
things as azimuth, isogonic lines and great circle tracks. They of the aeroplane and its engine(s) but also to the knowledge,
calculate altitude and airspeed corrections and understand judgment, and all-round proficiency that rides in the cockpit.
the importance of determining density altitude before depart- Time was when an older generation learned to fly by the seat
ing on a flight in hot weather conditions. They are proficient in of its pants. But time marches on and aviation has since swept
the use of all traditional and state-of-the-art navigation aids. ah ead with giant strides. Many a private owner today will
Professional pilots know their aeroplanes and their engines. casually climb aboard his/her aeroplane to start off on a flight
The lives of their passen gers depend on the airworthiness of that to the pioneers of aviation would h ave seemed an epic
their equipment as much as on their own skills and knowl- undertaking. The pilot of today is equipped with information
edge - so they conscientiously superintend the service and and knowledge that many decades of trial and error, of toil
maintenance of their aeroplanes. They understand fuel-air and effort and human sacrifice have placed at our disposal.
ratio and know how to get the last ounce of power and the The pioneers in aviation had to get their experience the
most miles out of a given volume of fuel. They are familiar hard w ay and bore the scars of many a near thing. Today the
with all the invisible forces and couples that act on an aero- ground school h as becom e an international instit ution where
plane in flight and they know when the aeroplane has been those who want to fly the scientifically sure way, may learn
subjected to any abnormal stresses that may lead to a struc- the things they should know the only sound and thorough
tural strain. way - FROM THE GROUND UP.
In other words, professional pilots are individuals with whom -Alexander Forsyth MacDonald
one can fly with utmost confidence, based on the assurance Founding Author, From the Ground Up

From the Ground Up< 30th Edition

 Dedicated to the life and memory
of
William "Bill" Peppler

Senior Contributor & Publisher

From the Ground Up
1967 - 2012

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ,.......~ www.aviat1onpublishers.com

Overview of Part 1
1 The Aeroplane 3.2.4 Fuel Lines & Filters .............................. 63
3.2.5 Fuel Quantity Gauge ................ 63
1.1 Aircraft Components ........ 3 3.2.6 Fuel Primer . . 63
1.1.1 The Aeroplane . 3 3.2.7 Fuel Types .. . ....63
1.1.2 Parts of an Aeroplane. 3 3.2.8 Fuel Related Problems .............. .. 64
1.2 Aircraft Control Systems ........................ 10 3.3 The Carburetor & Fuel Injection .............................. 65
1. 2.1 The Control Syst ems .. . ............................................ 10 3.3.1 How the Carburetor Works ........ .................................... 65
1.2.2 Cabin Pressurization Control... ..................... 12 3.3.2 Mixture Control .. ....... 66
1.3 Airframe Construction Materials ............................. 12 3.3.3 When to Lean the Engine ................................................ 68
1.3.1 Common Materials. ... . .......... .......... 12 3.3.4 Why Lean t he Engine . ... ...... ............................... 68
1.3.2 Airframe Corrosion. ... ........... .............................................. 13 3.3.5 Carburetor Icing .......... ................................................ .. 69
1.3.3 Airframe Stresses .. .... 14 3.3.6 Fuel Injection .. . ........... .................... 72
1.4 Airframe Loads & Load Factors ................................ 14 3.4 The Exhaust System ................... ...... 72
1.4.1 Loads .. .............................. 14 3.5 The Ignition System . ... ..........................73
1.4.2 Load Factors ... ................. 15 3.5.1 The Polarity of a Magnet .................. ....... .... 73
1.5 Aircraft Logbooks & Inspections . ................ 16 3.5.2 The Magneto .......................... 73
1.5.1 Aircraft Tech nical Logbooks ...... 16 3.5.3 Dual Ignition . ............................ 74
1.5.2 Aircraft Inspection Requirements ... ................... 16 3.5.4 Shielding . ... .... 74
3.5.5 Ignition Timing ..........................................75
1.6 Aircraft Categories & Classes ................... 16
1.6.1 Normal Category . . ..... ...... ... ....... 16 3.6 The FADEC Syst em . . . . .. ...... . ... ... ............ ...75
1.6.2 Utilit y Cat egory .. ........... 17 3.7 The Electrical System. ...................................... 75
1.6.3 Aerobatic Category. . .................. 17
1.6.4 Commuter Category ................ 17 3.8 The Propeller ... . ............ 76
1.6.5 Transport Category . . ........ 17 3.8.1 Pitch ............ 77
1.6.6 Additional Categories ............... 18 3.8.2 Types of Propellers ........... 77
3.8.3 Feathering . ......... . 79
3.8.4 Prop Reversing .......... 79
2 Theory of Flight
3.8.5 Care of the Propeller ................ .... 79
2.1 Aeronautical Fundamentals . ................................ 19 3.9 Engine Instruments. ...................... .... 79
2.1.1 Forces Acting on an Aeroplane in Flight ................ 19
3.9.1 The Oil Pressure Gauge . ................... 79
2.1.2 Design of the Wing .............. 24 3.9.2 The Oil Temperature Gauge .. . ................80
2.1.3 The Axes of an Aeroplane ............................... ....... ....... 28
3.9.3 The Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge .............. ......80
2.1.4 St ability... . .... 29 3.9.4 The Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge ...................80
2.1.5 Flight Perfor mance Factors .......................................... 31
3.9.5 The Outside Air Temperature Gauge... .......80
2.1.6 Airspeed Li mitations... . ..................... 38 3.9.6 The Tachometer ................... ....... . ....................... 81
2.1.7 Mach Number. . ........ 38
3.9. 7 The Manifold Pressure Gauge . ........81
2.2 Flight Instruments 39 3.9.8 Engine Monitoring Systems (EMS) .. .... 83
2.2.1 Pitot Static Instruments .... .. ..... . . . .. . .39
3.10 Operation of the Engine ......83
2.2.2 Gyro Instruments .. . 44 3.10.1 Engine Operation Considerations . ......83
2.2.3 EFIS Instruments. . . .. .. . .... .. .... ...... 49
3.10.2 Engine Maintenance & Care .............. ....... . ... ...... 84
2.2.4 The Radar Altimeter..... ........ 51
3.10.3 Shock Cooling & Thermal Stress... . ..... 85
2.2.5 Angle of Attack Indicator. ........................................ 51
3.10.4 Fuel Management Considerations ...... ........................85
2.2.6 Mach Indicator . ........................ ........................... 52
3.10. 5 Starting the Engi ne .. .. ................... 86
3.10.6 Procedure for Backfire During Starting ............ .. 86
3 Aero Engines 3.10.7 Running up the Engine . . ................... 87
3.1 Definitions & Configurations .............. ..................... 53 3.10.8 Engine Operation in Cold Weather ..................88
3.1.1 Definition of Power. 53 3.11 Jet Propulsion .90
3.1.2 Types of Combustion Engines ... 54 3.11.1 The Ram Jet .90
3.1.3 Parts of a Reciprocating Engine . .54 3.11. 2 The Turbojet Engine . .91
3.1.4 The Four-Stroke Cycle ........... 55 3.11.3 Turboshaft & Turboprop Engines . 92
3.1.5 The Two-Stroke Cycle .. 56 3.11.4 The By-Pass Engine ............... 92
3.1.6 The Diesel Engine.. .................56 3.11.5 The Turbofan Engine ..... 92
3.1.7 Turbocharging ... ............................. 57 3.11.6 Thrust Reverser ...... .. ....... ..................... 93
3.1.8 Supercharging . .. ............... .58
3.1.9 Engine Timi ng ...................................................... 58
3.1.10 Engine Cooli ng ........................................................ .59
3.1.11 Engi ne Oils & Lubrication. ...................................... 60
3.2 The Fuel System. . .................................... 62
3.2.1 Types of Fuel Systems... . ... .......... 62
3.2.2 Fuel Tanks ... ............................. 62
3.2.3 Fuel Selector Valve ... . .. .. 63

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 The Aeroplane: Aircraft Components

1 The Aeroplane gear with which it is fitted for this determines the terrain
from which it can operate: e.g. land, sea, ski. Landplanes can
be further classified as having either conventional or retract-
able landing gear.
The reader may never experience the predicament of being
down in the Arctic, 500 miles from the nearest outpost of
civilization, with a damaged wing bracing strut or landing
i.i.2 Parts of an Aeroplane
gear. Canada's north country pilots, always noted for their The essential components of an aeroplane are:
outstanding resourcefulness, have been known, in many such 1. The fuselage or body.
emergencies, to successfully come home on hand whittled
propellers , improvised struts and other ingenious make-shift 2. The wings or lifting surfaces.
repairs. The average pilot or aircraft owner will probably 3. The tail section (empennage), or canard.
never have occasion, in the cou rse of a career, to rebuild or
4. The propulsion system , i.e. engine(s)
repair their own aeroplane, although there is these days a
with or without propeller(s).
large fr aternity of aviation enthusiasts who build their own
aeroplanes. Whether one of these "home builders" flying 5. Undercarriage or landing gear.
amateur-built aeroplanes or simply a pilot who flies a produc- The airframe is the term used to describe the complete
tion line model, a fundamental knowledge of the components structure of an aeroplane, including the fuel tanks and lines,
of the aeroplane, their functions, structure, and particularly but without instruments and engine installed. It therefore
their limitations of strength and resistance to deterioration, is includes the fuselage, wings, tail assembly (or canard), and
a very essential part of every pilot's qualifications. landing gear.

The Fuselage
i.1 Aircraft Components The fuselage is the central body of the aeroplane, designed to
accommodate the crew, passengers and cargo. It is the struc-
i.u The Aeroplane tural body to which the wings, tail assembly, landing gear and
engine are attached.
The Canadian Aviation Regulations define an aeroplane as
The fuselage is usually classed according to its type of
"a power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft deriving its lift in
construction.
flight from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces that remain
fixed under given conditions of flight". The terms "aero-
plane" and "aeroplane" are for the most part interchangeable.
The Canadian Air Regulations use the term "aeroplane" but
common usage seems to favour "aeroplane". The latter is the
form of choice of this manual.

"N" Girder W arren Truss

Fig . 1. 2 Trus s Type

TRUSS TYPE
In the early days, the fu selage w as a fram e m ade up of wooden
members , wire braced. These m aterials are now obsolete,
h aving been replace d by m etal. The modern truss type
fu selage is m ade up of steel tubes, usually welded or bolted
together to form the frame. The lon gerons (three, four or more
long tubes running lengthways) are the principle m embers
and are braced, or held together, to form the frame by vertical
1 Propeller 7 Fuselage 13 Left Wing Aileron
2 Landing Gear 8 Horizontal Stabilizer 14 Door or diagonal m embers , the whole assembly being in the form
3 Wing Strut 9 Fin 15 Seat of a truss. Fig.1.2 illustrates two typ es of steel tube truss type
4 Wing 10 Rudder 16 Windshield fu selage cons truction: N-Girder, and Warren Truss. The cover-
s Right Wing Aileron 11 Elevator 17 Engine Cowl ing may be fabric, m etal or composite.
6 Right Wing Flap 12 Left Wing Flap 18 Landing Light

Fig.1.1 Parts of the Aeroplane Formers

There are numerous ways to classify a fixed wing aeroplane: Stringers

by the position of its wings in relation to the fuselage, by
the number of engines and by its undercarriage configura-
tion. Aeroplanes may be of the high wing or low wing type. Stressed Skin
An aeroplane may be classed as single-engine if it has only
one engine, or multi-engine if it has two or more engines. An
aeroplane is also classified according to the type of landing Fig .1.3 Semi-Monocoque

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

The Aeroplane: Aircraft Components

MONOCOQUE wing; at the bottom of the fuselage, low wing; or in the middle,
This type of construction consists of a series of round or oval m id wing. High wing aeroplanes may be externally braced
formers or bulkheads held together by stringers (long strips with wing struts or may be fully cantilevered.
running lengthwise). The formers , or bulkheads, carry the
loads, the stringers being merely superstructure. The early
types of monocoque construction were of plywood, plywood
covered. Present construction of this type is of metal, metal
covered. Aluminum structures are the most common method
of construction used in today's general aviation aircraft. Since
the covering of the monocoque fuselage must be made stiff,
the skin is capable of carrying some of the load. This is known
as a stressed skin structure. A perfec t stressed skin s tructure
would be one in which the skin, in addition to providing the
covering and fo rming the sh ape , would be capable of carrying
all the load, without any in ternal bracing. When no stiffening
members are used and the skin or shell is designed to resist
all of the loads, the construction is called monocoque (from
the French word meaning "shell only"). When stiffeners are
provided to form the structure and resist part of the loads , the
construction is known as semi-monocoque.

Fig.1.5 Two-Spar, Fabric-Covered

Five general systems of wing construction are now in use on

modern aeroplanes. These are:
1. Metal frame, metal covered (main strength in
the covering, or skin, i.e. stressed skin).
2. Metal frame, metal covered (main
strength in the frame).
3. Metal fra m e, fa bric covered.
1 Fuselage half 6 AFT cabin bulkhead
Firew all 7 AFT fu selage bulkheads 4. Composite.
2
3 Front flo or 8 Vertical ribs & spars 5. Wooden fr am e, fabric covered or plywood covered
4 Under fl oor ribs I longerons 9 Window rings (found m ostly in classic and antique aeroplanes).
5 AFT (rearw ard) flo or 10 Spar Tunnel

Fig . 1. 4 Monocoque

Ma ny of tod ay 's newest aircraft designs m ake u se of compos-

ites in their construction. A composite fu selage allows m anu- Web Rib
facturers to m ake fewer, but usually m ore complicated, parts
to assemble a fu selage. Composites allow easier fabrication of
highly accu rate and smooth complex sh apes th at can signifi-
cantly improve aero -dynamic effi ciency. This enhanced effi -
ciency allows aeropl anes of the sam e size and type to go fas ter
than less effici ently designed airfram es of similar horsepower Fi g.1.6 Ribs
output. These fewer parts are then bonded together u sing
special design adhesives crea ting a robust and nearly true The m ain m embers in a w ing are the spars. These are beams,
m onocoque structure. Fi g. 1.4 shows how a typical composite running the length of the wing fro m w ing root to wing tip,
aircraft would look prior to bonding of the separate molded wh ich carry m ost of the load . The spars are intended to stiffen
composite pieces that form the entire fuselage. the wing against torsion or twisting. Some wings are con-
structed with two or more spars (multispar) and some with
only one main spar (monospar). The latter type of single spar
The Wing construction is found in certain models of modern aeroplanes
Most aeroplanes in use in general aviation today are mono-
which use a laminar flow airfoil wing design. The ribs run
planes; that is, they have one pair of wings. Biplanes, those
from the leading to the trailing edge. They are cambered to
with two pairs of wings, are also to be found although they
form an airfoil section and their purpose is to give the wing
are usually restored antiques, agricultural spray aeroplanes,
its sh ape and to provide a framework to which the covering
amateur-built or aerobatic aeroplanes. Wings come in a vari-
is fastened . To strengthen the leading edge, nose ribs are
ety of shapes: rectangular, tapered from wing root to wing tip,
sometimes installed between the front spar and leading edge.
elliptical, delta. They may be attached in different positions
These are generally known as false ribs.
on the fuselage: at the top of the fuselage, known as high

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 The Aeroplane: Aircraft Components

Compression struts are spaced at regular intervals between

the front and rear spars. They are usually steel tubes and are
The Tail Section (Ernpennage)
intended to take compression loads. The empennage - taken from the French word "empenner"
which refers to the feathering of an arrow - is the tail section
Further internal bracing is secured by drag and anti-drag of the aeroplane. It consists of a fixed vertic al stabilizer or fin,
wires. These are wires running diagon ally from the front to the rudder, the stabilizer or tailplane, the elevators and all
the rear spars, the drag wires taking drag loads and the anti- trimming and control devices therefrom assoc iated. Instead
drag wires anti-drag loads , as their names imply. of a fixed stabilizer and movable elevators, som e aeroplanes
External bracing is secured in monoplanes by wing bracing have a one-piece pivoting, horizontal stabilizer th at is known
struts which extend out from the fu selage to about the mid- as a stabilator.
section of the wing. In biplanes, struts are placed between
the wings, well out tow ards the tips. These are brace d by
incidence wires which run diagonally between the struts, and
by flying and landing wires which run diagon ally between the
struts and the fu selage. The flyin g wires tran smit part of the
load to the fuselage in flight and the landing w ires support the
weight of the w ing on the ground.
Some w ings are constructed with no external bracing at
all. These are known as cantilever wings. Since there is no
external support to such a wing, the spars must be made suf-
ficiently strong to carry the load into the fuselage internally
with no outside assistance.
The load on a wing comes first on the skin. It is then transmit- Fig.1.7 The Tait Section
ted to the ribs and from these to the spars and thence carried
into the fuselage. This is referred to as internal transmission The stabilizer or tailplane is an airfoil placed at the rear-end
of loads. of the fuselage to balance the aeroplane. They provide longi-
tudinal stability.
In an externally braced wing, part of the load is t aken by
the bracing struts or the flying or landing wires, and thence Elevators are surfaces hinged on the trailing edge of the stabi-
transmitted to the fuselage. This is referred to as external lizer. They provide longitudinal control.
transmission of Loads. The fin is a fixed vertical surface placed ah ead of the stern
Ailerons are surfaces, usually of airfoil section, hinged to the post to provide directional stability. It is usu ally slightly
trailing edge of the wing, generally located from the mid-point offset from the centre of the fusel age to compensate for the
of the wing outwards towards each wing tip. They are for the corkscrew motion of the slipstream caused by the revolving
purpose of lateral control and banking of the aircraft. Their propeller.
intern al construction is much like that of the wing itself. They The rudder is a m ovable surface hinged to the fin . It provides
are usually hinged to the rear spar. direc tion al control.
Flaps, when fitted , form a part of th e wing structure. Like A trim tab is an adjustable tab either fixed or hinged to a con-
the ailerons , they are usually hinged to the rear spar. They trol sur face such as a rudder, elevators and aileron s. A trim
are generally located from the mid-point of the wing inwards tab reduces the effort require d of the pilot to exert excessive
towards the wing root. A full description of fl aps and their pressure on the cockpit fli ght controls during the various
fun ction appears in the Chapter Theory of Flight . phases of fli ght.
The w ing tip bow is generally a m etal tube , curved to give the
wing tip its particul ar required sh ape.
The wing root is the section of the wing ne arest the fu selage.
On low wing aeroplanes, it is reinforced to permit the passen-
gers an d crew to w alk on it for cockpit access.
Wing root fittings are fittings which attach the wing, or the
separate wing panels, to the fus elage.
A winglet is a small, nearly vertical wing-like surface, usu-
ally of airfoil section, attached to the wing tip. The winglet
is incorporated into the design of some aeroplanes . Winglets
have become particularly common on commuter and trans- Fig.1.8 Stabilator
port category aircraft. They are usually located pointing
rearward above the wing tip. They are primarily effective in A stabilator is a single airfoil section that replaces the combi-
reducing induced drag with a secondary effect of improving nation of stabilizer and elevator. It is attached to the fuselage
fuel efficiency. (See Chapter Theory of Flight.) at a point around which it pivots.

The chord is the straight-line length measurement between The airfoils comprising the tail unit assembly are similar to,
the leading edge of the wing and the trailing edge of the wing. but of lighter construction, than those of the main structure.
The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is the average chord The tail unit is positioned so that it is in the airflow but not
length measurement of the wing. blanketed, particularly during aloft maneurvers, by the air-
craft 's w ings or other parts of the structure.
The span is the maximum length measurement from wing tip
to wing tip of an airfoil, wing or st abilizer.

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

The Aeroplane: Aircraft Components

FIREWALL
The Canard Between the main structure and the engine is the firewall. 111is
A few aeroplanes of modern design have replaced the familiar is made of a heavy sheet of stainless steel or often a sandwich of
tail section with a canard that incorporates a horizontal stabilizer asbestos between two sheets of dural. Openings for fuel and con-
assembly at the front of the aeroplane. A canard configuration, as trol lines are made small, with bushings to ensure a snug fit. 111e
shown in Fig.1.9, provides stability control functions while being fuel tank must be behind the firewall, whereas the oil tank may be
positioned ahead of the primary lifting surfaces (the wings) as ahead of it - oil being less flammable than gasoline.
opposed to the more common tail section placement behind the
primary lifting surfaces. TANK INSTALLATIONS
An important difference between a canard's purpose and a horizon- Fuel tanks may be carried in the wings or in the fuselage. See The
tal stabilizer on the tail is as follows: canards generate an upward Fuel System in Chapter Aero Engines.
lifting force while horizontal stabilizers at the tail of an aircraft
generate a downward force. 111us, when the elevator is in the The Landing Gear (Undercarriage)
upward position on a canard, the nose of the aircraft drops; when 111e function of the landing gear is to take the shock oflanding and
the elevator is in the downward position on a canard, the nose of also to support the weight of the aeroplane and enable it to maneu-
the aircraft goes up. 111is is the opposite to a horizontal stabilizer ver on the ground. 111e earliest type of m ain landing gear was a
on an aircraft's tail where the elevator in the upward position raises through axle, similar to the wheel and axle arrangement on a cart or
the aircraft's nose, and the elevator in the downward position drops wagon. 111is is now completely obsolete, having been replaced with
the aircraft's nose. more sophisticated, shock absorbing landing gear systems.
111e canard arrangement is reminiscent of the original Wright 111e landing gear on modern aeroplanes is either of the fixed gear
brother's aeroplanes. Though a seldom used configuration, canards type or retractable.
are most commonly found on military fighter aircraft or on home-
built aircraft. FIXED GEAR
On land aeroplanes, there are two basic classes of fixed gear under-
carriage: main gear with a nosewheel, commonly called a tricycle
gear, and main gear with a tailwheel. 111ere are several types of
undercarriage in use for the main gear. 111ese are used with both the
tailwheel and the tricycle gear configuration. 111ey are split axle,
tripod, single spring leaf cantilever and single strut.

Fig. 1.9 Canard

The Propulsion System

111e propulsion system of the modern general aviation aeroplane Fi g. 1.10 Tripod Landing Gear
is generally a gasoline powered, air cooled, internal combustion
engine that drives a 2 or 3 bladed propeller. Many of today's busi-
ness aeroplanes are jet powered as are most of the large transport
aeroplanes. The gas turbine, or jet, engine can also be used to drive a
propeller and, in this configuration, is known as a turboprop engine.
Powerplants and propellers are discussed in detail in the Chapter
Aero Engines.

THE COWLING
111e cowling encloses the engine and streamlines the front of the
aeroplane to reduce drag. 111e cowling provides cooling of the
engine by ducting cooling air around the engine. On high per-
formance aeroplanes, adjustable openings called cowl flaps are
incorporated into the cowling to control the amount of cooling air
circulating around the engine.

ENGINE MOUNTINGS
111e engine is supported by a structure, usually of steel tubing
welded together, called the engine mount, which is made flexible to
absorb vibration from the engine and prevent it being transmitted
to the fuselage. 111is is usually accomplished by engine mount bush-
ings which are made springy in the direction of the engine rotation
but rigid otherwise, in order to hold the engine steady fore and aft. Fig.1.11 Split Axle

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 The Aeroplane: Aircraft Components

The split axle type h as the axle split in the centre to enable it This gear consists of a single leg or strut extending downward
to clear obstructions on the ground. This type is used on aero- from its attachment point on the m ain spar. The strut usually
planes such as the Piper J3 Cub. An example (Fig.1.11) sh ows a incorporates a hydraulic cylinder or rubber biscuits for the
split axle type landing gear using elastic shock bungee cords purpose of absorbing the shock (Fig.1.13).
wound around a fuselage member which enables the whole
assembly to spread when loads com e on it. A strut or tie rod is RETRACTABLE GEAR
usually incorporated to brace the structure against side loads. Retractable gears are made to retract or fold up into the wing
or fuselage in flight. The mechanical means and methods for
The tripod landing gear is illustrated in Fig.1.10 and is typical accomplishing this are many and varied. The wheel m ay fold
of the Aeronca and Champion series of aeroplanes. This gear sideways outwards towards the wing or inwards towards the
consists of three members hinged so as to form a triangle. fuselage. The latter is most common on high speed military
Two of these are rigid. The third is an oleo leg, designed to aeroplanes when the wing camber is shallow. On some multi-
telescope and hence sh orten its length when the load comes engine aeroplanes the wheel folds straight back or forward
on the wheel. On landing, th e whole assembly spreads out- into the nacelle and is left partly projecting in order to pro-
wards an d upwards until springs, rubber discs, or other tect the belly of th e ship in the case of a wheels-up landing.
devices take the weight. Some retractable undercarriages are m ade to turn through
The single leaf cantilever spring steel type of main landing 90 degrees as they travel up and so fold into the side of the
gear is used exten sively on Cessna aeroplanes and on ver- fu selage.
sions of the Diamond Katana trainer. The gear consists of a Most retractable undercarriage legs are cantilever, being a
single strap of chrome vanadium steel bent to form the shape single oleo leg with no external bracing. They are h inged at
of the complete undercarriage structure. It is attached to the the top to permit them to fold. The means of retraction may be
fuselage in a cradle bulkhead by bolts. It is capable of storing a h and gear, electric m otor, or motor-driven h ydraulic pump.
energy in initial impact, thereby producing quite low load Wh ere mech anical m eans are used, a h and gear is also pro-
factors. Low maintenance, simplicity and long service life vided to allow for lowering the gear in an emergency.
characterize this gear type (Fig.1.12).
Making the undercarriage retract able is a common practice
with both the tricycle and tailwheel configuration. In the case
of tricycle gear, the nosewh eel is also m ade retract able. In the
case of a tailwheel, however, because it is sm all an d cau ses
little drag, it is fixed.

NOSEWHEEL VS TAILWHEEL
The practice of placing a steerable th ird wheel forward of
the main gear has found universal acceptance in m odern
aeroplane design and is referred to as being a tricycle gear
configuration. Th e landing gear configuration in wh ich th e
third wheel is rearward of the m ain gear (i.e., at the stern of
the aeroplane) is referred to as a tailwh eel configuration (old
timers fondly call such aeroplanes, "tail-draggers").
The prevalence of tricycle gear configurations, as used by
most of today's manufacturers, is the result of certain advan-
Fi g.1.1 2 Single Leaf Cantilever Spring Steel Gear tages that this type of landing gear h as over tailwh eel
configurations.
These advantages are: (1) nose-over tendencies are reduced
greatly; (2) ground looping tendencies are reduced; (3) visibil-
ity over the nose when taxiing, taking off or landing is supe-
rior due to the level flight position of the aeroplane while on
the ground; (4) greater maneuverability on the ground under
high wind conditions due to the negative angle of attack of the
wings; (5) greater controllability on the ground in crosswind
conditions. Therefore, tricycle geared aeroplanes can use
single runway airports (which are becoming more numerous)
with greater safety in crosswind conditions than can tail-
wheel aeroplanes; (6) a novice can usually learn to m aneuver
a tricycle geared aeroplane on th e ground in less time th an h e/
she can m aster a tailwheel aeroplane.
Tailwheel aeroplanes h ave advantages too.
Fig.1.13 Single Strut Gear These are: (1) the tailwh eel has less parasite drag than a nose-
wh eel due to its smaller size; (2) the tailwheel is cheaper and
On the Cessn a Cardinal, a spring steel tubular gear replaces easier to build and m aintain; (3) a broken tailwheel will not
the more familiar single leaf gear described here. The spring result in as m uch damage to an aeroplane as would a broken
steel tubular gear has the same characteristics as the single nose gear; (4) a t ailwheel aeroplane can be more easily man
leaf type. h andled on the ground and, because th e t ail is lower th an
The single strut type is used on several low wing, fixed gear that of a tricycle-geared aeroplane, it fits into some hangar
aeroplanes such as the Piper Arch er III and the Socat a Tobago. space m ore easily; (5) when using rough sod, sand or gravel

From the Grou nd Up• 30th Edition

The Aeroplane: Aircraft Components

airports, the tailwheel aeroplane will sustain less propeller 2. Oleo. When the aeroplane on landing fi rst contacts
damage since the tips of the propeller are farther away from the ground, the momentum must be absorbed in the
the ground and are less likely to pick up loose objects, such undercarriage. To absorb this energy on springs or
as stones and debris; (6) with constant use in rough fields, rubber alone would result, as stated above, in the
the tailwheel aeroplane is not as likely to sustain airframe aircraft being bounced into the air again. On practi-
damage since it is the main undercarriage which takes the cally all modern aeroplanes, the energy produced on
bulk of the load and the shock when the aeroplane rides landing is dis sipated by forcing oil (an incompress-
over depressions and irregularities on the ground. The main ible fluid) from one side of a piston to the other
undercarriage (which hits the bumps first) is attached to a through a small orifice. The restricted flow of the
prim ary structure and is therefore stronger and more rigid oil's displacement effectively delays the rebounding
than a nos e gear (which in the tricycle gear configuration is effect of the springs or tires . The bulk of the energy
the first to hit the bump) which is usually fastened to a weaker is absorbed in forcing the oil through the restricted
or non-primary part of the airframe. A tailwheel will easily orifice thereby cushioning the shock of the landing.
absorb bumps that may be severe enough to damage a nose The simple oleo (Fig.1.14) consists of an in ner cylin-
gear; (7) tailwheel aeroplanes are more suitable for change -
der which is attached to the fuselage, and an outer
over to ski operations in winter.
cylinder fasten ed to the wheel. On landing, these will
On most modern aeroplanes, regardless of whether they have engage in a telescoping action . The oil will be dis-
a fixed or retractable undercarriage, the nosewheel and the placed from the lower cylinder to the upper cylinder
tailwheel are steerable by the pilot's controls. but is delayed in doing so by the restricted size of the
orifice. Since the oil, once displaced, will not return
SHOCK ABSORBERS to the lower cylinder until the aeroplane again leaves
The purpose of the sh ock absorber is to prevent landing shock the ground, the oleo leg serves only to absorb the
damage to the fuselage or body of the aeroplane. Pilots may shock of landing. Further shocks experienced while
acc identally impose he avy stresses .due to faulty landings that taxiing or taking off are handled by devices such as
impose high force loads on the aircraft. If these stresses were the spring shown in Fig.1.14 (Oleo-Aero!), or by com -
not properly absorbed by the landing gear, they could easily pressed air, as shown in Fig.1.14. (Oleo-Pneumatic).
cause failure in the aeroplane structure.
3. Rubber. Two types of rubber shock absorbers are
Shock absorption is generally achieved via one of four differ- in use, usually in conjunction with the oleo, to
ent methods: cushion further shocks after landing. These take
1. Low Pressure Tires. On some types of light aero - the form of rubber discs or doughnuts and shock
planes, low pressure tires are the sole me ans cords , the latter of which are elastic cords wound
provided for absorbing shocks. The principal dif- around two moving undercarriage members.
ficu lty with tires (and some of the other shock 4. Spring Steel. The spring steel type of landing gear, as
absorbing devices) is that they do not dissipate described earlier in this chapter, is in itself a shock
the shock but store it and kick the aeroplane back absorber capable of storing energy. It consists of can-
into the air after a rough landing. The more force tilevered struts th at flex to absorb the impact of the
that the tire absorbs as it compresse s into the sur- initial landing. The fo rces are then transferred into
face , the m ore energy it needs to release result- the fuselage, which dissipates the landing forces and
ing in the aircraft rebounding back into the air. stresses even more. Such configurations benefit from
low maintenance, lower drag and long service life.

BRAKES
Filler plug Compressed air The advantage of the use of brakes on aeroplanes is two-fold:
)
1. They provide quick deceleration , or pull-up,
after landing. For high speed aeroplanes that
i land with faster initial, or "hotter", speeds,

! such quick deceleration is important, espe-

cially when landing on short runways.

i i Piston
Oil
2. Differential, or individually-op erated brakes, ensure
better control after landing, to prevent ground loops,
etc. They also provide better maneuverability on the

i ! • Packing ground. On some models of aeroplanes , steering while

taxiing is accomplished only by the use of the brakes .
They are needed to perform short radius turns.

t t Due to the much higher la nding speeds of modern aeroplanes,

brakes have to be powerful, reli able and capable of dissipating
heat very rapidly.
Nearly all aeroplanes use disc brakes operated by hydraulic
Fig.1.14 Simple Oleo (Left) , Oleo-Aero!
pressure, sandwiching a rotating disc between two brake lin-
(M iddle) , Oleo-Pne umatic (Right)
ings called pucks.
These pucks are located in a fixed cast unit, grooved to permit
the disc to float free ly. Attachment of the disc is attained by
splitting the periphery into the wheel hub. This floating action

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 The Aeroplane: Aircraft Components

allows the disc to move laterally during braking and permits top of an aircraft's fuselage and/or cockpit, to a wing tip or to
the use of one moving puck. The fixed puck is called the anvil; the tip of its tail. The frequencies at which antennas operate
the moving one is called the piston puck. and their directional qualities determine their shapes and
their respective placements on a given aircraft's surface.
Regardless of any antenna's purpose, they must always be
kept in good physical condition to ensure their on-going
proper performance. Antennas should be regularly cleaned to
ensure that no build-up of oil, moisture (including wintertime
snow or ice) or dirt will impede their performance. Antennas
should be checked for cracks or delamination of composite
layers. The bases of antennas should be checked for their
structural integrity as well as to ensure that no vibrating is
Hydraulic piston
taking place that could fatigue or crack the skin of the aircraft
Piston sealer case
to which the antenna is attached. Antennas must be grounded
Oil seal
to the airframe. They should always be left in their manufac-
Flexible seal ring
Fixed hydraulic unit ture-original coating and should never be painted.

Fig.1.15 Hydraulic Brake

COMMUNICATION ANTENNAS
Each communication transmitter in an aircraft will have its
Pressure applied against the brakes that usually are part of own dedicated antenna. They are usually mounted on either
the rudder pedal assembly is translated into hydraulic fluid the top or the bottom of the aircraft. They are usually long
pressure. The hydraulic piston responds to the increased and narrowly tapered with a backward-leaning slant. Their
pressure by pushing against the piston puck which in turn positions are determined so as to ensure that their range and
pushes the rotating disc against the anvil puck, allowing coverage are not negatively impacted by issues of shadowing
equal braking force (friction) on both sides of the disc. Special whereby a component of the aircraft itself, such as its vertical
flexible sealing rings keep the puck-to -disc clearance auto- stabilizer or landing gear, can interfere with the transmitting
matically adjusted by returning the hydraulic piston to a neu- path of communications.
tral position after each braking action.
An antenna on the top surface of an aircraft will typically
Disc brakes are so reliable that, normally, visual inspection work best for communications while the aircraft is still on the
is required only at 50 hour intervals. One precaution in their ground, thus having its signal path pointing upward towards
use is recommended. The parking brake should be left off a ground station. An antenna on the bottom surface of an
and wheel chocks installed if the aeroplane is to be left unat- aircraft will typically work best for communications while
tended. Changes in the ambient temperature can cause the the aircraft is airborne, thus having its signal path pointing
brakes to release or to exert excessive pressure. downward towards available ground stations.
A further problem can occur in aeroplanes that are flown
infrequently (e.g. less than 100 to 200 hours per year). Since UHF ANTENNAS
the discs are made of steel, they are subject to corrosion and UHF antennas are used for transponders and distance mea-
rust, especially if exposed to unusual amounts of moisture, suring equipment (DME). (See Chapter Radio Navigation for
salt or industrial pollution. In an aeroplane that is used daily, information about transponders and DME.) They are usually
the corrosion and rust are rubbed off by repeated use. no longer than four inches in length. Blade type antennas (also
called broadband antennas) are used for DME, while spike
The prime element of the braking system is the hydraulic
type antennas are used for transponders. They are always
fluid . It transmits pressure and energy, lubricates the moving
found on the lower surface of an aircraft. Both antenna types
parts of the system and aids in cooling the working parts. It is
are prone to residue build-up, particularly oil on the underside
important to check carefully the aircraft maintenance manual
of the aircraft, that can reduce transmission range. Therefore,
to find out exactly what kind of brake fluid to use. Mixing
regular checks on antenna cleanliness is recommended.
different fluids negates the effectiveness of the hydraulic
system. Some brake fluids can break down the rubber rings of NAVIGATION ANTENNAS
incompatible systems. Brake fluid must be kept scrupulously VHF navigation antennas are almost always mounted on the
free of contamination by dirt which can render the system vertical tail of the aircraft. There are three types: the cat whis-
effectively inoperative. ker, the dual blade, and the towel bar.
In some aeroplanes, the brakes are operated by pneumatic The cat whisker consists of two rods that typically are affixed
(air) pressure. A pressure bag is incorporated on the inside of to the top leading-edge of the aircraft's vertical stabilizer,
the brake assembly. Air pressure admitted to this pressure
pointing horizontally rearward at 45 degrees. They are gener-
bag causes it to expand, forcing the brake shoes to move radi-
ally poor at receiving signals from the side.
ally outward against the surface of the brake drum.
Dual blades appear as two blades, each one of which is fixed
on its respective side of the tail. The towel bar looks like the
Airframe Antennas bathroom fixture after which it is named. Like the dual blades,
For their on-board avionics equipment to communicate, air-
it consists of two bars affixed one each on each side of the tail.
craft have to be equipped with antennas for that equipment
Blade and towel antennas can easily receive signals from all
to operate properly. Antennas come in many shapes and sizes
directions.
that are defined by their function. They typically take the
shape of rods, domes, and fins or blades. They are positioned GPS ANTENNAS
on aircraft in many different ways: affixed to the top surface Given that GPS frequency transmissions are very high, their
of wings on high-wing aircraft configurations, to an aircraft's line-of-sight signals require that GPS antennas be mounted
underside (or belly), to an aircraft's vertical stabilizer, to the

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

The Aeroplane: Aircraft Control Systems

at the very top of an aircraft's fuselage. Note too that GPS accelerate at such a velocity as to result in full parachute
satellites transmit at low power requiring that GPS antennas deployment within seconds of the system's activation.
h ave a built-in amplifier to boost the signal for the receiver. The parachute may be housed in a softpack, or in a composite
On general aviation aircraft, they can often be rectangular or or aluminum box or canister. Direction of firing is typically
tear-dropped in shape, appearing like a dome on the top of the rearward. Upon activation, the parachute's suspension lines
fuselage. Alternatively, they can look like typical communica- go to full extension only after the aircraft has reached a safe
tion antennas. deployment speed th at is controlled by a ring-shaped slider on
Communication radios can cause interference with GPS sig- the lines. Once the parachute fully inflates, the aircraft begins
nals. Therefore, it is important that the antennas for com- to decelerate under the parachute until touching down safely
munication and for GPS be mounted as far apart from each on the ground.
other as possible. Under the open parachute canopy, the aircraft will typi-
MARKER BEACON ANTENNAS cally descend at a rate between 15 and 28 feet per second.
The VHF radio beacons that transmit instrument approach Minimum deployment altitudes and maximum aircraft speed
for deployment vary according to aircraft type and the emer-
signals are ground-based and highly directional, thereby
gency scenario for which the system is being activated.
requiring that signal-receiving aircraft be almost overhead
of them to properly receive their signals. They, thus, require
that the aircraft's marker beacon antenna be on the bottom
Activation handle - - --.-!!._,__
of the aircraft.
Forward attach points
A common type of marker beacon antenna is long and narrow,
and resembles a small fin. Another type of marker beacon
antenna is a rod protruding straight down from the underside Rocket assembly
of the fuselage. At its mid-point, the rod is bent at 90 degrees
where it then points towards the tail.

EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITT ER ANTENNAS

The emergency locator transmitter (ELT) antenna is almost
always located on the upper surface of the fuselage. It is typi- Forward harness
cally long and vertical, and is made of a flexible material to
reduce the risk of breakage in the case of an accident. Other
Fig.1.17 Airframe Parachute System
types of ELT antennas may be located inside an aircraft's tail
or may resemble smaller versions of communication antennas
on the top surface of the aircraft.
i.2 Aircraft Control Systems
i. 2.1 The Control Systems
Aircraft control systems are divided into two groups: primary
flight controls and secondary flight controls. The primary
•' flight controls consist of the ailerons, the elevator and the
rudder. The secondary flight controls consist of the flaps, the
Marker Beacon spoilers, any wing leading edge devices, and the pitch-trim
system. All of these systems have their respective effect
UHF __J L_ VHF/COM on the maneuverability and controllability of an aircraft by
virtue of their impact on the airflow moving across their
Fig.1.16 Example of Typical Aircraft Antenna Layo ut
respective surfaces.

The Airframe Parachute Ailerons

An increasing number of general aviation aircraft are equipped The ailerons are control surfaces attached to the trailing edge
with, or can be optionally fitted with, a ballistic parachute to of the wing near the wing tip and are employed to bank the
enhance safety and survival significantly in case of total loss aeroplane. They move in opposite directions to each other
of aircraft control. These devices, known as ballistic recovery and are controlled by movement of the control wheel or stick.
systems or airframe parachute systems can lower an entire
aircraft to the ground under a parachute canopy should the Right Aileron
pilot lose all control of his/her aircraft. Their use may typi-
cally result from emergency situations such as a midair colli-
sion, a stall/spin scenario, a catastrophic airframe failure, or
an engine failure over terrain upon which a controlle d landing
is impossible.
The pulling of a handle inside the aircraft's cockpit controls
the parachute's deployment. An activation cable from the Fig .1.18 Torque Tube Aileron Control
h andle leads to an igniter that fires a solid-fuel rocket motor
which spontaneously deploys, within 0.1 seconds, the para- Four types of control systems are used to operate the ailerons.
chute from its housing inside the aircraft . The rocket will These are: (1) cables and pulleys; (2) push and pull rods; (3)
torque tubes (Fig.1.18) or (4) fly-by-wire. When stick control is

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 The Aeroplane: A ircraft Cont rol Systems

used, any of these systems may be employed. With wheel con-

trol, cables and pulleys are generally used, although in some
Rudder
cases, push and pull rods may be utilized. In larger transport The rudder moves the aeroplane either left or right in a motion
aeroplanes, the control systems are usually operated by a known as yaw. The rudder is attached to the trailing edge of
system of cables and pulleys aided by hydraulic systems. The the vertical stabilizer, or fin, and is connected to the rudder
new generation of transport aeroplanes have incorporated pedals by a cable system.
computerized control systems which allow operation of the Pressure applied to the left rudder pedal displaces the rudder
aircraft controls (ailerons and also elevators and rudder) with to the left into the airstream, increasing the pressure on th e
electronic signalling. The controls are activated by electronic left side of the tail and forcing the tail to move to the right.
signals sent through wires from computers in the cockpit. The nose of the aeroplane moves to the left. Pressure applied
This is known as fly-by-wire. to the right rudder pedal moves the nose of the aeroplane to
When the control wheel is rotated to the right (or the control the right. The rudder is used with the ailerons to achieve co-
stick moved to the right), the left aileron moves down and the ordinated turns.
right aileron moves up. The lifting capability of the left wing
is therefore increased at the same time as the lifting capabil- Trim Systems
ity of the right wing is decreased. The left wing lifts and the Several types of trim devices are incorporated into the con-
right wing descends and the aeroplane rolls to the right. The trol system to help the pilot by eliminating the need to exert
aeroplane will continue to roll to the right, steepening the excessive pressure on the cockpit flight controls during the
angle of bank, until the controls are neutralized establish ing various phases of flight.
a particular angle of bank.
When the control wheel is rotated to the left, the left aileron
moves up and the right one moves down and the aeroplane
rolls to the left.

Elevators & Stabilators ..• • •ILlh~

..-
..,,,.- - + - Trim Tab
A movable horizontal tail surface controls the movement of
the aeroplane longitudinally and controls the angle of attack
of the wings. The movable horizontal tail surface may be
Fig.1.21 Elevator Trim Tab
either elevators or stabilators.
The elevators or stabilators are operated by: (1) a system of TRIM TABS
cables and pulleys; (2) a rocking beam and cable; (3) a push Trim tabs are adjustable devices located at the trailing edge of
and pull rod system or (4) fly-by-wire. These systems are con- control surfaces such as elevators, rudders or ailerons. Their
nected to the pilot's control column. function is to permit the pilot to fly the aeroplane in a desired
attitude, under various load and airspeed conditions, without
the need to apply constant pressure in any particular direc-
Elevator
tion on the flight controls.
A trim tab is, in effect, a control surface hinged to another
Large Tube Stabilizer control surface. It is designed to move above or below the
chord line of the control surface to which it is attached and
Fig.1. 19 Push & Pull Rod Elevator Control thereby create an aerodynamic force that assists the pilot in
holding the control in the desired position. The trim tab, for
The elevators are hinged to the trailing edge of the horizontal
example, is deflected down-ward in order to hold the con-
stabilizer and are controlled by forward or aft movements
trol surface up. (See Fig.1.21, in which a nose-up attitude is
of the control wheel. They move together. When the control
achieved by use of trim tabs.)
wheel is pushed forward, the elevators move down, increasing
the lifting capability of th e tail. The tail rises and the nose of The trim tab is operated from the cockpit by its own control
the aeroplane moves down. When the control wheel is pulled which is located so as to be within easy reach of the pilot. A
back, the elevators move up, the lift on the tail is decreased, tab position indicator is incorporated in the control mecha-
the tail moves down and the nose of the aeroplane rises. nism to show the nose-up or nose-down position of the tab
setting. The mechanism that operates the trim tab is usually
The stabilator is a one piece, horizontal tail surface that pivots a system of wires and pulleys.
up and down. It operates on the same principle as the eleva-
tors, moving up or down, ch anging its an gle of attack and The trim tab is not the only device for affecting trim. Some
trimming devices incorporate an adjustable spring tension as
hence its lifting capabilities as the pilot pulls back or pushes
a means to exert pressure on the control surface to maintain
forward on the control wheel.
the trimmed position. These are known as bungees.

Rudder Some form of inflight adjustable trim control is incorporated

Rudder Bar
Horn?¥- into the pitching plane of even the smallest aeroplane. Trim
controls are also used on aileron controls, especially on multi-
engine aeroplanes, and on rudder controls.
On aeroplanes in which inflight adjustable trim is incorporat-
ed only on the elevator controls, ground adjustable trim tabs
Fig . 1.20 Cable Rudder Control are often attach ed to ailerons or rudder. These have the effect

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

The Aeroplane: Airframe Construction Materials

of helping to correct any slight tendency of the aeroplane to must be sealed. There must be a source of compressed air for
roll or yaw as the result of less than perfect rigging. pressurization and ventilation capable of large quantities of
Anti-servo tabs serve as trimming devices on stabilators. air flow. Regulation of temperature, pressure and rate of pres-
sure change and a means of controlling the rate of outflow
Servo tabs are a device found most often on larger aeroplanes. of air from the cabin all have to be addressed in designing a
They are connected directly to the control column. As in the pressurized aeroplane.
case of the elevator, if the pilot moves the control column
back, the servo tab is deflected downward. Air pressure on Most general aviation aeroplanes with reciprocating engines
the tab deflects the elevator control upward to achieve a utilize some air from their turbochargers (see Turbochargers
nose-up attitude. The control column controls the servo tab, in Chapter Aero Engines) to achieve pressurization. The com-
the elevator is free floating and moves in accordance with the pressed air to serve the needs of the cabin passes through a
tab deflection. Venturi, called a flow control unit, that limits the flow from
the turbocharger compressor so as not to starve the engine
nor increase the volume of air flowing to the cabin beyond
what is required. Each aircraft has a design limited maximum
allowable pressure differential (PSID) between cabin and
outside pressure. The greater the PSID, the higher the aircraft
can fly while maintaining an acceptable cabin altitude. The
PSID is the limiting factor in determining the aircraft's service
ceiling.

Fig . 1.22 Adjustable Stabili zer

t.3 Airframe Construction
ADJUSTABLE STABILIZER
On some aeroplanes, longitudinal trim is achieved by adjust-
Materials
ing the angle at which the stabilizer is attached to the fuse- The main factors for consideration when selecting the materi-
lage . The leading edge of the stabilizer is moved up or down by als to manufacture an aircraft are strength, weight and reli-
means of a screw jack device that is controlled by a wheel or ability. The selected materials must be able to withstand and
crank in the cabin. To effect a nose-down attitude of the aero-
absorb tension, compression, shear, bending and torsional
plane, the leading edge of the stabilizer is rotated up, giving
stresses on the aircraft's wings, fuselage and landing gear.
the stabilizer a higher angle of attack. The stabilizer, like trim
Aircraft materials must be light and strong.
tabs, can be set in any position between full up and full down.
The adjustable stabilizer has the advantage of producing less Early aircraft were constructed of wood. Thereafter followed
drag than the conventional trim tab. aircraft made of metallic materials such as aluminum, mag-
nesium, titanium and steel alloys. Nonmetallic materials are
commonly used throughout aviation today, including com-
posite materials such as reinforced plastics and carbon fiber
materials .
Below are descriptions of the various types of materials com-
monly used in aircraft manufacturing.

i. 3 .1 Common Materials
Metal Materials
Fig . 1.23 Moveable Tail
STEEL
Low carbon steels are tough, ductile and readily weldable
MOVEABLE TAIL
but are incapable of being surface hardened except by case
On some aeroplanes, the entire empennage is hinged to pivot
hardening.
either forward or aft. A nose-down attitude is achieved by
rotating the tail aft. A nose-up attitude results from rotating Mild steels can be hardened, are strong but less ductile, and
the tail forward. less weldable. They are used for fuselage and control surfaces.
High carbon steels exhibit increased strength and hardness
i.2 .2 Cabin Pressurization Control but at the sacrifice of ductility and weldability.
High altitude flight places the crew and passengers in a hos- Alloy steels, such as chrome moly, are very strong and resis-
tile environment, exposing them to the trauma of decreased tant to impact and vibration. They are used in the fabrication
oxygen in the air and decreased atmospheric pressure forces of fuselages and for stressed skin structures, particularly in
on the body. Cabin pressurization was devised as a method seaplane construction. Alloy steels containing nickel (called
to maintain cabin pressure at a level lower than that of the stainless steel) are very corrosion resistant.
actual flight altitude. This is done by increasing the air pres-
sure in the cabin to provide sufficient oxygen to allow crew DURAL & ALCLAO
and passengers to breathe normally. Dural is an aluminum wrought alloy containing copper and
magnesium. It has a very high tensile strength and fatigue
To have cabin pressurization, the cabin structure must be
endurance. It is susceptible to corrosion but can be treated
strong enough to withstand the normal twisting and flexing
forces of flight. Doors, windows and control cable openings

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 The Aeroplane: Airframe Construction Materials

by anodizing. It is used for ribs, ta nks, bulkheads, propeller

blades, fittings, etc.
Alclad is a sandwich of dural between two layers of pure
aluminum. (The aluminum layers constitute about 5.5% of
the whole). The aluminum protects the dural and prevents
corrosion . It is, thus, very corrosion resistant and is used in
seaplane construction. It requires no anodizing.

MAGNESIUM & TITANIUM

Magnesium is a very light structural material. It combines
tensile strength with its light weight. (It is one-third lighter
than aluminum.) It is used extensively in aircraft engine con-
struction. It is very corrodible in sea water and should always
be anodized.
Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion-resistent metal.
It is especially useful as a construction material where alu- Fig .1.25 Example of Carbon Fiber Weave
minum alloys are too weak and stainless steel is too heavy.

HONEYCOMB SANDWICH Legacy Materials

A metal honeycomb pattern between sheets of metal (Fig.1.24) Wood, which may be considered a composite material in its
is what is referred to as a honeycomb construction. For cabin natural form, is still used in aeroplane construction for struc-
floor, door surfaces, etc., it offers the advantage of high tural members. In modern aircraft, it is mostly found in the
strength/weight ratio, a smooth surface that does not buckle construction of some lightweight homebuilt designs; other-
under load, and excellent bearing and bending properties in wise, it is commonly found in vintage aircraft. Plywood is used
all directions. In supersonic aeroplanes, its ability to dis sipate as a covering, giving a very smooth finish. Some aeroplanes
high temperatures makes it particularly suitable for wing skin are all wood; others are partly wood.
structures.
Aeroplanes with fuselage structures made of wood or steel
tubing may be covered with cotton, linen or synthetic fabric .
The fabric is drawn taut either via the use of aircraft dope
(cotton or linen) or by shrinking with a hot iron (synthetics
such as dacron). Fabric is also used as the covering of wings
whose spars and ribs are either all wood or all metal, or a
combination of both.

i.3.2 Airframe Corrosion

Corrosion must be treated as the enemy of all metal parts of
an aeroplane. The attack may take place over an entire metal
surface or it may be penetrating in nature, forming deep pits .
There are a number of different types of corrosion.
1. Oxidation. This is produced by atmospheric con-
ditions due to the moisture in the air. The effect
Fig.1. 24 Honeycomb Sandwich Construction is worse in the vicinity of salt water. The action
consists of the dissolving of the surface by oxida-
tion. Such oxidation is easy to dete ct. It may be
Composite Materials removed and the surface treated with some pre-
Composite refers to several different materials joined together ventative so further damage will not occur.
to make one. Typically, in aviation it means sandwich con-
2. Intercrystalline . This type is more serious. It
struction comprised of two high-strength face sheets of
is caused by chemical or electrolytic action
fiberglass, kevlar or carbon fibers embedded in a hardened
between the alloys in the metal itself. It may not
epoxy or polyester resi n , with a thin lightweight core mate-
become visible until considerable damage has
rial such as end-grain balsawood, honeycomb or rigid foam in
been done. Surface protection aids very little
the middle. The face sheets are bonded to the core using the
in the prevention of this type of corrosion. The
epoxy or liquid resin to form a structure stiff enough for use
affected parts must be removed and replaced.
as an aircraft structure.
3. Dissimilar Metals. When metals of differ-
Carbon fiber composites, which are relied upon for use in the
ent chemical properties are in contact in the
construction of small as well as very large aircraft, have high
presence of moisture, the metal most eas-
stiffness, high tensile strength, and a very high strength-to-
ily oxidized will be subject to corrosion.
weight ratio. Reinforced plastic is used in the construction
of aircraft, often specifically for aircraft components such as 4. Stress Corrosion . When a metal part is over-
wing tips, antennas and flight controls. It is also commonly stressed over a long period of time under cor-
used in the fuselage construction of some homebuilt designs. rosive conditions, stress corrosion may result.
Parts that are susceptible to stress corrosion are
overtightened nuts in plumbing fittings, parts
joined by taper pins that are overtorqued, fittings

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

The Ae roplane: Airframe Loads & Load Factors

with pressed in bearings. Stress corrosion is not to withstand these. This problem is complicated by the fact
easy to detect until cracks begin to appear. th at an aeroplane struct ure must be light as well as strong.
5. Corrosion Fatigue is a type of stress corro- Strength and lightness are essential in the structure of an
sion that occurs where cyclic stresses are aeroplane. Another factor almost as essential as strength is
applied to a part or assembly. These stresses rigidity. Excessive deflection or bending under a load may lead
produce pores or cracks in the surface coat- to a loss of control with serious consequences.
ing which allow moisture to penetrate. Lack of rigidity may also lead to flutter. This is a rolling or
6. Fretting Corrosion occurs when there is a slight weaving motion which arises when a deflection of a part of
movement between close fitting metal parts. Th e the structure causes the air forces on it to change in synchro-
movement destroys any protective film on the metal nism with its natural period of vibration. Flutter is most likely
surface and also produces fine particles of metal to occu r in wings and control surfaces and may lead to struc-
and oxide that tend to absorb and retain moisture. tural failure. To prevent flutter, the wing and tail structures
must be made stiff against both bending and twisting.
The narrow margin of safety permitted by weight limitations
in aeroplanes makes it necessary that every member must
bear its proper share of the load in every condition of flight. To
attain uniform and adequate structural safety, it is essential
to calculate what load each part may be called upon to carry.
Such a determination of loads is called a stress an alysis. This
is a complicated mathematical process and is distinctly a job
for only the trained engineer.

t.4 Airframe Loads

Fig . 1.26 Example of Airc raft Corrosion

A number of surface treatments h ave been developed to

& Load Factors
reduce or eliminate corrosion. Aluminum alloys are usu-
ally anodized, a process that provides a protective film. Steel i.4.1 Loads
parts are protected by cadmium plating, chrome plating or by
Aeroplane strength is m easured by the total load the wings
phosphate processes that protect the surface from oxidation.
are capable of carrying. The load imposed on the wings
depends on the type of flight. The wings must support not
1.3.3 Airframe Stresses only the weight of the aeroplane but also additional loads
A stress is the force, or combination of forces, exerting a imposed during maneuvers.
strain. Th e pressure of your h and on th e su rface of a sm all Th e w ing loading of an aeroplane is the gross weigh t of the
empty box is an example of a stress.
aeroplane divided by the area of the liftin g surfaces and is
A strain is the distortion in form or bulk of a body due to expressed in lb. per sq. ft., i.e. the number of lb. that each
stress. If the small box is crushed, it is said to be strained. A sq. ft. of lifting surface must support. (The definition of wing
wire stretched is another example of strain. loading may be slightly modified for particular applications,
There are five distinct types of stress: for example, with reference to ultralight aeroplanes. See
Ultralights in Chapter Airmanship.)
1. Compression or "crushing", as in the case
of the small box. Aeroplane wings are sub- The span loading of an aeroplane is the gross weight divided
jected to compression stresses. by the span and is expressed in lb. per foot .
2. Tension or "stretching", as in the case of the wire. The power loading is the gross weight of the aeroplane
Bracing wires in aeroplanes are usually in tension. divided by the h orsepower of the engine(s) and is expressed
3. Torsion or "twisting". A screwdriver is sub- in lb. per hp.
jected to severe torsional stress when forc- The weight of an aeroplane standing on the ground (or its
ing a screw into hardwood. Landing gear must weight due to gravity alone) is commonly referred to as a
be made to withstand torsional stresses. dead load. In flight, h owever, the weight of an aeroplane may
4. Shearing or "cutting''. The blades of scis- be increased many times by acceleration (rate of ch ange of
sors exert a shear stress on a piece of speed) and/or by a change of direction. The additional loading
paper, which is "sheared" as a result. imposed is called a live load.
5. Bending, as the name implies, means the bend- The load factor is the ratio of th e actual load acting on the
ing of a long member due to a load or weight wings to the gross weight of the aeroplane. In other words,
being imposed on it. Aircraft spars, or beam s, it is the ratio of the live load to the dead load. When an aero-
must resist severe bending s tresses. plane is in level flight, the lift of the wings is exactly equ al to
An aeroplane structure in flight is subjected to m any stresses the weight of the aeroplane. The load factor is th en said to be
due to the varying loads that may be imposed. The designer's 1. In most maneuvers, such as a change in attitude, a banked
problem is to try to anticipate the possible stresses that the turn, a pull out or any maneuver causing acceleration, cen-
structure will h ave to endure and to build it sufficiently strong trifugal force enters the picture and brings about a ch ange in
the load factor. In a level turn at a bank an gle of 30 degrees,

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 The Aeroplane: Airframe Loads & Load Factors

for example, the load on the wings is increased to 1.15. In a 60 total lift were to exceed the total weight by a factor of 2, the
degree bank, the load factor goes up to 2. In a h ard landing, aeroplane would experience a 2G acceleration . This is known
the total load acting upward on the wheels may be as much as a gust load.
as three times the weight of the aeroplane. The landing load
Gusts can impose very high load factors on the aeroplane. In
factor in this case would be 3. fact, since gust loads can be sufficiently severe to be danger-
A load factor of 3 is often expressed as 3G. In this case, the ous, it is wise to avoid, if at all possible, extremely rough air.
letter G refers to gravity. Hence, 3G means a load on the wings
The faster the aeroplane is going, the more stress to which
equal to three times the weight of the aeroplane due to grav-
it is subjected when a vertical gust is encountered. For this
ity alone.
reason, when flying in rough air conditions, it is safer to slow
There are, of course, maximum limits to which an aircraft is the aeroplane to a speed somewhat below the normal smooth
designed. These are usually referred to as limit load factors. air cruising speed.
The fact that it is sometimes possible to exceed these limits On encou ntering any degree of t u rbulence, the airspeed
is evidence of the safety factor that is incorporated in all air-
should be reduced to the recommended maneuvering speed.
craft designs. Nevertheless, the limit load factor should not
Aeroplane manufacturers always specify in the pilot's oper-
be exceeded intentionally because of the possibility of caus-
ating handbook (POH) a recommended maneuvering speed
ing permanent set or distortion of the structure. (VA) for each model of aeroplane. This is the maximum speed
The flight maneuvers which impose high load factors are: at which full deflection of the controls can be made without
steep turns, pull-outs, flick rolls, tail slides, an d inverted exceeding the design limit load factor and damaging th e
loops. These should be executed with due consideration on aeroplane primary structure.
the pilot's part of the stresses which the particular aeroplane
The aeroplane designer determines the maneuvering speed
he/she is flying is designed to withstand.
by a formula that multiplies the flaps-up, power-off stall
Aeroplanes which fly at several times their stalling speed are speed at gross weight by the square root of the design limit
subj ect to excessive G loads in some circumstances. In an load factor of the aeroplane. Most general aviation, normal
aeroplane that is flying at twice its stall speed, if the angle of category aeroplanes are certificated to withstand 3.8G. The
attack is abruptly increased to obtain maximum lift, a load maneuvering speed works out to be 1.9 times the stall speed
factor of 4 will be produced; at three times the stall speed, 9G at gross weight and it is this airspeed that is usually pub-
would result; at four times the stall speed, 16G would result. lished in the pilot's operating handbook. This airspeed guar-
Weight also can result in high load factors. If an aeroplane antees that the aeroplane will stall at the limit load factor.
is heavily loaded, the allowable load factors will be reduced However, this maneuvering speed is not always the best
accordingly and the pilot is likely to damage the structure speed at which to penetrate turbulence. In the first place, an
in maneuvers that would normally be quite safe. Therefore,
aeroplane flying into turbulence is flying with power. The
when doing aerobatics, always be sure that the aeroplane is
power-on stall speed of an aeroplane is significantly less than
lightly loaded.
its power-off stall speed. In the second place, turbulence is a
form of wind sh ear which causes airspeed fluctuations. Rapid
i.4.2 Load Factors airspeed fluctuations of 5 to 15 knots in light turbulence
In flying a heavily loaded aeroplane, a pilot should not trust and up to 25 knots in severe turbulence can be expected.
his/ her senses in determining the actual load on the wings. Consequently, the best airspeed at which to penetrate turbu-
Because the heavy aeroplane is steady even in rough air, the lence should be at least 10 knots below the published maneu-
pilot may get the false impression that the air tu rbulence is vering speed to compensate for the stall delaying effects of
not excessive. However, the wings sense the actual load and power and the effect of wind shear.
may be about at their breaking point. On the other hand, a A further consideration is the fact that the published maneu-
pilot flying an aeroplane that is lightly loaded may experi- vering speed is valid only when the aeroplane is at gross
ence a good deal of buffeting and personal discomfort in weight. Because stall speed decreases as weight decreases
rough air. Because of this, he/she may feel that the load factor and because the maneuvering speed is a function of stall
is excessive whereas the wings which sense the actual load speed, a lightly loaded aeroplane should be flown at a slower
are not being over stressed. In any degree of turbulence, it is airspeed in turbulence than one that is more heavily loaded.
important to reduce the airspeed to prevent damage to the The lightly loaded aeroplane is accelerated more easily by
aeroplane structure. (See Gust Load below.) gusts. A 20% decrease in w eight requires a 10% decrease in
Gusts are rapid and irregular fluctuations of varying inten- maneuvering speed.
sity in the upward and downward movement of air currents. All of these factors demonstrate that the safest airspeed at
An aeroplane in a rising or descending current of air is not which to penetrate turbulence is one that is somewhat less
affected. When, however, the speed or direction of the air than the published maneuvering speed and, depending on
current changes abruptly (such as when flying at high speed the all-up weight, would range between 1.6 and 1.9 times the
through successive up -and-down gusts), load changes are flaps -up, power-off stall speed. This speed is below VAbut well
imposed on the aeroplane structure. When an aeroplane above the stall.
flies out of a down-gust and immediately into an up-gust, for While it is important to be concerned about subjecting the
example, the effect on the wings is to suddenly increase the aeroplane to excessive structural loads when flying in turbu-
angle of attack. The lift is then in excess of the weight, and lence, it is also essential to maintain control of the aeroplane
the aeroplane accelerates in an upward direction, just as it at all times while in flight. Having adequate control to recover
would if the pilot suddenly pulled back on the controls. If the from the lateral and directional upsets that are the result of

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

The Aeroplane: Aircraft Logbooks & Inspections

excessive turbulence requires flying at an airspeed at which

the control surfaces are effective. The airspeed at which to fly i.5.2 Aircraft Inspection Requirements
in turbulence is therefore a compromise between structural An aeroplane must be inspected periodically by a qualified
and controllability margins. maintenance engineer and certified as airworthy in the
The accepted procedure for flight in turbulence is to keep Aircraft Technical Log, as specified by regulations, and as
the wings level, maintain a normal pitch attitude and move detailed in the Airworthiness Manuals.
the controls smoothly and slowly to recover from attitude Inspections at prescribed regulated intervals must consist of
displacement. Do not try to maintain altitude. Vertical air checks of aircraft component groups such as: the fuselage,
currents will probably cause significant altitude variations. Do the cabin, the engine(s), the landing gear, the wings, the
try to maintain attitude and airspeed. empennage, the propeller, and the radios. Such inspections
It is quite possible in turbulent conditions for the aeroplane are designed to look for, amongst other requirements, proper
to stall. In most instances, the wings stall and recover before functionalities, proper installations , evidence of deterioration
the pilot even realizes what has happened. Safety is unlikely or defectiveness, unsatisfactory operations, dirty or loose
to be jeopardized unless the aeroplane has undesirable stall equipment, breakages, leaks, cracks, insecure attachments,
characteristics or is flying near to the ground as during the proper fluid levels, general wear and tear, and/or generally
approach to landing when a stall can result in an accident. poor conditions.
In these instances, a higher airspeed nearer to the published Aircraft manufacturers may produce detailed inspection
maneuvering speed to allow for a greater margin above stall checklists. Such checklists may be used for required inspec-
is preferable. tions so long as they include all items specified for inspection
These facts relating to loads are of critical importance and by regulations.
should be understood and intelligently applied so that you
never impose loads on any aeroplane that you might be flying
in excess of the limit load for which it was designed. 1.6 Aircraft Categories
& Classes
i.s Aircraft Logbooks Aircraft are organized into different categories and classes
& Inspections depending on whether they are referencing the certification of
pilots or the certification of the aircraft themselves. They are
further differentiated depending on their configurations and
i.5 .1 Aircraft Technical Logbooks intended design applications.

The life of the airframe, engine(s) and propeller(s) is recorded For the purposes assigned to pilot certification, aircraft cat-
in the Aircraft Technical Log which comprises an Airframe egories are described as follows: aeroplane, rotorcraft, glider,
Log, a Record of Installations and Modifications, an Engine lighter-than-air, and powered-lift. Aircraft classes within
Log for each engine and a Propeller Log for each propeller. All these categories typically include the following: single-engine
maintenance, repairs, new installations, modifications, etc., land, multi-engine land, single-engine sea, multi-engine sea,
m ust be completely recorded in the appropriate section of the helicopter, gyroplane, airship, and free balloon.
Aircraft Technical Log. As it concerns personal licences to fly aircraft, licences may
A record of both flight time and air time and particulars of take the form of the following: student pilot permit, recre-
every flight is kept in a suitable Aircraft Journey Log. Air time ational pilot permit, private pilot licence, commercial pilot
is defined as the period of time commencing when the aero- licence, airline transport pilot licence. Specific ratings may be
plane leaves the supporting surface and terminating when it added to pilot licences identifying a pilot's additional quali-
touches the supporting surface at the next point of landing. fications which may include: an aircraft type rating, a night
Flight time is defined as the total time from the moment an rating, an instrument rating, and a flight instructor rating.
aeroplane first moves under its own power for the purpose of Aircraft categories designated for the purposes of the certi-
taking off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the fication of the aircraft themselves are identified as follows:
flight. Flight time is the time pilots should record in their log- normal category, utility category, aerobatic category, com-
books. Air time and flight time should be recorded to the near- muter category, transport category, as well as for other more
est 5 m inutes (e.g. 1 hour 5 minutes, 1hour25 minutes, etc.) or specialized categories. Federal licencing authorities insist
to the nearest 6 minutes when using the decimal system (e.g. that intended use and operating limitations be published
1.1 hours, 1.5 hours, etc.). before civil aeroplanes can be approved for certification. This
Logbook information may be recorded electronically rather information is also found in the aircraft's Pilot's Operating
than in a hard copy logbook, but it must be retrievable from Handbook (POH). The intended use and operating limitations
its electronic form . for these categories are briefly described below.
Although regulations do not require it, it is a recommended
practice to keep logbooks for an ultralight aeroplane as well, i.6.1 Normal Category
so that there is a record of maintenance, repairs, modifica- Most small aeroplanes fall within the normal category.
tions, etc., and especially of time on the engine. Maximum gross weight operations are permitted but certain
maneuvers, such as spins, steep turns, etc., are prohibited.
Some aeroplanes in the normal category can also be certified
in the utility category.

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 The Aeroplane: Aircraft Categories & Classes

aeroplane in the aerobatic category, it is essential to ensure

that the weight and balance limits recommended by the
manufacturer are respected. The weight and balance envelope
is usu ally restricted when the aeroplane is to be flown in the
aerobatic category.

Fig.1.2 7 Normal Category, Single-Engine

i.6.2 Utility Category

Aeroplanes that fall within this category can withstand stron-
ger loads than those in the normal category. Certain specified
Fig .1. 29 Aerobatic Category, Single-Engine
maneuvers may be performed but they must be carried ou t at
reduced weight, narrower center of gravity range and reduced
airspeed. Baggage compartmen ts and rear seats must u sually i.6.4 Commuter Category
be empty. When operated in the utility category, the follow-
ing m aneuvers are usually permitted: chandelles, lazy eights, Commuter category aircraft are designed to carry passengers.
steep turns, spins and stalls. The utility category is primarily Those that fall within this category are limited by their seat-
for the pur pose of instructing and training pilots in certain ing capacity and by their overall weight.
flight maneuvers.

Fig. 1. 30 Commuter Category, Multi-Engine

i.6.5 Transport Category

Transport category aircraft consist of airliners and other large
Fig.1. 28 Utility Category, Single-Engine aeroplanes which exceed certain passenger-carrying capacity
and weight limits.
These operating limitations are set as a result of wing loading
and center of gravity consideration s.
Positive limit load factors for the normal category are 3.8
times the gross weight. The reduced gross weight of the util-
ity category permits a limit load factor of 4.4 times the gross
weight.
When operating in the utility category, higher G forces can be
imposed on the airframe. With the aeroplane's weight being
less than the maximum gross weight, the ultimate strength
factor of the airframe w ill not be exceeded. > - " -~ • ~:.;'i'"~·r;..,j.'.}~-::i..>.: ...... it~·;_,;,,,_~/,•.~,._,.· ..'I.
,.:.-r, ...

""'-' - '
The negative limit load factors for both normal and utility cat-
egories are approximately -1.52 and -1.76 respectively.
Fi g. 1.31 Transport Category, Muli-Engine

i.6. 3 Aerobatic Category

In th e aerobatic category, the positive limit load factor may be
as much as 6.0 times the gross weight and th e negative limit
may be as much as -5.0 times the gross weigh t (depending on
the particular make and model of aeroplane). When flying an

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

The Aeroplane: Aircraft Categories & Classes

i.6.6 Additional Categories

The restricted category designation applies to aircraft used
for special applications such as aerial fire-fighting, aerial
photography and survey, aerial advertising other than banner
towing, agricultural applications such as crop spraying, and
any other similar services.
The limited category applies to aeroplanes which have been
accepted for limited use in the civil service having once been
used in military service.
The amateur-built category (also referred to as experimental
aircraft) is the designation which applies to homebuilt air-
craft, or kitplanes, that are built by their owners.

Fig.1.32 Amateur-Built Category, Single - Engine

Fig .1.33 Rotorcraft Category, Helicopter

Fig.1.34 Lighter-than-Air Category, Airship

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronaut ical Fundamentals

2 Theory of Flight Similarly, when lift and weight are equal and opposite, the
aeroplane will be in equilibrium. If lift, however, is greater
than weight, the aeroplane will climb. If weight is greater th an
lift, th e aeroplane will sink.
Why learn about Theory of Flight?
Let us first consider the force of lift.
The pilot today has a large variety of aeroplanes from which
to choose. Some of these aeroplanes may fly at less than 100
knots top speed while others are capable of speeds well into
Lift
the hundreds of knots. Some are single seaters carrying only If you consider the definitions cited by air authorities, a boy
the pilot, while others, even in the single-engine light aero- flying a kite could be construed to be a pilot in charge of an
plane classification, may carry 10 or m ore passengers. Some aeroplane! Ponder the idea a m oment and it may not appear
aeroplanes have laminar flow airfoil sections; others h ave quite as absurd as it seems at first glance.
airfoils of conventional design . A few light aeroplanes fly at A kite is an inclined plane, the weight of which is supported
3.5 times their stalling speed; others do well to cruise at 1.3 in the air by the reaction of the wind flowing against it . If
times their stalling speed. Every one of these aeroplanes has we substitute for the string, wh ich h olds the kite against the
different flight ch aracteristics. If a pilot h as a good grasp of wind, the engine and propeller of an aeroplane, which move
the fundament als of flight, he/she will understand what to the wings forward against the airflow, we will see that the
expect of each different aeroplane that he/she m ay have the analogy of the kite is not without some validity.
opportunity to fly. Pilots will understand how best to handle
The wings of an aeroplane are so designed that when moved
each aeroplane as a result of their knowledge of the theory of
through the air horizontally, the force exerted on them pro-
design. They will comprehend the various loads to which an
duces a reaction as nearly vertical as possible. It is this reac-
aeroplane of a particular design may be exposed wh ile flying
tion that lifts the weight of the aeroplane.
under abnormal or adverse conditions of flight. Not only to
get the best performance but also to en sure the safety of each AIRFOILS
flight, an understanding of "Theory of Flight" is essential. An airfoil, or airfoil section, may be defined as any surface
The study of theory of flight and aerodyn amics can be a life- designed to obtain a reaction from the air through which it
time proposition . New theories are forever being put forward. moves, that is, to obtain lift. It has been found that the most
Some questions h ave answers that are difficult to find. Others suitable shape for producing lift is a curved or cambered
perhaps do not yet have adequate answers. The information shape.
that comprises this chapter can only be considered an intro- The camber of an airfoil is the curvature of the upper and
duction to a substantial but fascinating study. lower surfaces. In earlier days, most airfoils had flat bottoms
with, thus, only the upper surface having a camber. As airfoil
design matured, lower surfaces also came to incorporate cam-
2.1 Aeronautical bered shapes resulting in such airfoil designs being referred to
as double-cambered. Usually, the u pper surface h as a greater
Fundamentals camber than the lower.
The mean camber line is the line equidistant from th e upper
and lower surfaces of the airfoil. Total airfoil camber is
2.u Forces Acting on an defined as the maximum distance of the mean camber line
Aeroplane in Flight from the chord line, expressed as a percent of the chord.
There are four forces acting on an aeroplane in flight. These
are thrust, drag, lift and weight. Mean camber line

1. Th rust. The force exerted by the engine and its

propeller(s) which pushes air backward causing a reac-
tion, or thrust, in the forward direction.
2. Drag. The resistance to forward m otion directly opposed
to thrust. Fig. 2.1 An Airfoil Section

3. Lift. The force upward which sustains the aeroplane in HOW LIFT IS CREATED
flight. What, then, causes this lift, you may ask.
4. Weight. The downward force due to gravity, directly Air flowing around an airfoil is subject to the Laws of Motion
opposed to lift. discovered by Isaac Newton. Air, being a gaseous fluid, pos-
When thrust and drag are equal and opposite, the aeroplane sesses inertia and, according to Newton's First Law, when
is said to be in a state of equilibrium. That is to say, it will in motion tends to remain in motion. The introduction of an
continue to move forward at the same uniform rate of speed. airfoil into the streamlined airflow alters the uniform flow of
(Equilibrium refers to steady motion and not to a state of rest.) air. Newton's Second Law states that a force must be applied
to alter the state of uniform motion of a body. The airfoil is th e
If either of these forces becomes greater than the force oppos- force that acts on the body (in th is case, th e air) to produce a
ing it, the state of equilibrium will be lost. If th rust is greater ch ange of direction. The application of such a force causes an
than drag, the aeroplane will accelerate or gain speed. If drag equal and opposite reaction (Newton's Third Law) called, in
is greater than th rust, the aeroplane will decelerate or lose this case, lift.
speed.

From the Grou nd Up 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

sometimes called relative wind.) If a wing is moving forward

- - - - - - - Undisturbed airflow - - - - - - - - . - and downward, the relative airflow is upward and backward.
If the wing is moving forward horizontally, the relative air-
flow moves backward horizontally. The flight path and the
relative airflow are, therefore, always parallel but travel in
opposite directions.
Relative airflow is created by the motion of the aeroplane
through the air. It is also created by the motion of air past a
stationary body or by a combination of both. Therefore, on a
take-off roll, an aeroplane is subject to the relative airflow cre-
Fig. 2.2 Airflow over an Airfoil ated by its motion along the ground and also by the moving
mass of air (wind).
As the air passes over the wing towards the trailing edge, the
air flows not only rearward but downward as well. This flow In flight, however, only the motion of the aeroplane produces
is called downwash . At the same time, the airflow passing a relative airflow. The direction and speed of the wind have no
under the wing is deflected downward by the bottom surface effect on relative airflow.
of the wing. Think of a water ski or surfboard planing over the
Decreased
water. In exerting a downward force upon the air, the wing pressure zones
receives an upward counterforce. Remember Newton's Third
Law - for every action there is an opposite and equal reac-
tion. Therefore, the more air deflected downward, the more
lift is created. Air is heavy; its weight exerts a pressure of 14.7
lbs per square inch at sea level. The reaction produced by the
40 •
downwash is therefore significant.
Increased
The phenomenon defined by Bernoulli's Principle also has an pressure zones
effect in the production of lift by the wing moving through
Fig. 2.4 Change of Pressure Distribution with Angle of Attack
the air. Scientist Daniel Bernoulli discovered that the total
energy in any system remains constant. In other words, if one The envelopes indicated in Fig.2.4 do not represent the actual areas
element of an energy system is increased, another decreases of high and low pressure. These exist only in close proximity to the
to counter balance it. Take the example of water flowing surfaces. They represent the comparative distribution of pressure
through a Venturi tube. Being incompressible, the water must as determined by pressure plotting. In Fig.2.4, the darker shading
speed up to pass through the constricted space of the Venturi. represents increased pressure, the lighter shading, decreased pressure.
The moving water has energy in the form of both pressure
and speed. Within the Venturi tube, pressure is sacrificed ANGLE OF ATTACK & CENTRE OF PRESSURE
(decreased) to accelerate the speed of the flow. The angle at which the airfoil meets the relative airflow is
called the angle of attack (see Fig.2.5).
As the angle of attack is increased, the changes in pressure
over the upper and lower surfaces and the amount of down-
wash (i.e. air deflected downward) increase up to a point (the
stalling angle). Beyond this angle, they decrease (Fig.2.4).
Decreased pressure If we consider all the distributed pressure to be equivalent to
a single force, this force w ill act through a straight line. The
point where this line cuts the chord of an airfoil is called the
centre of pressure.

Increased pressure

Fig. 2.3 Pressure Distribution over an Airfoil

Air is a fluid, just like water, and can be assumed incompress- Relative
ible insofar as speed aerodynamics is concerned. As such, it airflow
acts exactly the same way as water in a Venturi tube.
Picture the curved upper surface of a wing as the bottom half
of a Venturi tube. The upper half of this imaginary tube is the Fi g. 2.5 Angle of Attack
undisturbed airflow above the wing.
Thus, it will be seen that as the angle of attack of an airfoil
Air flowing over the wing's upper surface accelerates as it
passes through the constricted area just as it does in the is increased up to the point of stall, the centre of pressure
Venturi tube. The result is a decrease in pressure on the upper will move forward. Beyond this point, it will move back. The
surface of the wing that results in the phenomenon known movement of the centre of pressure causes an aeroplane to
be unstable.
as lift.

RELATIVE AIRFLOW
Relative airfl ow is a term used to describe the direction of
the airflow with respect to the wing. (In other texts, it is

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

refers to the drag created by the interference in airflow

Weight between two sections of the aircraft.
The weight of an aeroplane is the force which acts vertically
downward toward the centre of the earth and is the result of Although overall parasite drag can never be eliminated
gravity. completely, it can be substantially reduced. One method
is to eliminate those parts of the aeroplane that cause
Just as the lift of an aeroplane acts through the centre of pres-
it. For example, retractable landing gear which fold into
sure, the weight of an aeroplane acts through the centre of
the wings (or into the fuselage) eliminate completely the
gravity (C.G.). This is the point through which the resultant of
drag created by a fixed landing gear which protrudes
the weights of all the various parts of the aeroplane passes, in
into the airflow. Also, wing struts have been removed
every attitude th at it can assume.
from som e high-wing designs in favour of fully can-
tilevered wings. Parasite drag reduction can also be
Thrust achieved by streamlin ing those parts that cannot be
Thrust provides the forward motion of the aeroplane. There eliminated. Skin friction can be reduced substantially
are several ways to produce this force - jets, propellers or by the removal of dust, dirt , mud or ice that has col-
rockets - but they all depend on th e principle of pushing lected on the aeroplane.
air backward with the object of causing a reaction, or thrust,
in the forward direction. The effect is the same whether the Even some of the most carefully designed individual
thrust is produced by a propeller moving a large mass of air parts must, however, be joined together to create the
backward at a relatively slow speed or by a jet moving a small total aeroplane. Resistance caused by the interfer-
mass of air backward at a relatively high speed. A full descrip- ence drag of one part where it connects to another, (for
tion of engines and propellers will be found in the Chapter example, where the wing is attached to the fuselage, or
Aero Engines. the struts are attached to the wings), can be reduced by
careful design of fairings that smooth out the junctions
where parts meet.
Drag
Drag is the resistance an aeroplane experiences in moving 2. Induced Drag is caused by those parts of an aeroplane
which are active in producing lift (i.e. the wing). It is the
forward th rough the air.
result of the wing's work in sustaining the aeroplane
For an aeroplane to maintain steady flight, there must be suf- and is, therefore, a part of the lift and can never be
ficient lift to balance the weight of the aeroplane, and there eliminated. It increases as the angle of attack increases
must be sufficient thrust to overcome drag. and decreases as the angle of attack decreases.

Induced drag can be reduced only during the initial

designing of an aeroplane. A wing with a high aspect
ratio (that is, with a very long span and a narrow chord)
produces less induced drag than does a wing with a
short span and a wide chord. Gliders and sail planes are
therefore commonly designed with high aspect ratio
wings.

Fig.2.6 Forces Acting on an Airfoil

Fig.2.6 shows an airfoil moving forward through the air and

depicts the principle known as the resolution of forces . The Fig.2.7 Airflow over the Top Surface
vertical component (OL) is the lift and is used to support the
weight of the aeroplane. The horizontal component (OD) is the The phenomenon, known as wing tip vortices, is testimony to
drag. OR is the resultant reaction of these two components. the existence of induced drag.

Since drag is a force directly opposed to the forward motion of As the decreased pressure over the top of the wing is less than
the airfoil and, as the work of overcoming it is performed by the atmospheric pressure around it, the air flowing over the
the engine, it is desirable to have it as small as possible. top surface tends to flow inward.

Drag is of two principal types.

1. Parasite Drag is the term given to the drag of all those
parts of the aeroplane which do not contribute to lift.
This includes the fuselage, landing gear, struts, anten-
nas, wing tip fuel tanks, etc. In addition, any loss of
momentum of the airstream caused by openings, such Fig. 2.8 Airflow over the Bottom Surface
as those in the cowling and those between the wing and
the ailerons and the flaps , add to parasite drag. The air flowing over the lower surface, due to the lower p res-
sure around it, tends to flow outward and curl upward over
Parasite drag may be divided into three components: the wing tip.
(1) form drag refers to the drag created by the form or
shape of a body as it resists motion through the air; (2)
skin friction refers to the tendency of air flowin g over
a body to cling to its surface; and (3) interference drag

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

Hence the lift of an aircraft can be

expressed as a formula by: CL x 1h p V2 x S
and the drag by: C0 x ~ p V2 x S
Fig.2.9 Wing Tip Vortices
The symbols CL and CD represent the lift coefficient and drag
When the two airflows unite at the trailing edge, they are coefficient respectively. They depend on the shape of the air-
flowing contra-wise. Eddies and vortices are formed which foil and will alter with changes in the angle of attack.
tend to unite into one large eddy at each wing tip. These are
The lift-drag ratio is used to express the relationship between
called wing tip vortices. This disturbed air exerts a resistant
lift and drag and is obtained by dividing the lift coefficient by
force against the forward motion of the wing. This resistant
the drag coefficient: CL/CD.
force is known as induced drag.
The characteristics of any particular airfoil section can con-
In order to support the weight of an aeroplane, a large amount
veniently be represented by curves on a graph showing the
of air must be displaced downward. This displaced air must
amount of lift and drag obtained at various angles of attack,
have somewhere to go and tends to flow spanwise outwards,
the lift-drag ratio, and the movement of the centre of pressure
as explained above. It is seeking to escape around the wing
(Fig.2.10).
tips and to flow into the low pressure area over the upper
surface of the w ing where it spoils some of the lift potential. Notice that the lift curve (CL) reaches its maximum for this
It will be obvious that the heavier the aeroplane and the particular wing section at 18° angle of attack and then rapidly
higher the span loading on the wing, the more air it will dis- decreases. 18° is therefore the stalling angle.
place downward, the greater will be the circulation of air, the The drag curve (CD) increases very rapidly from 14° angle of
greater the magnitude of the wing tip vortex created and the attack and completely overcomes the lift at 22° angle of attack.
greater the induced drag.
The lift-drag ratio (LID) reaches its maximum at 0° angle of
The operational aspects of flight in areas where wing tip vorti- attack, meaning that at this angle we obtain the most lift for
ces are present are discussed in the section Wake Turbulence the least amount of drag.
in Chapter Airmanship.
Induced drag does not increase as the speed increases. On the 2.4 _4g
contrary, it is greatest when the aeroplane is flying slowly,
a few knots above the stalling speed when maximum lift is 2.0 .40

being realized at minimum speed.

1.6 .32
The induced drag characteristics of a wing are not the same
24 1.2 .24
very near the ground as they are at altitude. During landing
and take- off, the ground interferes with the formation of .e_, 16 _g .16 c
a large wing tip vortex. Induced drag is, therefore, reduced 0
u u
·~
c c
when an aeroplane is flown very near the ground. This phe- "'r:"" g
.!! .os ·C
v ifQI
nomenon is known as ground effect. (See Ground Effect in Cl
0 .o
:s
QI
0 u
0
Chapter Airmanship.) .:::
::; u
0

.::: .
5""
Although induced drag cannot be eliminated, it can be 8 .4 ::l
go oo go 16° 24° 32°
reduced by certain design features. For example, less induced
Angle Of Attack a
drag results from a long, n arrow wing as compared to a short,
broad wing. It has also been found that w inglets are effective
in reducing induced drag. Attached to the wing tip, the wing- Fig.2.10 Lift & Drag Curves
let - a small, vertical surface of airfoil section - is effective in The curves in Fig.2.10 are for a particular airfoil section, the Clark Y.
producing side forces that diffuse the wing tip vortex flow. The values of CL, CD and LID us angle of attack will differ for every
LIFT & DRAG CURVES individual airfoil design . The general appearance of the co-ordinates
As the amount of lift varies with the angle of attack, so too in Fig.2.10, however, is similar throughout a wide range of airfoil
does the drag. Hence drag is the price we pay for lift. Although sections employed by aircraft designers today.
it is desirable to obtain as much lift as possible from a wing, The centre of pressure (C.P.) moves gradually forward till 12°
this cannot be done without increasing the drag. It is therefore angle of attack is reached and from 18° commences to move
necessary to find the best compromise. back.
The lift and drag of an airfoil depend not only on the angle of THRUST AVAILABLE & DRAG
attack, but also upon: The useful output of an aircraft engine is power. The power
1. The shape of the airfoil. generated by a piston engine is used to turn a propeller which
produces thrust by pushing a large volume of air backwards.
2. The plan area of the airfoil (or wing area) - S.
The greatest amount of thrust available from the propeller
3. The square of the velocity (or true airspeed) - V'.
driven aeroplane engine occurs when the engine is running
4. The density of the air - p. at full power and the aeroplane is standing stationary on the
ground. As the aeroplane begins to move, the thrust available
decreases with an increase in speed. The principal reason
for this is that the drag curve rises rapidly as the aeroplane
begins to move. Because they both h ave a relationship with

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

drag, weight and aeroplane configuration affect the thrust/

drag scenario: weight affecting induced drag and aeroplane
configuration affecting parasite drag.
On take-off, full power is used for a few minutes, but within
seconds after lift-off, the power is reduced to that required
........ .........
Down-going aileron
moves through small
angle; less drag.
~ ~
Up-going aileron moves
through large angle;
more drag.
for climbing. After cruise altitude is reached, the power is
reduced to cruise power which is between 65% and 75% of full Fig.2.12 Differential Ailerons
rated power.
If the weight of the aeroplane is increased, the performance of
the aeroplane is decreased. Every extra pound of weight car-
ried by any aeroplane reduces its performance.
.Down-going
- iaileron
. ." .-i..~
Up-going aileron leading
More power is required by the aeroplane at every increase in streamlined into wing: edge projects into airflow:
reduced drag. increased drag.
speed to produce the thrust required to keep the aeroplane
flyin g at the desire d speed and altitude. The power required
curve is characteristically U-shaped and similar to the drag Fig.2 .13 Fri se Ailerons
curve. The power required to fly the aeroplane at a constant
altitude varies with the drag existing at the different air- THE BOUNDARY LAYER
speeds. To increase the speed, with weight and aeroplane The boundary layer is a very thin sheet of air lying over the
configuration remaining constant, additional thrust/power is surface of the wing (and, for that matter, all other surfaces of
required. Testing and graphed results of such tests indicate the aeroplane). Because air has viscosity, this layer of air tends
that four times the thrust is required to double the speed. to adhere to the wing. As the wing moves forward through
the air, the boundary layer at first flows smoothly over the
STREAMLINING streamlined shape of the airfoil. Here the flow is called the
In this age when everything from trains to children's toys laminar layer.
is streamlined, it hardly seems necessary to explain what
streamlining means. Basically, streamlining is a design device
by which a body is so shaped that drag is minimized as the
body moves forward through the air. A flat plate or a round
ball moving through the air disturb the smooth flow of air and
set up eddies behind them.

Fig.2.14 Laminar & Turbulent Layer

As the boundary layer approaches the centre of the wing,

it begins to lose speed due to skin friction and it becom es
thicker and turbulent. Here it is called the turbu lent layer. The
point at which the boundary layer ch anges from laminar to
turbulent is called the transition point (Fig.2.14). Where the
Fi g.2. 11 Effe cts of Strea mlining
bound ary layer becomes turbulent, drag due to skin friction
A streamlined sh ape sm ooths out the airflow, eliminates the is relatively high . As speed increases , the transition point
eddies, reduces the drag and minimizes the energy required tends to m ove forw ard . As the an gle of attack increases , the
to m ove th at body through the air, as can be seen in Fig.2.11. tran sition point also tends to m ove forward. Various m ethods
h ave been developed to control the boundary layer in order to
AILERON DRAG reduce skin fri ction drag.
In ban king to m ake an aeropl ane turn, one aileron is
The suction method uses a series of thin slots in the wing
depressed and the other is raised. The downgoing aileron ,
running out from the wing root towards the tip. A vacuum
being depressed into the compressed airflow on the underside
sucks the air down through the slots, preventing the airflow
of the wing, causes drag. The upgoing aileron, moving up into
from breaking aw ay from the wing and forcing it to follow the
a m ore streamlined position, causes less drag. The drag on the
curvature of the wing surface. The air, which is sucked in,
downgoing aileron is known as aileron drag and, if not cor-
siphons through the ducts inside the wing and is exhausted
rected for in the design of the aileron, tends to cause a yaw in
backwards to provide extra thrust .
the opposite direction to which the bank is applied.
Transition Point
Both frise and differential ailerons h ave been designed to Laminar to Turbulent Flow
overcome aileron drag. On differential ailerons, the downgo-
ing aileron moves through a smaller angle than the upgoing
aileron. As a result, the downgoing aileron, although it still
causes drag, causes less drag than an aileron not so designed.
The upgoing aileron, moving through a larger angle, causes
more drag. The combined effect is a balance that more or
less eliminates aileron drag. In frise ailerons, the nose of the
upgoing aileron projects into the airflow, while the downgoing
aileron is streamlined.

Fig.2.15 Transi ti on Points

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

The laminar fl ow airfoil is itself a structural design intended Notice that in Fig.2.18 Forces Acting on an Aeroplane in Flight,
to make possible better boundary layer control. The thickest weight is placed ahead of lift and drag is above thrust. As a
part of a laminar flow wing occurs at 50% chord. The transi - result, when the engine is shut off and there is no thrust, the
tion point at which the laminar flow of air breaks down into couple due to weight and lift will naturally tend to turn t_h e
turbulence is at or near the thickest part. As can be seen in the nose down.
accompanying illustration (Fig. 2.15), the transition point at In the case of a flying boat (amphibian aircraft) design, when
which the laminar flow of air becomes turbulent on a laminar the thrust line is above the aircraft's centre of gravity, such
flow airfoil is rearward of that same point on a conventional as with a rear-facing pusher engine, the tail loads balance the
designed airfoil. (See also Laminar Flow Airfoils.) pitch-down effect creating a dynamic, as opposed to weight,
balance.
Vortex Generators

2.i.2 Design of the Wing

The typ e of operation for wh ich an aeroplane is intended
h as a very importan t bea ring on the selection of the sh ape
and design of the wing for that aeroplane. If the aeroplane is
designed for low speed, a thick airfoil is most efficient. A thin
airfoil is best for high speed.
Airflow

Fig.2.16 Vortex Generators Conventional Airfoils

The following illustrations depict a selection of designs of air-
Vortex generators (Fig.2.16) are small plates about an inch foil sections. These are known as conventional airfoils.
deep standing on edge in a row spanwise along the wing.
They are placed at an angle of attack and (like a wing airfoil Low Camber
section) generate vortices. These tend to prevent or delay the
breakaway of the boundary layer by re-energizing it. They are
lighter and simpler than the suction boundary layer control Low drag, high speed, thin wing section. Suitable for race
system described above. planes, fighters, interceptors, etc.

Couples Deep Camber

The principle of equilibrium has already been introduced at
the beginning of this chapter in the discussion of the forces
that act on an aeroplane in flight. When two forces, such as
thrust and drag, are equal and opposite but parallel, rather High lift, low speed, thick wing section. Suitable for
than passing through the sam e point, they are said to form transports, freighters, bombers, etc.
a couple.
A couple will cause a turning moment about a given axis as
in Fig.2.17.
High lift, low speed, thin wing section. Suitable as above.

Tu min ~ Moment

Reflex trailing edge wing section. Very little

movement of centre of pressure. Good stability.
Fig .2.1 7 Effe ct of a Couple

If weight is ah ead of lift, the couple created w ill turn the nose Symmetrical
of the aeropl ane down. Conversely, if lift is ahead of weight,
the couple created will turn the nose of the aeroplane up.
If drag is above thrust, the couple formed will turn the nose Cambered top and bottom wing sections. Similar to above.
of the aeroplane up. Conversely, if thrust is above drag, the
couple formed will turn the nose of the aeroplane down . GA(W}-1

Lift
Thicker for better structure and lower weight, good stall
characteristics. Camber is maintained farther rearward which
increases lifting capability over more of the airfoil and
decreases drag.
Fi g.2.19 Conventional Airfoil Designs & Characteristics

Fig.2.18 Forces Acting on an Aeroplane in Flight

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

Laminar Flow Airfoils

Another type of airfoil, the previously mentioned laminar
flow airfoil, is in common use on today's aeroplanes.
Laminar flow airfoils were originally developed fo r the pur-
pose of making an aeroplane fly faster. The laminar fl ow wing Horizontal
is usually thinner than the conventional airfoil, the leading Datum Line

edge is more pointed and its upper and lower surfaces are Fig.2.21 Angle of Incidence
nearly symmetrical. The major and most important difference
between the two types of airfoil is this: the thickest part of a The angle of incidence that is usually chosen is the angle of
laminar wing occurs at 50% chord while in the conventional attack at which the lift-drag ratio is optimum (see Fig.2.10).
design the thickest part is at 25% chord. In most modern aeroplanes, there is a sm all positive angle of
incidence so that the wing has a slight an gle of attack when
Conventional Airfoil Section
the aeroplane is in level cruising flight.

Wing Tip Design

Specially designed wing tips h ave been found to be effective
Spar Location in controlling induced drag and wing tip vortices. These vor-
tices kill lift, create drag and cause instability at high angles
of attack and at low airspeed. Any method that is effective in
inhibiting their development increases the efficiency of the
aeroplane.
Fig . 2.20 Laminar Airfoil The installation of wing tip tanks has several advantages.
They increase the range of the aeroplane and distribute the
The effect achieved by this design of wing is to maintain the weight over a greater portion of the wing but they also are
laminar flow of air throughout a greater percentage of the effective in preventing the air from spilling over the wing
chord of the wing and to control the transition point. Drag is tip, in reducing the intensity of the vortices and in reducing
therefore considerably reduced since the lamin ar airfoil takes induced drag.
less energy to slide through the air. The pressure distribution
on the laminar flow wing is much more even since the camber
of the wing from the leading edge to the point of maximum
camber is more gradual than on the convention al ai rfoil.
However, at the point of stall, the transition point m oves m ore
rapidly forward.

Plan form
Plan form refers to the sh ape of the wing as seen from directly
above. Wings m ay be rec tangular or elliptical or delta sh aped. Fig . 2.2 2 Wing lets
Some wings taper from wing root to wing tip, with the taper
Sm all aeroplanes th at do not use tip tanks m ay have wing tip
along the leading edge or along the trailing edge or, in some
plates installed on the wing tip. These plates have the sam e
cases, with a taper along both edges.
sh ape as the airfoil but are larger and prevent the air from
The aspect ratio of a w ing is the relationship between the spilling over the tip s.
length or span of the w ing and its width or chord. It is com-
Another design feature is the droop wing tip that is also quite
puted by dividing the span by the average chord (the mean
effective in decreasing vortex development.
aerodynamic chord, (MAC).
Some mention h as already been made of winglets (sometimes
A wing, for example, that h as a span of 24 feet and a chord
called topsails), sm all vertical w in glike surfaces attached to
of 6 fee t h as an aspect ratio of 4. A wing with a span of 36
the wing tip that are effective in inhibiting wing tip vortex
fe et and a chord of 4 feet h as an aspect ratio of 9. The actual
development. They h ave the advantage of being able to devel-
size, in area, of both wings is identical (144 sq. ft .) but their
op sufficient lift to offset their own parasitic drag component.
flight performance is quite different because of their differing
aspect ratios.
A wing with a high aspect ratio will generate more lift and
Wash-Out/Wash-In
To reduce the tendency of the wing to stall suddenly as the
less induced drag th an a wing with a low aspec t ratio. It is for
stalling angle is approached, designers incorporate in wing
this reason that gliders have w ings w ith high aspect ratios to
design a feature known as wash-out and wash-in. The wing
maximize their time aloft.
is twisted so that the angle of incidence at the wing tip is
less than that at the root of the wing. As a result, the wing
Angle of Incidence has better stall characteristics because the sec tion towards
The angle of incidence is the angle at which the wing is per- the root will stall before the outer sec tion of the wing. The
manently inclined to the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane. ailerons, located towards the wing tips, are still effective even
Choosing the right angle of incidence can improve fli ght though part of the w ing is stalled. Increasing the angle of inci-
visibility, enhance take-off and landing characteristics and dence is called wash-in and it increases the lift. Decreasing
reduce drag in level flight. the angle of incidence is called wash-out and it decreases the
lift.

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Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

The same improved stall characteristics are achieved by the installation design keeps the aileron effective and provides
device of changing the airfoil shape from the root to the tip. increased lateral control.
The manufacturer incorporates a wing shape at the tip which
Some aeroplanes, particularly the large transport aeroplanes,
has the characteristic of stalling at a slightly higher angle of
have flaps on the leading edge of the wing. A jackscrew
attack.
arrangement pushes the leading edge of the wing against a
hinge on the lower surface causing the leading edge to droop.
Wing Fences The drooped leading edge flap increases the camber of the
Wing fences are fin -like vertical surfaces attached to the wing and increases the lift coefficient at high angles of attack.
upper surface of the wing and are used to control the airflow. The Kreuger flap performs much the same function . It is a
On swept wing aeroplanes, they are located about two-thirds special high lift shape that is extended out ahead of the lead-
of the way out towards the wing tip and prevent the drifting ing edge by a hinged linkage.
of air toward the tip of the wing at high angles of attack. On
straight wing aeroplanes, they control the airflow in the flap
area. In both cases, they give better slow speed h andling and
Spoilers
stall ch aracteristics. Spoilers are devices fitted to the wing which increase drag
and decrease lift. They u sually consist of a long narrow strip
of metal arranged spanwise along the top surface of the air-
foil. In some aeroplanes, they are linked to the ailerons and
Wing Fences work in unison with the ailerons for lateral control. As such,
they open on the side of the upgoing aileron, spoil the lift on

l that wing and help drive the wing down and help the aero-
plane to roll into a turn.
In some aeroplanes, spoilers have replaced ailerons as a
means of roll control. The spoiler moves only upward in con-
trast to the aileron that moves upward to decrease lift and
downward to increase lift. The spoiler moves only up, spoiling
Fig . 2.23 Wing Fences
the wing lift. By using spoilers for roll control, full span flaps
can be used to increase low speed lift.
Slats, Slots & Leading Edge Flaps Spoilers can also be connected to the brake controls and,
Slats are auxiliary airfoils fitted to the leading edge of the when so fitted, work symmetrically across the aeroplane
wing. At high angles of attack, they automatically move out for producing drag and destroying lift after landing, thereby
ahead of the wing. At a high angle of attack, the low pressure transferring all the weight of the aeroplane to the wheels and
just behind the leading edge on the top edge of the wing pulls making braking action more effective.
the slat out of the wing. When the angle of attack is lower, the
greater air pressure pushes the slat back into the wing. The Speed Brakes
angle of attack of the slat being less than that of the main-
Speed brakes are a feat ure on some high performance aero -
plane, there is a smooth airflow over the slat which tends to
planes. They are a device designed to fac ilitate optimum
smooth out the eddies forming over the wing. Slats are usu-
descent without decreasing power enough to shock cool the
ally fitted to the leading edge near the wing tips to improve
engine and are especially advantageou s in aeroplanes with
lateral control.
high service ceilings. They are also of use in setting up the
Unslotted Wing -----~ right approach speed and descent pattern in the landing con-
fi gu ration . The brakes, wh en extended, create drag without
altering the curvature of the wing and are usually fitted far
enough back along the chord so as not to disrupt too much
lift and in a position laterally where they will not disturb the
airflow over the tailplane. They are usually small metal blades
housed in a fitting concealed in the wing that, when activated
from the cockpit, pivot up to form a plate. On some types of
aircraft, speed brakes are incorporated into the rear fuselage
and con sist of two hinged doors that open into the slipstream .

Fig . 2. 24 Slotted Wings

Fig . 2. 25 Speed Brakes
Slots are passageways built into the w ing a short distance
from the leading edge in such a way that, at high angles of
attack, the air flows through the slot and over the wing, tend- Flaps
ing to smooth out the turbulence due to eddies. Sometimes Flaps are high lift devices which, in effect, increase the
the slots extend across the full span of the wing. Sometimes camber of the wing and, in some cases (as with the Fowler
they are placed only ahead of the ailerons to keep the outer Flap) also increase the effective wing area. Their use gives
portion of the wing flying after the root has stalled. This

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

better take-off performance and permits steeper approach by steepening the glide without increasing the glide speed. In
angles and lower approach and landing speeds. an approach over obstacles, the use of flaps permits the pilot
to touch down much nearer the threshold of the runway. Flaps
also permit a slower landing speed and act as air brakes when
the aeroplane is rolling to a stop after landing, thus reducing
the need for excessive braking action. As a result, there is less
wear on the undercarriage, wheels and tires. Lower landing
/>Jr Flow speeds also reduce the possibility of ground looping during
the landing roll.
Plain and split flaps increase the lift of a wing but, at the same
time, they greatly increase the drag. For all p rac tical purposes,
they are of value only in approach and landing. They should
not normally be employed fo r take -off because the extra drag
Fig . 2.2 6 Flap Settings reduces acceleration.

When deflected, flaps increase the upper camber of the wing, Slotted fl aps , on the other h and, including such types as
increasing the negative pressure on the top of the wing. At Fowler and Zap, produce lift in excess of drag and their partial
the same time, they allow a build-up of pressure below the use is therefore recommended for take-off.
wing. During take-off, flap settings of 10° to 20° are used to From the standpoint of aerodynamic efficiency, the Fowler
give better take-off performance and a better angle of climb, Flap is generally considered to offer the most advantages and
especially valuable when climbing out over obstacles. the fewest disadvantages, especially on larger aeroplanes,
However, not all aeroplane manufacturers recommend the while double slotted flaps have won wide approval for smaller
use of flaps during take-off. They can be used only on those types.
aeroplanes which have sufficient take-off power to overcome On Short Take-off and Landing (STOL} aeroplanes, a com-
the extra drag that extended flaps produce. The recommen- bination of double slotted flaps and leading edge slats are
dations of the manufacturer should, therefore, always be common.
followed.
Changes in flap setting affect the trim of an aeroplane. As
flaps are lowered, the centre of pressure moves rearward

..........4,
Conventional
creating a nose-down, pitching moment. However, in some
~ ...... aeroplanes, the change in airflow over the tailplane as flaps

...."-:.
are lowered is such that the total moment created is nose-up
Slotted and it becomes necessary to trim the aeroplane "nose-down".
The aeroplane is apt to lose considerable height when the
flaps are raised. At low altitudes, therefore, the flaps should
be raised cautiously.
Split Mos t aeroplanes are placarded to show a m aximum speed
above which the fl aps mu st not be low ered, known as
the maximum flap extended speed (V,T). The fl aps are not
designed to withstand the loads imposed by high speeds.
Zap Structural fa ilure m ay result from severe strain if the flaps are
selec ted "down" at higher than the specified speed.
When the fl aps h ave been lowered for a landing, they should
not ordinarily be raised until the aeroplane is on the ground. If
Fowler
a landin g h as been missed, the fl aps should not be raised until
the power h as been applied and the aeroplane h as regained
normal climbing speed. It is then advisable to raise the fl aps
in s tages.
Double Slotted
How much flap should be u sed in landing? Generally speak-
ing, an aeroplane should be landed as slowly as is consisten t

..,
with safety. This usually calls for the use of full fl aps. The use
of fl aps affects the wing airfoil in two ways. Both lift and drag
Double slotted with leading edge slat
are increased. The increased lift results in a lower stalling

'('~ speed and permits a lower touchdown speed. The increased

drag permits a steeper approach angle without increasing
airspeed. The extra drag of full flaps results in a shorter land-
Fig . 2.27 Flaps ing roll.
An aeroplane that lands at 50 knots with full flaps selected
Flaps do indeed increase drag. The greater the flap deflection,
may have a landing speed as fast as 70 knots with flaps up. If
the greater the drag. At a point of about half of their full travel,
a swerve occurs during the landing roll, the centrifugal force
the increased drag surpasses the increased lift and the flaps
unleashed at 70 knots is twice what it would be at 50 knots,
become air brakes. Most flaps can be extended to 40° from the
since centrifugal force increases as the square of the speed. It
chord of the wing. At settings between 20° and 40°, the essen-
follows, then, that a slower landing speed reduces the poten-
tial function of the flaps is to improve the landing capabilities,
tial for loss of control during the landing roll. It also means

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

less strain on the tires, brakes and landing gear and reduces elevators are deflected upwards decreasing the lift on the tail,
fatigue on the airframe structure. with a resultant downward movement of the tail.
There are, of course, factors which at times call for variance The vertical or normal axis passes vertically through the
from the procedure of using full flaps on landing. These fac- centre of gravity. Movement of the aeroplane around the verti-
tors would include the aeroplane's gross weight, the position cal axis is yaw and is controlled by movement of the rudder.
of the C.G., the approach path to landing, the desired rate Pressure applied to the left rudder pedal, for example, deflects
of descent and any unfavourable wind conditions, such as a the rudder to the left into the airflow. The pressure of the air-
strong crosswind component, gusty winds and extreme tur- flow against the rudder pushes the tail to the right. The nose
bulence. With experience, a pilot learns to assess these vari- of the aeroplane yaws to the left.
ous factors as a guide to flap selection. There is a distinct relationship between movement around
In som e aeroplanes, in a crosswind condition, the use of full the vertical and longitudinal axes of an aeroplane (i.e. yaw
fl aps may be inadvisable. Flaps present a greater surface for and roll). When rudder is applied to effect a yaw, to the right
the wind to act upon when the aeroplane is rolling on the for example, the left wing (on the outside of the turn) moves
ground. The wing on the side from which the wind is blowing faster than the inside wing, meets the relative airflow at a
will tend to rise. In addition, a crosswind acting on full flaps greater speed and produces more lift. It is apparent, there -
increases the weather vaning tendency, although in an aero- fore, that the use of rudder along with aileron enhances the
plane with very effective rudder control even at slow speeds, lifting capacity of the outside wing and produces a better co-
the problem is not so severe. However, in many aeroplanes, ordinated turn.
the selection of full flaps deflects the airflow from passing
In a roll, the aeroplane has a tendency to yaw away from the
over the empennage, making the elevator and rudder surfaces intended direction of the turn. This tendency is the result of
ineffective. Positive control of the aeroplane on the ground is aileron drag and is called adverse yaw. The upgoing wing, as
greatly hampered. Since maintaining control of the aeroplane well as gaining more lift from the increased camber of the
throughout the landing roll is of utmost importance, it may
downgoing aileron, also experiences more induced drag. The
be advisable to use less flaps in crosswind conditions. In any
aeroplane, as a result, skids outward on the turn. The co-
case, it is very important to maintain the crosswind correc- ordinated use of rudder and aileron corrects for adverse yaw.
tion throughout the landing roll.
Yaw comes in two varieties: static and dynamic. Dynamic
yaw is movement or rotation about the normal axis of the
2.i.3 The Axes of an Aeroplane aeroplane. Static yaw is a condition in which the aeroplane is
There are three axes around which the aeroplane moves. flying with some angle of sideslip, in which the longitudinal
These axes all pass through the aeroplane's centre of gravity, axis of the aeroplane is not aligned with the aeroplane's flight
which is that point which is the centre of the aeroplane's total path. In a sideslip, the nose of the aeroplane is yawed to the
weight. left or to the right. Any change in the sideslip angle would be
The longitudinal axis extends lengthwise through the fuse- a form of dynamic yaw.
lage from the nose to the tail. Movement of the aeroplane
around the longitudinal axis is known as roll and is controlled Balanced Controls
by movement of the ailerons. To move the aileron s , the pilot Controls are sometimes dynamically balanced to assist the
turns the control wheel either clockwise or counterclockwise pilot to m ove them. Several of the various m eans by which
(or moves the control stick either right or left). This ac tion an aero dynamic reaction is used to serve this purpose are
lowers the aileron on one wing and raises the aileron on the illustrated in Fig.2.29.
other wing. The downgoing aileron increases the camber of
By having som e of the control surface in front of the hinge.
its wing, pro ducing m ore lift and the wing rises. The upgoing
the air s triking the forward portion helps to move the control
aileron spoils the airflow on its wing, decreases the lift and
surface in the required direction. The design also helps to
the wing descends. The aeroplane rolls into a turn.
counteract adverse yaw when used in aileron design.

Aileron

r
Air pressure on balanced
portion helps pilot move Horn
control.
Fin
Rudder

Fig . 2.28 The Axes of an Aeroplane

The lateral axis extends crosswise from wing tip to wing tip.
Movement of the aeroplane around the lateral axis is known as Fig . 2. 29 Dynamic Balance
pitch and is controlled by movement of the elevators. To effect
a nose-down attitude, the pilot pushes forward on the control Control surfaces are sometimes balanced by fitting a mass
wheel or stick. The elevator deflects downward, increasing (usually of lead) of streamline shape in front of the hinge of
the camber of the horizontal tail surface and thereby increas- the control surface. This is called mass balance and is incor-
ing the lift on the tail. To effect a nose-up attitude of the aero- porated to prevent flutter of the control surface which is liable
plane, the pilot pulls the wheel toward himself /herself. The to occur at high speeds. The mass may be attached as shown

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 Theory of Flight Aeronautical Fundamentals

in Fig.2.30 or it may be fitted inside that part of the control or enters a dangerous dive would be said to be unstable, or to
surface which lies in front of the hinge when this design have negative dynamic stability.
feature has been used for the purpose of providing dynamic
An aeroplane that has positive dynamic stability does not
balance.
automatically have positive static stability. The designers may
have elected to build in, for example, negative static stability
and positive dynamic stability in order to achieve their objec-
tive in maneuverability. In other words, negative and positive
dynamic and static stability may be incorporated in any com-
bination in any particular design of aeroplane.
Fig . 2.3 0 Mass Balance
An aeroplane may be inherently stable (that is, stable due to
The exact distribution of weight on a control surface is very features incorporated in the design) but may become unstable
important. For this reason, when a control surface is repaint- due to changes in the position of the centre of gravity (caused
ed, repaired or component parts replace d, it is essential to by consumption of fu el, improper disposition of the dispos-
check for proper balance and have it rebalanced if neces- able load, etc.).
sary. To do this, the control surface is removed, placed in a
Stability may be (a) longitudinal, (b) lateral, or (c) directional,
jig and the position of the centre of gravity checked against
depending on whether the disturbance has affected the air-
the manufacturer's specifications. Without any airflow over
frame in the (a) pitching, (b) rolling, or (c) yawing plane.
the control surface, it must balance about its specified C.G.
This is known as static balance. For example, the aileron of
the Bonanza is designed for a static nose heavy balance of 0.2 Longitudinal Stability
inch pounds . The C.G. of the aileron is forward of the hinge Longitudinal stability is stability around the lateral axis of the
centreline causing the control surface to be nose heavy. aeroplane and is called pitch stability.
To obtain longitudinal stability, aeroplanes are designed to
2.1.4 Stability be nose heavy when correctly loaded. The centre of gravity is
ahead of the centre of pressure.
An aeroplane in flight is constantly subjected to forces that
disturb it from its normal horizontal flight path. Rising col- This design feature is incorporated so that, in the event of
umns of hot air, downdrafts, gusty winds, etc., make the air engine failure, the aeroplane will assume a normal glide. It is
"bumpy" and the aeroplane is thrown off its course. Its nose or because of this nose heavy characteristic that the aeroplane
tail drops or one wing dips. How the aeroplane reacts to such requires a tailplane. Its function is to resist this diving tenden-
a disturbance from its flight attitude depends on its stability cy. The tailplane is set at an angle of incidence that produces
characteristics. a negative lift and thereby, in effect, holds the tail down. In
level, trimmed flight, the nose heavy tendency and the nega-
Stability is the tendency of an aeroplane in flight to remain in
tive lift of the tailplane exactly balance each other.
straight, level, upright flight and to return to this attitude, if
displaced, without corrective action by the pilot. Two principal factors influence longitudinal stability: (1) size
and position of the horizontal stabilizer, and (2) position of the
Static stability is the initial tendency of an aeroplane, when
centre of gravity.
disturbed, to return to the original position (the initial "wave"
m otion in Fig.2.31). THE HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
The tailplane, or stabilizer, is placed on the tail end of a lever
arm (the fu selage) to provide longitudinal stability. It may be
quite small. However, being situated at the end of the lever
arm, it h as great leverage. When the angle of attack on the
wings is increased by a disturbance, the centre of pressure
moves forward, tending to turn the nose of the aeroplane up
and the tail down. The tailpl ane, moving down, meets the
air at a greater angle of attack, obtains more lift and tends to
Fig. 2.31 Static & Dynamic Balance restore the balance.
Dynamic stability is the overall tendency of an aeroplane to On most aeroplanes, the stabilizer appears to be set at an
return to its original position, following a series of damped angle of incidence that would produce an upward lift on the
out oscillations (the diminishing "wave" pattern in Fig.2.31). tailplane. It must, however, be remembered that the tailplane
is in a position to be in the downwash from the wings. The air
Stability may be (a) positive, meaning the aeroplane will
that strikes the stabilizer has already passed over the wings
develop forces or moments which tend to restore it to its
and been deflected slightly downward. The angle of the down-
original position; (b) neutral, meaning the restoring forces
wash is about half the angle of attack of the main airfoils. The
are absent and the aeroplane will neither return from its dis-
proper angle of incidence of the stabilizer is, therefore, very
turbed position nor move further away; (c) negative, meaning
important in order for it to be effective in its function .
it will develop forces or moments which tend to move it fur-
ther away. Negative stability is, in other words, the condition CENTRE OF GRAVITY
of instability. The centre of gravity is, of course, very important in achiev-
A stable aeroplane is one that will fly "hands off" and is pleas- ing longitudinal stability. If the aeroplane is loaded with
ant and easy to handle. An exceedingly stable aeroplane, on the centre of gravity too far aft, the aeroplane may assume
the other hand, may lack maneuverability. a nose -up rather than a nose-down attitude. The inherent
stability will be lacking and, even though down elevator
An aeroplane which, following a disturbance, oscillates with
may correct the situation, control of the aeroplane in the
increasing up and down movements until it eventually stalls

From the Ground Up·' 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

longitudinal plane will be difficult and perhaps, in extreme SWEEPBACK

cases, impossible. A sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes
backward.
Lateral Stability When a disturbance causes an aeroplane with sweepback to
Lateral stability is stability around the longitudinal axis and slip or drop a wing, the low wing presents its leading edge
is called roll stability. at an angle that is perpendicular to the relative airflow. As a
Lateral stability is achieved through (1) dihedral, (2) sweep - result, the low wing acquires more lift, rises and the aeroplane
back, (3) keel effect, and (4) proper distribution of weight. is restored to its original flight attitude.

DIHEDRAL
The dihedral angle is the angle that each wing makes with
the horizontal (Fig.2.32). The purpose of dihedral is to improve
lateral stability.

L L
r
Airflow

l
Unbalanced force
producing sideslip l L

Fig.2.33 Sweepback

Sweepback also contributes to directional stability. When

turbulence or rudder application causes the aeroplane to yaw
to one side (for example, the left as in Fig.2.33), the right wing
(B) presents a longer leading edge perpendicular to the rela-
tive airflow. The airspeed of the right wing increases and it
acquires more drag than the left wing (A). The additional drag
•eo----- Correcting airflow on the right wing pulls it back, yawing the aeroplane back to
its original path.
Fig . 2.3 2 Effect of Dihedral

If a disturbance causes one wing to drop, the unbalanced force Directional Stability
(Fig.2.32) produces a sideslip in the direction of the downgoing Directional s tability is stability around the vertical or normal
wing. This will, in effect, cause a flow of air in the opposite axis.
direction to the slip. This flow of air will strike the lower wing The most important fe ature that affects directional stability
at a greater angle of attack than it strikes the upper wing. The is the vertical tail surface, th at is, the fin and rudder. Keel
lower wing will thus receive more lift and the aeroplane will effect and sweepback also contribute to directional stability
roll back into its proper position. to some degree.
Since dihedral inclines the wing to the horizontal, so too
THE FIN
will the lift reaction of the wing be inclined from the vertical
An aeroplane has the tendency always to fly head on into the
(Fig.2.32).
relative airflow. This tendency which might be de scribed as
Hence an excessive amount of dihedral will, in effect, reduce weather-vaning is direc tly attributable to the vertical tail fin
the lift force opposing weight. and to some extent also the vertical side areas of the fuselage .
Some modern aeroplanes have a measure of negative dihe- Ifthe aeroplane yaws away from its course, the airflow strikes
dral, or anhedral, on the wings and/or stabilizer. The incor- the vertical tail surface from the side and forces it back to its
poration of this feature provides some advantages in overall original line of flight. In order for the tail surfaces to func -
design in certain types of aeroplanes. However, it doe s have tion properly in this weather vaning capacity, the side area
an effect, probably adverse, on lateral stability. of the aeroplane aft of the centre of gravity mus t be greater
than the side area of the aeroplane forward of the C.G. If it
KEEL EFFECT were otherwise, the aeroplane would tend to rotate about its
Dihedral is more usually a feature on low wing aeroplanes, vertical axis.
although some dihedral may be incorporated in high wing
aeroplanes as well.
Most high wing aeroplanes are laterally stable simply because
the wings are attached in a high position on the fuselage and
because the weight is therefore low. When the aeroplane is
disturbed and one wing dips, the weight acts as a pendulum
returning the aeroplane to its original attitude.

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

Longitudinal Stability 2.i.5 Flight Performance Factors

~
.• Torque
The propeller usually rotates clockwise, as seen from the
•
pilot's seat. The reaction to the spinning propeller causes the
aeroplane to rotate counterclockwise to the left. This left turn-
ing tendency is called torque. The designer of the aeroplane
compensates for torque in cruising flight by building a slight
right turning tendency into the aeroplane. For example, the
left wing may have a slightly greater angle of incidence th an
the right wing. Aileron trim tabs also are used to compensate
Longitudinal for torque.
Pitch On take-off, torque affects directional control. Use of right
rudder during the take-off roll corrects this condition.
Is stability in the pitching plane
Is stability about the lateral axis
Is known as "Pitch Stability" Asymmetric Thrust
To be longitudinally stable, an aircraft must Another left turning tendency is the result of asymmetric
have a natural tendency to return to the same
attitude in pitch after any disturbance. thrust, or P Factor. At high angles of attack and high power
settings, such as during take-off, the descending blade of the
propeller (on the pilot's right) has a greater angle of attack
than the ascending blade. This situation produces more lift
from the right side of the propeller with a consequent yawing
to the left. Right rudder pressure compensates for this ten-
dency. Asymmetric thrust is significant only at high angles
of attack. In level flight, both blades of the propeller m eet the
relative airflow equally and produce equal thrust.
On a twin-engine aircraft where both engines turn clockwise,
losing the left engine is more critical to flight than losing the
right, as far as P Factor is concerned. The asymmetrical disk
Lateral
loading on the right engine propeller, being further from the
Roll aircraft's C.G. than that for the left engine propeller, gives
greater leverage to the right engine. Such a resulting scenario
Is stability in the rolling plane increases the aircraft's minimum single-engine control speed
Is stability about the longitudi nal axis (VMc) when the left engine is out. With counter-rotatin g propel-
Is known as " Roll Stability" lers, the left engine turns clockwise and the right turn s coun-
To be laterally stable, a n aircraft must have
a natural tendency to return to the sa me
terclockwise. The leverage effec t is then minimized.
attitude in roll after any disturbance.
Precession
The spinning propeller of an aeroplane acts like a gyroscope.
One of the ch aracteristics of a gyroscope is rigidity in space;
that is, the rotating gyro tends to stay in the sam e plane of
rotation and resists any ch an ge in that plane. If forced to
ch ange, precession results.
If an aeroplane ch anges suddenly from a nose-up to a nose -
down position, as is the case during the take-off roll in a
tailwheel aeroplane, the aeroplane will yaw sh arply to the left
as the pilot shoves the wheel forward to raise the tail. The
application of right rudder compensates fo r the precession
tendency.

Slipstream
Directional
The air pushed backward by a revolving propeller has a cork-
screw motion. This causes an increased pressure on one side
Yaw of the tail unit and a decreased pressure on the other side.
The tail is consequently pushed sideways from the high pres-
Is stability in the yawing plane sure side towards the low, causing the aeroplane to yaw. The
Is stability about the vertical (normal) axis condition is corrected by offsetting the fin, or by offsetting the
Is known as "Yaw Stability" engine thrust line, or by fitting trim tabs on the rudder, or by
To be directionally stable, an aircraft must a combination of two or all of these methods. In some aero-
have a natural tendency to return to the same
attitude in yaw after any disturbance. planes, the rudder trim is adjustable by a control in the cock-
pit. In this way, the pilot is better able to compensate for the
Fig . 2.34 Summary of Stability & Stability Effects

From the Ground Up·• 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

changes in pressure on the rudder as the aeroplane changes

~ L
;········
from climbing power, to cruise, to gliding.
The revolving slipstream from the propeller causes an aero- ...
plane, especially tailwheel aeroplanes, as the throttle is
opened to commence the take-off roll, to yaw to the left. As
the airspeed increases, the tendency is less pronounced. Right
rudder compensates. .. '

/. ~w ·····:.a.. D

Fig.2.36 Forces in a Climb

Once established in a steady state of climb condition, the

aeroplane is again in a state of equilibrium . In the climb atti-
tude, the aeroplane is inclined away from the horizontal and,
) as a result, part of the weight acts rearward and combines
with drag. Thrust, therefore, equals drag plus a component of
weight, and lift equals weight less that component of weight
that is acting rearward.
Fig.2.35 Slipstream
The ability of an aeroplane to climb is dependent on the extra
It may be of interest at this point to mention the relative power that is available from the engine. At ever increasing
effects of the slipstreams of pusher and tractor type propel- altitudes, the density of the air decreases and the power of the
lers. The tractor type of propeller located at the nose of the engine drops off. The climb, therefore, becomes increasingly
aeroplane pushes high speed turbulent air back over the more shallow as greater altitudes are reached until further
aeroplane, thereby increasing considerably the drag of the climbing is impossible. The aeroplane has then reached its
fuselage and wing root sections. A pusher type of propel- absolute ceiling.
ler, located at the rear of the aeroplane, allows better high Every aeroplane has a best rate of climb CV:,). This is the rate of
speed performance due to the reduction of this drag. Because climb which will gain the most altitude in the least time. For
the tractor propeller bites into "clean" air, its efficiency is every aeroplane there is an airspeed at a given power setting
good whereas the pusher propeller bites into disturbed air. which will give the best rate of climb. The best rate of climb is
Nevertheless, from the standpoint of overall efficiency, the normally used on take-off (after any obstacles are cleared) and
pusher propeller configuration is considered to have more to is maintained until the aeroplane leaves the traffic circuit.
offer in performance benefits.
The best angle of climb ('-".,) is the angle which will gain the
most altitude in a given distance. It is valuable in climbing out
Climbing of restricted areas over obstacles. The airspeed for the steep-
The engine produces the energy that keeps an aeroplane est angle of climb is somewhat lower than the speed at which
flying. The throttle controls the output of this energy. It is the best rate of climb is obtained. Because the airspeed for the
the function of the elevators to divide the energy, produced best angle of climb is relatively slow, there is less air circulat-
by the engine in the form of thrust, into speed and altitude. ing around the engine to provide cooling and engine overheat-
The elevator does this by controlling the angle of attack of the ing is possible. The best angle of climb, therefore, should be
wings. If, with no change in the thrust, the angle of attack is maintained only until obstacles are cleared and then the nose
decreased, less energy is required to maintain lift and more of the aeroplane should be lowered to pick up the best rate of
of the total energy output is utilized to produce an increase climb airspeed.
in speed. If the angle of attack is increased, more energy is
Every pilot should determine the airspeed for best rate of
required to m aintain lift and less energy is available for speed.
climb and for best angle of climb for the particular aeroplane
If the pilot puts some back pressure on the control column
they are flying. These airspee ds are usually given in the Pilot's
(with no change in throttle setting), the aeroplane will climb
Operating Handbook. However, it is necessary to bear in mind
and lose airspeed. Conversely, if the pilot puts some forward
that these speeds will vary according to the gross weight of
pressure on the control column (with no change in throttle
the aeroplane.
setting), the aeroplane will descend and build up airspeed.
The rate of climb is not affected by the wind, since it is a verti-
During level flight, the engine must produce a thrust equal to
cal measurement of aeroplane performance and is not in any
the drag of the aeroplane for the aeroplane to be in a state of
way related to groundspeed.
equilibrium. If the power is increased, the pilot can maintain
level flight at an increased speed by putting the nose down The angle of climb, on the other hand, is appreciably affected
slightly (i.e. decreasing the angle of attack). If the pilot does by the wind. When climbing into wind, the aeroplane moves
not change the angle of attack, the aeroplane will begin to over the ground at a lower speed and therefore takes longer
climb as a result of the increased thrust, since the increased to cover a given forward distance. The stronger the wind, the
speed of the relative airflow over the airfoils will produce slower the ground speed, the steeper the angle of climb.
more lift. By adjusting power (i.e. choosing any setting Normal climb is a rate of climb that should be used in any pro-
between that needed for normal, straight-and-level cruise longed cruise climb. The airspeed for normal climb is always
and full power) and by varying the angle of attack, the pilot indicated in the Pilot's Operating Handbook. It is a speed that
can flatten or steepen the angle of climb and the airspeed in is usually 5 to 10 knots faster than the airspeed for best rate
the climb. of climb and as such provides better engine cooling, easier
control and better visibility over the nose.

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

and the path of descent w ill be steeper in still air. If the angle
Gliding of attack is increased to flatten the glide, up to a certain point
In gliding, there is no power from the engine and the aero- the rate of descent will decrease. However, the airspeed also
plane is under the influence of gravity. Of the four forces, decreases and the resultant decrease in speed over the ground
thrust is now absent and a state of equilibrium must be main- means a steeper glide angle and reduced range.
tained by lift, drag and weight only.
Another factor which affects the glide path is, of course, the
In Fig.2.37. Forces in a Glide, R represents the total reaction, i.e. wind. A strong headwind or tailwind will tend to steepen or
resultant of lift and drag. This is equal and opposite to weight. flatten the glide as the case may be.
The angle at which the pilot chooses to glide determines the When gliding into a fairly strong wind, greater distance may
airspeed in the glide. The steeper the angle, the faster the be covered over the ground if the nose of the aeroplane is kept
airsp eed; the shallower the an gle, the slower the airspeed. At somewh at lower than the attitude for best LID ratio. For one
too fast an airspeed, structu ral damage to the airframe could thing, the increase in airspeed will yield an increase in ground
result. At too slow an airspeed, the aeroplane could stall. The speed which, in this case and contrary to gliding in still air or
pilot must, therefore, choose a gliding an gle that maintains an very light winds , will yield a shallower glide path. Secondly,
airspeed that is sufficient to maintain flight but not too fast by gliding at a slightly high er airspeed, the aeroplane will
to be unsafe. complete its glide in less time, having been subjected to the
headwind for a shorter duration.
Best glide speed for endurance refers to the airspeed that is

... \'·~
..
slightly less than that which gives the maximum LID ratio
and which is used to achieve minimum sink. Sometimes, the
! ..~ object is to remain in the air for the longest period of time
! \ rather than to cover the greatest distance. Pilot's Operating
Handbooks do not usually designate an airspeed for mini-
mum sink since for most general aviation aeroplanes, it is
not appreciably different from the airspeed for maximum LID
ratio. It is an airspeed of importance, however, under certain
conditions and it is one with which glider pilots especially are
very familiar. It can generally be calculated as being approxi-
~w mately 1.1 times the power-off stalling speed.

Fig. 2. 37 Forces in a Glide POWER APPROACH

The technique of gliding should be mastered by the student
When gliding with the power off, the aeroplane will tend to pilot in case at some time during their career they should
glide about 20% farther if the propeller is stopped than if it have to make a forced landing with engine failure. The
is windmilling. The stopped propeller produces drag that is normal method of descent for landing, however, is the power
equal only to the parasite drag of its configuration. The pro- approach. By applying power, the glide path may be fl attened
peller that is spinning acts as a windmill driving the engine, and th e rate of descent more accurately controlled. Power
but without producing power. The power required to rotate approaches are advisable for light aeroplanes when landing
the propeller and consequently the engine of the aeroplane in high winds or in gusty air conditions. Power approaches
is derived from the airflow and is about 10% of the rated and power assisted landings are normally used when m aking
power of the engine. The energy required to drive the propel- landings on soft snow, sand or mud and by seaplanes landing
ler that is not producing positive thrust is therefore negative on glassy water. To make a power approach: (1) reduce power;
thrust or drag. Windmilling the propeller is like coasting an (2) allow the aeroplane to slow to approach speed; (3) adjust
automobile in gear. The windmilling propeller in a tractor to desired angle of de scent; (4) maintain constant airspeed
engine configuration directs disturbed air back over the lift- and regulate rate of descent by manipulation of power. The
ing surfaces, inhibiting lift and creating drag. (Stopping a non- normally recommended airspeed for power-on approaches to
feathering propeller in flight should be done only in the event short fi eld landings is 1.3 times the power-off stalling speed.
of an engine failure when there is no chance of restarting the
failed engine. The process of raising the nose and stopping the
propeller takes skill and should be attempted only if you are
Turns
confident of your ability to perform the procedure.) To make an aeroplane turn, the wings are rolled away from
the normal horizontal position of level fli ght. The lift forc e,
GLIDING ANGLE which always acts at 90° to the wing span, is, in a turn,
Best glide speed for range refers to the far thest distance that inclined away from the vertical. Therefore, the vertical force s
an aeroplane will glide at the airspeed which results in an of lift and weight are no longer in balance, th at is, are no
angle of attack that gives the maximum lift/drag ratio. This longer in equilibrium. The aeroplane will descend unless the
airspeed represents the optimum glide, a combination of angle of attack is increased to produce more lift.
airspeed and sink rate that allows an aeroplane to glide the In a turn, the lift force has two components: one acting verti-
farthest distance for altitude lost. This airspeed, also called cally and one acting horizontally. The vertical component
optimum glide, maximum distance glide or gliding for range, opposes weight, while the horizontal component makes the
is given in the Pilot's Operating Handbook. aeroplane turn. This horizontal force is known as centripetal
If the pilot attempts to glide at an angle of attack either greater force and it counteracts the centrifugal force that, in a turn,
or less than that which gives the maximum LID ratio, then in tends to pull the aeroplane to the outside of the turn.
each case, the range will be decreased. If the angle of attack is In Fig.2.38, OW represents the weight of the aeroplane. The
decreased so that the airspeed increases, drag also increases vertical component OA balances the weight of the aeroplane.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

OC represents the centripetal force necessary to counteract the loading as high as ten times the normal load. With some
centrifugal force. OL is the resultant total lift factor. types of light aeroplanes, a bank of 80° or over can result in
The steeper the angle of bank, the more total lift is required to possible structural failure .
produce a level turn. The vertical component of the lift force By reference to Fig.2.39, it is readily apparent that the G load
must remain sufficient to compensate for weight. As the angle on the aeroplane structure increases with the angle of bank.
of bank increases, the total lift must be increased to provide However, other maneuvers than just turns impose high load
sufficient centripetal force to overcome the increasing cen- factors on the aeroplane.
trifugal force. This is accomplished by increasing the angle of
attack by back pressure on the control column.
The steeper the angle of bank (for any given airspeed): (a) the
greater the rate of turn; (b) the less the radius of turn; (c) the
higher the stalling speed; (d) the greater the loading.
The higher the airspeed (for any given angle of bank): (a) the Load factor
(G units)
slower the rate of turn; (b) the larger the radius of turn.
Climbing and descending turns are executed like level turns.
The factors acting on an aeroplane executing a climbing or
descending turn are the same as those acting on the aero-
plane in a level turn, except that, instead of maintaining a
constant attitude, a constant climb or descent is maintained.
In addition, there are considerations regarding power and
attitude control.

20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

Bank (degrees)

Fig .2.39 Load Factors in a Turn

For example, when an aeroplane is pitched up more or

less abruptly, the load factor is increased correspondingly.
Therefore, while in a turn, should the pilot cause the aero-
plane to abruptly pitch up, the G forces resulting from the
pitching maneuver will be added to those caused by bank-
w ing the aeroplane. The combined load factor may exceed the
design limits of the aeroplane. As a result pilots should be cau-
Fig. 2.38 Force s Acting in a Turn tious about conducting maneuvers which require excessive
movement of the controls in more than one plane.
In a climbing turn, extra power over and above cruise power
is required to achieve the climb configuration. In a descend-
ing t urn, it is necessary to reduce power in varying degrees Stall
from cruise power to power fully off in order to achieve the A stall occurs when the w ing is no longer capable of produc-
descent speed and angle that is desired and that is safe and ing sufficient lift to counteract the weight of the aeroplane. A
within limits. smooth lam inar flow of air over the wing is necessary to pro-
duce lift. The stall occurs when the an gle of attack is increased
The lateral stability of an aeroplane in a climbing or descend- to the point where the steady streamlined flow of air is
ing turn is affected by the angle at which the relative airflow unable to follow the upper camber of the airfoil. The airflow
meets each wing. In a descending turn, the inner wing, turn- separates from the wing, becomes turbulent or "burbles", the
ing on a smaller radiu s, meets the relative airflow at a greater downwash and pressure differential are greatly reduced and
an gle of attack and obtains more lift. The outer wing, however, loss of lift occurs. The aeroplane ceases to fly. This is called
because it is travelling faster also obtains more lift. The one th e stall con dition .
compensates for the other and, therefore, in a descending
turn, the angle of bank tends to remain constant.
In a climbing turn, the inner wing, describing an upward
spiral, m eets the relative airflow at the smaller an gle of attack
than the outer wing which is obtaining extra lift both from
its extra speed and its greater angle of attack. Therefore, the
angle of bank will tend to increase in a climbing turn.

LOAD FACTORS IN TURNS

In straight-and-level flight, an aeroplane has a load factor of
1, or 1G. Turns increase the load factor. The steeper the angle
of bank, the greater the load factor. A 60° turn produces a
load factor of 2, making the effective weight of an aeroplane Fig.2 .40 Stall
twice its normal weight. If an aeroplane weighs 2,500 pounds
in level flight, in a 60° turn, it will have an equivalent weight The point at which the airflow pulls away from the wing is
of 5,000 pounds. A very steep turn may impose an increase in called the sep aration point.

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

At high cruising speeds, the positive angle of attack is very Centre of Gravity location affects the stalling speed of an
low and the separation point is near the trailing edge of the aeroplane. As the weight distribution moves within the allow-
wing. At slower speeds, the angle of attack must be increased able C.G. limits, the stalling speed as well as stability charac-
to maintain a constant altitude and the separation point teristics will be affected. As the aeroplane's centre of gravity
moves forward. When the angle of attack is increased to the moves from the m ost aft allowable position towards the most
point that the separation point moves forward far enough to forward allowable position, the aeroplane's stalling speed
exceed the design factor of the wing, the wing must stall. The will increase. The download on the horizontal tail surfaces
stalling angle is commonly in the vicinity of 20° but varies increases as the aeroplane's centre of gravity moves forward.
with the shape of the airfoil. This download can be considered as part of the aeroplane's
weight since it acts in the same direction as the weight force.
Stalling speed, as we know, increases as the weight increases.
An aeroplane will stall if the critical angle
of attack is exceeded. It will stall at any Turbulence affects stall speed of an aeroplane. An upward
airspeed if the critical angle of attack is vertical gust causes an abrupt increase in angle of attack
exceeded. It will stall at any attitude if because of the ch ange in direction of the air relative to the
wing and could result in a stall if the airspeed of the aeroplane
the critical angle of attack is exceeded.
is at the same time relatively low.
Turns affect the stalling speed of an aeroplane. As the angle
Since few light aeroplanes have an angle of attack indicator,
of bank increases, the amount of lift required to sustain level
airspeed must be used as a guide in identifying the approach
flight also increases because of the increasing load factor that
to a stall. On some aeroplanes, the approaching condition
is integral to the action of banking an aeroplane. To increase
can be recognized by a light buffeting on the airframe as the
lift, the pilot must increase the angle of attack of the airfoils.
air begins to burble over the wing. This buffeting may also
Therefore, in a turn, the stall angle is reached at a high er
be felt in the control wheel. As the angle of attack is further
airspeed than in level flight. Most Pilot's Operating Handbook
increased, the buffeting becomes more general and lateral
have a chart similar to Fig.2.42 that depicts the stalling speed
control drops sharply as the ailerons lose their effectiveness
at various angles of bank. There is, however, a fairly simple
in the separated airflow. When fully stalled, the wings lose all
formula for determining stalling speed: normal stalling speed
lift and the nose of the aeroplane drops.
times the square root of the load factor being imposed. Typical
On most aeroplanes, the stall occurs gradually. Because of load factor values and their square roots are shown in the fol-
the washout of the wings, the wing roots will stall before the lowing table:
wing tips. The alert pilot will recognize the symptoms and
Degree of Bank Load Factor Square Root
take corrective action while there is still aileron control and
15' 1.04 1.02
before all lift is lost.
30' 1.15 1.07
The high lift airfoil, with a curved upper surface and a nearly 45' 1.41 1.19
flat bottom surface, generally stalls at a lower speed and a 60° 2.00 1.41
greater angle of attack than the more efficient high speed 75' 3.86 1.96
symmetrical or laminar flow airfoil commonly used in gen-
eral aviation aeroplanes today. Fig.2.41 Typical Load Factors & their Square Roots
An aeroplane properly loaded will stall at an indicated air-
speed somewhere near the stalling speed published in the Flaps affect the stall speed of an aeroplane. The use of flaps,
Pilot's Operating Handbook. This stalling speed, for all practi- by increasing the lift potential of the wing, results in a reduc-
cal purposes, remains the same regardless of altitude. tion in the stall speed, as indicated in Fig.2.42.

It must be remembered that aeroplane attitude, airspeed and Snow, Frost and Ice affect the stall characteristics of an aero-
angle of attack are not consistently related. plane. An accumulation of frost, snow or ice on the wings
will substantially alter the lifting characteristics of the airfoil
FACTORS AFFECTING STALL and cause an increase in the stall speed and a decrease in
A number of factors affect the stall of an aircraft. These the stall angle of attack. Even a very light layer of frost spoils
factors are listed immediately below, and their respective the smooth flow of air over the airfoil by separating the
impacts are described thereafter. vital boundary layer air. Th e airflow separates much farther
forward than would normally be expected for the particular
1. Weight.
angle of attack. Lift is reduced substantially, the stall angle is
2. Centre of Gravity. decreased and the stalling airspeed is increased.
3. Turbulence. Stall Speed, Power OFF
4. Turns. Gross Weight
Angle of Bank
2800 lbs.
5. Flaps.
6.

7.
Snow, Frost and Ice.
Heavy Rain.
Config urati on ,.,
O'
__¥
30'
I 60'
Flaps Up 64 69 91
Weight affects the stalling speed of an aeroplane. Weight
Flaps 20' 57 61 81
added to an aeroplane requires that it be operated at a higher
Flaps 40' 55 59 78
angle of attack to produce the lift necessary to support that
weight. Therefore, the critical angle of attack will be reached Fig.2.42 Stall Chart
at a higher airspeed.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

On the clean airfoil in Fig.2.43 , the separation point between ice or snow, of course, adds to the total weight of the aeroplane
the laminar and the turbulent airflow occurs near the trailing but the weight factor is secondary to the effect the accumu-
edge and the downwash angle is high. Downwash angle, it lation has on the airflow over the wing. Frost, snow, ice and
must be remembered, is a very important function of lift. On slush should always be removed before take-off.
the frost covered airfoil in Fig.2.44, the separation point has
Dirt and bugs also disrupt the smooth surface and should be
moved much furthe r forward, despite the fact that the angle
removed so that the surface is clean and uncontaminated.
of attack of the two airfoils is the same (about 12° which is
about the angle for best angle of climb). The downwash angle It should never be assumed that loose snow or slush, or even
is substantially reduced , as is lift. water, will blow off during the take-off run. In fact, these may
very well freeze to the wing and tail surfaces during take-
It is contrary to air regulations to take off in an aeroplane that
off. There is evidence to show that there is a temperature
has frost, snow or ice adhering to any of its critical surfaces. decrease in the airflow over the wing as the pressure drops
Critical surfaces are the wings, control surfaces, rotors, pro- and lift is created. The temperature drop is only a few degrees,
pellers, horizontal stabilizers, vertical stabilizers or any other but, under the right conditions at ambient temperatures very
stabilizing surfaces of the aeroplane and, in the case of an
near the freezing point, the airfoil surfaces could be cooled
aeroplane that has rear mounted engines, the upper surface
sufficiently during the take-off roll for any liquid to change
of the fuselage.
to ice.
In aeroplanes where fuel tanks are located in the wings, the
temperature of the fuel can significantly affect the surface
temperature of the wing above and below these tanks. After
a flight, the temperature of the fuel may be considerably
colder than the ambient temperature and, depending on
certain variables such as the water content of the precipita-
Downwash angle tion and the wing surface temperature, clear ice may form
on the wings above the fuel tanks. Such clear ice is hard to
Fig.2.43 Clean Airfoil Separation detect. This phenomenon is called cold soaking. Cold soaking
can also cause frost to form on the wing under conditions of
high relative humidity. This is a phenomenon that can occur
in above freezing temperatures. In such instances, the frost
tends to re-form quickly even when it has been removed.
On the other hand, warm fuel that is loaded into fuel tanks on
a cold day may melt snow around the tanks. This liquid may
Downwash angle reduced .. then refreeze before take-off.
therefore lift reduced -"-------------------- See also Icing in Chapter Meteorology and Critical Surface
Contamination in Chapter Airmanship.
Fig. 2.44 Contaminated Airfoil Separation Heavy Rain affects the stalling speed of an aeroplane. Recent
studies have indicated that an aircraft exposed to heavy rain
This is known as the clean aircraft concept and it is essential
experiences a loss of lift and an increase in drag as a result of
to the maintenance of flight safety. The critical surfaces must
the effect the rain has on the boundary layer and the surface
be inspected and determined to be free of contamination
of the airfoil. The rain drops that strike the leading edge are
prior to take-off. Any accumulation of snow, frost or ice must
accelerated backward into the boundary layer and decrease
be rem oved by placing the aeroplane in a heated hangar or by
air flow velocity. This causes premature separation of the
using approved de -icing solutions and/or methods. It is not
boundary layer, an increase in drag and early stall.
acceptable to rely on the aeroplane's de-icing and anti-icing
devices to do the job after take-off. The rain also causes a roughness of the airfoil surface. A thin
water film forms on the surface. Raindrop impact craters and
Frost, ice or snow formations that have a thickness and sur-
surface waves in the water film roughen the airfoil surface.
face roughness comparable to medium or coarse sandpaper
The effect on lift and drag is not unlike that caused by frost.
can reduce wing lift by as much as 30% and increase drag
by as much as 40%. With a coating of frost such as this that It is possible that the aircraft may stall before the stall warn-
appears relatively thin and insignificant, the aeroplane may ing devices activate. These devices provide a warning signal
manage to take off but as soon as the nose is raised to climb just prior to the normal stall angle of attack. Airfoils contami-
away, a stall may result at an angle of attack that would nor- nated with ice, snow, frost or heavy rain stall at an angle of
mally, on a clean wing, represent a safe climbing angle. The attack much lower than this predetermined value.
loss of lift and the decrease in the stalling angle of attack is Laminar airfoils are very sensitive to any surface roughness
not just the result of contamination of the wing surface but that cha nges the nature of the boundary layer and can be
also, and perhaps most significantly, the contamination of the expected to be affected by heavy rain. Aircraft with a canard
leading edge of the wing. have also been shown to experience control difficulties in
If a minimal coating of frost can have such a detrimental heavy rain.
effect on lifting capacity, an accumulation of snow and ice The effect of heavy rain is more pronounced in high-lift
will be even worse. It is possible for the stalling speed to be configurations such as during take-off. The most significant
increased to such a degree that the aeroplane cannot reach and devastating decreases in aerodynamic performance are
a speed sufficient to achieve take-off, or if having achieved believed to be caused by torrential downpours associated
take -off, to maintain flight . The weight of an accumulation of with showers and thunderstorms.

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 Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

Obviously the key to preventing the problems associated with The effect is to accelerate the rolling moment in the direction
heavy rain is to avoid the phenomenon. Do not penetrate in which it first started. This is spinning.
heavy rain cells when landing, taking off or going around.
Unfortunately, such heavy downpours cannot be predicted.
If caught in one, expect a significant increase in descent rate
and a decrease in airspeed.

STALL WARNING DEVICES

Many light aeroplanes are fitted with a stall warning. This is a
device which measures the angle of attack by means, usually, Fig.2.46 Upgoing Wing
of a small hole in the wing, or a vane extending forward of
the leading edge of the wing. When the critical angle of attack Any attempt to correct a spin with aileron will only aggravate
is approach ed, it ac tivates a warning device in the cockpit. the roll. If the aileron on the downgoin g wing is moved down-
Depending on the aircraft, the wa rning usu ally occu rs five to ward to bring the wing up, it will m ee t the airflow at a higher
ten knots before an aerodynam ic stall occurs. The warning angle of attack and will therefore become more stalled th an
device can sometimes be a red light or a bell, but it is most the wing itself. The upgoing aileron , on the other h and, will
often a very audible buzzer or horn. be unstalled and will have increased lift.

The stall warning device is, however, calibrated to perform The spinning motion involves rolling, yawing and pitch-
under clean wing conditions. It does not recognize the ing. The aeroplane follows a helical or corkscrew path nose
degraded performance of a contaminated wing and it cannot, downward, rotating about a vertical axis. Pitch attitudes may
therefore, be relied upon to give warning of an impending stall vary from flat to steep. Forward and vertical speeds are both
in icing conditions. comparatively low.

The best stall warning device is the pilot's training and expe- The view from the cockpit is a steep, nose-down attitude with
rience in reaction to stalls. All pilots receive training in stalls a rolling motion about the spin axis. The airspeed is near stall.
but, after receiving their licence, many have such an aversion An angle of attack indicator (if installed) would show a fully
to them that they never go out and practice slow flight and stalled condition. The turn needle is fully deflected in the
stalls again. It is important for pilots to practice stalls suffi- direction of the spin and the rate of descent is rapid. The G
ciently often to develop an instinctive recognition of an incipi- force acting on the aeroplane is 1.
ent stall and an automatic reaction to avoid it. The spin maneuver consists of three stages. The incipient
stage occurs from the time the aeroplane stalls and rotation
STALL RECOVERY starts until the spin axis becomes vertical or nearly vertical.
Because insufficient lift is being generated by the wings to In the developed stage , the angles and motions of the aero-
maintain flight, a stalled aeroplane starts to lose altitude. To plane are stabili zed and the flight path is nearly vertical. The
recover from a stall, the pilot can: third stage is recovery.
1. Lower the nose to decrease the an gle of attack, or The aim in recovery from a spin is to up set the balance
2. Apply more power to accelerate the aeroplane. If, how- between the aero dyn amic and inertia m ovem ents. Spin ch ar-
ever, the aeroplane is already under full power when the acteristics of different aeroplanes necessarily differ and the
stall occurs , the only op tion for recovery from the stall technique for spin recovery outlined in the Pilot's Operating
is to lower th e nose of the aeroplane. Handbook must be followed. In the absence of m anufacturer 's
recommendations, however, m os t light aeropl anes can be
brought out of a spin by followin g these steps.
1. Power to idle, aileron s neutrali zed.
Flight Path <11(-------------l······ ····· ... -~
:....
Relative Wind ········ ·····r.:.__
·
-·····
· a
Ef"iective
2. Apply and hold full rudder opposite to the direc tion of
rotation.
3. Control column positively fo rward fa r enough to unstall
Fig. 2.45 Downgoing Wing
the aeroplane.
SPINNING 4. When rotation stops, neutralize the rudder, level the
Spinning m ay be defined as autorotation which develops after wings and recover smoothly from the resulting dive.
an aggravated stall.
When a w ing is stalled, an increase in the angle of attack will Spiral Dive
decrease lift. If a disturbance causes a stalled aeropl ane to A spiral dive is a steep descending turn in which the aero -
drop one wing, or if rudder is applied to produce a yaw, the plane is in an excessively nose-down attitude. Excessive angle
downgoing w ing will have a greater angle of attack to the rela- of bank, rapidly increasing airspeed and rapidly increasing
tive airflow, will receive less lift and will tend to drop more rate of descent characterize it. It is, in fact, a hazardous
rapidly (Fig.2.45). Drag on the down-going wing increases maneuver. Structural damage can occur to the aeroplane if
sharply increasing the angle of attack of the downgoing wing the airspeed is allowed to increase beyond normal limits.
still further and stalling it further. The nose of the aeroplane Excessive load factors may be produced in the pull up from
drops and autorotation sets in. the dive during recovery.
The upgoing wing will have a relative downward airflow, In some ways, a spiral dive resembles a spin. Don't confuse
hence a decreased angle of attack and increased lift, and will the two. In a spin, the airspeed is constant and low. In a spiral,
rise more rapidly (Fig.2.46). the airspeed increases rapidly.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Aeronautical Fundamentals

Recovery from a spiral dive must be taken promptly and in MAXIMUM GUST INTENSITY SPEED (Vs)
this sequence. The maximum speed for penetration of gusts of maximum
1. Close the throttle and level the wings as nearly simulta- intensity. In most light aeroplanes, the manufacturer does not
neously as possible. recommend differing design speeds for VB and VA. However,
for larger transport aeroplanes, there is a recommended
2. Keep straight. design speed for maximum gust intensity as well as a maneu-
3. Ease out of the dive. vering speed.

4. Apply power as required to maintain altitude. Pilots flying high speed jets at high altitude may elect to main-
tain somewhat higher speeds when penetrating turbulent air.
This is because the risk of an inadvertent stall (due to severe
2.i.6 Airspeed Limitations gust loads at high altitude) may present as great a h azard as
Airspeed is the rate of movem ent of an aeroplane relative to the risk of structural strain . (Bear in mind when you get in the
the air mass through which it is flying. It is thrust impeded supersonic league that you can stall an aeroplane at almost
by drag. All airspeeds are a balance between thrust and drag, any speed if you subj ect it to a sufficiently high g load .)
pitch attitude and power setting.
MAXIMUM FLAPS EXTENDED SPEED {VFE)
Loads greater than the weight of the aeroplane are produced This is the maximum speed at which the aeroplane may be
by certain maneuvers and by gust conditions. In straight-and- flown with the flaps lowered. A speed in excess of this value
level flight, the lift is equal to the weight. But an increase in may lead to a structural failure of the flaps.
speed will produce an increase in lift, which, in turn, will
cause the aeroplane to climb. In order to maintain level flight For other airspeed limitations, see V Speeds in the Glossary.
when the airspeed is increased, the angle of attack must be
reduced. An aeroplane flying in turbulent air may be sub- 2.1.? Mach Number
jected to severe vertical gusts which will, in effect, change The Mach number (pronounced "mock") is the ratio of the
the angle of attack on the wings. If the aeroplane is flying too speed of a body to the speed of sound in the air surrounding
slowly, the increased angle of attack may be great enough to the body. The speed of sound, the rate at which sound travels
cause the wings to stall. If, on the other hand, the aeroplane in air, varies according to the temperature of the air. It is,
is flying too fast, the vertical acceleration may impose a load by formula, proportional to the square root of the absolute
factor on the wings in excess of what they are strong enough temperature. At sea level at standard atmosphere conditions
to bear. For this reason, certain speeds are established by the (15°C), the speed of sound is 660 knots. In the stratosphere
manufacturer of each particular aeroplane and specified in where the temperature is about -60°C, the speed of sound will
the aircraft's Pilot's Operating Handbook. be only 575 knots.
NEVER EXCEED SPEED/MAXIMUM The speed of sound is not dependent on temperature alone.
PERMISSIBLE DIVE SPEED (VNE} Density also has a bearing but, temperature and density being
This is the m aximum speed at which the aeroplane can be so related, temperature is the controlling factor. The speed of
safely operated in sm ooth air. A higher speed may result in sound is not, therefore, a function of altitude. In the Arctic
structu ral fa ilure , flutter, or loss of control. (If you ever find regions of the world where temperatures commonly drop to
yourself over the Never Exceed Speed inadvertently, throttle -60°C , the speed of sound at sea level will drop to 575 knots. In
back and execute pull-outs with slow and firm pressure on tropical regions where the temperature even at considerable
the controls .) altitude m ay be well above 15°C, the speed of sound will be
well over 660 knots.
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL CRUISE SPEED/
The Mach numb er is found by dividing the airspeed of the
NORMAL OPERATING LIMIT SPEED {VNo) aeroplane by the speed of sound in the atmospheric tempera-
This is the cruise speed for which the aeroplane was designed ture conditions existing at the time of the fli ght. An aeroplane
and is the m aximum safe speed at which the aeropl ane flyin g at a Mach numb er of .85 would be travelling at 85% of
should be operated in the normal category. Warning: do not the speed of sound.
ever exceed this speed intention ally, even during descent,
because of the possibility of unexpec ted gus t loads. The speed There is a critical Mach number at which the airflow over the
range betwe en VNO and VNE (erroneously described as the wing becom es sonic. At this airspeed, shock waves are formed
caution range) should never be entered deliberately during on the wing and compressibility effects become apparent;
normal operation. drag increases, buffeting occurs and ch anges in lift and in
the position of the centre of pressure cause changes in pitch.
MANEUVERING SPEED (VA) The sho ck wave on the upper surface upsets the lift distri-
This is the m aximum speed at which the flight controls can bution and causes a reduction in downwash over the tail.
be fully deflected without damage to the aeroplane structure. The aeroplane becomes increasingly unstable at increasing
This speed is used for abrupt maneuvers or when flying in Mach number. The swept wing design is somewhat effective
very rough air or in severe turbulence. At this speed, it is in retarding this phenomenon. The shock wave tends to be
impossible for gusts to produce dangerous load factors. This experienced at the thick root first while the tips maintain
is the speed least likely to result in structural damage to the lift. As a result, the critical Mach number is raised. For this
aeroplane and yet allow a sufficient margin of safety above reason, high speed aeroplanes usually are designed with a
the stalling speed in gusty air. Maneuvers which involve an swept wing. Some aeroplanes are designed so that, as there is
approach to a stall, or full use of rudder or aileron control, an increase in Mach number, stability tends to return.
should never be attempted above this speed. (See also Loads
and Load Factors in Chapter The Aeroplane.)

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 Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

2.2 Flight Instruments rapidly build up and exceed the red line, never exceed speed.
Structural failure and inflight break up of the aeroplane would
be the probable result.
An understanding of the various flight instruments and the
way they work is essential to the pilot. With a basic knowledge Helicopter pilots should also be aware that helicopters are
of their characteristics and especially their limitations, a pilot particularly prone to pitot tube freezing when operating in
is better able to interpret the information displayed on the winter conditions while landing or taking off in powder snow.
instruments during various flight conditions . Snow kicked up from the rotor blade wash m ay easily enter
the pitot tube and freeze, thereby causing pressure system
blockage.
2.2.1 Pitot Static Instruments
A partially clogged static pressure system can also cause
Instruments connected to the pitot st atic pressure system
problems. Altimeter, ai rspeed and vertical speed indicator
include the airspeed indicator, the altimeter and the vertical
will under-read in the climb, then slowly catch up when the
speed indicator. The system includes a pitot pressure source
aeroplane is levelled off. In the descent , the airspeed indicator
and a static pressure source.
will over-read, the vertical speed indicator will indicate less

••
Static Line than the true rate of descent and the altimeter will over-read .
For this reason, the pitot and static pressure sources should
always be checked before a flight to see that they are clear.
The pitot heat should always be turned on to prevent block-
age of the dynamic pressure source. If ever, during a flight,
Pitot-pressure chamber you suspect blockage of the static pressure system because of
contradictory readings of the instruments, open the alternate
Static Vent
(Static pressure source) static source (most aeroplanes are so equipped) or, if neces-
sary, remove the static source line entirely. If the needles
Fig . 2.47 Pitot Static System
move significantly, there is static pressure blockage.
Although the static pressure sources are located in a position
The pitot pressure source is usually located on the leading where they ought not to be affected by ram air pressures, in
edge of the wing where it is clear of the slipstream, in a posi- certain maneuvers such as a sideslip, ram air will enter the
tion to be as free as possible of air disturbance and facing the static pressure source and cause erroneous readings on the
line of flight. When the aeroplane is in flight, the atmospheric pitot static instruments . On an aeroplane that has only one
pressure in the pitot pressure system is increased by dynamic static pressure source, sideslipping in one dire ction (into the
pressure due to the forward motion of the aeroplane through side where the port is located) will affect the instruments but
the air. The airspeed indicator is the only instrument con- sideslipping the other way will not.
nected to the pitot pressure source.
The airspeed indicator, the altimeter and the vertical speed The Altimeter
indicator are all connected to the static pressure source The altimeter is a special fo rm of aneroid barometer (a barom -
through which they are vented to allow air pressure inside eter without liquid) which measures th e pressure of the atmo-
their cases to equ alize with the outside barometric pressure sphere. It is connected to the static pressure source through
as the aeroplane gains or loses altitude. The ports, or vents an outlet in the back of the case. This outlet serves as a vent to
(usu ally there are two), of the static pressure sys tem are com- allow static atmospheric pressure to move into and out of the
monly located on opposite sides of the fu selage where they altimeter case as the aeroplane climbs or descends.
will not be affected by turbulence or by ram air pressures.
Having two vents also compensates for any possible error in The atmosph eric pressure at any point is due to the weight of
pressure that might occur on one of the vents when there are the overlying air above, which decreases as the height above
erratic changes in attitude, as in a steep turn. sea level increases. Hence, the instrument can be calibrated
to read in terms of height. Un der standard air conditions of
One of the problems of the pitot pressure system is that the 15°C , the weight of a column of air, one square inch in area ,
source is susceptible to the accumulation of dirt, water and is 14.7 lb. at sea level. It exerts a pressure of 14.7 lb. per sq. in.
ice. Blocked or partially blocked sources will cause inaccurate This pressure is recorded on a barometer as 29.92 inch es of
readings of the instruments. Complete blockage of the pitot m ercury and by an altimeter as 0 feet.
pressure sou rce, for example, (in combination with blocked
drain holes) will trap pressu re in the airspeed indicator and
turn it into an altimeter. If the pitot pressure sou rce is not
completely blocked or if the system lacks integrity (has some
air leaks), the airspeed indicator needle will rotate back to
O. On many modern aeroplanes, the pitot pressure source
is electrically heated to prevent the build-up of ice during
flight. Failure to turn on pitot heat or failure of the electrical
element does, however, happen . As ice builds up, gradually
restricting the flow of dynamic pressure air through the pitot
pressure system, the airspeed indication will gradually fall
off. This situation could be particularly dangerous if the pilot,
while flying in !FR conditions, tries to keep up airspeed by
continually reducing the angle of attack without referring to
other flight and engine instruments that would alert to the Fig.2.48 Sensitive Altimeter
failed airspeed indicator. The airspeed of the aircraft could

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Theory of Flight Flight Instruments

At 10,000 feet the weight of a one square inch air column has It is important, on a long cross-country flight, for a pilot to
decreased to 10.11 lb., the corresponding barometric pressure get up-dated altimeter settings and regularly reset the altim-
to 20.58 inches, and the altimeter records 10,000 feet. The eter. It is true that, if the aeroplane is operating well above
decrease in pressure is sensed by the altimeter and registered the earth's surface, knowledge of the exact distance above
as an increase in height. the ground is of little immediate importance. However, if the
The basic components of the altimeter are a stack of aneroid aeroplane is operating at no great height above the ground or
capsules located inside the case. These capsules are sealed above the highest ground enroute, especially in conditions
and are 99 percent evacuated of air. Atmospheric pressure of poor visibility or when on instruments, knowledge of the
admitted to the case through the static pressure system actual separation between the aeroplane and the ground is
causes these capsules to expand and contract. The expansion of vital importance. Take, for example, a situation in which a
and contraction of these capsules transmits motion direc tly flight altitude of 6,000 feet h as been selected to clear a 4,800
to gea rs and levers which rotate h ands on the face of the foot m ountain ridge th at lies across the course near the des-
altimeter. A large h and records altitude ch anges in hundreds tination . The altimeter setting at the airport of departure w as
of feet; a sm aller h and records altitude in u nits of thousands 29.80". Th e altimeter se tting at the des tination airport, how-
of feet; and a third still sm aller h and records altitude in units ever, is on ly 29.20". If the pilot does not reset his/h er altimeter,
often thousand feet. The altimeter depicted in Fig.2.48 is read- the aeroplane will clear the mountain ridge by only 600 feet
ing 10,400 feet. instead of the 1,200 feet expected.
An altimeter setting that is too high will give an altimeter
Static pressure source Linkage reading that is too high. Each .10" Hg that is added to the
altimeter setting will increase the indicated altitude recorded
by the altimeter by approximately 100 feet. An altimeter set-
ting that is too low will give an altimeter reading that is too
low. Therefore, when an aeroplane is flying from an area of
high pressure into an area of low pressure (or from warm air
into colder air) if a corrected altimeter setting has not been
obtained by radio, the altimeter will read high. To best remain
mindful when flying in such circumstances, pilots should
remember the mnemonic that follows when flying from a
Fig. 2.49 Schematic of Simple Altimeter
high pressure system into a low pressure system:
As the aeroplane climbs, the outside barometric pressure
decreases and air moves out of the case through the static From high to low - watch out below.
pressure system. As a result, the aneroid capsules expand,
causing an increased altitude reading. As the aeroplane In the Northern Hemisphere a drift to the right or starboard
descends, air moves into the altimeter case and the capsules indicates that an aeroplane is flying towards an area of low
contract , causing a dec reased altitude reading. pressure. A glance at the wind circul ation around a low pres-
Pressure altimeters are calibrated during m anufac ture to su re are a (see Fig.6.12) will indicate why this is so. Continued
indicate a true altitude in standard atm osphere condition s. drift to starboard over a long period should act as a warning
The maximum allow able tolerance is plus or minus 20 feet that an uncorrec ted altim eter m ay be reading high.
at sea level. If, h aving set the current altim eter setting on Abnormally high pressure fa ctors can result in altimeter pres-
the subscale and h aving compared th e altim eter reading to sure errors. Cold, dry air m asses can produce barometric pres-
th e known airport elevation , there is an error of more than su res higher than 31.00" Hg. On m ost standard altimeters , the
plus or minus 50 fee t, the instrument sh ould be checked by barometric setting scale does not go higher than 31.00" Hg and
m ainten ance. the instrument will not indicate altitude accu rately in condi-
Altimeters are calibrated to one of two sets of values, each tions when the barometric pressu re exceeds this fi gure. Jn
of which lays down certain empirical values for the state of such conditions, the aircraft's true altitude will be high er than
the atmosphere. These are called respec tively the Isotherm al the indicated altitude. It is possible to estimate the error in the
Atmosphere and the Interna tional Standard Atm osph ere. indicated altitude fo r pressures above 31.00" Hg by adding 100
feet in aircra ft altitude for each .10" Hg. Aircraft operating !FR
ALTIMETER PRESSURE ERROR and VFR, and especially those operating VFR at night, must
The heights at which aeroplanes are re quired to fly fo r air exercise extra diligence both in fli ght planning and during
navigation purposes are indicated altitudes above sea level. the flight. When such conditions of abnormally high pressure
Since the barometric pressure varies from place to place, an exis t, ATC w ill issue the actu al altimeter setting and pilots are
altimeter set to indicate h eight above sea level at the point of advised to set 31.00" Hg on their altimeters throughout the
departure may give an erroneous indication after the aero- duration of the flight. To determine the suitability of an aero-
plane has flown some distance towards its destination. To drome from which or to which you intend to operate, increase
correct for this, altimeters are fitted with a barometric scale, the ceiling requirements by 100 feet and the visibility require-
calibrated in inches of mercury, which allows the pilot to set ments by 1/4 s.m. for each .10" hg over 31.00" Hg.
the current altimeter setting in the altimeter setting window
The Altimeter Setting Region must be considered in the con-
on the face of the instrument.
text of possible altimeter pressure errors. When the altimeter
The altimeter setting, which is given in inches of mercury, setting is set on the barometric scale, the altimeter will reg-
may be obtained from towers and flight service stations in ister the indicated height above sea level. When you land at
any particular locality over which the aeroplane is operating. an airport from which the altimeter setting was obtained by
In Fig.2.48, the altimeter setting is 29.92 inches. radio, your altimeter will record the altitude of the field above
sea level.

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 Theory of Flight Flight Instruments

The altitude at which an aeroplane fli es when using indicated has been precisely and accurately calibrated. When an air-
height above me an sea level (MSL) as its reference is known craft is in fli ght, it can be assumed th at the altitude indication
as cruising altitude. of an altimeter is always in error as a result of temperature
The area in wh ich the indicated height above sea level is used variations.
is known as the altimeter setting region. See also Altimeter
Setting Region in Chapter Aerodromes & Airspace. 200 3 00 400 500 600 700 800 90 0 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
0' 0 20 20 20 20 40 40 40 40 60 80 140 180 220
When t aking off within the altimeter setting region , or -10 ° 20 20 40 40 40 60 80 80 80 120 160 260 340 420
-20° 20 40 40 60 80 80 100 120 120 180 240 380 500 620
approaching to land, the altimeter should be set to the cur- -JQ O 40 40 60 80 100 120 140 140 160 240 320 500 660 820
rent altimeter setting of the field . If the altimeter setting is not -40 '
-50°
40
40
60
80
80
100
100
120
120
140
140
18 0
160
200
180
220
200
240
JOO
360
400
480
620
740
82 0
980
1020
1220
available, prior to take- off, you can set the altimeter to read Note : Values shou ld be added to publis hed altitud es

the elevation of the field above sea level. Du ring fligh t, the Exa mple: Aerodro me Eleva ti on 2262 Ae rodrome Tempe ratu re -50°(
altimeter should be progressively rese t to the altimeter setting Altitude HAA Correction Indicated Alt.
of the nearest st ation along the route of flight. Procedure Tun
FAF
1, 000 ft.
3300 ft.
1738 ft.
1038 ft.
+420 ft .
+240 ft.
4420 ft.
3540 ft.

The Standard Pressure Region must be considered in the con-

text of possible altimeter pressure errors. Over transoceanic Fig .2 .50 Altitude Correction Chart
routes and certain continental areas, altimeter settings are
not available. Flights over these areas are flown at pressure The amount of error depends on the degre e to which the aver-
altitude (defined below). Because the altimeter is less reliable age temperature of the column of air between the aircraft
at high altitudes, fli ghts above 18,000 feet m s! are also flown and the ground differs from the average temperature of the
at pressure altitude. standard atmosphere for the same column of air. If the actual
Pressure altitude is the height above sea level corresponding temperature of the air column in which the aeroplane is flying
is colder th an standard air, the true altitude of the aeroplane
to a given barometric pressure under st andard air condition s.
above sea level w ill be lower than the indicated altitude. If
When the barometric scale is set to read 29.92" Hg, the height
the actual temperature is w armer th an standard air, the true
recorded by the altimeter is pressure altitude.
altitude will be higher. Extreme vari ation s in temperature
In this case, the altitude at which the aeroplane is flying is may cause the altimeter to register an indicated altitude as
referred to as the flight level. In reporting the flight level, the much as 2, 500 feet above or below the true altit ude. Since
last two digits of the altitude are omitted. For example, an all altimeters in the sam e are a are equally affected by tem-
aeroplane flying at a pressure altit ude of 15,000 feet would perature error, air traffi c regulations require you to fly only at
report its height as "Flight Level 150 (FL 150)". indicated altitude.
The region in which the altimeter setting of 29.92" Hg. (1013.2 Abnormally cold temperature factors can result in altimeter
Millibars) is used is know n as the standard pressure region. temperature errors. It is important for a pilot to be able to cal-
See also Standard Pressure Region in Chapter Aerodromes culate his/her true altitude above sea level. This is particularly
and Airspace. essential in mountainous areas when the temp eratures are
Wh en taking off within the standard pressure region, the very low. Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true
altimeter should be se t to the current altimeter setting of altitude under conditions of international standard atmo-
the fi eld; if this is not obtainable, to the elevation of the field sphere (ISA). Any deviation from ISA will result in an errone-
above sea level. Immediately before reaching cruisin g altitude, ous reading on the altim eter. In very cold temperatu res, the
the altim eter should be re-set to 29.92" Hg. When approaching true altit ude w ill be much lower than the indicated altit ude
to land at an airport within the Standard Pressure Region, the and could be critical in obstacle clearance. Th e very cold,
altimeter should be re-set to the cu rrent altimeter setting of dense air will cause an altim eter error of as much as 20%.
the field just prior to commencing the descent from cruising The altimeter might read 8,000 fe et, for example , when the
altitude or just prior to descending below the fligh t level at true altitude of the aircraft is only 6,400 feet. In !FR operation,
which a h olding procedure h as been conducted. an aircraft m aintaining the m inimum obstacle clearance
altitude (MOCA) while flyi ng th rough the mou ntains m ay be
When flying out of the Standard Pressure Region into the
well below a safe altitude if the pilot is trusting the altimeter
Altimeter Setting Region, or vice versa, the altimeter should
indication and h as not calcul ated the true altitude. Pilots
be adjusted to the setting appropriate to the area in which the
experienced in winter operations in the m ount ains must
aeroplane is being flown . See also Cruising Altitudes.
always be conscientious about calculating true altitude before
Field level pressure is the actual barometric pressure (not cor- commencing any instrument approach to landing in order to
rected to sea level) at any particular airport. If a pilot obtains ensu re the safety of the fligh t .
the field level pressure by radio from an airport they are
The values derived from an altitude correction chart such as
approaching and sets it on their barom etric scale , th eir altim-
the one shown in Fig.2.50 should be added to the published
eter w ill register 0 feet when they land.
procedure altitudes, minimum sector altitudes and DME
ALTIMETER TEMPERATURE ERROR arcs to ensure adequate obstacle clearance. The altimeter
The pressure altimeter is calibrated to indicate true altitude setting of the de stination airport should be th at used in the
in standard atmosphere conditions (see Standard Atmosphere calculations.
in Part III Meteorology). Due to continual heating and cool- To calculate true altitude, it is important to know that all com-
ing, the atmosphere at any given point is seldom at the tem- puters currently in use are fitte d with a sliding scale for cor-
perature of standard air. In fac t, the only time a pilot can be recting temperatu re error and converting indicated altitude to
certain that the altimeter indicates true altitude is wh en the true altitude. However, the correction is based on the pressure
aircraft is on the ground at the airport for which the current altitude rather than the indicated altitude. To find the former
altimeter setting is set on the sub-scale of an altimeter that at any time, simply set the barometric scale to 29.92 and

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

the altimeter will record the pressure altitude. See Altitude Although mountain waves usually generate severe turbu-
Correction in Solving Problems with the Circular Slide Rule in lence, on occasion flight through a mountain wave may be
Chapter Navigation. very smooth. Such smooth conditions usually occur at night
Density Altitude is a critical consideration for pilots to under- or when an overcast exists. As a result, there is no warning
stand when operating their aircraft. Barometric pressure and of the unusual flight conditions. An aeroplane, entering such
temperature both affect density. Density is an important a smooth and intense downdraft, will begin to descend but
factor in the takeoff performance of modern aeroplanes. Low the altimeter will not register the descent until the aeroplane
densities reduce engine thrust and aerodynamic lift. Density descends through an altitude level equal to the altimeter error
altitude, which is pressure altitude corrected for temperature, caused by the mountain wave. Thus the pilot of the aeroplane
is important in calculating the safe fuel and payload permis- in this intense downdraft may end up with much less ground
sible for takeoff. Density altitude can be determined when separation than expected without ever knowing that they
the pressure altitude (at the airport) and the temperature are were in an intense downdraft.
known. Most modern circular slide rules are calibrated to ALTITUDE DEFINITIONS
compute density altitude. However, if a computer is not avail- Indicated altitude is the reading on the altimeter when it is set
able, the approximate density altitude may be found by the to the current barometric pressure.
following simple formula:
Pressure altitude is the reading on the altimeter when it is set
to standard barometric pressure (29.92" Hg).
Density altitude = pressure altitude +
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature.
[100 x (actual temperature - standard temperature)}
True altitude is exact height above mean sea level.

To use this formula, there are three facts to remember. Absolute altitude is actual height above the earth's surface
(altimeter set to field level pressure).
1. The temperature of st andard air is 15°C at sea level.
2. The temperature of standard air decreas- The Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
es 2°C per 1,000 feet of altitude. The airspeed indicator tells the pilot the speed at which he/
3. For every 1°C difference from standard air, there is a she is travelling through the air (not over the ground). The dial
100 foot increase (or decrease, if the actual tempera- is calibrated in knots and miles per hour (Fig.2.51).
ture is less than standard air) in the pressure altitude.
For Example:
To find the density altitude:
Pressure altitude at airport 2,000 feet
Actual temperature 25°C
The temperature of standard air at 2,000 feet
sh ould be: (15°C less 2° per 1,000 feet) = 11°c .
Therefore, the density altitude is:
2,000 + (100 x (25° - 11°)]= 3,400 feet.
See also Density Altitude in Chapter Airmanship.

ALTIMETER MOUNTAIN EFFECT ERROR

Winds which are deflected around large single mountain
peaks or through valleys of mountain ranges tend to increase Fig .2.51 Airspeed Indicator
speed which results in a local decrease in pressure (Bernoulli's
Principle). A pressure altimeter in such an airflow would be The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot and
subject to the decrease in pressure and would give an altitude static pressure sources. To give a reading of speed through the
reading th at is too high . The error will be present until the air, the instrument measures the difference between the pres-
airflow returns to its normal speed some distance downwind sure in the pitot pressure system and the pressure in the static
of the mountain or mountain range. system. When the aeroplane is standing on the ground, the
pressure in the two systems is equal and the airspeed indica-
Winds blowing over a mountain range often create a phe- tor registers 0. When the aeroplane is in motion, the pressure
nomenon that is known as the mountain wave. The effect of in the pitot pressure system is increased by dynamic pressure
a mountain wave often extends as far as 100 miles downwind due to the forward m otion of the aeroplane through the air
of the mountains and up to altitudes much above the actual (pitot pressure is therefore the sum of atmospheric pressure
elevation of the m ountain ridge. Within the mountain wave, and dynamic pressure). The airspeed indicator senses the
downdrafts are usually very intense. They are normally total pressure in the pitot pressure system, subtracts the pres-
more severe near the mountain and at the same height as sure in the static system and gives a reading of the dynamic
the summit of the range. The increase in wind speeds that pressure, the measure of the aeroplane's forward speed. This
extend throughout the mountain wave causes a local drop in reading is displayed on a gradu ated scale on the face of the
pressure within the wave. In addition, temperatures that vary instrument and is called indicated airspeed (!AS).
from standard temperature complicate the situation, setting
up the altimeter for a major error in altitude reading. In fact, The pi tot pressure source is connected to the interior of a thin
altimeters may read as much as 3,000 feet too high in severe corrugated metal expansion box called the aneroid capsule
m ountain wave conditions. See also The Mountain Wave in
Chapter Aviation Weather.

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 Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

and admits pitot pressure in to this capsule. The static pres- Den sity er ror must be considered as a factor in airspeed
sure source is connected to the inside of the instrument case indicator errors. The density of the air depend s on atmo-
and maintains the air in the case at the prevailing atmospher- sph eric pressure and temperature. Th ese are variable factors.
ic pressure. Changes in dynamic pressure inside the aneroid Consequently, a standard value for density has to be assumed
capsule cause it to expand or contract. This movement is in order for the airspeed indicator to be calibrated.
transmitted through a linkage system to a hand which rotates
The standard for calibrating airspeed indicators is normal
around a dial calibrated in knots and/or miles per hour. sea level pressure, 29.92 inches of mercury, at a temperature
Static pressure source of 15°C. A rough correction may be made by adding 2% to the
Linkage indicated airspeed for every 1,000 fee t of pressure altitude.

Glass For Ex ample:

Dial face Indicated airspeed at 10,000 feet is 130 knots
The correction is: 10 x 2% = 20%
Pointer Therefore, 20% of 130 kts. = 26 kts.
Therefore, true airspeed = 130 + 26 = 156 kts.
More accurate corrections, allowing for the actual tempera-
ture and pressure, can be obtained with any suitable circular
Dynamic pressure source
slide rule computer.

Fig. 2.52 Schematic of Simple Airspeed Indicator Some airspeed indicators, such as the one shown in Fig.2.51,
incorporate such a computer into the instrument. To deter-
AIRSPEED INDICATOR MARKINGS mine true airspeed (TAS), pressure altitude and the outside
Colour coded m arkin gs are used on the airspeed indicator to air temperature must be known. The pressure altitude is
indicate safe operating ranges and operating limits. set against the temperatu re in the w indow at the top of th e
instrument. TAS is read against the pointer on the window in
1. Red. A red line is placed at the Never Exceed the cruising speed range of the instrument (lower left.)
Speed (VNE). Th is is the maximum speed at
which the aeroplane can be operated. , .. ,
' ...
! AS 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -
2. Yellow. A yellow arc indicates the "caution speed" Flaps Up
CAS 68 83 100 118 137 156 175 -
range. The lowest limit of the yellow arc is the
* Fl aps Down !AS 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Maximu m Structural Cruising Speed (VN0 ) . The aero-
20 °-40 ° CAS 58 63 68 75 84 92 101 110
plane should be operated in the "caution speed" range
• Maximum Flap Speed 110 knots, CAS
only in smooth air. However, since it is impossible
to guarantee that turbulence will not be encoun- Fig.2.53 Airspeed Correction Table
tered and that the air will be smooth, the aeroplane
should not be operated intentionally in th is range. Position error is another factor that must be considered as a
factor in airspeed indicator errors. Eddies that are formed as
3. Green. A green arc indicates the normal operat- the air passes over the wings and struts are responsible for
ing range. The lower limit of the green arc is the position error. The angle at which th e pitot pressure source
Power Off Stalling Speed with flaps and gear up meets the airflow is also a cause. Position error is reduced by
(V5 L). The upper limit of the green arc is VN0 (the placing the pitot pressure source as far ahead of the leading
maximum cruising speed for normal operation). edge of the wing as is practicable. The position error remain-
4. White. A white arc depicts the speed range in which ing is tabulated on a cockpit calibration card, or in tables in the
Pilot's Operating Handbook. See Fig.2.53.
fully extended flaps may be used. The lower limit of
the white arc is the Power Off Stalling Speed with Lag error is a factor in airspeed indicator errors. This is a
flaps and gear down (V50). The upper limit on the mechanical error due to the friction of the working parts of
white arc is the Maximum Flaps Extended Speed (V,E). the instrument.
On the airspeed indicator depicted in Fig.2.51, V50 is 58 knots Icing error is a factor in airspeed indicator errors. Ice forma-
(67 mph), v,E is 109 knots (125 mph), V5 L is 65 knots (75 mph), VN0 tion, blocking the pitot and/or static pressure sources, has
is 156 knots (180 mph) and VN is 197 knots (226 mph). been a source of considerable trouble with airspeed indicators
in the past. It should be noted that any such blockage that
Maneuvering Speed is not marked on the face of the indicator. prevents air from being vented through the system m ay result
in the airspeed indicator becoming stuck at the exact reading
AIRSPEED INDICATOR ERRORS from the moment the blockage occurred. Icing error has been
The airspeed indicator is affected by several errors for which largely eliminated in present day instruments by the adoption
correction must be made. Th ese errors are listed below and of electrically heated pitot pressure sources.
described in further detail thereafter.
The question, of course, is when should pitot heat be used.
1. Density Error. Generally, in summer, it is not necessary to be concerned
2. Position Error. about m oisture or ice in the pressure system. In spring, fall
and winter, when outside temperatures drop and the moisture
3. Lag Error. content of the air increases, the situ ation can be more critical.
4. Icing Error. Any moisture, either in solid or liquid form, may cause an
erroneous reading of the airspeed indicator. An accumulation
5. Water Error. of ice that completely blocks the pitot pressure source will
cause a complete loss of airspeed indication. Even while the

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

aeroplane is parked, if the pi tot pressure source is not covered, Atmospheric pressure is led from the static pressure source
rain, snow or frost may collect in the system and obstruct the directly into an aneroid capsule, or diaphragm, contained
free passage of air. For this reason, it is advisable to use pitot within the case of the instrument. Air is also permitted to leak
heat whenever the aeroplane is being operated in sensitive at a relatively slow rate through a capillary tube into the case
temperature or moisture conditions. As a rule of thumb, 10°C of the instrument. The difference between the quick change
might be selected as the critical temperature. Turn the pitot in pressure which occurs within the aneroid capsule and the
heat on just prior to take-off and turn it off after landing since relatively slow rate at which this pressure is equalized within
extended use of pi tot heat on the ground may cause the heater the case causes the capsule to expand or contract. This move-
element to burn out. ment is amplified and transmitted by linkage to the pointer on
Water Error is a factor in airspeed indicator errors. Water in the dial of the instrument.
the system can cause very erratic airspeed indications. The
When the aeroplane loses altitude, pressure within the cap-
errors may be high or low, depending on whether the water
sule increases almost immediately, while pressure within the
is in the dynamic or static pressure systems. Sufficient water
in the pitot pressure system may block it off completely. The case changes slowly. The capsule therefore expands and the
pitot pressure source should be covered when an aeroplane is pointer indicates DOWN in feet per minute.
standing in the open to prevent water getting into the system.

AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS
Indicated airspeed (!AS) is the uncorrected speed read from
the airspeed di al. It is the measurement of the difference
between the total pressure (that is, the pitot pressure which is
the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the dynamic pres-
sure) and the atmospheric pressure in the pitot-static system.
Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is indicated airspeed corrected for
instrument error and installation error in the pitot-static pres-
sure system. As the aeroplane flight attitude or configuration
is changed, the airflow in the vicinity of the static pressure Fig.2.55 Schematic of Simple Vertical Speed Indicator
sources may introduce impact pressure into the static source,
which results in erroneous airspeed indications. The pitot sec- When the aeroplane gains altitude, the process is reversed
tion of the system is subject to error at high angles of attack, and the pointer indicates UP. When the aeroplane remains
since the impact pressure entering the system is reduced level, the pressures equalize and the pointer indicates 0.
when the pitot pressure source is not parallel to the relative Note that the vertical speed indicator registers the rate of
airflow. Performance data in the Pilot's Operating Handbook is climb or descent, not the attitude of the aeroplane. An aero-
normally based on calibrated airspeed. plane may gain height in a vertical up-current of air when it
Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is calibrated airspeed corrected for is flying perfectly level. The vertical speed indicator should be
compressibility factor. This value is very significant to pilots closely co-ordinated with the airspeed indicator. Corrections
of high speed aircraft, but relatively unimportant to pilots for altitude gained or lost in cruising flight should be made
operating at speeds below 250 knots at altitudes below 10,000 by nosing the aeroplane up or down (by use of the elevators).
feet. Intentional change in altitude should be made by increasing or
True airspeed (TAS) is calibrated (or equivalent) airspeed decreasing power at a given airspeed (by use of the throttle).
corrected for the airspeed indicator error due to density and
temperature. In other words, it is indicated airspeed corrected LAG
for temperature and altitude. TAS is the actual speed of the A change in altitude must occur before the vertical speed indi-
aeroplane through the air mass. cator can indicate such a ch ange. Although the indicator will
show quite quickly a climbing or descending trend, there is a
lag of from 6 to 9 seconds before it will indicate the correct rate
The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) of climb or descent. The instrument too will still indicate a
The vertical speed (vertical velocity, or rate of climb) indicator vertical speed for a short time after the aeroplane has levelled
shows the rate, in feet per minute, at which the aeroplane is off. If pitch changes are made slowly, the lag is minimal and
ascending or descending. The principle on which it operates the instrument will give a fairly accurate representation of
is the change in barometric pressure which occurs with any the vertical speed at any given moment. If the pitch changes
change in height. This instrument is contained in a sealed are large and rapid, the amount of lag in the instrument will
case and is also connected to the static air pressure system. be sizeable.
Instantaneous vertical speed indicators are available that do
• ,,,\\
1\ I I III
2
I
4/ /
• not have lag and are therefore very accurate. They operate on
a more complicated arrangement of pistons and cylinders that
~1 /~ give an almost instantaneous indication of change in vertical
?-st CLIMB speed.
- 6:1
==?:""5\ 2.2.2 Gyro Instruments
~/ 4'
'
// /, 2 Gyro instruments have made the art of piloting an aeroplane
/; I more precise. They are very useful in VFR flight. In instru-
• I" \ • ment flight, they are invaluable. In most general aviation
aeroplanes, there are three gyro instruments: the head-
Fig.2.54 Vertical Speed Indicator ing indicator, the attitude indicator, and the turn and slip
indicator.

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 Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

The gyro instruments require a suction of from 4 to 6 inches of

The Gyroscope mercury to operate. (Various manufacturers require differing
The gyroscope is a rotor, or spinning wheel, rotating at high vacuum settings for their particular instruments.) A vacuum
speed in a universal mounting, called a gimbal, so its axle can pressure gauge, mounted on the instrument panel, indicates
be pointed in any direction (Fig.2.56). the amount of suction being generated in the system. The
The peculiar actions of a gyroscope, though they may appear gauge indicates the relative difference between the outside
to defy physical laws, actually depend entirely upon Sir Isaac air pressure and the air in the vacuum system. If there is not
Newton's Laws of Motion. enough suction, the gyros will not spin fast enough for reliable
operation. If there is too much suction, excessive wear of the
All of the practical applications of the gyroscope are based
gyro bearings will result from the gyros spinning too quickly.
upon two fundamental characteristics: gyroscopic inertia (or
rigidity in space) and precession. The advantage of the engine driven vacuum system is that
Gyroscopic Inertia is the tendency of any rotating body, if it st arts operating as soon as the engine starts. On the other
h and, in the event of engine failure , all power to the gyro
undisturbed, to m aintain its plane of rotation . When the rotor
instruments will be los t.
in Fig.2.56 is spinning about its axis A-B, the direction of this
axis will remain fixed in space, regardless of how the base of Some gyro instruments are driven by an engine powered
the gyroscope is moved around it. pump that provides positive pressure , rather than a vacuum.
High speed air is directed through the system causing the
gyro wheels to spin.
Direction of rotation Rotor
VENTURI DRIVEN VACUUM SYSTEM
In some cases, a Venturi is used in place of a vacuum pump,
particularly on many older light aeroplanes. It has the advan -
G tage of being inexpensive to install and simple to operate.
However, its efficiency is dependent on the airspeed of the
aeroplane and the Venturi tubes themselves cause some
aerodynamic drag.
The Venturi tubes (there may be one or more) are usually
mounted on the side of the aeroplane in a position to be in
the airflow from the propeller. As the airflow enters the con-
striction of the Venturi, the velocity of the airflow increases.
A low pressure area is created within the Venturi that results
in a partial vacuum in the line leading from the Venturi to the
gyro instruments.

ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN GYROS

Fig .2.5 6 The Gyroscope Electrically driven gyros were first developed for use in aero -
planes that flew at very high altitudes where atmospheric
The Wheel, or rotor, is free to re uolve in its supporting ring about the pressure was too low to operate a vacuum system . Alternating
axis A-B. The supporting ring is free to revolve in the outer ring about current from engine driven alternators or generators provides
the axis C-D at right angles to the rotation axis of the rotor. The outer the power to drive the gyros.
ring is free to revolve about the vertical axis E-F on the pivot at F.
Many of the newer electrically operated gyro instruments
Precession is the tendency of a rotating body, when a force is have the feature that they will not tumble in aerobatic
applied perpendicular to its plane of rotation, to turn in the maneuvers.
direction of its rotation 90 degrees to its axis and take up a
new plane of rotation parallel to the applied forc e. The follow- It is common practice to use a combination of electric and
ing is a simple illus tration: imagine a bicycle wheel spinning vacuum driven instruments for safety's sake, in case one
rapidly on a broom handle which is h eld horizontally in your system fails. Often the heading indicator and the attitude
h ands. Attempt to push either end forw ard and one end will indicator operate on the vacuum system while the turn and
autom atically raise in your h and while the other will drop. A slip is electrically operated. Large aeroplanes usually h ave two
push applied in the direction of the arrow at G (Fig.2.56) would complete se ts of instruments , one driven by a vacuum system,
cause the rotor in its supporting ring to tend to rotate around the other by electricity. A standby Venturi powered system is
the axis C-D. also available for tho se aeroplanes whose gyro instruments
rely only on an en gine driven vacuum system . A three way
valve ties the Venturi into the system and automatically
Power Sources for Gyro Instruments brings it on line if the engine driven vacuum pump fails.
The gyro instruments require a source of power to drive their
gyros . This power is supplied either by the electrical system of
the aeroplane or by a vacuum system that functions by means
Care of Gyro Instruments
of an engine-driven pump or a Venturi. The gyro is a precise instrument and requires special care.
Gyro driven instruments should be caged before aerobatics to
ENGINE DRIVEN VACUUM SYSTEM avoid tumbling the gyros which action can cause damage to
Air pressure differential is the principle on which the vacuum the bearings. In addition, of course, the instrument is useless
driven gyro instruments operate. A vacuum pump run by the until the gyro is erected again.
aeroplane engine creates a partial vacuum in the system. A Abrupt brake use should also be avoided, since it can impose
filtered air inlet upstream of the gyros allows air to rush into acc eleration loads on the gyro bearings.
the system causing the gyro wheels to spin.

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

Since airborne contaminants can damage the gyro bearings, it Pushing this knob in cages, or locks, the gyro system upright.
is good practice to periodically clean or replace the air filters By turning the knob, the compass rose card can be turned to
of air driven units, especially if your aeroplane operates out of any desired heading. Pulling the knob out releases the locking
a dusty airport. mechanism and leaves the gyro free to indicate changes in
direction.
Gyro instruments that are driven by a Venturi system will be
disabled if ice forms in the Venturi, blocking off the supply of The magnetic compass is afflicted with many vagaries, includ-
air. Atmospheric conditions that are conducive to the forma- ing northerly turning error, acceleration and deceleration
tion of carburetor ice may also produce ice in the Venturi. errors.
Gyro instruments do regrettably sometimes fail but usually The heading indicator remains constant without swinging or
give some indication in advance that things are not well with oscillating and provides a means of accurate steering even
them . Any abnormal operation, such as excessive precession, in rough air. Precise turns can be m ade and stopped at any
sluggish response or noise, should be viewed as an indication desired h eading, as the instrument responds instantly with-
of impending fa ilure. Gyro instruments, however, can fail out lag.
without prior warning leaving the pilot without any indication
that the instrument he/she is monitoring is giving incorrect
information. Gyro instruments have been developed that
incorporate a warning flag that warns of aberrant operation
of the gyros.
Since shock damage is a sure way to turn a gyro instrument
Air Inlet
into junk, be sure that instruments are handled with care (from central
during removal for repair. air filter)

The Heading Indicator (HI)

The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro) is
an instrument designed to indicate the heading of the aero- Gyro Wheel - - - -
plane and, because it is steady and accurate, to enable the pilot Inner Gimbal- - - - - -
to steer that heading with the least effort. Heading Adjust Knob - - - - -

Fig.2 .58 Schematic of Simple Heading Indicator

From all of this, it might appear that the magnetic compass

has had its day. Such would indeed be the case were it not for
the fact that the heading indicator has a pet little gremlin of its
own and must from time to time be reset, using the magnetic
compass as a reference l

PRECESSION ERROR
Frictional forces in the gyro system cause it to precess. This
precession causes a creep or drift in the reading on the card,
amounting to approximately 3° in 15 m inutes.
The gyro is also subj ect to apparent precession . Gyroscopic
Fi g.2.57 Heading Indicator inertia keeps the spinning gyro fi xed in space so that, relative
to space, it does not move. But the earth rotating underneath
The gyro wheel in the heading indicator is mounted vertically it gives it an apparent m otion relative to the earth. This causes
and spins about its horizontal axis at approximately 12,000 an apparent drift, or precession, which varies with latitude. At
rpm. The spinning gyro wheel is mounted in an inner gimbal the equator, apparent precession is zero. At the poles, it is 15°
ring that is fre e to turn about the h ori zontal axis. The inner per hour.
ring is, in turn, mounted inside an outer gimbal ring. The com-
pass rose card on the face of the instrument is attached by a Precession error, both mech anical and apparent, must be cor-
series of gears to the outer gimbal ring. As the aeroplane turns, rected for at regular intervals of about 15 minutes. It is impor-
the compass ca rd rotates indicating a turn to the left or right. tant, while synchronizing the heading indicator with the
m agnetic compass, to hold the aeroplane straight-and-level to
Once the gyro starts spinning, it obeys the fund amental gyro - ensure that there is no compass error.
scopic principle of rigidity in space. Thus the gyro wheel and
the gimbal rings take up a fixed position in relation to the LIMITATIONS OF THE HEADING INDICATOR
earth and it is the aeroplane that moves about them. A gyro that operates on a vacuum system requires from 4 to 6
A heading indicator in common use today is shown in Fig.2.57. inches of mercury vacuum to operate. It should not be used for
The compass rose card turns as the aeroplane turns and the take-off until it has run for 5 minutes. This time is required to
heading is read opposite the nose of the aeroplane pointer. As get up to operating speed. (If the gyro is operated by a Venturi
in the case of the compass, the figures are printed with the tube instead of a vacuum pump, it cannot be used for take-off
last O left off - 3 stands for 30°, 12 for 120°, etc. at all.)

The gyro is not, of its own accord, north seeking. It must, Heading indicators, such as that shown in Fig.2.57, incorporate
therefore, be synchronized with the magnetic compass at the spill proof gyros. Because they have a self-erecting mecha-
beginning of a flight. For this purpose the instrument is fitted nism, they remain functional in banks, climbs and glides at
with a small knob (bottom left on the instrument in Fig. 2.57). angles up to 85°. However, in maneuvers exceeding 85°, they
give incorrect readings and must be reset.

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 Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

aeroplane can be adjusted to match the horizon bar by means

The Attitude Indicator (AI) of a knob at the bottom of the case.
The attitude indicator (also called the artificial horizon or the
gyro horizon) provides the pilot with an artificial horizon as a In the caged position, the gyro is locked with the miniature
aeroplane showing level flight. If the instrument is uncaged
means of reference when the natural horizon cannot be seen
during flight, the actual attitude of the aeroplane must be
because of cloud, fog, rain or other obstructions to visibility. It identical to that of the miniature aeroplane in the instrument
shows the pilot the relation ship between the wings and nose (straight-and-level), otherwise the instrument will show false
of the aeroplane and the horizon of the earth. indications when uncaged.
The n atural horizon is represented by a horizon bar on the
LIMITATIONS OF THE ATTITUDE INDICATOR
face of the instrument (Fig.2.59). The attitude of the aircraft in
The gyro of an attitude indicator that is driven by a vacuum
relation to the horizon is indicated by a split bar or, on som e system, requires 4 or more inches of m ercury vacuum to oper-
instruments, by a miniature aeroplane. A pointer at the top ate and 5 minutes to get up to operational speed. An attitude
indicates degrees of bank on an index scale graduated from indicator that is electrically driven is operational almost
0° to 90°right or left. immediately.
Attitude indicators, such as that shown in Fig.2.59 and espe-
cially those that are electrically driven, have virtually no limits
of pitch and roll and will accurately indicate pitch attitudes up
to 85° and will not tumble even in 360° roll maneuvers. The
traditional style of attitude indicator that will frequently be
found installed in aeroplanes of older manufacturer permits
dives or climbs only up to 70° and banks up to 90° (vertical).
If these limits are exceeded, the gyro will tumble. Therefore,
during aerobatic maneuvers, the gyro should be caged.
Any force that disturbs the free rotation of the gyro will cause
errors in the indications presented by the attitude indica-
tor. Poorly balanced components, clogged filters, improperly
adjusted valves, pump malfunctions, friction and worn parts
will result in erratic and inaccurate indications.
Fi g.2.59 Attitude Indicator
Other errors are induced during normal operation. In a skid-
In the attitude indicator, the gyro wheel is mounted horizon- ding turn, the gyro precesses toward the inside of the turn.
tally and spins about its vertical axis. It is mounted in a univer- After return of the aircraft to straight-and-level flight, the
sal gimbal ring system, free about both the pitching and rolling instrument shows a turn in the direction of the skid. In a
axes of the aeroplane and is therefore able to remain spinning normal turn, the gyro precesses towards the inside of the
in a h orizontal plane parallel to the true horizon, regardless of turn. The precession error is quickly corrected by the erecting
the rolling or pitching movements of the aeroplane around it. mechanism.
The h orizon bar is attached by a pivoted arm to the gimbal ring Acceleration and deceleration also induce precession errors.
and remains parallel to the natural horizon. The relationship During acceleration, the horizon bar moves down indicating a
of the split bar (miniature aeroplane) to the horizon bar is the climb. During deceleration , the horizon bar moves up indicat-
same as the relationship of the actual aeroplane to the actual ing descent.
horizon. When the aeroplane is fly ing level, the split bar is
lined up level with the horizon bar.
The Turn &Slip Indicator
When the aeroplane noses up, the gyro wheel remains hori- The turn & slip (or turn & bank} indicator combines two
zontal. A relative down force is exerted on the pivoted arm to instruments in one and is sometimes called the needle and
which the horizon bar is attached, causing the horizon bar to
ball. The needle indicates the direction and approximate rate
sink below the split bar.
of turn of the aeroplane. The ball indicates the amount of bank
In the case of a nose-down condition the reverse action takes in the turn; that is, whether there is any slipping or skidding
place. in the turn (Fig.2.60).
The attitude indicator may be thought of and used in either of
two ways:
1. Some pilots like to consider it as a window through
the instrument panel and through the fog or clouds, in
which case the horizon bar is where the natural horizon
would be.
2. Others like to fly the miniature aeroplane with respect
to the horizon bar.
When the aeroplane noses up, the miniature aeroplane rises
above the horizon bar, indicating a nose high condition. When
the aeroplane noses dow n , the miniature aeroplane sinks
below the horizon bar, indicating a nose-down condition.
When the aeroplane banks, the miniature aeroplane banks on
the horizon bar and the pointer indicates the degree of bank
Fig.2 .60 Turn & Slip Indicator
on the index scale.
When it is necessary to fly the aeroplane slightly nose-up or The ball is controlled by gravity and centrifugal force. It is
down, according to altitude, power and load, the miniature simply an agate or steel ball in a liquid filled, curved glass
tube. In a balanced turn, the ball will remain in the centre as

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

centrifugal force offsets the pull of gravity. In a slip, there is

not enough rate of turn for the amount of bank. The centrifu- The Turn Co-Ordinator
gal force will be weak and this imbalance will be shown by the Many modern aeroplane instrument panels use a turn co-
ball falling down toward the inside of the turn. In a skid, the ordinator to replace the more familiar turn and slip instru-
rate of turn is too high for the amount of bank. The centrifugal ment. It works on the same principle as the turn and slip,
force is too strong and this imbalance is indicated by the ball although there are some differences in the construction of the
sliding toward the outside of the turn. instrument that enable it to react to roll as well as yaw. The
gyro, instead of rotating about its horizontal axis as it does in
The turn needle is actuated by a gyro wheel operated either the turn and slip, is canted at approximately 35°. As a result,
electrically or by a Venturi tube or vacuum pump. Free air during movement about both the yaw and roll axes, preces-
entering through a nozzle impinges on the paddles of the sion causes the gyro mechanism to roll slightly.
gyro wheel, causing it to rot ate at approximately 9,000 rpm.
The gyro wheel is mounted vertically and rotates about its The gyro gimbal is connected to a m iniature aeroplane on the
horizontal axis. face of the instrument. This little aeroplane tilts to inform
the pilot of the rate of both yaw and roll. When the aeroplane
The basic principle which governs the operation of the turn is turning left or right, the miniature aeroplane banks in
needle is gyroscopic precession. The spinning gyro wheel, or the direction of the turn. When the wing of the aeroplane is
rotor, is mounted in a gimbal ring. When the aeroplane turns aligned with one of the marks, the aeroplane is in a standard
to the right or left, the gyro wheel precesses about its turn- rate, or rate one, turn.
ing axis and rolls the gimbal ring. The rolling motion of the
gimbal ring in turn rotates the turn needle on the face of the The ball indicator gives the same indications as the ball indi-
instrument. A spring returns the gyro to neutral when the cator of the turn and slip indicator.
aeroplane ceases to turn.
The turn indicator indicates the rate of the turn, not the
amount of the turn. Thus a standard rate, or rate one, turn
will give a rate of turn of 3° per second, or 360° in two minutes.
The instrument is usually calibrated to indicate a rate one
turn when the turn needle is centred on one of the indexes
seen either side of the centre index (Fig.2.60).
In a straight-and-level flight, the ball and needle are both
centred (Fig.2.61, A).
In a correctly banked turn, the needle indicates the rate of
the turn and the forces acting on the ball cause it to remain
centred (Fig.2 .61, B).
Fi g. 2.62 Turn Co-ordinator

A significant advantage of th e tu rn co-ordinator is that it can

be used to keep the wings level in straight flight if the attitude
indicator h as fail ed. The w ings of the turn co-ordinator will
react fir st to roll and then to yaw. The turn co-ordinator shows
rate of roll as well as rate of turn whereas the turn and slip
B indicator shows only rate of turn.
Straight & level Left tum, correct bank

The Gyrosyn Compass

The gyrosyn com pass combines the fun ctions of both the
direction al gyro and the m agnetic compass. Though not con-
sidered a prim ary instrument, it is still found in some aircraft
today.
C Straight, D Lefttum, E Lefttum, It provides stable comp ass headings in rough air, is north
right wing low skid outwards sideslip inwards seeking like a m agnetic compass , but is free from northerly
turning error and oscillation . It does not precess and, there-
Fi g. 2.61 Turn & Slip Indications fore, does not re quire resetting as does the directional gyro.
If one wing is permitted to drop, the ball will roll towards The gyrosyn compass sys tem incorporates a flu x valve th at
the side of the low wing. The needle in Fig.2.61, C shows the senses the earth's magnetic lines of force through electro-
aeroplane to be flying straight, but the ball indicates it to be magnetic induction. They induce a voltage in the coils of a
right wing low. sensing unit in the flux valve. Direction can be determined
If the aeroplane is not sufficiently banked in a turn, a skid from the induced voltages , which change with each change
towards the outside of the turn will occur. In Fig.2.61, D, the in the heading of the aeroplane. The flux valve is pendulously
needle indicates a left turn, the ball a right skid outwards. installed (to keep it horizontal) inside a case filled with damp-
ing fluid, usually in a wing tip, remote from local magnetic
When the aeroplane is overbanked in a turn, it will sideslip disturbances in the airframe.
inwards.
The directional gyro unit is essentially the same as a standard
The needle in Fig.2.61, E indicates a left turn, the ball a sideslip directional gyro, except that it is slaved to the earth's mag-
inwards. netic lines of force by the signal received from the flux valve.

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 Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

The dial of the gyrosyn compass system is a movable pointer systems mentioned above, EFIS glass cockpits are now also
that points to the magnetic h eading of the aeroplane. The found in virtually all new general aviation piston aircraft
course indicator (parallel lines) can be set to any desired head- being produced worldwide today.
ing for easy reference. Glass cockpits are similar in appearance to computer and
Some gyrosyn compasses are fitted with a dial switch. In one laptop displays, with d ata-displaying windows that the pilots
position, the complete system is in operation. In the other use to see the information they need while flying their air-
position, the flux valve is shut off and the instrument oper- craft. The systems provide pilots with controls allowing them
ates as a free directional gyro. This feature is for use in high to change display m odes, and to enter data (such as a heading)
polar latitudes or under any other circumstances where mag- when required.
netic indications are unreliable. Glass cockpits have been credited with improving flight safety
by enhancing situational awareness for pilots during flight.
2.2 .3 EFIS Instruments With traditional analog instrument s, pilots are required to
An Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) is a cockpit monitor six in dividual in struments, commonly referred to as
instrumentation system that uses electronic rather than the "six-pack.". Glass cockpits, by contrast, integrate all six
electromechanical technology. EFIS normally consists of two instruments into one display rendering the pilot's monitoring
panel-mounted display units: a primary flight display (PFD) of the aircraft quicker and more efficient.
and a multifunction display (MFD). The liquid crystal dis-
play (LCD) used for these systems has resulted in their being The Primary Flight Display (PFD)
referred to as glass cockpits, or glss panels. (Also, see EFIS in The PFD presents information dedicated to depicting all
Chapter Radio Navigation.) aspects critical to flight, including airspeed, altitude, heading,
attitude, vertical speed and yaw. It displays on one LCD unit
Category Glass Cockpit Analog Cockpit
what the traditional pitot static and gyro an alog instruments
Pros: Information dis-
played on one screen; no
Pros: Instruments require six individual instruments to show.
are universal across
need to reset headings
aircraft types The centrepiece of a PFD is typically a simulated attitude indi-
Cons: Training requi red
Ease of Use Cons: Pilot must scan
to underst and all the six instruments; head- cator in the middle, or upper-half, of the screen. A simulated
functions and con-
trols; controls are not
ing indicator needs to heading indicator will commonly be displayed on the lower
be frequently reset;
sta nda rdi zed across
more mechanical parts half of the PFD screen. Additional information is typically
manufacturers
superimposed on and arran ged around these graphics. For
Pros: Proven reliability;
displays can be custom Pros: Instruments can instance, a vertical tape m ay show airspeed to the left of the
function du ring loss
configu red; engine per-
of electrical power attitude indicator, while two additional vertical tapes may
formance displays can
be integ rated t o reduce Cons: Instrument s sh ow altitude and vertical speed to the right of the attitude
pilot workload; in case require regu lar main - indicator within the screen. Fig.2.64 shows the characteristic
of PFD failure, fu nctions tenance and overhaul;
can be transfe rred to can fail due to vacuu m appearance of a PFD screen.
Reliability, Flexibility the MFD; glass cockpits or electrical fa ilures;
& Redundancy oft en have backup each instrumen t per-
attitude, airspeed and form s a single fun ct ion;
altimeter instruments pilots must know failu re
modes and resolutions
Cons: Dependent
fo r each instrument;
on electrical power
and software stabil- backups must use inde-
ity; requires backup pendent vacuum/static/
electrical syst ems
instruments
Pros: Doesn't suffe r Pros: Gauges can pro- Airspeed Indicator Tape
from parallax view vide quick updates Attitude Indicator
from the right seat; without focusing on
colors on panel make exact numbers
Visibility it easier to dist inguish Cons: Round dials can
important info rmation be difficult to read from
Cons: Glare may affect the right seat due to
display clarity distance and parallax
Pros: Visual and aural Pros: You can set
annunciations and
Alerts warnings are stan-
bugs on the alt imet er
and heading indica-
dard for airspeed, tors as reminders
altit ude and others
Cons: Radar capabil-
Pros: Provide access to ity requires additional
weather forecasts, radar
Weather & Traffic syste ms and hardware;
repo rts, etc.; t raffic
Avoidance additional hardware
awareness fun ctionality req uired for traffic
integrat ed into systems awareness functionality
Pros: Bluetooth con -
Cons: Analog instru-
nectivity for uploading ments don't con-
Connectivity flight plans, cockpit nect to Bluet ooth or
communication and other technology
entertainment

Fig . 2.63 General Pros & Cons of Glass Fig. 2.64 Primary Flight Display (PFD)
Cockpit & Analog Cockpit Functions
PFD system s are driven by attitude and h eading reference
The glass cockpit was first introduced into new generations systems (AHRS). AHRS are three-axis sensors that provide
of jet transports having first been developed for military air- heading, attitude and yaw in formation for the aircraft. They
craft. They then found their w ay into the cockpits of business consist of either solid-state or gyroscopes, accelerometers and
aircraft. Consisting of the PFD/ MFD and engine m onitoring m agnetometers that drive the attitude indicator and heading

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

indicator. They replace mechanical gyroscopic flight instru-

ments that are found in aircraft equipped with traditional
Back-Up EFIS Display
analog (i.e., round dial or "steam gauge") flight instruments. Aircraft equipped with glass cockpits are required to have
When combined with high-speed microchips that process back-up flight instruments. In the earlier days of glass cockpit
air data, AHRS form an air data attitude and heading refer- installations, such back-ups consisted of traditional mechani-
ence system (ADAHRS). An aircraft with ADAHRS has three cal analog instruments. Many glass cockpit aircraft continue
rate sensors for each axis, and three accelerometers for each to h ave such analog back-up configurations. Newer aircraft,
however, may now be equipped with back-up flight instru-
axis. This provides additional information such as airspeed,
ment systems that are EFIS themselves.
altitude and outside air temperature, thus enabling the PFD to
provide the full representation of analog instruments in one A back-up EFIS system typically functions as a smaller, more
electronic LCD display. compact PFD. In the event of a loss of power on a primary dis-
PFD systems typically have built-in means by which to alert play, a back-up display delivers primary instrument functions
pilots of potentially hazardous conditions. By changing the driven by its own emergency power source. Depending on
the manufacturer, the emergency power will be available for
colour of a display, by changing its shape, or by triggering an
a prescribed duration, thereby allowing the pilot to fly to the
audio alert, any condition (such as too low an airspeed) can be
safety of an alternate airport, if not to the intended destina-
immediately brought to the pilot's attention. A system failure,
such as the failure of an input sensor, may (depending on the tion airport itself.
type of PFD unit) drop a warning bar across data that is no The more advanced back-up EFIS displays that are available
longer valid on the display. for glass-paneled aircraft have attitude , altitude and airspeed
tapes, turn rate indicators, vertical speed indicators, horizon-
The Multifunction Display (MFD) tal situation indicators, angle of attack indicators and more.
The MFD displays the constant relationship between the Given their independence from the primary display, a back-up
aircraft and its environment. Its most significant use is for display can also function as a standby unit available to the
pilot for cross-comparison with the primary display during
displaying of navigation and weather information. It typically
normal operations.
displays GPS-derived m oving maps upon which aircrew can
overlay different information. Information overlayed on the
MFD may include the aircraft's current route plan, weather The Heads-Up Display (HUD)
information, terrain and obstacle depiction, restricted air- An extension in the development of EFIS technology is a
space and aircraft traffic. The MFD can also display informa- system that projects the displayed information onto the front
tion about aircraft system s, such as fuel status and electrical windscreen of the aeroplane. This h eads-up display (HUD)
system status. Furthermore, it can display engine monitoring system permits the pilot to monitor both the instrumenta-
data, and constantly scan for out-of-range conditions. Like tion and the progress of the aeroplane, especially during the
the PFD, the MFD is a single multi-function display, usually approach and landing, while always having their eyes looking
in colour, and is generally identical in size and shape to the forward and over the nose of the aircraft. In addition, thermal
PFD. The MFD can be thought of as a cockpit management imaging systems are now developed that project real-time,
system designed, like the PFD, to reduce pilot workload and to real-world images of the view outside the cockpit window on
enhance "eyes up" operations. a heads-up display in the cockpit. Aircraft with such advanced
technology allow pilots to see through fog and darkness, pro-
viding for greater safety during all phases of very low visibility
flight operations.

Smartphones & Tablets

Personal smartphones and tablets can be used for mul-
tiple applic ations within the cockpit. In-cockpit applications
("apps") supported by personal electronic devices (such as
iPads , iPhones, Android-based tablets and phones) provide
panel-mounted instrument capability from their handheld
architecture. The power of primary flight displays (PFD) and
multifunction displays (MFD) is, thus, available from common
handheld equipment. These have the functionality to provide
features such as attitude, airspeed, altitude, heading, compass
and vertical speed. They also provide n avigation, weather,
and flight planning support .
The functionality available to pilots from their smartphones
and tablets effectively provides a personal backup glass cock-
Moving Map Destination Flight Path Active Weather pit that can help pilots stay aware of their position and sur-
Background Aerodrome roundings in normal and emergency situations.
Fig.2.65 Multifunction Display (MFD} Cockpit Management Like the glass panel-mounted EFIS systems used as primary
instrumentation in aircraft, smartphones and tablets that
PFD and MFD features are accessed via softkeys and knobs provide attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) data
that surround their respective LCD screens. Some MFD units typically use microelectromechanical system (MEMS} gyros
have touchscreen functionality. (See Moving Map Display in to generate their screen information. In addition to providing
Ch apter Radio Navigation for information about MFD use for information such as pitch and bank, these handheld units
navigation.)

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

can also provide automatic dependent surveillance broadcast times the time of transit. The reflected wave is combined with
(ADS-B) information, wide area augmentation system (WAAS) some of the outgoing wave in the aeroplane receiver and the
GPS data, and air traffic and weather information. Airspeed difference, or "beat" frequency, is measured by a frequency
data can be displayed via connectivity to the aircraft's pitot meter. Since the reading of the meter is that of the "beat"
and static ports, or it can be GPS derived. Engine instrumen- frequency, it is proportional to the time delay of the echo, and
tation data can also be integrated into the units. Airport hence to the height, and can thus be calibrated in feet.
information and flight plan filing are also served by use of
smartphone and tablet technology.
DH Lamp
Smartphone and tablet solutions for the cockpit also have the Flag Indicator
power to display synthetic vision systems (SVS) that provide Needle
a 3-D reality of the environment in which an aircraft is flying. DH Select
Sometimes referred to as "highway in the sky" technology, Bug
this feature provides situational awareness by linking dis- Altitude
plays to databases of known terrain and obstacles. The navi- Mask Scale
gation component of a synthetic vision system is achieved
through the use of GPS and inertial reference systems.
DH Select
Some avionics manufacturers offer interconnectivity between Knob
smartphone and tablet apps, and panel-mounted EFIS dis- Self-test
button
plays in the cockpit. Thus, such connected panel technology
allows a pilot to transfer from their smartphone or tablet, for
example, a flight plan to the installed avionics that reside Fig . 2.66 Radar Altimeter
permanently on their aircraft's panel.
The radar altimeter depicted in Fig.2.66 incorporates an AGL
Split-screen displays can be configured into some smart- altitude scale with indications from Oto 2,500 feet and a deci-
phones and tablets. This accommodates the showing of sion height (DH) select bug which the pilot, by rotating the DH
aircraft attitude information alongside weather and/or navi- knob, can select to the desired decision height on the altitude
gation data. Landscape or portrait displays are preference scale. The DH lamp lights when the decision height has been
options that can also be selected on various units, and reached. A flag, when it drops into view, indicates that invalid
through various apps. altitude information is being displayed.
Information that is transmitted to smartphones or tablets The radar altimeter is of immense value in an aeroplane flying
uses off-the-shelf software apps to interpret and display on an !FR or night VFR flight. By displaying to the pilot exact
its data. Such apps are acquired from vendors by means of information about height above the ground, it is an important
Internet downloads. instrument for use during landing approaches and in any
Within the cockpit, the units are commonly held in place by other situation in which the pilot wants to maintain a safe
means of windscreen or cockpit frame-mounted cradles, or altitude above the minimum enroute or minimum obstruc-
by means of kneeboards with straps, or control yoke mounts. tion clearance altitude. Radar altimeters are also used exten-
sively by aeroplanes engaged in specialized types of flying,
One of the primary benefits brought about by the use of such such as aerial survey, agriculture, etc., to maintain positive
handheld devices is their positive impact on the reduction altitude above the ground regardless of rolling terrain, hills or
of cockpit clutter and paper documents that are required, or valleys. The radar altimeter is also useful in determining the
advisable, to be carried on board during flights. The downside position of pressure systems. By comparing the readings of
of such devices is their susceptibility to software failure and the radar altimeter and an altimeter set to pressure altitude,
power outages. The screens on such devices are often hard current changes in atmospheric pressure may be determined.
to see owing to sun glare, and they are also very susceptible In combination with his/her basic knowledge of the character-
to the effects of overheating. Poor calibration and display lag istics of pressure systems (i.e. highs and lows), a pilot is able
can also detrimentally impact their reliability and usefulness to determine which direction to fly around a pressure system
in the cockpit. to take advantage of the best winds.
Smartphones and tablets must never be used as primary
flight instruments in place of panel-mounted equipment. 2.2.s Angle of Attack Indicator
They are best used as personal back-up instruments only, as
The angle of attack indicator provides for the pilot a continu-
flight support solutions.
ous read-out of the margin above stall, regardless of aircraft
weight, C.G. location, angle of bank or any of the other factors
2.2.4 The Radar Altimeter that affect indicated stall speed.
The radar altimeter (also known as the absolute altimeter or As a wing moves forward through the air, the airflow is
the radio altimeter) indicates the actual height of the aero- divided into one section that flows over the wing and one sec-
plane above the earth, or above any object on the earth over tion that flows under the wing. The point at which the airflow
which the aeroplane is passing. The principle is extremely separates is known as the stagnation point. The stagnation
simple. A radio transmitter in the aeroplane sends a signal point moves chord wise on the undersurface of the wing as the
towards the earth whose frequency changes at a definite rate angle of attack changes. It moves forward as angle of attack
with respect to time. This signal is reflected by the earth and decreases and aft as angle of attack increases to a maximum
returns as an echo after a time interval equal to twice the aft position at which the wing stalls.
height divided by the velocity of the signal. During this inter-
val, the frequency of the transmitter has changed and now The angle of attack indicator senses the changing position of
differs from that of the echo by the rate of change of frequency the stagnation point by means of a sensing unit, or pressure

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Theory of Flight: Flight Instruments

probe, that is installed on the wing slightly beneath the lead-

ing edge. Jn some angle of attack indicator designs, a spring-
loaded vane moves up and down as the stagnation point
changes position and relays this information to the cockpit
display. In other angle of attack indicator designs, air pressure
passes from the sensing probe through to pressure sensors
co-located with an air data computer microprocessor. This
processing unit translates the pressure readings into elec-
tronic signals that are sent to the cockpit indicator.
Most angle of attack indicators are designed such that green
bars illuminate at the bottom of the display as the angle of
attack increases. Additional green bars illuminate as the angle
of attack continues to increase. If the angle of attack moves
towards a critical point, the green bars will turn to yellow as a
caution to the pilot . Ultimately, if the wing's angle of attack is
advancing close to a stall, the display bars will switch to red.
An angle of attack indicator does not relate to airspeed and
can therefore give a continuous, accurate readout of margin
above stall, no matter what the flight attitude. It is an espe-
cially useful instrument during take-off, landing and steep
banking maneuvers.

Fig . 2.67 Example of Angle of Attack Indicator

2.2.6 Mach Indicator

A Mach indicator provides a continuous indication of the
ratio of an aeroplane's airspeed to the local speed of sound. It
expresses airspeed as a Mach number by measuring and cor-
relating dynamic and static pressures.
The instrument comprises two aneroid capsules enclosed in
a sealed case that is connected to the aeroplane's static pres-
sure system. One aneroid capsule is connected to the dynamic
(pitot) pressu re source, while the other is sealed and partly
evacuated.
This latter reacts only to static pressure and therefore mea-
sures altitude. The former reacts to both dynamic and static
pressure and therefore measures airspeed. (Note: Mach
number equals airspeed divided by the speed of sound.)
A ch ange in any sensed pressu re causes appropriate expan-
sion or contraction in one or both capsules. The capsules are
geared to a pointer on the face of the instrument. This pointer
reacting to the expanding and contracting capsules indicates
the airspeed of the aeroplane in which it is installed.

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 Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

3 Aero Engines power is not available for useful work. The power which is
available, after friction and other losses, is called brake horse-
power (BHP).

Present day aircraft engines are precision-made power-pro- The total amou nt of indicated horsepower an engine can pro-
ducing devices m ade of quality material th at represent the duce may be represented by the formula:
achievement of years of research and engineering experience
in their design. While true that piston engine technology PLANK That is: P x Lx A x N x K
reached a peak in the 1950's, engine manufacturers are now 33,000 33,000
investing in new programs to re-enhance the development of
piston engine tech nology. Requirements for lead-free fuels,
advances in computer-controlled electronic engine m anage- Where
ment and ignition systems have brought about the demand for P =The mean pressure in lb. per sq. inch.
newer, ch eaper, and easier-to-m aintain powerplants.
L = The length of the stroke in feet.
But the fact remains that the life and efficiency of an aero
engine still depend to an appreciable extent upon the use A= The area of the piston in sq. inches.
or abuse the m otor suffers at the h ands of the pilot. Sudden
N = The number of impulses (or power strokes) per minute.
"gunning" of the th rottle places undesirable stresses on the
working parts of an engine. Switching off an overheated m otor K = The number of cylinders.
is a form of torture that should be punishable by a h eavy fine.
Operating an aero engine at continuously h igh power settings "P", the pressure , in an internal combu stion engine is obtained
may progressively reduce the reliability of the engine and the by admitting a mixt ure of vaporized gasoline and air into a
safe period between overhauls. cylinder, compressing this mixture, and burning it. As the
gasses burn, they expand, exerting an enormous pressure on
Proper care and concern in the handling and running of an the piston head. The piston is driven down, pushing the con-
aero engine at the h ands of an experienced pilot w ill keep that necting rod down, which in t urn forces the crankshaft to turn
engine off the old age pension long beyond its normal span . at high speed. Note that the piston is driven down not by an
While it is by no m eans necessary that a pilot should learn "explosion" of gases, as is commonly supposed by beginners,
to be a mech anical engineer to look after the powerplant but by their bu rning (or combustion) expansion and resultant
that propels h is/her aircraft, an elementary knowledge of the pressure.
principles and construction of internal combustion engines is "L", the length of the stroke, is the distance the piston travels
necessary if its proper handling and running procedures are up or down inside the cylinder.
to be observed.
"A", the area of the piston, means the area of the top or "head"
Very possibly some students who expect to fly as private of the piston.
pilots only will choose to skip over some of the details of
engine design and construction that are described in this "N", the number of impulses, is th e number of times the
chapter. Th ose aspiring to be commercial pilots and who engine fires in one minute. In a 4-stroke engine this would be
may some day fly as bush pilots in the more isolated areas equivalent to h alf the number of revolutions of the cranksh aft
of the world should have a more detailed knowledge of how for each cylinder.
an engine operates. Many a bush pilot has h ad to be his/ her "K" is the number of cylinders in the engine.
own mech anic. For this reason , a detailed description of an
Aviation progress demands a continued search for greater
engine's operation is contained in the following pages.
and greater power output from aircraft motors. This involves
constant improvement in the mechanical ability of engines to
produce power from h eat .
3.t Definitions & Since the horsepower (hp) of an engine is the total product of

Configurations the four factors referred to in the formula, it is obvious that an

increase of all, or any one or more, of th ese will increase the
power output of the engine.
3.1.1 Definition of Power "L" and "A", being dependent on the length of the stroke and
A piston driven aero engine is frequently referred to as a area of the piston, are fixed and cannot be varied without
altering the design of the engine. "P", "N", and "K", h owever,
"powerplant" and its product is power. First then, let us con-
sider briefly the basic m eaning of these terms. Power may are variable and are the factors which can be stepped up in
be simply defined as the rate of doing work. Work, in turn, is the search for greater power.
heat transformed into energy. The amount of power an inter- Some of the means adopted to boost "P" (mean effective pres-
n al combustion engine can produce depends on th e amount sure) are high compression ratios, higher octane fuels, super-
of heat which can be generated by the burning gases. This, charging, improved scavenging, etc.
in turn, is limited by the mechanical ability of the engine to A pilot may at will vary "N" by manipulation of the throttle
transform as much of this h eat as possible into u seful work. (in the case of an aeroplane fitted with a fixed pitch propel-
The standard unit in use for measuring the power produced ler). Designers seek to improve this factor by designing h igh
by an engine is one horsepower. This represents the amount speed engines.
of work done when 33,000 lbs. are raised 1 ft. in one minute. Mean Effective Pressure (M.E.P.) is the average pressure within
The power developed w ith in an internal combustion engine th e cylinder during the entire period of the power stroke, from
is called indicated horsepower. Due to friction, etc., all this the time the piston is at top dead centre (T.D.C.) until it reaches

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

bottom dead centre (B.D.C.). It measures an engine's capacity to The radial engine has an acceptable ratio of weight to horse-
do work independent of engine displacement. (See T.D.C. and power developed and is easy to maintain. However, these
B.D.C. definitions under Engine Timing.) advantages are outweighed by its poor shape that consider-
Brake Mean Effective Pressure (B.M.E.P.) is the M.E.P. available ably increases parasite drag and reduces forward visibility
to produce the net power delivered at the propeller shaft (BHP). from the cabin. This engine configuration is mostly found in
It shows the brake power produced by the engine per unit vintage aircraft.
displacement of engine volume thereby providing a means by
which to evaluate the efficiency of a given engine at producing In-Line
torque from a given displacement. In this type of engine, the cylinders are arranged side by side
in a row along the crankcase. Each separate piston works on
3.i.2 Types of Combustion Engines an individual crank-throw.

The three main types of piston engines in current use are the
radial, in-line, and horizontally opposed. They derive their
names from the arrangement of their cylinders around the cen-
tral crankshaft.
The horizontally opposed type is most commonly used in gen-
eral aviation aeroplanes.

Horizontally Opposed
The horizontally opposed engine, as the name implies, has two
banks of cylinders working on the same crankshaft which lie
directly opposite to each other in the horizontal plane. There
may be four, six or eight cylinders. Fig.3.3 In - Lin e Engine

The practical limit is six cylinders in one row, the reason being
that a crankshaft long enough to accommodate a greater
number of cylinders would be difficult to make stiff enough
to avoid vibration. Where a larger number of cylinders is
required, it is customary to arrange these in two or more
banks. Hence, multi-bank in-line engines have V-Type, X-Type
and H-Type configurations in which the banks normally share
a common crankshaft.
Some in-line engines are inverted, that is, the engine is
installed upside down to provide better visibility for the pilot.
Fig.3.1 Horizont ally Opposed Engine These obviously must be of the dry sump or pressure lubri-
cated type.
The outstanding advantage of this engine design is its flat, or
The single in-line engine, with its small frontal area, gener-
"pancake" shape. Its small frontal area generates less drag. The
ates little parasite drag. Streamlined though it may be, such
vast majority of engines in piston-engined aircraft are of this
configurations are found today mostly in vintage aeroplanes.
configuration.
Recent developments in aero engine technology have seen the
Radial common V-Type automotive engine configuration applied to
aviation use. V-6 and V-8 designs, with their roots in automo-
The cylinders are arranged radially around a "barrel-shaped"
tive engine block design, are seeing their way into limited use
crankcase. This type of engine always has an odd number of
in general aviation aircraft. Lower overall operating costs and
cylinders (five, seven, nine, etc.). This is necessary because the
improved performance are at the root of these applications.
firing order is alternate (e.g. 1-3-5-2-4). The usual limitation is
While all manufacturers certify their aircraft with purpose-
nine cylinders in a row. Larger engines of this type have two,
three, or more rows working on a two or three throw crankshaft. built and proven aero engines such as those from noted com-
panies Lycoming and Continental, there are those who are
Radial engines are dry sump or pressure lubricated. engaged in the practice of retro-fitting (i.e. replacing) engines
found in older aircraft with engines of newer technology.

3.1.3 Parts of a Reciprocating Engine

The basic parts of a reciprocating engine are the crankcase,
cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, valves, valve operating
mechanism, camshaft and crankshaft. In the head of each
cylinder are located the valves and spark plugs. One of the
valves is in a passage leading to the induction system; the
other in a passage leading to the exhaust system. Inside each
cylinder is a movable piston connected to a crankshaft by a
connecting rod.

Fig.3.2 Rad ial Engine

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 Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

Intake Valve Auxiliary Drives

The crankshaft drives the propeller. It is also made to drive
various auxiliary gears which in turn drive oil pumps, magne-
tos, generators, dynamos, air compressors, and other essen-
Combustion tial auxiliaries.
Chamber The auxiliary gears are generally grouped in a gearbox placed
at the rear of the engine, to avoid increasing the frontal area.

Stroke In some cases a single flexible half-time shaft, driven by the

crankshaft, is used to drive all the auxiliary gears.

------B".i5c.------· 3_i.4 The Four-Stroke Cycle

Almost all piston engines in use operate on what is known as
the four-s troke cycle. This m ean s that the piston travels four
strokes (two up and two down) to complete one cycle. During
this operation, the crankshaft revolves through 2 complete
Top Center - --r-- --1-1-1 revolutions.

Crankshaft - -..--- -11 11 Intake Exhaust

I
I
I

Fig . 3.4 Basic Parts of a Reciprocating Engine

The cylinder and the cylinder head are finned to dissipate

heat. The crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion of the
piston into rotation and transmits power from the piston to
drive the propeller. The bore of a cylinder is its inside diam-
eter. The stroke is the distance the piston moves from one
end of the cylinder to the other, that is, from T.D.C. (top dead
Fig.3 .6 Induction Fig.3.7 Compression
centre) to B.D.C. (bottom dead centre). See Fig.3.4.

The Induction Stroke

The intake (som etimes called the inlet) valve open, the piston
m oves down from the top to the bottom of the cylinder
creating a negative pressure. By this action, air, which sur-
rounds the conventional suction carburetor and which is
approximately at atmospheric pressure , is drawn through the
carburetor where it picks up a suitable amount of fu el (about
one part gasoline to fifteen parts air) and the resulting fu el/
air mixture rushes in pas t the open intake valve into the cyl-
inder to fi ll the space above the piston. The amount of mix ture
which enters the cylinder will depend on the throttle opening.
The exhaust valve rem ains closed.

The Compression Stroke

Both valves closed, the piston moves up from the bottom to
the top of the cylinder, compressing the mixture.

Fi g. 3. 5 Radial Connecting Rod

The volume in the cylinder above the piston when it is at the
bottom of the compression stroke compared to the volume
when it has m oved up to the top of the stroke is known as
Reduction Gears the compression ratio. Most gasoline engines use a ratio of
Many modern engines are geared. This means that the engine between 6:1 and 7:1.
turns at a higher speed than the propeller which it drives. In
this way, geared engines are made to develop greater power The Power Stroke
than direct drive engines with the same propeller speed. Both valves closed, the compressed mixture is fired by a spark
The gearing consists of two sets of gear wheels. One of these plug. The burning gases, expanding under tremendous heat,
is driven by the crankshaft and meshes with the other which, create the pressure which drives the piston down with ter-
in turn, drives the propeller hub shaft. The reduction in speed rific force . This force is sufficient to complete the other three
is governed by the relative number of teeth in the two sets of strokes in addition to providing the energy required for useful
gears. work.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Definitions & Corifigurations

the piston seals off the exhaust and inlet ports and compress-
es the fuel/air mixture that is in the combustion chamber.
Near the top of the stroke, the spark plug fires the compressed
mixture. The hot, burning and expanding gases create the
pressure that drives the piston down.
The descending piston seals off the inlet from the carburetor
and begins to build up pressure in the crankcase. As the piston
descends farther in the full travel of the stroke, it uncovers the
exhaust port and the burned gases are allowed to escape. At
the bottom of the stroke, the inlet port is uncovered and the
compressed fu el/air mixture ru shes through the inlet port
from the crankcase into the combustion ch amber. Some of the
fu el/air mixture does escape through the exhaust port since
both ports are uncovered at the sam e time. To re duce this loss
Fig. 3.8 Power Fig .3 .9 Exhaust to a minimum, the top of the piston is sh aped to ac t as a bar-
rier and direct the fuel mixture away from the exhaust port.
The Exhaust Stroke The four-stroke cycle engine, as will be explained in more
Exhaust valve open, the piston moves up from the bottom to detail in the section Lubrication, uses the hollow crankshaft
the top of the cylinder, pushing the burned gases out past the to distribute oil throughout the engine. The two-stroke cycle
open exhaust valve. The intake valve remains closed. engine, however, uses its hollow crankshaft as a transfer
pump for the fuel/air mixture and must therefore depend on
3.1.5 The Two-Stroke Cycle a different lubricating system. In a two-stroke cycle engine,
fuel and oil are mixed in proportions specified by the manu-
Small engines that operate on the principle of a two-stroke facturer and this mixture is used to fill the fuel tank.
cycle are in common use in ultralight aircraft that are popular
When the fuel/oil mixture passes through the carburetor, the
among recreational flying enthusiasts.
fuel is vaporized and mixes with the air. The oil is broken
This engine takes only two strokes of the piston (one up and up by the stream of air into tiny droplets which lubricate all
one down) to go through a complete power cycle. It differs the surfaces of the crankcase, piston and cylinder. Some oil
from the four-stroke cycle engine in that it uses the crankcase remains in the crankcase, but most passes into the combus-
as a fuel mixture transfer pump. Charging the crankcase with tion chamber where it is burned.
fuel, compression of the fuel charge and ignition all take place
The engine manufacturer usually recommends the use of an
on the upward stroke of the piston. Exhaust of the burned
oil that has no detergents as additives. Such additives do not
gases and transfer of the fuel to the cylinder take place on the
burn completely and may leave undesirable carbon deposits
downward stroke.
on the pistons , spark plugs and cylinder surfaces.
Inlet from Exh au st Regular automobile gasoline is used in the two-stroke cycle
Carburator Port engine but the engine m anu fac turer u sually recommends

Cylinder
Compression
Stroke
l --;;;mi":"'"'--
regular grade rather than premium. The lead in the latter
causes lead deposits on the spark plugs .
The basic principles of ca rburetion and ignition are as appli-
cable to the two -stroke cycle engine as they are to the four-
stroke cycle en gine , although the individu al systems fo r
achieving ignition and, more especially, ca rbure tion will vary
between the two typ es of engines. The explan ations of carbu -
retion and ignition which follow in this chapter are, neverthe-
less, applicable to both en gine types.

Crankcase Crankcase 3.1.6 The Diesel Engine

Inta ke Stroke Compression Stroke
The internal operating and design principles, and most
movin g parts, of a diesel en gine are almost identical to those
Fig. 3.10 Two-Stroke Cycle of a gasoline engine but there are som e significant operational
differences. Whereas the air/fu el mix ture used in a gasoline
To accomplish all of this, there are three openings or ports in engine requires a separate source to produce an electric cur-
the cylinder (see Fig.3.10). One port leads from the combustion rent to ignite a spark plug located in the cylinder's combus-
chamber and carries away the exhaust gases (exhaust port). tion chamber, the air/fuel mixture used in a diesel engine is
One port leads from the crankcase to the combustion cham- ignited by heat resulting from the piston's compression of air
ber (inlet port.) The third opening is the inlet from the carbu- into the top of the cylinder. Diesels, therefore, require no sepa-
retor. These ports have no valve mechanism to open and close rate electric ignition source. Also, they require no carburetor.
them as does the four-stroke cycle engine. Instead, the piston
acts as a slide valve as it moves up and down in the cylinder. The compression ratio in a diesel engine (also, in aeronau-
tical parlance, called a compression-ignition, or a Jet-A,
On the upward stroke of the piston, a vacuum is created in the engine) generally runs from 15:1 to 20:1 with operating
crankcase and the fuel/air mixture is sucked into the crank- temperatures between 500°C and 700°C. Air, at such hot
case through the inlet from the carburetor that is uncovered temperatures, causes ignition of the fuel which is sprayed
as the piston moves upward in the cylinder. At the same time,

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 Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

into the combustion chamber in metered quantities by an

injector pump under pressures reaching 500 lbs per square Induction System
Balance Tube - - - - ,
inch. Normal gasoline engines could not work with such high
temperatures at the end of the compression stroke without Induction Manifold ~::;;;;;;;;;'.;~
the gasoline igniting long before the proper time in the cycle. Left Hand Bank
Diesel engines have fewer moving parts than gasoline
engines, generate greater power per pound of fuel, and have Throttle Body
more beneficial time-between-overhaul (T.B .O.) requirements.
Conversely, diesels develop less horsepower per pound of total
weight compared to gasoline engines, are more costly than
comp arable h orsepower gasoline engines , and require more Alternate Air-door
complex dampening of torsional vibrations. W astegate (Normally Closed)
Pilots flying aircraft that are powered either by a diesel engine
Fig .3. 11 Turbocharging
or a gasoline engine will find the operation of the throttle and
propeller pitch control to be identical. The diesel, however, Incorporated into the turbocharger system is a control that
does not require a mixture control, carburetor heat, or igni- regulates the amount of exhaust gas which is directed to the
tion control. See Pitch under The Propeller, Mixture Control, turbine and that, therefore, regulates the speed of the turbo-
Prevention of Carburetor Icing, and The Ignition System for charger. When air of increased density is not needed from the
information on these aero engine controls. turbocharger (at low altitudes or low power), a wastegate in
the exhaust system is allowed to remain open and the exhaust
3.i.1 Turbocharging gas is vented around the turbine wheel into the atmosphere.
When dense air is required, the wastegate can be closed and
An engine designed to operate at normal sea level atmospher-
the exhaust gases are forced into the turbine. Adjusting tur-
ic pressure is called a normally aspirated engine. As we know,
bocharger speed to meet changing power requirements is a
as altitude increases, the density of the air decreases. As the
matter of controlling the flow of exhaust gases.
air becomes less and less dense with altitude, the engine is
capable of producing less and less power as indicated by the Control of the turbocharger is provided by either an automatic
decreasing rate of climb. Eventually, the aeroplane becomes control or a manual control. There are two types of the latter.
unable to climb any higher. The simplest form of manual control is the fixed bleed system
In many modern aeroplanes, the job of supplying the engine which does not have a wastegate. Instead, some exhaust gas
with dense air when the aeroplane is operating in the thin air continuously escapes through an opening of predetermined
at altitude is accomplished by a turbocharger. A turbocharger size. The rest of the exhaust gas turns the turbocharger any-
is powered by the energy of the exhaust gases. time the engine is running. Engine power is adjusted by the
throttle and the amount of exhaust gas available to turn the
The hot exhaust gases , which are discharged as wasted
turbocharger is directly related to the power developed at that
energy in a normally aspirated engine , are directed through
particular throttle setting.
a turbine wheel, or impeller, and turn this wheel at high rpm.
The turbine wheel is mounted on a sh aft on which also is
mounted a centrifugal air compressor. Each is enclosed in its
own housing. The compressor, therefore, turns at the sam e
speed as the turbin e wheel. As more exhaust gases are direct-
ed over the turbine, the compressor will turn faster and the
air supplied to the en gine by the compressor will be denser ..... ...-- - Exhaust System
allowing the engine to produce more power. The turboch arger
is a particularly efficient system since it u ses engine energy to Turbocharger
maintain horsepower without u sing any engine horsepower
as its source of power.
The turbocharger is installed between the air intake and the
ca rburetor so that it compresses the air before it is mixe d with
the m etered fu el in the carburetor. Fig. 3. 12 Turbocharger Induction & Exhaust System

The speed of the turbine depends on the difference in pres- The more common m anual control interconnects the throttle
sure between the exh au st gas and the outside air. The greater and wastegate with the cockpit throttle control. In this
the diffe rence, the less back pressure on the escaping exh aust system, there is a programmed movement of the throttle plate
gases and hence the higher the speed of the turbine and the in the carburetor or fuel injector and of the wastegate. As the
greater the degree of compression provided by the turbo- throttle plate moves towards full open, the wastegate begins
charger. As the plane climbs higher and higher into the area to close so that at full throttle, the throttle plate is fully open
of less atmospheric pressure, the turbocharger provides the and the wastegate is fully closed. A pressure relief valve is
engine with practically the same weight of air from sea level incorporated into the system to protect the engine in the case
up to the critical altitude. At this altitude, the turbocharger of unintentional overactivation of the throttle.
is operating at its maximum capacity. If the aeroplane con-
With a manually controlled turbocharger system, the pilot
tinues to climb above the critical altitude, engine power will
must take care to limit throttle movement to keep the mani-
diminish.
fold pressure within the limit specified for the engine. During
take-off, the throttle should be smoothly advanced until man-
ifold pressure is about two inches below the maximum for

From the Ground UP' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

which the engine is rated. As the turbocharger speed builds When forced induction is used at high altitudes to make up the
up, the manifold pressure will increase slightly to the maxi- deficiency in pressure due to the lower density of the air (and
mum limit. As engine power deteriorates during climb, the hence maintain sea level power), it is called supercharging.
throttle should be advanced slowly to maintain the desired
manifold pressure until the full throttle position is reached at 3.1.9 Engine Timing
the critical altitude.
In discussing the four-stroke cycle, we considered the various
The automatic control system utilizes a pressure controller strokes as beginning and ending as the piston reached the top
that senses differences in air pressure and adjusts the oil or the bottom of the cylinder. In actual practice, better perfor-
pressure which controls the position of the wastegate. No mance is obtained from the engine by what is known as valve
pilot action is required to activate its operation. lead, lag, and overlap. Valves require time to open and close.
In operating a turboch arger system , it is important to be They therefore are timed to open early and close late in order
aware of throttle sen sitivity and the need for slow and smooth not to w aste any of the induction or exh au st strokes.
throttle movements . The turbocharger does not react instant- T.D.C.
Inlet opens 15°
ly but needs time to follow throttle movem ents and then early (lead)____.,_ __,__
stabilize. The operation of any specific turbocharger system in ...... oVERLAp'";;
Spark 25° early
any specific aeroplane should, of course, be carried out with
close attention to the instructions of the manufacturer.
The great advantage of turbocharging is the increased per-
o~---····
-.;. .... ···\-----..
·. ... :
r.
4i ,
r-,'-'/ ,
/ \' ,!
formance at altitude. A turbocharged engine is able to deliver
~ .' ,/ \ /
full power at altitudes much above the service ceiling of a ~ ,' ,' ~ . ,' Exhaust closes
b: ' ',..' 20° late Oag)
normally aspirated engine. Better climb performance, faster
cruise at altitude, better take-off performance at high density u:' 1'
altitude airports are therefore possible. Inlet closes
75° late (lag)

3.i.s Supercharging Exhaust opens

The supercharger is an internally driven compressor, pow- 70° early Oead)
ered directly from the engine. As much as 16% of the engine
power can be required to drive the supercharger. It is installed
downstream from the carburetor and compresses the fuel/ B.D.C.
air mixture after it leaves the carburetor. This is called forced
Fig. 3.14 Engine Timing Diagram
induction .
• Valve lead is timing the valve to open early.
• Valve lag is timing the valve to close late.
• Valve overlap is allowing both valves
to rem ain open at the same time.
Fig.3.14 shows a typical timing di agram for a m odern high
speed engine. T.D.C. refers to top dead centre, the point where
the piston re ach es the top of the cylinder, and B.D.C. to bottom
dead centre. The circles represent the rotation of the crank-
sh aft, 180° between T.D.C. and B.D.C.
From Fig.3.14 you will note the followin g:
1. The intake valve opens 15° early
on the induction stroke.
2. The intake closes 75° late on the induction stroke in
order to use the momentum of the incoming gases
to force the m aximum ch arge into the cylinder.
3. The spark occurs 25° early on the power
stroke in order to allow complete combus-
Fig .3. 13 The Supercharger tion of the mixture so th at the m aximu m pres-
sure is reached when the piston passes T.D.C.
The supercharger compresses the mixture of air and gasoline, thus
and is travelling down on the power stroke.
maintaining the charge at a specified weight for full power output at
high altitudes. 1. Intake Value. 2. Intake Manifold. 3. Supercharger. 4. 4. The exhaust opens 70° early on the exhaust stroke
Airscoop. 5. Carburetor. 6. Throttle. because any pressure remaining in the cylin-
der after B.D.C. is passed opposes the motion of
Forced induction may be used to increase the power of an
the piston coming up on the exhaust stroke.
engine at low altitudes. In this case the pressure over and
above sea level atmospheric pressure which is forced into the 5. The exhaust closes 20° late on the exhaust stroke .
manifold is called boost. This term is also used in the applica- This means that both valves are open together, or
tion of turbocharging. overlapped, on the induction and exhaust strokes
for 35°. The exhaust valve, by remaining open
late, helps to scavenge the burned gases. The
momentum of the outgoing exhaust gases leaves

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 Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

a partial vacuum in the cylinder which accel- through cooling-air intake openings in the front of the engine
erates the entry of the incoming charge. cowl and is expelled through openings at the rear of the cowl-
The valve mechanism is operated by a camshaft, which is ing. Cooling-air intakes are generally 30% to 50% of the size of
driven by a gear that mates with another gear attached to the the engine front al area.
crankshaft. The camshaft rotates at one-half the speed of the Shrouds are used to direct airflow into the engine compart-
crankshaft. ment. Baffles are used to force the cooling air directed by the
shrowds, towards the cylinders and other engine parts such
as magnetos and generators.
-'!!<- - Valve Spring
On low performance aeroplanes, the openings to expel the
Valve Port cooling air are of fixed size. In high performance aeroplanes,
the size of these openings is usually controlled by cowl flaps.
During high power settings, such as during take-off and climb,
the forward speed of the aeroplane is low and engine power
Push Rod is high. More cooling air is necessary to dissipate the higher
h eat generated by the harder working engine. During cruise,
less cooling air is required. Since the cooling air flowing over
the cylinders causes drag, in a high performance aeroplane it
is of benefit to reduce the amount of air entering the engine
compartment when it is not needed. This is effected by the
Camshaft Gear addition of cowl flaps that are controlled from the cabin. They
are used fully open for taxi, take-off and climb and are closed
or partially closed for cruise and descent.
Cooling fans are sometimes mounted on the front of the
Fig .3.15 Valve Mechanism en gine and are gear-driven from the engine crankshaft.
They assist the flow of cooling air at high altitudes wh ere the
weight-flow of cooling air is becoming light.
Valve Clearances
A clearance is necessary between the valve stem and the On some aeroplanes, the exhaust gases are directed through
rocker to prevent the valve being forced off its seat when it augmentor tubes, or jet pumps, which produce a suction
gets hot and expands. This is called the valve clearance, or strong enough to increase the flow of cooling air past the cyl-
sometimes tappet clearance, of the engine. inders. The augmentor tubes also produce additional thrust
sufficient to off-set the drag of the cooling air.
The clearances are set cold, allowance being made for the
correct clearance to be attained when the valves reach their
normal working temperature. Liquid Cooling
A liquid cooled engine makes use of water and a coolant as
Clearances set too wide will cause a loss of power, vibration
its main cooling components. The coolant contains additives
and excessive wear.
such as anti-freeze and anti-corrosion agents. The coolant,
Clearances set too close are apt to warp the valves and cause thus, prevents the water from freezing in very cold conditions.
serious trouble. It also prevents damage to the engine. The anti-corrosion
agent prevents rusting of engine parts such as the cylinder
3.uo Engine Cooling block and cylinder head as they come into contact with the
water. The coolant also helps to increase the boiling point of
We have previously considered the fact that the source of all
the water.
power is heat. It will therefore be obvious that the modern
aero engine, which is a unit designed to develop great power, The liquid cooled engine uses a pressurised and closed
must generate tremendous heat. The heat of combustion system. The pressurised system helps to increase the boilin g
reaches temperatures inside the cylinder that are as h igh as point of the water to prevent the latter from evaporating. The
2,soo c.
0 h eat from hot engine parts, such as the cylinder head and
en gine block, is dissipated by the circulating water. Water
An appreciable portion of this heat is absorbed by the engine
jackets are carved out inside the cylinder head and engine
parts, the cylinder walls, piston heads, etc. This would cause
block. This enables the coolant to reach the hottest surfaces
excessive overheating, to the extent of actually fusing or
located within the engine thereby allowing the liquid to trans-
melting the metal parts, if some means were not provided for
port heat away from the engine's internal components. The
dissipating it.
more that engine surface areas come into contact with the
The engines of some aeroplanes use a liquid coolant, but, by coolant mix, the greater the coolant dissipates more heat .
far, the most common method of dissipating engine heat is Also, the water-cooled engine uses a water pump to improve
by circulating cooling air around the engine cylinders. Both the rate of water flow. As the water flows more freely inside
horizontally opposed and radial en gines are air cooled. Some the en gine, any excess heat is removed more effectively.
in-line engines are air cooled, a few models are liquid cooled.
A liquid cooled engine uses a thermostat to control the tem -
perature effectively. When the engine is cold, the thermostat
Air Cooling bypasses the radiator. It then circulates the coolant liquid
In air cooled engines, fins are added to the cylinders to pro- within the engine to quickly reach the engine's normal oper-
vide a greater surface area of m etal to absorb the heat. Ram ating temperature. When the coolant temperature rises to a
air passing over the fins absorbs this excess heat and car- threshold operating temperature, the thermostat opens and
ries it away. This cooling air enters the engine compartment allows the coolant to enter the radiator to cool down. Liquid

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

coolant flows from the radiator's upper tank to its lower FORCE FEED METHOD: DRY SUMP LUBRICATION
tank through capillary tubes surrounded by radiator fins. A dry sump engine is one in which the oil is contained in a
Furthermore, a cooling fan blows air past the radiator fins separate tank and is forced under pressure from a pressure
and cools down the liquid coolant as it passes through the pump through the hollow crankshaft to lubricate the engine
radiator. Thus, heat from the liquid coolant is transferred to by the force feed method. The oil is then drained into a sump
the passing air. from which it is pumped by a scavenging pump, which has
Liquid cooling offers some benefits over air cooling. Cooling 20% greater capacity than the pressure pump, to ensure that
drag is reduced owing to there being no requirement for cool- the oil does not accumulate in the engine. Then it passes
ing-air intakes. Also, liquid cooling evens out the distribution through an oil cooler and is returned to the tank.
of cooling across all cylinders of the engine, thereby reducing Fig.3.16 shows the system of oil circulation in a dry sump
cylinder head temperature variation that is common with engine. The by-pass around the filter is provided to prevent
air-cooled engines. Liquid cooling also eliminates the risk of damage in case of failure (through neglect or carelessness) to
shock cooling. clean the filter. In this event, dirty oil is considered definitely
a lesser evil than no oil at all! The by-pass is also a safety
3.u1 Engine Oils &Lubrication device allowing the oil to return to the tank without damag-
ing parts such as the filter in case the pressure should become
Lubricating oil has four important functions to perform:
excessive. The pressure relief valve provides a means of regu-
1. Cooling - Carries away excessive heat generated by the lating the oil pressure.
engine.
Oil pressure is monitored by means of an oil pressure gauge
2. Sealing - Provides a seal between the piston rings and on the instrument panel of the aeroplane.
cylinder walls, preventing "blow-by" loss of power and
SPLASH METHOD: WET SUMP LUBRICATION
excessive oil consumption.
An improvement of the previously mentioned splash method
3. Lubrication - Maintains an oil film between moving that incorporates a pressure delivery is now in common use
parts, preventing wear through metal to metal contact. in modern engines. This is known as wet sump lubrication.
In a wet sump system, the engine oil supply is contained in
4. Flushing - Cleans and flushes the interior of the engine
a sump, or pan, under the crankcase. The oil passes through
of contaminants which enter or are formed during
a filtering screen in the bottom of the sump into the suction
combustion. side of a gear type pressure pump. The pump moves the oil
around the outside of its gears and imparts a predetermined
Thermometer---------. pressure to it. A pressure relief valve is incorporated into the
Pressure
Gauge
---..,.1 pump to ensure a steady pressure during all phases of engine
operation.
The pressure pump which is engine driven delivers oil
through passageways in the crankshaft and pushrods to all
the bearings of the engine for lubrication and cooling. Some
internal parts and surfaces of the engine may be splash lubri-
By Pass cated or they may be sprayed by oil flung off rotating parts of
the crankcase and connecting rods. After circulation, the oil
drains through return tubes back to the sump. An oil cooler
may be located in the return line to dissipate heat.
In some engines, the delivery of oil throughout the engine
may be handled entirely by the pressure pump; in others, by a
pressure-splash combination.
The wet sump method has the advantage of light weight and
Oil Cooler relative simplicity, being free of the exterior tank, tubing and
linkages characteristic of the dry sump system. However,
Fig.3.16 Dry Su m p Lubrication Syst ems the capacity of the sump is limited by the size and design
of the nacelle or cowling. Wet sump lubrication cannot be
used on aeroplanes designed for aerobatic or inverted flight
Methods of Lubrication without special modifications because the oil would flood the
In the force feed method the oil is forced under pressure from crankcase.
a pressure pump (oil pump) through the hollow crankshaft
where it lubricates the main and big end bearings. It is then
sprayed through tiny holes to lubricate the remaining parts of
Requirements of Good Oil
The requirements of good oil are as follows:
the engine by a fine mist, or spray.
1. Viscosity - Resistance to flow. Stickiness or body.
In the splash method the oil is contained in a sump, or
Good viscosity gives proper distribution of oil
reservoir, at the bottom of the engine. It is churned by the
throughout the engine and prevents rupturing
revolving crankshaft into a heavy mist which splashes over
of the oil film which lubricates the engine parts
the various engine parts. This type of lubrication is no longer
over the wide range of temperatures in which aero
used in engines that are manufactured today but it will be
engines work. An oil with a high viscosity index
found in the engines of some of the older aeroplanes that are
is one in which the changes in viscosity, due to
still flying.
widely varying operating temperatures, are small.

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 Aero Engines: Definitions & Configurations

The use of oil of too high viscosity for existing cli- If the oil gets too hot, its viscosity will be impaired and may
matic temperatures will cause high oil pressure. not be enough to keep a good film of oil on the engine parts.
The use of oil of too low viscosity for existing cli- If it gets too cold, the oil will become thick and will not flow
matic temperatures will cause low oil pressure. through the passageways, resulting in improper lubrication.

2. High Flash Point - The temperature beyond Oil temperature is monitored by means of an oil tempera-
which a fluid will ignite. This should be in ture gauge which is installed on the instrument panel of the
excess of the highest engine temperature. aeroplane.

3. Low Carbon Content - To leave as little carbon Engine manufacturers always specify operating limits which
as possible should oil work past the scraper ring must be strictly observed, otherwise the life and reliability of
and burn. Good oil should also have a low wax the engine may be seriously impaired.
content. Oils which have good resistance to dete-
rioration and the formation of lacquer and carbon Oil Dilution
deposits are said to have good oxidation stability. Because of the difficulties experienced in starting an aero-
4. Low Pour Point - The temperature at which a fluid plane in very cold weather, an oil dilution system is incor-
solidifies. Necessary for cold weather starting. porated into the lubrication system of some engines. Its
purpose is to thin the oil with raw fuel immediately before
the engine is stopped in order to lower the viscosity of the oil
Additives and thereby reduce the high cranking torque (resistance to
Some oils contain additives. These may be classified as turning) of a cold engine during the next start. It also ensures
follows: an immediate and adequate supply of oil to all moving parts
1. Detergents: Those which improve en gine cleanliness. after start-up.
2. Oxidation Inhibitors: Those which improve oil In such a system, a line connects the fuel pressure line
stability. to a special Y draincock in which a spring poppet valve is
installed. Th is valve is operated manu ally from the cockpit .
3. Anticorrosion Additives: Those which deter corrosion.
In very cold weather, when the engine will be shut down
4. Pour Point Depressants: Those which lower the pour
for several hours or for overnight, a sm all amount of fuel is
point.
allowed to enter the oil line, just before the engine is stopped,
There are also various other "improvers" which increase by holding the dilution control open for a short time while the
film strength and viscosity and which decrease foaming engine is runnin g. Diluted oil flows through the entire engine,
characteristics. replacing the heavy oil, thereby facilitating the next start.
It is important that oil which contains additives should be Before carrying out oil dilution, however, be sure to check th e
added ONLY to oil of the same type. amount of oil in the oil tank and ensure that it is below capac-
ity. Oil dilution will add an appreciable quantity of gasoline
Grade of Oil to the oil system and there must be room for the extra fluid.
The grade of oil recommended for various seasonal aero Otherwise the oil system w ill overflow. It m ay be necessary
engine requirements is designated by an S.A.E. Number, or by for the pilot to drain off some oil before starting oil dilution.
the Saybolt Universal Viscosity, which is expressed in "sec- The amount of oil dilution necessary is dependent on the
onds". The engine oil grade is, therefore, frequently referred to expected temperature against which it is necessary to protect.
as, say, S.A.E. 50, or as a "100 second oil". In the United States Oil dilution is recommended by most m anufacturers at 5°C
it is common practice to add 1000 to the Saybolt Viscosity, so and lower. The elapsed time required to achieve the amount
that this particular grade could also be referred to as "Grade of oil dilution required depends on two factors: the rate of flow
1100". For engines of moderate horsepower, the following of gasoline into the oil and the amount of oil to be diluted.
grades are generally used: The engine manufacturer's instructions should be closely fol-
Saybolt Viscosity S.A.E. Number U.S. Grade
lowed when carrying out oil dilution.
Summer 120 60 1120 After starting th e en gine, the engine operatin g temperatures
Fall or Spring 100 50 1100 must be raised and m aintained at a sufficiently high level to
Winter 80 40 1080 vaporize the gasoline. The vaporized gas is vented through
Arctic 65 30 1065 the engine crankcase breather. This procedure is known as
boil-off. Boil-off should be done prior to take-off and only in
Fig.3.17 Oil Grades
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
In order to eliminate the need to change oil seasonally, Over dilution can be caused by excess dilution time, by insuf-
manufacturers of engine oil have developed a synthetic multi- ficient boil-off and, on occasion, by a leaking poppet valve.
viscosity oil. This oil remains thin in extremely cold weather Excessive drop or fluctuation of oil pressure will be the result.
but also, at high outside temperatu res, maintains the same
Th e introduction of gasoline into the lubrication oil will
viscosity as the traditional summer grade of oil.
loosen carbon and sludge deposits w ith in the oil system.
Th is carbon and sludge is carried to the en gine oil screen and
Oil Temperature collects there in sufficient quantity to collapse the screen .
It is necessary to keep the oil temperature in an operating Consequently, the screen must be removed for inspection and
engine between certain well defined limits because the lubri- cleaning regularly during periods wh en oil dilution is being
cation of the engine depends on the viscosity of th e oil which, carried out. Some operators use oil dilution regularly, even
in turn, is governed by oil temperature. in warm weather, as a means to keep the oil system clear of
carbon and sludge.

From the Groun d Up ' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Fuel System

One problem associated with oil dilution that a pilot must selector valve to the carburetor. A drain allows removal
watch for is oil venting. If the engine is warmed up too rapidly of water and sediment trapped at the strainer. A primer
at too high power settings, the gasoline in the oil will tend sprays raw fuel into the intake manifold system or directly
to vaporize so rapidly that the pressure within the engine into the cylinders to aid engine starting, particularly in cold
crankcase will result in oil as well as gasoline being blown weather.
out through the engine crankcase breather. Care in following
recommended procedures for completing boil-off will prevent
this from happening.

3.2 The Fuel System

The aircraft fuel system stores and delivers the proper
amount of fuel at the right pressure to meet the demands of
the engine. It must deliver this fuel reliably throughout all
phases of flight, including violent maneuvers and sudden
acceleration and deceleration.
There are usually several tanks, even in a simple system, to
store the quantity of fuel required to give the aeroplane rea-
sonable range. These tanks are usually located in the wings,
although extra tanks may be located in the cabin area. A
line leads from each tank to a selector valve in the cockpit,
by which the pilot is able to select the tank from which fuel
is to be delivered .
Throttle

3.2 .1 Types of Fuel Systems Vent

Fuel -
.........~ Mixture
Fuel Pump Fuel System • ••., Control Knob
With this type of fuel system, an engine driven fuel pump To Engine Cylinders ···~-
~ I
supplies the pressure that keeps the fuel flowing to the ....
engine. This type of system is in use in all low w ing aero- Fig .3. 19 Gravity Feed Fuel System
planes and in any aeroplane with a higher performance
engine. Such a system incorporates, as well as the basic
pump, auxiliary electric pumps for use in emergency situ- 3 . 2.2 Fuel Tanks
ations in case the engine driven pump fails. The booster The location, size and shape of fuel tanks vary with the
pump , operated by a switch on the instrument panel, is type of aeroplane in which they are installed . They are most
also used to start the fuel flowing under pressure before the often located in the wings. Wing tip tanks are common.
engine is running. A fuel pressure gauge, mounted on the
cockpit panel, gives a visual indication that the fuel system The tanks are made of materials that will not react chemi-
is working by giving a reading of the pressure of fuel enter- cally with any aviation fuel. Aluminum alloy is most widely
ing the carburetor. used. Synthetic rubber or nylon bladder type fuel cells are
also in use. This latter type depends upon the structure of
the cavity in which it sits to support the weight of fuel it
holds.
Usually a drain is provided at the lowest point of the tank
through which water and sediment, which are heavier than
fuel and therefore settle to the lowest point of the fuel tank,
Left Tib Tank can be drained.
Left Main Tank Overflow drains are also incorporated to release fuel and
Engine Fuel Pump
prevent tanks from bursting when fuel expands in the
1 Fuel Tank Selector Valve
2 Fuel System Drain Lever tanks. Such expansion takes place when an aeroplane is
3 Fuel Pressure Gauge parked in direct sunlight and the fuel becomes heated.
4 Primer
The top of each tank is vented to the outside air to main-
tain atmospheric pressure within the tank. Tanks are also
fitted with internal baffles to resist fuel surging caused
by changes in the attitude of the aeroplane. The tanks are
Fig.3.18 Fuel Pump Fuel System filled through a filler neck on the upper surface of the wing.
Caps for the filler neck have locking devices to prevent acci-
dental loss during flight.
Gravity Feed Fuel System Information about the capacity of each tank is usually
This is the simplest type of fuel system and is still in use on posted near the fuel selector valve in the cockpit of the
many high wing, low powered aeroplanes. The fuel tanks aeroplane .
are mounted in the wings above the carburetor, with grav-
ity causing the fuel to flow from the tanks, past the fuel

© Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aero Engines: The Fuel System

Octane numbers go only as high as 100. Beyond this number,

3.2.3 Fuel Selector Valve the antiknock value of the fuel is expressed as a performance
A fuel selector valve in the cockpit permits the pilot to select number.
the tank from which he/she wishes to draw fuel. It also has Fuel grades are usually indicated by two performance num-
an "Off" position which closes off the fuel flow entirely. When bers (or octane ratings), as in the case of Grade 100/130. The
the aeroplane is parked, the "Off" position may be selected. first number (100) indicates the octane rating at lean mixture
conditions, and the second number (130) indicates the per-
3.2.4 Fuel Lines & Filters formance number at rich mixture conditions. (Aircraft are
still flying today with engines that were designed to burn an
The various tanks and other components of the fuel system
aviation fuel that is no longer produced, Grade 80/87, where 80
are joined together by fue l lines made of aluminum alloy
indicated the octane rating at lean mixture conditions and 87
m etal tubing and flexible synthetic rubber or teflon hose.
at rich mixture.) The evolution of avi ation fu els is such th at
Coarse m esh strainers are installed in the tank outlets and both 80/87 and 100/130 grades h ave been superseded by the
often in the tank fill er necks. Other strainers, m ade of fine aviation fuel 100LL where the "LL" designation refers to "low
m esh, are installed in the carburetor fuel inlets and in the lead." Whereas Grade 100/130 generally contained approxi-
fuel lines. mately 3 grams of lead per gallon, 100LL contains approxi-
The main strainer is located at the lowest point in the fuel mately 2 grams oflead per gallon. (By comparison, Grade 80/87
system. Its purpose is to prevent any foreign matter from contained a maximum of 0.5 grams of lead per gallon.) Grade
entering the carburetor and to trap any small amounts of 100LL meets the same lean and rich mixture octane specifica-
water that may be present in the system. tions as Grade 100/130 by enhancing its refining process, and
by adding a toluene concentrate.
It is good practice to drain the strainers prior to every flight to
remove from the system any water that may be in the fuel. In To differentiate different grades of fuel from each other, fuels
cold weather, this water might freeze and stop the fuel flow. In are dyed different colours.
warm weather, excessive water entering the carburetor could The following are the approximate ratings and the colours for
stop the engine. the most common fuels:

3.2.5 Fuel Quantity Gauge Power Type

Low power output

Fuel Grade

Grade 80 (or 80/87)

Colour

Red
Fuel quantity gauges are mounted on the instrument panel Medium power output Grade 100 LL (lo w lead ) Blue
and give a visual indication of the amount of fuel in each tank. Medium power output Grade 100 (high lead) Green
A pilot should never assume that the instrument is correct but Jet fuel Kerosene/Diesel Clear or straw
should make a visual check of each fuel tank before initiating MOGAS P87-90 Green
a flight. MOGAS P84-87 Undyed

Fig .3.20 Fuel Grades & Fuel Colours

3.2.6 Fuel Primer
A sm all h and pump is located on the instrument panel. This It is the responsibility of the pilot to see that the proper grade
is a primer th at is used to pump fu el into the engine prior to of fu el is used in refuelling his/her aeroplane. The Pilot's
starting. Ordinarily, it is needed only in cold weather. A pilot Operating Handbook always specifies what grade of fu el
should be careful not to overprime since this ac tion m ay flood should be used and usually this information is also m arked on
the engine and make it hard to start and, in some cases, m ay a placard in the cockpit and also next to the filler cap.
even cause a fire. It is also essential to ensure that the correct type of fuel is
used in refu elling the aeroplane. Occasionally, aeroplanes
3.2.? Fuel Types with reciprocating engines h ave been refu elled with jet fu el
instead of with avgas. The en gine may run briefly on jet fu el,
Fuels for modern high compression engines must burn slowly
but detonation and overheating will soon cause power failure
and expand evenly rather th an explode quickly. The fu els
(during take-off if you are really unlucky). Restrictor rings in
which possess this quality are known as high octane fu els
the filter neck of the fu el tank will prevent the large jet fu el
where "octane" refers to the low molecular weight hydro car-
nozzle from fitting into the fu el tank. Pilots need to be wary
bon that is a component of fu el.
of colourless fuel. Jet fuel, water and MOGAS are colourless.
The octane rating of a fuel is an index of a fu el's ability to It is important to pay close attention when your aeroplane is
resist engin ge knock. It is arrvied at as follows: being refu elled and be sure you are getting the typ e of fuel
• Octane is a sub stance which possesses you require.
minimum detonating qualities. If the proper grade of fuel is not available and the engine must
• Heptane is a substance which possesses be operated, use the next higher grade. Never use a lower
maximum detonating qualities. grade. The engine will overheat badly, detonation may occur
The proportion of octane to heptane in a fuel is expressed as and engine damage may result.
a percentage. Hence, 73 octane means 73% octane and 27% The cessation of the production of Grade 80/87 gasoline
heptane characteristics in the fuel. The natural gas limit is 72 resulted in operators of small aeroplanes fitted with engines
octane. Fuels of higher octane than this are treated with tet- designed for 80/87 having to use the higher grades of gaso-
raethyl lead or are "cracked" by a heat process which increases line, first 100/130 followed by the latter's replacement, 100LL.
their volatility. They are also treated with sulphuric acid, lye, The higher octane fuels with their greater lead content may,
etc., to remove the gum, acid and other impurities. however, cause issues such as spark plug fouling in aircraft
engines designed for lower octane fuel. Even the 100LL

From the Ground Up·• 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Fuel System

gasoline, which has less lead than the formerly available the formation of these ice crystals. They should be used only
100/130, has more lead than 80/87 fuel. if approved by the engine manufacturer and only in strict
Use of a fuel of a higher octane than that recommended for compliance with the manufacturer's instructions. Such addi-
your engine will probably lead to excess deposits in the com- tives should not be used without also consulting the airframe
bustion chamber. This is especially the case in cold weather. If manufacturer because their chemical content may be incom-
patible with the aircraft fuel system cells, seals, etc. Lead
you are regularly using 100 LL in an engine designed for 80/87,
scavenging additives have proved effective in reducing lead
rotation of the plugs, good leaning techniques, oil changes
every twenty-five hours of operation and use of correct spark fouling of spark plugs but should also be used only if approved
plugs will keep fouling problems to a minimum. In addition, it by both the engine and the airframe m anufacturer.
is advisable to avoid closed throttle operation (i.e. long idling
descents) and practice power approaches. Don't let the engine 3.2.s Fuel Related Problems
cool too quickly. Heat helps to scavange possible lead deposits.
Keep the cylinder head temperature in the normal operating Detonation
range. Detonation is characterized by the inability of a fuel to burn
Fuel antiknock properties have been best de alt with by adding slowly and is generally defined as an abnormally rapid com-
lead to fuel. However, environmental concerns have forced bustion, replacing or occurring simultaneously with norm al
fuel producers to look towards developing unleaded aviation combustion. Detonation is also ch aracterized by its almost
fuel alternatives. Most research is being directed towards the instantaneous nature, as contrasted with the smooth pro-
development of true 100-octane unleaded fuels that combine gressive burning of normal combustion. Under conditions of
the latest in electronic engine management systems with detonation, cylinder pressures rise quickly and violently to
octane-boosting fuel additives, to overcome the loss of lead peaks that are often beyond the structural limits of the com-
content. Unleaded aviation fuel such as 100 UL can prevent bustion chamber. Detonation is dangerous and costly. It puts
spark plugs from fouling and exhaust valves from sticking, a high stress on engine parts and causes overheating, warped
and lengthen the intervals between oil cha nges and engine valves and piston damage. It is not always easy to dete ct.
maintenance. Cylinder head temperatures offer about the best appraisal of
the unseen combustion process. A rapid increase in cylinder
Further to the movement away from leaded fuels, alterna-
head temperature, unless explained by some other factor,
tives such as jet fuel (kerosene/diesel) are finding increas-
often indicates impending detonation. Throttle reduction is
ing growth in the general aviation market. In addition to its
the most immediate and surest remedy.
absence of lead content, jet fuel is less expensive, more readily
available, and poses a reduced fire h azard. Causes of detonation can be related to the following:
Although in recent years the use of automobile gasoline/ 1. use of incorrect fuel.
MOGAS has been conditionally approved for use in some 2. overheating, sometimes caused by too steep a climb
types of aircraft, as a general rule automobile gasoline is not th at reduces the flow of air around the cylinders.
recommended as a replacement for aviation gasoline. The
chemical specifications of automobile gasoline may vary 3. too lean of a mixture.
widely on any continent due to local climatic conditions as In an emergency, a temporary remedy for detonation is to
well as state and provincial regulations. A pilot may, there- apply full rich on the mixture control. This enriches the mix-
fore, be unable to predict the performance of his/ her engine ture, which in turn tends to cool the engine due to the evapo -
under all operating conditions. Automobile gasoline is not as ration of the raw gas in the cylinders. Also, reduce the power
stable as aviation gasoline and may more easily come out of as much as possible.
solution, especially if stored in the aeroplane fuel tanks for Persistent deton ation indicates that a fuel of too low an octane
long periods. Some kinds of automobile gasoline will cause is being used. As a permanent remedy for detonation, ONLY
vapour lock and reduced fuel flow at high ambient tempera-
use fuel of the octane rating specified by the engine manu-
tures and higher altitudes. Vapour lock may occur at tempera-
facturer. If such information is not available and there is any
tures above 24°C and at altitudes above 6,000 feet. MOGAS is
doubt regarding what octane should be used, always use an
also more susceptible to carburetor icing. The continued use
octane rating on the high side, never one that is too low.
of unleaded automobile gasoline may cause accelerated valve
guide wear, valve damage and valve seat recession in engines
that were designed to operate on fuels with some lead con- Pre-Ignition
tent. The advantage of using aviation gasoline at all times Pre-ignition is another trouble-maker which is sometimes
is that it is manufactured to a common and internationally confused with detonation. Pre-ignition, however, is a prema-
recognized standard. In addition, in order to minimize con- ture ignition of the mixture due to glowing carbon particles,
tamination, special care is taken in handling, transferring and or "local hot spots". It is often experienced when attempting
delivering aviation gasoline . The engine and airframe manu- to start a hot engine and usually results in a backfire through
facturers use aviation gasoline to obtain performance data the intake manifold.
on which the Operator's Manual is written. Thus the operator Damage to an engine from pre-ignition can be disastrous,
can be assured of consistent performance. Another point to causing warped pistons, cracked cylinder heads and other
remember is that some insurance companies w ill consider the serious damage.
policy invalid if the aircraft is operated with a gasoline that is
not approved.
Vapour Lock
Water particles in suspension in the fuel may, in very cold Vapour lock in the fuel line can be caused by high atmospheric
weather, change into ice crystals and accumulate in fuel fil- temperatures, causing the gas to vaporize and block the flow
ters and fuel lines in sufficient quantity to block the fuel line of liquid fuel in the line.
and cause engine stoppage. Anti-icing fuel additives inhibit

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aero Engines: The Carburetor & Fuel Injection

3.3 The Carburetor & 3,3.1 How the Carburetor Works

Fuel Injection The Float Carburator
Fuel flows through the fuel supply lines, past the fuel strainer
The heat energy in an internal combustion engine is devel- and enters the carburetor at the float (or needle) valve. It flows
oped from the burning of a mixture of gasoline and air. into the float ch amber where its level is controlled by a float
The combustion process in the cylinder relies on a proper which opens or closes the float valve as it rises or falls. When
mixture of this fuel and air to achieve optimum efficiency. the float rises to a predetermined level, it shuts off the float
The function of the carburetor is to measure the correct quan- valve. No additional fuel can then enter the carburetor u ntil
tity of gasoline, vaporize this fuel, mix it w ith the air in the fuel is used by the engine.
proper proportion and deliver the mixture to the cylinders. The float chamber is vented so that the pressure in the cham -
The ratio of fuel to air is regulated by th e pilot with the m ix- ber equalizes with the atmospheric pressure as the aeroplane
ture control. The throttle regulates the flow of air into the climbs and descend s. The level of th e gasoline in the float
engine and creates turbulence at the butterfly valve to assist chamber governs the level of gasoline in the nozzle, as can be
in the mixing of fuel and air. The carburetor matches the flow seen in Fig.3.22. One of the problems of the carburetor is that
of fuel w ith the air flow to achieve the ratio regulated by the sometimes the float may become punctured so that gasoline
mixture control. leaks into it increasing its weight. As a result, the level of gaso-
In the fuel/air mixture delivered to the cylinders from the line in the chamber rises and gas overflows from the nozzle,
carburetor, the proportion of gasoline to air is a function of thereby flooding the carburetor.
the mass of the air. Mixture is a very precise measurement, as Outside air passes through the carburetor air filter which is
the fuel to air ratio for best power is only 2 to 4 pounds of fuel located at the carburetor air intake in the front of the engine
per 100 pounds of air different from the ratio which will cause cowling. It is then drawn through the Venturi (Fig.3.22) where
a lean misfire condition. its speed is increased. A low pressure area is thereby created
in the throat of the Venturi. The reduced pressure around the
The following fuel/air ratios (by weight) indicate the effect, on
nozzle draws the fuel, which is u nder atmospheric pressure,
a typical engine, of varying the mixture ratio at full throttle,
constant speed. from the jet in the form of a fine spray.
The mixture of air and vaporized fuel, regulated in volume
Ru nning Mixture About 1 to 8
by the throttle valve, enters the intake manifold and is then
Best Powe r Mixture About 1 to 14
distributed to th e individual cylinders.
Chemically Co rrect Mixture About 1 to 15
Lowe st Fue l Consum ption Mixt ure About 1 to 18
Leanest Running Mixture About 1 to 20 Throttle Valve
Fig.3 .2 1 Fuel/Air Ratios & Engi ne Effects

Engine temperatures are substantially affected by the ratio of

fuel to air in the mixture entering the combustion ch ambers.
An engine will run hotter with a lean mixture than with a rich
mixture because the Jean mixture is slower burning and the
cylinder walls are exposed to h igh temperatures for a longer Main Air Passage
period of time. A richer mixture, on the other h and, burns
more quickly, exposing the cylinder walls to high tempera-
tures for a shorter period. Also, the additional fuel in the fuel/
air mix of a richer mixture h elps to cool the en gine. Fig.3 .22 Principle of a Simple Floa t Carbu retor

Too rich a mixture (an excess of fuel), as well as low ering the The throttle valve is connected directly to the throttle control
combustion temperature, results in unburned wasted fuel on the instrument panel of the aeroplane. By means of the
being expelled through the exhaust system. It contributes to throttle, the pilot is able to control the amount of fuel/air mix
fouled spark plugs and combustion chamber deposits. Too that enters the en gine thereby controlling the power output.
rich a mixture may also cause rough engine operation, appre- Forward movement of the throttle opens the throttle valve,
ciable loss of power or actual engine failure. increasing the volume of fuel/air m ixture and consequently
Too lean a mixture m ay cause rough engine operation, sudden the speed of th e engine. Aft movement of the throttle closes
"cutting out", "popping back" or back-firing, detonation, over- the throttle valve and reduces the volume of fuel/air mixtu re
heating or appreciable loss of power. Continual operation entering the engine.
at too lean a mixture has also been responsible for engine Some portion of the gasoline in the fuel/air mixture does not
failure. vaporize and is still in liquid form when it enters the engine.
The complete carburetor is a highly complicated unit incor- It is vaporized by the heat of the engine. It is, therefore, impor-
porating many devices necessary to control the mixture ratio tant to properly warm up the engine prior to t ake-off, so th at
under widely varying conditions imposed on the modern there is sufficient engine heat to vaporize all the fuel and
aeroplane en gine. As such, it is beyond the scope of this book develop full power during take-off.
to delve into fine detail about the carburetor. However, an
explanation of the basic working principles of a simple car- The Pressure Carburetor
buretor and some of its additional parts w ill be of interest to Some aircraft, such as the Beech Bonanza, have systems
the student pilot. known as pressu re carburetors for controlling mixture. In
such systems, fuel under pressure is injected into th e intake

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Carburetor & Fuel Injection

manifold where it is mixed with the incoming air prior to nozzle. When the mixture control knob is moved fully for-
entering the cylinder through the intake valve. In this way, ward, the needle valve retracts and allows fuel to flow freely
the hazard of carburetor ice is eliminated because the fuel is to the nozzle. When the mixture control knob is moved aft,
injected beyond the Venturi, thus canceling additive cooling the needle moves into the fuel line to restrict the flow of fuel.
effects of lower pressure and vaporization. (See Carburetor
Icing.) A throttle control valve regulates the flow of the intake
air.

Idling
When an engine is idling, the throttle valve is closed and
there is insufficient movement of air through the Venturi to
lower the pressure enough to draw fuel from the main nozzle.
An idle jet is provided at the edge of the closed throttle valve
Air
where, owing to the narrow passage, the air accelerates and
reduces the pressure enough to draw fuel from the idle jet.

Acceleration Pump
During rapid acceleration, the fuel in liquid form, which trav-
els to the cylinders along with the vaporized fuel and air, is
unable to increase its velocity as rapidly as does the air. This Fig .3.23 Pr inc i ple of the Bac k Suction Mixture Control
causes a temporary leanness at the cylinders which must be
Another type of control is the back suction system, which is
compensated for by temporarily adding more fuel at the car-
depicted in Fig.3.23. A back suction pipe or passage intercon-
buretor. This is accomplished by the acceleration pump. The
nects the air space in the float chamber to the reduced pres-
device consists of a piston controlled by the throttle which
sure area in the Venturi. Closing the mixture control valve
works up and down in a cylinder containing gasoline at the
restricts the atmospheric pressure entering the float chamber
float level. The piston is drilled with two holes beneath which
and the back suction passage reduces the pressure in the
is a check valve. When the throttle is opened slowly, the check
chamber. This reduced pressure forces less fuel through the
valve remains open and no fuel is pumped. When the throttle
nozzle and leans the mixture.
is opened quickly, however, the check valve closes and the
fuel in the cylinder is pumped into the air stream through the IDLE CUT-OFF
economizer discharge needle. Some engines are fitted with an idle cut-off control to stop
the engine. This is simply an extreme "lean" position of the
3,3.2 Mixture Control mixture control, which reduces the pressure within the float
The need to have a mixture control system is occasioned chamber to such a low value that no fuel at all flows through
by the fact that, as altitude increases, the density of the air the jet. Idle cut-off will stop the engine immediately with no
decreases. Carburetors are normally calibrated for sea level tendency towards pre-ignition or after-firing. It also makes
the engine easy to start since the carburetor and fuel lines
operation, which means that the correct mixture of fuel and
remain filled with gasoline.
air will be obtained at sea level with the mixture control in
the full rich position. As altitude increases, a given volume USE OF MANUAL MIXTURE CONTROLS
of air weighs less. It is obvious then that at higher altitudes, Although specific instructions concerning mixture ratios
the proportion of air by weight to that of fuel will become are given for each type of aeroplane engine, a general rule
less although the volume remains the same. (Regardless of to follow in using a manual mixture control is that the rich
altitude, the amount of fuel entering the carburetor remains mixtures should be used at high power settings and the leaner
approximately the same for any given throttle setting if the mixtures at normal cruise power settings. Failure to observe
position of the mixture control is not changed.) The mixture, the instructions pertaining to the use of the mixture control
therefore, becomes over-rich, causing waste of fuel and loss may easily result in engine overheating and detonation either
of power. of which will affect the reliability and useful life of the engine.
To correct this condition, a mixture control is fitted to the In case of doubt, a mixture a little on the rich side is advisable
carburetor. This device adjusts the amount of gas being drawn as too lean a mixture can cause engine damage. The mixture
from the nozzle and thereby restores the proper fuel/air mix. control has the greatest effect, and all other engine controls a
lesser effect, on engine operating temperatures.
The mixture control, on some aeroplanes, is an automatic
device. Most commonly, it is a manually operated control that
is operated by the pilot. Rich Mixtures - High Power Settings
Leaner Mixtures - Cruise Power Settings
The Manual Mixture Control
In a manually operated system, the amount of fuel that is A common method of adjusting a manually operated mix-
drawn from the nozzle to mix with the air is governed by ture control (for an engine with a fixed pitch propeller) is to
the mixture control that is located on the instrument panel. observe the tachometer reading closely while moving the
By adjusting this control, the fuel to air ratio can be adjusted control from full rich towards lean. It will be observed that
either to enrich the mixture or to lean it. an increase in rpm occurs. The point at which this maximum
There are many different forms of mixture control devices. rpm is first reached is called rich best power. Further leaning
The most common incorporates a needle valve which restricts will hold the rpm at maximum value for an appreciable move-
the amount of fuel flowing from the float chamber to the ment of the control, whereupon still further leaning will cause

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 Aero Engines: The Carburetor & Fuel Injection

a loss in rpm. The point where r pm begins to drop again from past this point results in a cooling of the exhaust gases by the
the maximum rpm value is called lean best power. excess air. The mixture is then said to be on the lean side of
This system of using the m anually operated mixture control peak EGT.
is, at best, only approximate. Th e position of the m ixture At peak EGT, the fuel economy is greatest, but there is a sligh t
control should be rechecked with chan ges of operating condi- loss in airspeed. Actually, airspeed will increase along w ith
tion , such as change in altitude, change in carburetor hot air EGT up to a point approximately 100°F rich of peak EGT. After
setting, etc. This m ethod is not as effective with an engine that, it drops off. A pilot, interested in a faster cruise, should
having a constant speed propeller, since variation in mixture enrich the m ixture by about 100°F from peak EGT to achieve
ratio w ill not appreciably alter the tachometer reading. best or maximum power. However, the slight loss of airspeed
at peak EGT is more than compensated for by a 15% increase
in fuel economy and range. The recommended mixture set-
ting for maximum range at cruise power is peak EGT.

Peak EGT

Rich Mixture Lean

Fig.3.24 Fuel Manage ment System

More accurate methods of using the m anual mixture control

h ave made their appearance in recent years and are adapt-
able to most aeroplanes. Th ese systems, wh ich are capable of
providing a continuous instrument indication of the mixture
••••• Fig.3.25 Exhaust Temperature Management

As in all aspects of engine operation, th e recommendations of

the engine manufact urer should be strictly followed in deter-
mining the temperatu re to which to lean when using the EGT
ratio, are of two m ain types: direct measurement and exhaust
temperature measurement. system, if the m anufacturer recommends a procedure that is
different from that outlined above.
Direct measurement uses a fuel flow gauge in the cockpit of
the aeroplane that tells the pilot th e approximate volume per
hour of fuel being metered to the engine. The gauge is used
in conjunction with tables, supplied by the m anufacturer and
found in the Aeroplane Operating Manual, which chart the ~
> - - - + - - + - - + - - ...+.-.=- ·...........~--·
___
normal fuel flow settings to use w ith certain rpm , manifold
pressure and TAS and when flying at various altitudes and .s
at various outside or carburetor air temperatures. Fuel flow
gauges of older manufacturers were somewh at u n reliable as a
8
guide to leaning an engine. They were very likely to go out of
calibration and could not, therefore, be depended upon to give Rich Mixture Lean
a correct reading of the exact amount of fuel being consumed
per hour. Recent tech nology has improved the design of this Fig .3.26 Engine Leaning Using EGT System
gauge with solid state components that ensure a much m ore
There are a number of different types of EGT gauges. A very
accurate and trustworthy indication of fuel flow while m oni-
basic system obtains an exhaust temperature reading from
toring, at the sam e time, fuel remaining on board and flight
one cylinder only (usually that one which, according to the
time rem aining at the cu rrent fuel flow. Even m ore advanced
engine manufacturer, is the leanest cylinder). However, mix-
design s derive information from on board n avigation equip-
ture distribution will vary from cylinder to cylinder and from
ment and are capable of displaying fuel flow information
engine to engine, even those of the same make and model. No
based on changing groundspeed.
aircraft engine is capable of perfect mixture distribution and
The positive control of mixture is possible with the exhaust the EGT will always vary from cylinder to cylinder. In fact, the
temperature measurement systems. The exhaust gas tem- leanest cylinder may even vary with variations in altitude,
perature (EGT) method u ses a thermocouple in the exhaust throttle and other conditions. To overcome this problem, the
stack near the exhaust valve of a cylinder to measure the tem- analyzer system (Fig.3.27) incorporates a probe in the exhaust
perature of th e exh aust gases. This sensitive probe transmits stacks of each cylinder. The temperature gauge displays
its information to an indicator in th e cockpit. simultaneously the EGT of every cylinder. Th e pilot is, there-
The EGT varies as th e fuel/air mixture is adjusted by the fore, able to ch eck the exh aust temperature in each cylinder,
mixture control. At full rich, a large amou nt of excess fuel is ensu ring that no one has been leaned beyond peak EGT. In
unbu rned; the exhaust gases are cooled resulting in a lower using the analy zer EGT system, the m ixture should be leaned
EGT reading. As the mixture is leaned, the amou nt of excess to peak EGT of the cylinder which reaches peak EGT first.
fuel is reduced and the temperature climbs. At the point
where the ideal mixture of fuel and air (i.e. complete burning
of the fuel/air mixture) is reached, the EGT peaks. Leaning

From the Grou nd Up' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Carburetor & Fuel Injection

At high manifold pressures, the mixture control should be

set at full rich. For taking off or landing at airports at any
elevation up to 5,000 feet density altitude and for climbing
up to 5,000 feet, the mixture control should be in the full rich
position.
When taking off at high altitude airports where the density
of the air is reduced, the mixture should be leaned in order to
get the maximum power from the engine since an over-rich
mixture results in loss of power. To lean the mixture prior
to take-off, position the aeroplane at the end of the runway,
lock the brakes and advance the throttle to full power. Adjust
the mixture control by the method listed above to "rich best
power".
For a given throttle opening and a given position of the mix-
Fig.3.27 Engine Analyzer System
ture control, the mixture will become enriched as high alti-
An added advantage of the analyzer system is the opportunity tude is attained. With loss in altitude, conversely, the mixture
it affords to the pilot to frequently compare the running tem- becomes leaner with unchanged mixture and throttle con-
peratures of each cylinder. If one is showing undue variance trols. Therefore, the mixture control should be readjusted for
from the others, trouble may be indicated and a check and each 1,000 feet of change in altitude both during climbs and
repair can be made before power loss or part failure occurs. descents. During a descent from altitude, it is not necessary
to enrich the mixture at the beginning of the descent. The
A scanning analyzer system (Fig.3.27) digitally displays engine mixture should be adjusted gradually to avoid over-enriching
temperature information. It is programmed to continuously the mixture. The enriched mixture has a cooling effect on the
monitor EGT on all cylinders, as well as cylinder head tem- engine. So too does the reduced power to speed ratio during
perature and oil temperatures and to activate a warning light the descent.
if any temperature conditions vary from the normal operating
range. Special consideration and limitations must be made in lean-
ing turbocharged engines (see Turbocharging). In many tur·
bocharged engines, a rich mixture is required to adequately
The Automatic Mixture Control cool the engine. Leaning during climb or on a hot day may
Some engines are fitted with a mixture control which auto- result in excessive cylinder head and oil temperatures. The
matically compensates for changes in the pressure and engine operating manual is the definitive source for leaning
temperature of the air entering the carburetor. The device procedures and should always be followed.
consists of a sealed bellows containing gas which expands
and contracts with changes in pressure and temperature. When carburetor heat is being used, it may be necessary to
The movement of the bellows is used to operate the mixture lean the mixture slightly. Since the warmed air is less dense,
control valve automatically. On some carburetors, a single the mixture will be richer.
automatic control is provided. On others, the pilot may select Care must always be exercised in using the mixture control.
"Automatic Rich" or "Automatic Lean". The former is used Incorrect mixture ratios will cause certain variations in engine
for take-off and when higher power is required. The latter is performance. At worst, improper leaning has led to shortened
used to give the most economical fuel consumption at normal engine life, poor engine performance, and occasionally even
cruise power. Provision is sometimes made for both manual engine failure. Even when it is not responsible for such serious
and automatic mixture control. In this case, the pilot will problems, improper leaning, at least, has deprived aeroplane
be able to select "Full Rich" and "Idle Cut-off" in addition to owners of a tremendous amount of fuel economy.
"Auto-Rich" and "Auto-Lean".
The most common misuse of the mixture control by pilots
Some automatic mixture control systems are calibrated to is selection of too lean a ratio. Many pilots, in an effort to
function properly only provided the pilot maintains the tem- conserve fuel and get the most air miles per gallon, commit
perature of the fuel/air mixture in the carburetor Venturi area this error. A "too rich" mixture will cause loss of power, but
at a constant reading of about 3°C (38°F). This is accomplished only seldom results in complete engine failure. "Too lean" a
by the manual operation of the carburetor hot air control and mixture, however, causes overheating of the cylinder parts
by monitoring the carburetor temperature gauge. (The carbu- and, in many cases, will lead to complete engine failure and
retor temperature gauge is described later in this chapter.) The substantial damage.
temperature of 3°C (38°F) is selected as being outside the range
Engines that are operated at too lean a mixture for a consider-
in which carburetor ice is likely to form.
able period of time will undoubtedly sustain more wear and
will cost more to overhaul than will those engines operated
3.3.3 When to Lean the Engine with correct mixture selection. Pilots should realize that, in
At cruise power, below approximately 75 percent of the rated the long run, it is usually far cheaper to use a little more fuel
rpm of the engine, it is generally permissible and recommend- during the running time between overhauls than to pay the
ed to use, at any altitude above 5,000 feet, the mixture control extra overhaul costs.
as an economy device. The mixture may be leaned to "lean
best power" (or peak EGT). Care must be exercised, however, 3.3.4 Why Lean the Engine
when using the mixture control as a fuel economy device,
Proper leaning of the engine is both practical and economical
because selecting too lean a mixture will increase operating
and will result in:
temperatures in the combustion chamber.

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 Aero Engines: The Carburetor & Fuel Injection ••

1. Economy of fuel which means in rpm with a fixed pitch propeller). If severe enough, carbure-
lower costs of operation. tor icing may cause complete engine failure, as the icing situa-
2. A smoother running engine. Excessively rich tion closes off entirely the induction flow.
mixtures make the engine run rough and Ice that forms in the carburetor is caused by two processes:
cause vibrations which might cause damage the drop in temperature as heat is taken from the air in order
to engine mounts and engine accessories. to effect vapourization of the fuel, and from cooling due to th e
3. A more efficient engine, giving higher indicated low pressure area in the carburetor.
airspeeds and better aeroplane performance. Liquid gasoline must be changed into a vapour and mixed
4. Extended range of the aeroplane at cruise. with air to become combustible. This process occurs in the
carburetor. The heat that is required to change the liquid gaso-
S. Less spark plug fouling and longer life for spark plugs. line to a vapour is absorb ed from the air that passes through
6. More desirable engine temperatures. the carbu retor and into the m anifold. Thus , the carbure tor
is , in effect, a miniature refrigerator, the temperature in this
7. Cleaner combustion ch amb ers and therefore less
mixing ch amber dropping as much as 30°C below the tem -
likelihood of pre-ignition from undesirable deposits.
perature of the incoming air.

3.3.5 Carburetor Icing If this air contains large amounts of moisture (and most air
contains some water vapour), the cooling process will cause
Under certain moist atmospheric conditions, with air tem- the water vapour to condense and possibly freeze on all
peratures ranging anywhere from approximately -S°C to 30°C, surfaces of the carburetor but especially on the throttle but-
it is possible for ice to form in the induction system. This can terfly. It is possible for this icing condition to occur, as can be
pose serious problems for the pilot if he/she does not take seen, with outside air temperatures as high as 30°C, in bright
action to rid the carburetor of this ice that is gradually closing sunshine with no sign of rain. A temperature of around 1S°C
off the flow of fuel to the engine. The fact that carburetor ice should be regarded as the most suspect. The minimum rela -
is responsible for a great many aviation accidents is perhaps tive humidity generally necessary for icing to occur is 50%,
indicative that many pilots, especially inexperienced ones, with the icing hazard increasing as the humidity increases.
do not have sufficient respect for or appreciation of the ever This type of icing is sometimes called fuel vapourization ice.
present dangers of this icing problem. Such accidents can be
prevented only by greater pilot awareness and vigilance. Air Intake

....
The chart depicted in Fig.3.28 shows the range of temperature
and relative humidity under which carburetor icing can occur.

Serious icing - any power

Moderate icing - cruise power or

Serious icing - de s cent power
Air cooli ng by expansion

Seriou s icing - d escen t power

Light icing - cruise or descent powe r

°C °F
Fog I Cloud +30° +86°

Fi g. 3. 29 Carburetor Ice

Wh en atmospheric temperature is below -S°C , the danger of

carburetor icing is not serious , since the possibility of water
1:--
z vapour being present in air at such low temperatures is very
-+-- - l -- --1- - ~ 0° +32" slight. Any sm all am ou n ts of moisture th at might be present
::: in the air will be frozen and will pass through the system
"'Q h armlessly.
1----l-- - -+- --+--- -+-- ----1 -10° +14°

_··_··_·_·~_A_M~B_I_EN_T~T_E_M_P~E_R_A_T_U_R~E--~ 28
Ice also form s as a result of the low pressure area that is cre-
.z.--
•• _ o +O" ated in the carburetor Venturi. The rush of air across and
•c -1a0 -10° 0° +10° +20° +30° +40° around the throttle/butterfly valve, especially when it is in a
°F 0° +14° +32° +50" +68° +86° +104° partially closed position, causes a decrease in pressure which
has a cooling effect on the fuel/air mixture. Moisture in this
CAUTION Chart not valid if operating on MOGAS low pressure area will freeze and collect on the rear side of
the throttle butterfly. This type of ice is sometimes called
Fig.3.28 Carburetor Icing Range throttle ice. The presence of even a small amount of ice on the
throttle valve may cause a relatively large reduction in airflow
The temperatures referred to in this chart are applicable only to
and therefore in engine power. A large collection will jam the
aviation fuels. They are not valid if the aeroplane is being operated on
throttle. The temperature drop resulting from this low pres-
MOGAS. Due to its higher volatility, MOGAS is more susceptible to
sure phenomenon is rarely more than 3°C.
the formation of carburetor ice.
In engine installations in which the fuel is introduced
Carburetor icing is usually indicated by a loss of power (a drop
upstream from the throttle valve, as is the case with a float
in manifold pressure with a constant speed propeller or a drop
type carburetor, there is a fuel/air mixture at the throttle and

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Carburetor & Fuel Injection

any ice formation would be attributable to the cumulative A pilot, flying an aeroplane with no carburetor air tempera-
effects of both the refrigeration process and the throttle ice ture gauge of any sort, is well advised to check for carburetor
phenomenon. ice by applying carburetor heat periodically. Certainly, it is
In a fuel injection system (see Fuel Injection), only air passes preferable to anticipate the form ation of carburetor ice and
the throttle and any ice formation would be attributable to use heat as an anti-icer rather than to rely on it only as a de-
throttle ice only. Icing is therefore, not a problem in fuel injec- icer. Any carburetor ice condition means loss of power; the
tion engines when the temperature is above 4°C. engine exhaust therefore is not as hot, the carburetor hot air
flow which is heated as it passes around the exhaust pipes is
A third cause of ice in the carburetor system is the result of not as hot and is, in consequence, not as effective in melting a
water present in the atmosphere as snow, sleet or supercooled
build-up of ice, especially if it is forming rapidly.
liquid. Under these conditions, ice builds up on the air scoop,
carburetor screen and carburetor m etering elem ents. This . HotAir
type of ice is commonly called impact ice. . Cold Air Engine Cowling

Prevention of Carburetor Icing

Modern aeroplane installations incorporate a means of direct-
ing heated air into the carburetor air intake. The carburetor
hot air handle on the panel activates this process . Many aero-
~~ +--,
Carburator
planes are fitted also with a carburetor mixture temperature Outside Air ---1-~~~:-1-•-=.-t-=;-' Heat Control
gauge which tells the pilot the temperature of the mixture. Carburator Air Filter
Since it requires much more heat to melt ice that has already
formed than to prevent its formation , the carburetor air tem-
perature should at all times be maintained at 4°C to 7°C in
flight by using carburetor heat. Some aeroplanes may be fitted @ Carberator Heat
with a carburetor air inlet temperature gauge which measures
the temperature of the air just before it enters the carburetor. ® Carberator Heat
In this case, the temperature should be maintained at 32°C. Fig.3 .30 Carburetor Heat System
For take-off, however, the carburetor heat control should
always be in the cold air position, because the full power How long should the use of heat be continued when icing con-
of the engine cannot be developed when the air is heated. ditions are proven to exist? If icing is severe, then heat should
Heated air has less density than colder air. Bring the carbu- be used as long as the flight continues. Despite the moderate
retor air temperature within safe limits during run-up, then power loss, no amount of heat can damage an engine run-
select cold air for take-off. If icing conditions are suspected, ning at a cruise setting of 75% power or less. The possibility
hot air can be selected immediately after take-off. Since the of detonation in the use of heat occurs only when the engine
full pow er of the engine is not required fo r cruising, m oder- is running at high rpm, such as during take -off and climb.
ate carburetor heat does not affec t the perform ance of the During icing conditions, the pilot's concern is keeping the
en gine in fli ght. Excessive carburetor h eat, however, should engine running, not the possibility of detonation.
be avoided when icing conditions are no t p resent because Wh en using heat for extended periods, the mixture should be
detonation m ay result. adjusted lean . Carbu retor heat creates a richer m ixture which
Th e possibility of ice for m ation m ay be detected (in aero- m ay cause the en gine to r un rough . To correct this and also to
planes that are w ithout a carbure tor air temperature gauge) by compensate for th e power loss when using heat, it is practical
applying carbure tor heat . If no ice is present, the application of to adjust the m ixture to a lea ner setting.
h eat will cause a loss of power indicated by a drop in m anifold Investigation of som e forced landing incidents that were the
pressure (or in rpm, in the case of an engine fi tted with a fixed result of carburetor icing h ave pointed up an interes ting fact
pitch prop). When ice h as begun to for m in the carburetor, the about this ever present h azard . One pilot using no ca rbure-
application of full h eat will remove the ice and perm it the rpm tor heat but using a lean mixture experienced no carburetor
in time to return to normal, but initially it w ill cau se a further icing. Another pilot, flying in the sam e air condition s , using
loss of power and a short period of engine roughness. Heated no carburetor heat but flying at a full rich mixture developed
air directed into the induction system m elts the ice, which ice and lost the engine. The refrigeration effect from full rich
goes into the en gine as water, cau sing som e roughness and mixture created enough difference in induction air temp era-
the addition al power loss. As soon as the ice is m elted and the ture to bring on icing.
resulting w ater eliminated, the m anifold pressure or rpm will
To m ake u se of th e carburetor h eat system effectively, it is
return to the normal setting. This should occu r in a minu te or
ne cessary to understand that the hot air that is directed into
so. It is necessary for pilots to understand what is happening
the carburetor by activating the carburetor heat control is
so that they will not be frightened out of using heat by what
cold air that is heated as it passes over the engine's exhaust
they might consider a situation that has been worsened. Not
pipes before it enters the carburetor air intake. The degree
to use heat in such a circumstance could result in losing the
to which this air can be heated is dependent on the heat of
engine completely.
the exhaust. It can be re adily appreciated that it is of little
With experience, a pilot learns to recognize atmospheric value to apply carburetor hot air after the engine has been
conditions under which carburetor icing might occur. In an throttled back. An idling engine produces little heat in the
aeroplane fitted with a carburetor air temperature gauge, ice exhaust, comparatively speaking, and the resultant hot air
formation can be prevented by keeping the temperature of the may be inadequate to thaw any ice in the carburetor. A rule to
air in the carburetor mixing chamber above the freezing level. remember, therefore , is:

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 Aero Engines: The Carburetor & Fuel Injection

pilots commence their take-off run with carbure-

tor heat ON in order to be sure that ice will not form
Always apply carburetor heat
and choke off the engine during the take -off run and
before reducing power. initial climb. The control is returned to the COLD
position about half way down the take-off run so
If ice is suspected while flying at a low power setting, it may that full power is available for lift-off and climb.)
be necessary to open the throttle to produce more heat so that 5. In cold winter weather, hot air may be used for
the hot air entering the carburetor will be sufficiently hot to warm-up and taxiing prior to take-off. Extremely
thaw the ice. low temperatures cause the engine to run lean.
It should be realized also that partial carburetor heat can Carburetor heat will enrich the mixture and help
be worse than none at all under certain conditions. If the to vapourize the fuel. This procedure is recom -
fu el/air mixture temperature is in the -5°C range, with no m ended only in very cold weath er since the hot
heat applied, the formation of ice is not as probable as if the air that enters the carburetor is not filtered.
temp erature were brought up to -1°C by the use of partial 6. Use cold air selection for take-off. The less dense
heat. At temperatures around -10°C , any entrained moisture heated air that enters the induction system when
becomes ice crystals which pass through the system harm- carburetor heat is selected causes a reduction in
lessly. Application of partial heat might cause carburetor icing power. Carburetor heat at high power settings can
by melting these crystals and raising the temperature to the cause engine overheating and possibly detonation.
icing range. In an aeroplane without a carburetor air tempera-
7. Remain alert for indications of icing, espe-
ture gauge, partial heat should never be used.
cially when relative humidity is 50% or more
In fact, on many light aeroplanes, there is no effective partial or when visible moisture is present.
carburetor hot air position. Therefore, the carburetor heat
8. Regard any drop in power as an indication of car-
control should be used either in the "full cold" or the "full hot"
buretor icing and apply carburetor heat without
position unless there is a carburetor mixture temperature
making an adjustment in the throttle setting.
gauge installed which would give a positive indication of the
result of partial heat. If the hot air control is moved only to 9. When flying in icing conditions, use at least 75%
the half way mark, a situation is created where the cold air of the full power available to obtain sufficient heat
entering the front air scoop meets "head on" the carburetor for the carburetor air heater. Maintain cylinder
hot air which enters from the other direction. There is little head temperatures as near maximum as possible.
or no mixing before it enters the carburetor and the turbu- 10. Avoid clouds as much as possible.
lence created may cause rough running. When "full cold" is
selected, all the hot air is prevented by a valve from entering 11. Always apply full heat prior to closed throttle
the carburetor and is diverted elsewhere. When "full hot" is operations (e.g. descent) and leave on throughout
selected, the same valve repositions itself to shut off com- throttled sequence. If the closed throttle opera-
pletely the cold air so that only hot air enters the carburetor. tion is extended, open the throttle periodically so
(The design fe atures of the carburetor hot air control are such that enough engine h eat will be produced to h eat
that a pilot should not assume that, by adjusting the control the carburetor hot air sufficiently to prevent icing.
to a m ark midway between the "full hot" and the "full cold" 12. Remove carburetor heat in the event of a go-
position s, a mixture of 50% hot air and 50% cold air will enter around. Always apply power first and then move
the ca rburetor.) the ca rburetor h eat control to the cold position.
Awareness of the possibility of icing conditions and a keen If a pilot, while in cruise at less than full throttle, find s him/
understanding of how ice affects en gine operation are the herself in an advanc ed stage of carburetor ice build up, the
pilot's bes t weapons against this h azard. Practicing the fol- following sequence of procedures may m aximize effort s to
lowing procedures may h elp prevent an accident due to car- eliminate the ice and regain engine power:
buretor icing:
1. Apply full carburetor h eat .
1. Be sure the carburetor heat system and con-
2. Apply full throttle.
trols are in proper working condition.
3. Lean the mixture.
2. Always start the engine with carbure-
tor heat in the COLD AIR position to avoid 4. Move the propeller pitch con-
damage to the carburetor h eat sys tem . trol to the full fine position.
3. Always , in the prefli ght check, include a ch eck of car- 5. In a worsening carburetor ice situation in which
buretor heat availability and note the ON power drop. the engine is close to failing, attempt a res-
toration of power by priming the fuel.
4. Do not use carburetor heat while taxiing or during
ground running. The cold air entering the carbure- As carburetor ice tends to choke-off the air supply, opening
tor by the regular intake is filtered but the hot air of the throttle will compensate for this loss by giving the
is not (see Fig.3.30). When relative humidity is high, engine more air. Leaning the mixture, in turn, produces more
use carburetor heat before take-off to clear any pos- heat in the cylinders which helps thaw the ice. Adjustment
sible ice from the system, but only if the aeroplane towards fine pitch (see The Propeller) will reduce the load on
is standing on pavement or sod, not on sand. The the propeller, thus increasing the speed of the engine which
propeller sets up a tiny vortex in the area of the air will further generate increased engine temperatures to thaw
scoop that may suck abrasive particles of grit and ice deposits.
dirt into the unfiltered air intake. (When carburetor In the final analysis, elimination of carburetor ice can some-
icing conditions are suspected, many experienced times be a catch-22. If an engine fails in flight due to

From the Ground Up·' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Exhaust System

carburetor icing - and full carburetor heat does not bring the in bends in the system, in impact tubes and, especially, on
engine back to life - then there is probably not enough heat the air filter.
being generated by the exhaust system's carburetor heater Fig.3 .31 is a schematic diagram of a fuel injection system that
muff. The pilot's objective, therefore, must be to keep the
is typical of smaller aero-engines. The fuel is pumped from
engine running to ensure the exhaust remains hot enough the fuel tank by the supply pump to the fu el re servoir at about
to provide a hot air supply to the carburetor. With a complete
twice the rate required by the engine. The surplus fuel is by-
engine failure, however, the exhaust pipes will cool rapidly. In
passed through the return line back to the fuel tank, but at a
such a situation, and in some aircraft installations, use of the
restricted rate that maintains the fuel in the reservoir under
fuel primer can often save the situation of a failed engine due pressure. The by-pass eliminates any tendency to vapour lock
to carburetor ice. Primer lines by-pass the carburetor and feed while in operation.
fu el directly into the cylinder or intake ports. By priming the
engine, the pilot is re-i ntroducing fuel directly back into the The fuel passes from the reservoir through the metering valve
en gine by by-passing the constricted carburetor. to the fu el injection pu mp . The metering valve controls the
amount of fuel delivered to the fuel injection pump.
Any pilot faced with a forced landing resulting from a failed
engine due to carburetor ice should remember that, as the The fuel injection pump delivers the fuel to the nozzles . These
aircraft descends in a dead-stick glide, warmer air at lower atomize it into a fine spray which is discharged into the air
altitude might thaw the ice in the carburetor. While in the stream entering the intake manifold. In some fuel injection
descent, any attempt to prime the engine, or start the engine systems, individual nozzles deliver the atomized fuel directly
by standard means, may restore engine power. to the inlet ports of each cylinder.
The throttle which controls the air intake is linked to the fuel
3_3.6 Fuel Injection metering valve. The fuel and air control units, so linked, are
calibrated so that they automatically supply the correc t mix-
Today's more advanced, and more powerful, aero engines
ture for any particular position of the throttle.
have brought about the need for more efficient systems of
distributing fuel to the cylinders. The uneven fuel/air dis- The air required to achieve the proper fuel/air ratio enters
tribution inherent w ith carburetor configurations results in the system through the air intake and passes through the air
uneven leaning of cylinders, an unacceptable situation for a filter. Because impact ice can restrict or completely cut off the
high performance engine. Through the use of fuel injection flow of air through the air filter, it is essential to have a source
systems in which the fuel is individually metered to each of alternate air that can be activated if the normal source of
cylinder, this situation is resolved. A fuel injected engine air is blocked or restricted. A manual control in the cockpit
produces slightly more power and uses less fuel than a car- selects alternate air and bypasses the normal source.
bureted engine of equal displacement and compression ratio. Fuel injection engines have the reputation of being difficult
The fuel injection system deposits a continuous flow of fuel to start when the engine is hot. When a hot engine is shut
into the induction system near the intake valve of each cylin- down, the heat inside the cowling may cause the fuel in the
der. The fuel is vapourized and sucked into the cylinder during lines to vapourize. At the next start, the vapour in the lines
the intake stroke. prevents the engine from getting enough fuel to effect a start.
Continued attempts to start will draw too much fuel for the
amount of air available. The en gine becomes flood ed a nd
from cannot be started until it is cleared. To successfully start a hot
other tanks

~=O=;.,J
+Fuel Supply engine, it is necessary to remove all the fu el vapours and get
liquid fuel into the lines. This is done by activating the booster
pump for a short period of time. Always refer to the Owner's
Manual for the exact procedure for operating your engine
under these conditions.
Fuel Metering Valve
Fuel Air
3.4 The Exhaust System
Air Intake Control Link
Fig. 3.31 Fuel Injection System
The exh aust system of a reciprocating engine is basically
Advantages of fu el injection are: a scavenging system that collects and disposes of the high
1. More uniform distribution of fuel to all cylinders. temperature, noxious gases, including the dangerous carbon
The fu el is separately m etered to each cylinder. monoxide, that are discharged by the engine. Its main func -
tion is to prevent the escape of these potentially destructive
2. Better cooling, through the elimination of lean hot
gases into the airframe and cabin. Modern exh aust sys tems
mixtures to some of the more distant cylinders.
must resist high temperatures, corrosion and vibration.
3. Saving on fuel through more uniform distribution. There are two main types of exhaust systems in use on
4. Increased power since the need to heat reciprocating aircraft engines: the short stack system and the
carburetor air is eliminated. collector system. The former is used on non-turbocharged
engines and on low powered engines. It is relatively simple,
5. Elimination of the hazard of carburetor icing.
consisting of a downstack from each cylinder, an exhaust col-
Although carburetor ice (i.e. fuel vapourization ice) is not a lector tube on each side of the engine and an exhaust ejector
problem in the fuel injection system, the possibility of ice on each side of the cowling. Shrouds encircle each collector
build-up is not completely eliminated. Throttle ice can occur tube. Outside air passing through one of these is heated by the
when the temperature is at 5°C or less. Impact ice can gather high exhaust temperatures and carried to the cabin to provide

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 Aero Engines: The Ignition System

cabin heat. The other carries heated air for the carburetor hot If a soft iron bar is placed between the poles of a horseshoe
air system. magnet, the lines of force will flow through the bar (Fig.3.33)
The collector system is used on most large engines and on because the iron offers 280 times less resistance than does air.
all turbocharged engines. On the latter type of engine, the Magnetism and electricity are inseparable. If an electric cur-
exhaust gases must be collected to drive the turbine compres- rent is passing through a conductor, a magnetic field will be
sor of the turbocharger. Individual exhaust headers empty set up around that conductor. If, on the other hand, a conduc-
into a welded, corrosion resistant collector ring that collects tor is m ade to cut the lines of a magnetic field, an electric cur-
the exhaust from all the cyclinders. One outlet from this ring rent will be induced in the conductor.
routes the hot exhaust gas to the turbocharger. An exhaust
tailpipe carries the exhaust gases away. The collector system
raises the back pressure of the exhaust system. However, the
gain in horsepower from turbocharging more than offsets
the loss in horsepower that results from the increased back
pressure.

Fig .3 .33 Polarity of a Magnet

Imagine that the soft iron bar (Fig.3.33) is rotating, so that it

is continually cutting the lines of the magnetic field. Now, if a
coil of wire is wound around the bar (so that the coil forms a
closed circuit), a current will be induced in the coil while the
bar is rotating. The current will reverse every h alf revolution
of the bar as the latter passes opposite poles of the magnet and
is therefore known as an alternating current.
Here we have the primary element in what is known as the
rotating armature type magneto - a horseshoe magnet with
Fig.3 . 32 Short Stack Exhaust System
a rotating soft iron core, wound with a coil of wire, called the
On some aircraft engine installations, cooling air is drawn armature, generating a low tension current by induction. In
in and around the engine by means of a specially designed other types of m agnetos, the magnets rotate and the core is
exhaust system called the augmentor system. The augmen- stationary. The principle, however, is the same.
tors are designed to produce a Venturi effect and work on
the principle that the rush of exhaust gases being expelled 3.5.2 The Magneto
from the cylinders creates a low pressure area that draws an
increased airflow over the en gine to augment engine cooling. The complete m agneto combines all the elem ents of an entire
ignition system; that is, it
Most exhaust system s are made of stainless steel.
1. Generates a low tension current as above.
2. Transforms this to high tension.
3.s The Ignition System 3. Distributes the current to the individual spark
plugs at the time it is desired to h ave them fire.
The function of th e ignition system is to supply a spark to
The elementary principle of the rotating armature type mag-
ignite the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders. The ignition
neto is illustrated in Fig.3.34.
system comprises two magnetos, two spark plugs in each
cylinder, ignition leads and a magneto switch. The magneto, The armature revolves between the poles of the magnet,
simply defined, is an engine driven generator that produces generating an induced low tension current in the primary
an alternating current. Its source of energy is a permanent w inding.
m agnet and it operates on the principle of "the polarity of a The contact breaker is located in the primary circuit. With
magnet". the breaker points of the contact breaker closed, the primary
circuit is complete, and the primary low tension current flows
3.5.1 The Polarity of a Magnet through the breaker points to ground.
When a bar of iron is m agnetized, it acquires a north and a When the breaker points open, the flow of cu rrent in the
south pole. primary winding is arrested. The magnetic field around the
primary windin g collapses, falling inward on itself and cutting
Unlike poles attract. Like poles repel. Hence, the magnetic
the secondary winding. A high tension current is induced in
lines of force in a magnet pass from S. to N. inside the magnet
the secondary winding, which consists of a coil of wire, lighter
and from N. to S. outside (Fig.3.33).
than the primary, and wound around the latter in a ratio of
The field in which these magnetic lines of force lie around a about 60 turns to 1.
magnet is called its magnetic field.
The high tension current is then led through a collector ring
If the bar is bent into a horseshoe, the lines of force will flow to the distributor. The distributor has a rotatin g arm which
in the same manner from S. to N. inside and N. to S. outside aligns with separate segments as it rotates. Each segment
the magnet (Fig.3.33). is connected to an individual spark plug and distributes the
current to the right plug at the exact time it is required to fire
(No. 3 in Fig.3.34).

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Ignition System

Spark l 3.5.3 Dual Ignition

plugs ~.f
Secondary Modern aero engines are normally fitted with 2 spark plugs in
circuit
each cylinder and 2 magnetos. One spark plug in each cylinder
~~. .. - - Magnet
Ground
Armature
is fired by one magneto. The other magneto fires the other set
to magneto
frame of spark plugs. It is possible, therefore, to operate the engine
Secondary on either magneto alone.
winding · •
Primary
····O o---~ winding The purpose of dual ignition is two-fold.
: Safety spark gap
1. Safety. If one system fails, the
=... ~+::::Co:::n=:d•: . :"':::•:•. . - - - - - - - - j engine will still operate.
~ Switch on contact
l Prima.ry 2. Performance. Improved combustion of the
: CUTCUl t
Breaker points open
m ixture increases the power output and
gives better engine performance.
Contact breaker On some aeroplanes, the dual magnetos are driven by a single
shaft. The single shaft m eans a reduction in weight and the
Fig.3.34 Rotating Armature Type Magnet
need for only one drive at the accessory case but it does reduce
the safety factor implicit in a system in which the two magne-
The magneto switch is located on the instrument panel and tos are driven by independent shafts.
operates in the primary circuit. When an engine is switched The magneto switch, which is located on the instrument
"off", the switch is closed. This means that th e primary circuit panel, allows the pilot to select either or both of the magneto
is directly grounded and the breaker points cannot function. systems. It usually has a position to select the left magneto
As long as the switch remain s open (or on "contact"), the system , a position to select the right magneto system, a posi-
primary current will flow through the contact breaker wh ich tion to select both systems at once, and an "off" position. The
"makes" and "breaks" th e primary (by the opening and closing engine should always be operated on both magneto systems
of the points) and so continuously induces a high tension cur- during take-off and normal flight operations. After landing,
rent in the secondary circuit at each exact instant that this is the magneto switch sh ould be turned "off" since the engine
required. At the same instant, the distributor arm must align of a parked aeroplane can fire if the ignition switch is on and
with the segment of the plug it is desired to fire. someone moves the propeller.
The condenser consists of alternate sheets of mica and tinfoil. The failure of one magneto in a dual system will cause a loss
It "soaks up" the induced current flowing in the primary when in power of approximately 75 rpm at normal engine cruising
the latter is abruptly arrested by the opening of the breaker power.
points. In this way, it prevents the current jumping across the
gap and so burning the points.The safety spark gap is located In the event of failure or partial failure of a m agneto or of
in the secondary circuit. An excessive voltage in the second- part of the ignition system (i.e. spark plug, high tension leads,
ary circuit (usually due to a short circuit in the high tension etc.), rough running of the engine is bound to occur. In such a
lead) will jump the safety spark gap and go to ground, thus case, an engine will often run more smoothly if the ignition
preventing damage to the armature. switch is selected to the "good" magneto only. In the event
that rough running or power loss occurs while in flight and if
Most light aeroplanes today are equipped with an impulse there is reason to suspect ignition malfunctioning, the pilot
coupling which is fitted to one or both of the magnetos to should try operating the engine on just one magneto at a time
facilitate starting. This is a mechanical device which permits by switching from the "both" position to "left" and then to
the magneto to turn over quickly regardless of how slowly the "right", allowing the engine to operate for a few seconds on
propeller and crankshaft are turning. The impulse coupling each position to ascertain on which position optimum engine
consists of a set of spring loaded flyweights which wind up operation and smoothness result. (Smoothness is a very
and release, thereby providing enough rotational speed to the important consideration since a rough running engine can
magneto to produce a current that is sufficient to provide a set up vibration which, on some aeroplanes, could event ually
start. The faster a magneto turns (up to a point), the hotter will cause engine mount failure.) Operating an en gine in flight at
be the spark it produces. An engine without such an impulse normal cruise power on one magneto w ill result in a power
coupling m ay be difficult to start when it is cold because the loss of about 3%. Provided the engine is running smoothly, no
slowly turning engine and the corresponding slowly turning harm will be done to it if the pilot continues on to destination.
magneto produce too weak a spark. The impulse magneto However, it must be stressed that this is action to be taken
retards the spark somewhat to prevent propeller "kick back". if trouble develops in the magneto during flight. Certainly a
For this reason, on those engines fitted with only one impulse single-engine aeroplane would not attempt a take-off on one
magneto, it is the practice to start the engine on the impulse magneto after observing a rough magneto condition during
magneto only. The "impulse" part of the magneto automati- ground run-up.
cally disengages after the engine has reached normal idling
speed.
3.5.4 Shielding
New types of ignition devices are being designed and intro-
duced into the industrial market. Some solid state ignition To prevent the ignition current interfering with the radio,
system s are now fou nd in factory-built certified aircraft while the wh ole ignition system, magnetos, plugs, and wiring, are
som e such systems are in use in various amateur-built aero- surrounded with a metal covering which is grounded. This is
planes. This type of system uses magnetic sensors to sense known as shielding.
timing, and solid state components to produce the spark, thus
eliminating the distributor and, in some cases, the magneto.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _....- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aero Engines: The Electrical System

3.5.5 Ignition Timing ,.L..

0 100 to opt. rotating
ROT
Generator AF~ Electrical BCN
beacon
The spark on modern h igh speed engines occurs early to ,.L..
Power 0 100 to opt. pitot & stall
allow complete combustion and maximum pressure to be PITOT warning heaters
Distribution HEAT
developed when the piston passes top dead centre and is ,.L..

travelling down.
Ignition timing means timing the magneto to fire at the right
Ft
Voltage
0 150
LOG
LIGHTS

. -to cigarette lighter

Regulator B
time. Timing is, of course, critical to good engine perfor- to opt. oil dilution
,.L.. c. ·· to dome & courtesy
mance. Advanced (that is, too early) firing of the spark plug 0 100 lights
NAV
results in loss of power and in overheating that can lead to LIGHTS
· to navigation lights
detonation and pre-ignition, piston burning, scored cylinders ,.L..
0 150 to wing flaps
and broken rings. The timing of the magnetos should be FLAPS
,.L..
checked at least every 100 h ours to ensure proper operation . 0
RADIO
0 to opt. radio
,.L..
0 0 to opt. radio
RADIO

3.6 The FADEC System ,.L..

0 0 to opt. radio
RADIO

,.1.. .- ··· to flap position &

20 turn & bank
Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) has moved its (AUTO indicators & opt.
RESET)
way into the general aviation environment from its begin- gyro horizon system
·..... to stall warning unit
nings in the military and turbine-powered aircraft industry,
and subsequent universal applications in the automotive
.J... :. ·· to fuel quantity
industry. IO--!_,..o 1 0 o indicators & cylinder
~1~s~lr head temp. gauge
FADEC Systems generally consist of electronic engine control ·.... to instrument map
light & compass light
units (ECU) that simultaneously control fuel injection and
oroo to pt. automatic pilot
ignition firing to establish desired spark, m ixture an d engine AUTO
PILOT
,.L..
temperatures based on specific operational parameters such 0 100
as engine speed, fuel pressure, manifold pressure, manifold Note: Number under
Throttle circuit breaker denotes its
temperature, and crankshaft position. FADEC technology Switch amperage capacity

eliminates the manual mixture control, does away with car-

buretors and magnetos, and provides essentially single-lever Fig.3 .35 Electrical System Typical of a Modern Light Aircraft
power control for the general aviation pilot.
The basic electrical system of an aeroplane is not unlike that
Fuel flow and spark advancement or retarding are maintained used in an automobile. It consists of a storage battery, master
through individual cylinder data that is captured and pro- switch and battery solenoid, starter motor and solenoid, gen-
cessed using the system's data acquisition capabilities. erator (or alternator), voltage regulator, bus bar and circuit
Overall, such system s enhance fuel consumption rates, breakers (or oth er types of fuses). On some aeroplanes, a
increase horsepower, provide better en gine smoothness, separate generator switch may be incorporated.
improve engine start capabilities in all ambient conditions, Th e electrical system is usually either a 12 or a 24 volt system
eliminate the dangers of carburetor ice, and simplify an air- and, of course, is direct current. Most light aeroplanes use the
craft's general operational requirements. 12 volt system. Electrical energy is supplied by the storage
battery. To complete the circuit between the battery and the
electrical system, a battery solenoid is incorporated which
3.7 The Electrical System is activated by the master switch. (A solenoid is a switch of
the artificial magnet type and is used because of its ability to
It is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss in full detail operate as a remote controlled device.)
the electrical system of an aeroplane. However, very few The purpose of the starter motor is to turn over the engine so
modern aeroplanes are without such a system an d since the th at it will commence to operate. The starter switch activates
pilot is required to use it, he/she should be familiar with its the starter solenoid which, in turn, permits current to enter
basic operation a nd purpose. and drive the starter motor (provided the master switch is
An aeroplane's electrical system includes everything that turned "on").
operates electrically with the exception of the magnetos The electrical system includes either a generator or an alter-
which are driven by the engine for the sole purpose of pro- nator driven by the engine. The purpose of the generator or
ducing current to the spark plugs. This ignition system is not alternator is (1) to supply current to the electrical system,
connected with the aeroplane's electrical system. and (2) to recharge the battery. On most modern aeroplanes,
In many modern aeroplanes, the electrical system supplies alternators have replaced generators. The advantage of an
power, not only to start the aeroplane, but also to operate a alternator over a generator is that it produces sufficient cur-
multitude of controls, such as the flaps, undercarriage, all rent to operate the various electrical components at low
radios, lights, heater fans, anti-icing and de-icing equipment, engine speeds (i.e. taxiing) whereas a generator will not begin
windshield wipers, etc. to supply an appreciable amount of current until the engine is
turning at a somewhat faster speed.
The voltage regulator (1) prevents the generator (or alternator)
from over-loading the system, and (2) prevents the battery
from becoming overcharged.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Propeller

The bus bar receives the current produced by the generator will result in a discharged battery and, possibly, insufficient
(or alternator) and battery. It is from the bus bar that the cur- current to operate the various components satisfactorily.
rent passes through the various circuit breakers and branch- In modern aeroplanes and especially in those used for instru-
es out to the various electrical circuits which are connected ment flying, a great deal of reliance is vested in electrical
to the components that require electrical current to operate.
systems and, although it may not be necessary for pilots to
These are the electrical driven gyro instruments, stall warn-
know in detail the internal working of each component, they
ing device, pitot heat, landing and navigation lights, oil dilu- should at least have a general knowledge of how the system
tion system, fuel supply gauge, carburetor air temperature, works, how to operate the components properly, what can go
exh aust temperature indicator, instrument and compass wrong and what they can do to correct a minor malfunction
lights, cabin or dome lights, rotating beacon, radios, etc. in flight.
All electrical circuits are protected by circuit breakers or
The most important action pilots can take in ensuring the
other types of fuses. These are incorporated into the system proper functioning of the electrical system of their aeroplane
to protect the various components against damage caused is to ensure that the battery is always fully charged. This is
by excess voltage or current, short-circuits, etc. Most circuit especially important in an aeroplane equipped with an alter-
breakers are the "push to reset" type and every pilot should nator, for, unlike a generator which will charge a low battery
be familiar with their location in the cockpit and their opera-
during a flight, an alternator will not bring a dead battery
tion in the aeropla ne which they fly. It is not uncommon back to life. As a result, if the battery is down on an alternator
for an instrument or radio suddenly to go "dead" due to an
equipped aeroplane, electrically operated equipment may not
electrical malfunction. A push on the "reset button", in such function properly.
a case, may be all that is needed to make it operational again.
However, if the reset button pops again, it is advisable not to It is also important to ensure that all contacts between the
attempt any further tries to reset. There may be a malfunc- battery, voltage regulator and the alternator or generator are
tion or short-circuit in the component that could cause an clean and secure. The water level in the battery should be
electrical fire. The circuit breaker is a safety device designed checked regularly. Most important, an aged battery that is no
to "fail" and prevent such a happening. longer functioning properly should be immediately replaced.

Most of an aeroplane's electrical components are automati-

cally activated when the master switch is turned on. Those
that are not (i.e., radio) should be left "off" until after the 3.B The Propeller
engine has been started. The needless use of electricity in
The function of the propeller is to convert the torque, or turn-
the radio equipment means there is less current available
ing moment, of the crankshaft into thrust, or forward, speed .
for starting. Some types of radio equipment can be damaged
by the voltage drop in the electrical system during start- To do this, the propeller is so designed that, as it rotates, it
ing when all power comes directly from the battery before moves forward along a corkscrew or helical path . In so doing,
the generator or alternator are working to regulate voltage. it pushes air backward with the object of causing a reaction,
Failure to follow this rule may result in damage to the compo- or thrust, in the forward direction . Unlike the jet engine
nent and will cause unnecessary drain on the battery. which moves a small mass of air backward at a relatively high
speed, the propeller moves a large mass of air backward at a
In order for electrical components to function satisfactorily,
relatively slow speed.
the battery must be fully charged. In addition, the generator
(or alternator) must be producing its rated current. The propeller blade is an airfoil section, similar to the airfoil
section of a wing. As such, it meets the air at an angle of
To ascertain that an aeroplane's electrical power source is
attack as it rotates and thus produces lift and drag, in the
functioning satisfactorily, the pilot may monitor an amme-
same way that the airfoil section of a wing does. In the case of
ter, voltmeter or generator warning light. These devices are
the propeller, however, these forces are designated as thrust
usually mounted on or adjacent to the instrument panel. The
and torque (Fig.3 .36).
ammeter measures in amperes the rate of flow of the elec-
trical current being produced. It also indicates when power A quick look at a typical propeller will remind the reader
is being used from the battery (it registers in the "discharg- that it tapers towards the tip and appears to twist. Jn effect,
ing" range) as happens when the electrical components are the airfoil section alters from the hub of the propeller to the
turned on when the engine is not running. The voltmeter tip and the angle of attack decreases. The tip of a propeller
indicates the voltage in the system. The generator warning rotates in a larger arc than does the hub and therefore trav-
light indicates whether or not the generator is function- els at a greater speed. To produce the same amount of lift,
ing. (An aeroplane fitted with a voltmeter or ammeter will or thrust, all along the length of the propeller, the angle of
not have a generator warning light. This warning light is attack at the tip does not need to be so great as at the pro-
usually installed in the absence of either of the oth er two peller hub. As a result, by means of this variation in airfoil
instruments.) section and angle of attack, uniform thrust is maintained
throughout most of the diameter of the propeller.
For the most part, a pilot need only know that, for satisfac-
tory electrical operation, the ammeter should always show Propellers which are attached forward of the engine and
on the plus (+) side of the "O" on the gauge regardless of the which pull from the front of the aeroplane are called tractors .
amount of current being used by the various components. Those which are attached aft of the engine and push from
An ammeter registering discharge or minus (-)indicates that behind are called pushers.
electrical energy is being drawn from the battery rather than
from the generator and, if this situation continues for long, it

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _,.........- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aero Engines : The Propeller

The difference between the theoretical pitch and practical

pitch is called propeller slip.
Velocity of Aircraft
----- The angle at wh ich the blade is set (like the an gle of incidence
of a wing) governs the pitch. Hence, there is coarse pitch ,
Torque
meaning that the blade is set at a large angle, and fine pitch ,
meaning that the blade is set at a small an gle.

Coarse Pitch
A propeller set in coarse pitch will travel fo rward a greater
Thrust distance w ith each revolution and, hence, the aeroplane will
move forward at greater speed for a given rpm. In this way, it
Propeller Blade is much like the high gear in a car.
(cross section)
A coarse pitch propeller is best suited for high-speed cruise
and for high-altitude flight.
Coarse pitch is also sometimes known as high pitch , or as
Relative w ind decrease rpm, or as low rpm .
Plane of Rot ation
Fig. 3. 36 Forces Acting on a Propeller Blade Fine Pitch
A propeller set in fine pitch , on th e other hand, w ill h ave less
Propeller torque is entirely different from engine crankshaft torque. torque, or drag, and w ill consequently revolve at higher speed
Propeller torque is drag. It is the resistance to the blades as they rotate around its own axis, thereby enabling the engine to develop
and results in a tendency in the aeroplane to roll in a direction opposite greater power, much as does the low gear in a car.
to the rotation of the propeller. Engine crankshaft torque, on the other
A fine pitch propeller gives the best performance during take-
hand, is the turning moment produced at the crankshaft. When the
off and climb.
propeller is revolving at a constant rpm, propeller torque and engine
torque will be exactly equal and opposite. Fine pitch is also sometimes known as low pitch, or as
increase rpm , or as h igh rpm.
Tradition al propeller blades are ma de from alumin u m.
Propeller blades of composite construction - usually m ade
from layers of epoxy fiberglass , Kevlar or carbon fiber over top 3.8.2 Types of Propellers
of a wood or foa m core - are also prevalent designs. Compared
to th eir alu minum counterparts, composite blades weigh less, Fixed Pitch Propellers
and provide for the flexibility of more complex shapes in th eir Most training aeroplanes have fixed pitch propellers. The
manufacturing process. Recent developments in composite blade angles cannot be adjusted by the pilot. The angle of
blade design have led to manufacturers sweeping the blade the blade is chosen by the manufacturer to give the best
design itself - a design known as scimitar - which has helped performance possible for all flight conditions, but at best
increase cruise speeds of airc raft th at use these latest blade it is a trade-off between take -off performance and cruise
sh apes. performance.
Three or more blades h ave also become common on aircraft If a coarse pitch propeller is chosen, it w ill develop high cruis-
where two blades were the commonly accepted standard. ing speed at comp aratively low engine rpm with consequent
Three (or m ore) blades typically result in the blades being good fuel economy. On the other hand, it will give poor take -
shorter compared to two-blade designs; this gives gre at- off and climb perfo rmance.
er groun d clearance and, thus, reduces blade exposure to
If a fin e pitch propeller is chosen, it w ill give good take-off and
runway debris. Three or more blade designs, be they alumi-
climb performance. However, a fine pitch propeller does not
num or composite, are also known to improve an aircraft's
keep a good grip on the fas ter m oving air in level flight, with
rate of climb. Multiple blade designs also typically reduce
the result that there is comparative inefficiency for cruising,
vibrations. Engine pulses are spread over the greater number
both in the m atter of speed and fuel economy.
of blades, thereby reducing momentary loads on the airframe
from engine pulses.
Variable Pitch Propellers
3.8.1 Pitch To overcome the disadvantages of fixed pitch propellers,
propellers whose blade an gle, and consequent pitch , may
The distance in feet a propeller travels forward in one revolu- be altered to m eet varying conditions of flight h ave been
tion is called pitch . developed .
If the propeller was working in a perfect fluid, the distance it Adjustable pitch propellers are those whose blade an gle may
would travel forward in one revolution would be a theoretical be adjusted on the ground. They offer some advantage over
distance dependent on the blade angle and diam eter of the the fixed pitch propeller in that the propeller pitch can be
propeller. This is called the theoretical pitch or geometric adjusted for varying flight situations. When operating at high
pitch . altitude airports or when operating on floats when take-off
In a medium such as air, however, the propeller encounters and climb perfo rmance is critical, a fine pitch can be selected
lost motion and the distance it travels fo rward is somewh at to give better perfo rmance for that particular type of opera-
less than its theoretical pitch . This lesser distance is called the tion. Like the fi xed pitch propeller, however, the pitch can not
practical pitch or effective pitch . be altered during flight to select a better pitch angle fo r a
ch anging fligh t condition.

From the Ground Up·• 30th Edition

Aero Engines: The Propeller

Controllable pitch propellers are those whose blades can be desired rpm is set by the pilot. A propeller governor connected
adjusted by the pilot to various angles during flight. to the propeller control in the cockpit automatically changes
Constant speed propellers are those whose blades automati- the blade angle to counteract any tendency of the engine to
cally adjust themselves to maintain a constant rpm as set by vary from the setting. The governor is a device that consists
of flyweights that are directly coupled to the engine and spin
the pilot.
at engine speed. The governor operates the pilot valve which
The mechanism for varying the pitch of the propeller may be controls the fl ow of oil to the propeller. When the engine
(1) mechanical, (2) hydraulic, or (3) electrical. speed increases, centrifugal force causes the flyweights of the
governor to fly outward, lifting the pilot valve and cutting off
MECHANICAL VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS
the supply of oil pressure to the propeller cylinder. This per-
The mechanism by which the pilot can adjust this type of
mits the counterweights to move the blades towards a coarser
propeller is operated by a control on the instrument panel that
an gle, thereby decreasing the en gine rpm and automatically
is directly linked to the propeller. Stops set on the propeller
restoring the engine speed to the desired constant rpm. The
govern the blade angle and travel.
reverse h appens when an engine underspeed condition devel-
HYDRAULIC VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS ops. Therefore, for any particular engine speed for any climb
In hydraulic variable pitch propellers , the basic method used or cruise condition, the pilot merely selects the desired rpm.
to change the propeller pitch is a hydraulically operated cyl- The constant speed propeller automatically maintains the
inder that pushes or pulls on a cam connected to gears on the proper blade angle required to keep the engine speed con-
propeller blades. This cam action is somewhat similar to an stant, regardless of the airspeed or altitude of the aeroplane.
automatic screwdriver - push the handle in and the screw- If oil pressure is lost during flight, the propeller will auto-
driver rotates the screw. matically go into an extreme coarse pitch position where
There are two types of hydraulic mechanism: counterweight the blades are streamline d and cease to turn. This feature
and hydromatic. of the counterweight propeller is used when the propeller
is installed on twin engine aircraft. The stopped propeller
A controllable pitch propeller operated by the counterweight
eliminates the asymmetric drag forces that would occur if
principle relies on oil pressure to move the cylinder that
the propeller was windmilling during single engine operation.
twists the blades toward fine pitch. This oil is drawn from the
engine oil pressure system. (Occasionally a gear pump is used Propellers, whether controllable pitch or constant speed, that
to boost the engine oil pressure to ensure quick and positive operate on the counterweight principle, should be shifted to
ac tion on the larger type propellers.) The oil which changes fine pitch before the engine is stopped. The control should be
the pitch is controlled by a pilot valve, operated by a lever and left in this position in order to reduce the load on the engine
linkage from the cockpit. The force which moves the blades during the start and warm- up period.
the opposite way, towards coarse pitch, is centrifugal force, There is one counterweight propeller, the Hamilton Standard,
generated by the counterweights. With the controllable pitch which operates differently and should be shut down in coarse
propeller, the pilot selects either coarse or fine pitch, depend- pitch. This propeller was w idely used on aeroplanes such as
ing on the flight attitude (cruise or climb), by means of the the deHavilland Beaver and the North American Harvard.
control in the cockpit that links to the pilot valve. The pitch Pilots who take an interest in classic aeroplanes should be
of the propeller is then set in the selected pitch until the pilot aware of differing operating procedures for some equipment
elects to change it. they may encounter. In all cases, the operating instructions of
the manufacturer should be closely followed.
The hydrom atic constant speed propeller makes use of a pow-
erful force called centrifugal twisting moment which tends
to turn the blades towards the fin e pitch position. The u se of
this natural force eliminates the need for the counterweights.
Piston
(Note: the centrifugal twisting moment moves the blades
towards fine pitch, whereas the centrifugal force generated by
the counterweights, as described above, is used to move the
blades towards coarse pitch.)

Engine Rota~ The hydromatic constant speed propeller uses a piston to

twist the blades. Oil entering the piston chamber, or dome,
under h igh pressure moves the piston aft and the propeller
blades are moved into coarse pitch. Oil entering the piston
at engine pressure assists the centrifugal turning moment
to move the blades towards fine pitch. The pilot valve, which
is controlled by the governor, is a three way affair arranged
Fig. 3.3 7 Constant Speed Propeller Mechanism (1) to admit the h igh pressure oil to the piston that results
in moving the blade towards coarse pitch, (2) to close off the
A constant speed propeller that operates by the counterweight
supply of oil thus holding the blade angle constant, and (3)
mechanism uses the same oil pressure and counterweight
to admit the engine pressure oil to the piston that results in
principle to twist the blades towards the proper pitch angle
moving the blades back towards fine pitch.
to maintain a constant rpm. On the instrument panel, there
are two power controls, a throttle and a propeller control. The If oil pressure is lost during flight, the propeller will auto-
throttle controls the power output of the engine which is reg- matically go into fine pitch, enabling the engine (as long as it
istered on the manifold pressure gauge. The propeller control continues to run) to develop the most power that it can and to
regulates the rpm of both the propeller and the engine. The

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _,...- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aero Engines: Engine Instruments

achieve the best performance under the circumstances. This of the quadrant is the reverse range and is referred to as the
type of propeller is used in single-engine installations. beta range. The farther back the throttle is retarded, the more
With the hydromatic constant speed propeller, the engine engine power is developed for reverse thrust. The beta range
should be started with the propeller in fine pitch. This reduces control for ground handling is hydromechanical, using a cam
and lever system to operate the pilot valve. Hydromechancial
the load, or drag, on the propeller during starting and warm
pitch locking devices or stops prevent inadvertent movement
up.
of the throttle levers into the beta range during flight or in the
ELECTRICAL VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS event of propeller malfunction.
An electrical controllable pitch propeller is operated by an In general, the instinctive action taken by a pilot to turn
electrical motor which turns the blades through a gear speed a multi-engine aeroplane to the right is to retard the right
reducer and bevel gears. The governor is similar in principle to throttle and advance the left. Similarly, when the props are in
that used with the hydraulic propeller, except that the move- reverse, appropriate reverse thrust braking power is achieved
ment of the flyweights in this case opens and closes electric by retarding the right throttle and advancing the left.
circuits. One circuit contains a field which causes right-hand
rotation of the motor. The other contains a field which causes
left-hand rotation. The direction of rotation of the motor
3.s.5 Care of the Propeller
moves the blades towards fine pitch or coarse pitch, which- Propellers should be checked regularly for damage. Failures of
ever is required. propellers almost always occur as the result of fatigue cracks
which started at mechanically formed dents. Even a small
A two-way switch enables the pilot to select either "manual"
defect such as a nick or dent if left unrepaired may develop
or "automatic" operation. In the "manual" position, the pro-
into a crack. The crack, in turn, under great stress, will grow
peller operates as a controllable pitch propeller. The pilot
and blade failure is inevitable. Whenever defects are found,
selects either coarse or fine pitch. The blades remain fixed in
they should be repaired or the propeller replaced before fur-
that position until the pilot chooses to adjust them. Using the
ther flight.
control on "manual" reduces the current drain on the battery
and reduces the wear on the control mechanism. In the "auto- When performing an inspection on the propeller, inspect
matic" position, the propeller operates as a constant speed blades completely, not just the leading edge, for erosion,
propeller, the governor automatically holding the engine at scratches, nicks and cracks. Regardless of how small the sur-
the rpm selected by the propeller control in the cockpit. face irregularity, it should be considered a source of fatigue
failure. A visual inspection will sometimes miss small nicks
3.8.3 Feathering and cuts that will be perceptible to the fingers. It is wise,
therefore, to feel, with clean, dry hands, the entire surface of
In multi-engine aeroplanes, when one engine is stopped, the blades.
it is desirable to feather the propeller on the dead engine.
Feathering means turning the blades to the extreme coarse Keep blades clean. A crack cannot be seen if it is covered with
pitch position, where they are streamlined and cease to turn. dirt or other foreign matter. As regularly as possible, wipe the
Feathering reduces the drag on the blades. It stops the pro- blades with a clean cloth dampened with light oil. The oily
peller from windmilling and possibly causing damage to the cloth will remove substances that cause corrosion. Never hose
defective engine. It also stops excessive vibration. down the propeller with water. Regular maintenance should
include cleaning the propeller blades with a solvent and then
For feathering or unfeathering, an auxiliary oil pressure waxing them with a paste wax. A propeller constructed of
supply is required, since the engine is no longer running. This composite material will require different cleaning methods
pressure is supplied by an auxiliary, or feathering, pump oper- than those used on metal propellers. Always refer to the
ated by an electric motor. The auxiliary oil pressure is sup- Owner's Manual when performing any kind of maintenance
plied to either face of the piston to move the blades towards on a composite component.
"feather" or "unfeather", as the case may be, through the pilot
valve system. A push-button feathering switch, or in some Avoid run-up s in areas containing loose rocks or gravel, and
installations a feathering lever, is operated manually by the never move the aeroplane by pushing or pulling on the propel-
pilot to feather or unfeather the propeller. ler blades.

3.8.4 Prop Reversing

It didn't take long for aviators to want to use the power of
3.9 Engine Instruments
their engines to stop their aeroplanes once on the ground.
This is accomplished by changing the blade angles of a con- 3.9.1 The Oil Pressure Gauge
trollable pitch propeller to a negative value during operation.
The oil pressure gauge (Fig.3.38) is one of the principle engine
The reverse pitch feature uses engine power to produce a high
instruments and is usually located on the instrument panel
negative thrust at low speed. Reversing the pitch of a propel-
with the oil temperature and the fuel gauges. It indicates the
ler is accomplished with the help of the auxiliary oil pump of
oil pressure supplied by the oil pump to lubricate the engine.
the feathering system which assists the governor oil pump to
The instrument is calibrated in pounds per square inch, lb.
twist the blades into reverse pitch .
per sq. in.(psi).
To make propeller braking by reverse thrust as natural as
The oil pressure which you read on the gauge is generally
possible to handle, an "instinctive" throttle quadrant arrange-
obtained at a point between the oil pump and a pressure regu-
ment is provided by the majority of airframe manufacturers.
lating valve whose function is to maintain any desired work-
All throttle positions forward of the centre of the quadrant are
ing pressure, for example 60 psi.
for forward thrust operation (flight idle position to take-off
power) and are referred to as the alpha ran ge. The rear section

From the Ground Up " 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Engine Instruments

The oil pressure gauge should be checked immediately after

the engine has been started. If the oil pressure does not reg-
ister within 10 seconds, the engine should be shut down and
•
,,...-·
•\' '·'''''l1:
~· 300CHT 400~~
. -- \\111
, ' 0 10 20 <,,, "
....... ...... -10 30 .....
checked.
!=i200 soo.:.:: --20 40-
In starting an engine with cold oil in the system, the oil pres-
~ -·30 C~B 50-
sure gauge will invariably read high, owing to the difficulty ;100/F
~ .
60~ //0 r;P so<,
of forcing the sluggish oil through the small aperture in the
pressure regulating valve. As the oil warms up and the flow • • " "'"01 "",··" "

through the pressure regulator improves, the pressure gauge

will record the pressure accurately. High oil pressure should Fig.3.39 Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge (Left),
Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge {Right)
cau se no concern until the oil is allowed to warm up and reach
its normal viscosity, which might require 15 minutes. For this
reason, in winter, a longer period of time is necessary to warm 3.9.3 The Cylinder Head
up the engine prior to fli ght.
Temperature Gauge
The cylinder head temperature gauge (Fig.3.39) records the
temperature of one (or more) of the engine cylinder heads. The
instrument gives a reasonably good indication of the effec-
tiveness of the engine cooling system. It should be monitored
frequently during steep climbs to ensure sufficient cooling air
is reaching the engine.
Extremely high cylinder head temperatures are an immediate
sign of engine overloading. High head temperatures decrease
Fig. 3.38 Oil Pressure Gauge {Left), Oil the strength of metals and result in detonation, pre-ignition
Temperature Gauge (Right} and eventual engine failure.
When operating the engine on lean mixture, the maximum
If, on the other hand, it remains high, the engine is not get- cylinder head temperature permissible is lower than that
ting proper lubrication. High oil pressure will force oil into permitted when operating on rich mixture. The engine manu-
the combustion chamber. Here it will burn, causing a smoky facturer's recommended limits should be strictly observed.
exhaust and badly carbonned piston heads, rings, valve seats,
cylinder heads, etc. Low pressure can cause more serious
trouble still. If it is permitted to drop low enough, there will be
3.9.4 The Carburetor Air
no film of oil at all between the working surfaces of the engine Temperature Gauge
and metal will be rubbing on metal, with such ruinous results The carburetor air temperature gauge (Fig.3.39) may be
as burned out main bearings, etc. Never let the oil pressure installed to indicate the temperature of the mixture entering
fall below the recommended minimum (which is roughly 40% the m anifold, or it may record the temperature of the intake
of the m aximum pressure at cruising power). air entering the carburetor. Its purpose is to enable the pilot to
maintain a temperatu re that will assure maximum operating
3.9. 2 The Oil Temperature Gauge efficiency and warn of icing conditions in the carburetor that
The oil temperature gauge (Fig.3.38) is normally located beside may lead to en gine failure.
the oil pressure gauge. It gives a reading of the temperature of The carburetor air temperature gauge is, of course, the pilot's
the oil in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius. guide to the operation of the carburetor air heat control unit.
There is an intimate relationship between the oil temperature Hot air is selected ON or OFF to keep the mixture temperature,
and oil pressure, due to changes in the viscosity of oil which or intake air temperature, within the recommended limits.
temperature changes affect. If the instrument is installed to record the mixture tempera-
In starting the engine with cold oil, when the pressure ture, this sh ould be maintained at around 4°C to 7°C (40°F to
gauge reads high, the oil temperature gauge will read cor- 45°F). If it is installed to record the intake air temperature , this
respondingly low. As the oil warms up, both instruments will should be maintained at about 29°C to 32°C (85°F to 90°F) when
approach their normal readings at about the same rate. icing condition s exist.

An abnormal drop in oil pressure and coincident rise in oil

3.9.5 The Outside Air
temperature is a su re sign of trouble. However, even when
the pressure shows no marked rise or fall, increasing oil tem- Temperature Gauge
perature is a warning of excessive friction or overload in the
The outside air temperature (OAT) gauge records the ambi-
engine.
ent air temperature, that is, the temperature of the free air
Extremely low oil temperature is undesirable. Cold oil does surrounding the aeroplane. To ensure that the temperature
not circulate freely and may cause scoring of the engine parts. recorded is true, the element is shielded from the sun's radia-
Low temperature would be accompanied by a corresponding tion and located in a portion of the airflow that is relatively
rise in pressure. undisturbed. The temperature recorded by the gauge is not,
It should always be remembered that oil, in addition to lubri- however, entirely accurate. The dynamic pressure of the ram
cation, acts as a coolant. air causes a slight increase in temperature above that of the
ambient air. The indicated temperature, therefore, must be
corrected to get true air temperature (TAT). Knowledge of the
true air temperature enables the pilot to select the proper

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aero Engines: Engine Instruments

manifold pressure, to calculate the true airspeed and altitude

and warns of conditions that may cause ice formation.
At very high airspeeds, there is a very significant temperature
rise on the body of the aeroplane. When an aeroplane moves
through the air, it gets hot. Some of this heat is attributable to
friction and some to the increase in pressure. At slow speeds,
the increase in heat is insignificant, about 1°c at 90 knots.
With increasing speed, the temperature rise reaches 4°C at
175 knots and 30°C at 500 knots. The reading on the OAT gauge
will reflect this temperature rise of the body of the aircraft,
rather than the true ambient air temperature.
If not solely shown on a dedicated OAT guage, the OAT is
always typically shown on primary flight displays. Fig.3.41 Tachometer Ma rkings

3.9.6 The Tachometer 3.9.7 The Manifold Pressure Gauge

The tachometer, or rpm indicator (Fig.3.40) is an instrument On an aeroplane fitted with a controllable pitch or a constant
which shows the speed at which the engine crankshaft is speed propeller, there are two instruments which indicate
turning in hundreds of revolutions per minute. The instru- information about engine power output, the tachometer and
ment usually incorporates a recording mechanism that keeps the manifold pressure gauge. Settings on the manifold pres-
an accurate record of the engine hours. Tachometers are of su re gauge are controlled by the throttle. Colour range mark-
many types, the more common being (1) mechanical, either ings, similar to those on the tachometer, are incorporated on
centrifugal or magnetic, and (2) electrical, either direct or the dial of the manifold pressure gauge to indicate the normal
alternating current. operating range and operation limits.
On an aeroplane fitted with a fixed pitch propeller, the The instrument is usually located on the instrument panel
tachometer is the only instrument that displays information adjacent to the tachometer so that the pilot can refer to both
about the engine power that is being produced. It indicates instruments when making power settings.
the rpm at which the engine cranksh aft and the propeller are The manifold pressure gauge indicates in inches of mer-
turning. The power output absorbed by a fixed pitch propeller cury the pressure of the fuel/air mixture in the engine intake
is proportional to the cube of its rpm. The throttle controls manifold at a point between the carburetor and the cylinders.
the rpm. A manifold reading of 26" Hg indicates a pressure of about 13
On an aeroplane fitted with a controllable pitch or a constant pounds per square inch (psi) in the engine intake manifold
speed propeller, there are two instruments, the tachometer (14.7 psi is equivalent to 29.92" Hg).
and the manifold pressure gauge, which display engine power
information. In this case, the rpm settings, recorded on the
tachometer, are controlled by the propeller control. Manifold
pressure settings are controlled by the throttle.

Fig.3.42 Manifold Pressure Gauge

On an aeroplane fitted with a constant speed propeller, the

rpm setting will remain constant since the propeller automat-
ically changes its pitch to maintain the desired engine speed.
Fig. 3.40 The Tachometer The manifold pressure gauge therefore is the only instrument
that records fluctuations in the engine power output. It is
Tachometer Markings important for determining proper throttle settings and it is
the instrument which will indicate power loss from occur-
The tachometer is colour coded to give a ready indication of
rences such as the accretion of carburetor ice.
the proper range of engine operation. The green arc indicates
the normal range of operation. The rpm settings within this When the engine is not running, the reading on the manifold
range should be used for continuous operations. The yellow pressure gauge will be that of the existing atmospheric pres-
arc indicates the caution range in which there is a possibility sure. When the engine is running, the pressure inside the
of engine damage under certain conditions. The red line is the intake manifold is lower than that of the outside atmospheric
maximum limit. pressure because the pistons create a partial vacuum.
Operation of the engine at greater speeds than those recom- The manifold pressure gauge is also an important instrument
mended may result in excessive mechanical stresses and may in an aeroplane with a turbocharged or supercharged engine.
cause failure of major engine parts. Turbocharging is accomplished by increasing the pressure of
the air entering the carburetor; supercharging, by increasing

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Engine Instruments

the pressure of the fuel/air mixture after it leaves the carbu- pressure also produces excessive temperature, which may
retor. The pilot, in order to control turboch arging or super- cause scoring of pistons, sticking rings, and burned out valves.
charging, m ust know the pressure of the fuel/air m ixture in When the propeller pitch control is moved, during flight, from
the intake manifold. The manifold pressure gauge gives th is the fine pitch (high rpm) to the coarse pitch (low rpm) posi-
information. On a turbocharged or supercharged engine, the tion, without an accompanying adjustment of the throttle,
pressure inside the intake manifold is higher than the outside the manifold pressure gauge will register an increase, and,
atmospheric pressure and readings will normally be higher in the reverse situation (from coarse to fine pitch), it will
than those on normally aspirated engines. register a decrease. The manifold pressure gauge registers a
A drop in the reading of the manifold pressure gauge should reading that is taken inside the intake manifold. When the
be viewed as an indication of carburetor ice. If ice is forming rpm is decreased, the engine turns more slowly. The speed
in th e carburetor, the airflow is restricted, causing a decrease of flow of the fuel/air mixture through the manifold system
in pressure in th e intake manifold which w ill be indicated on is decreased. When the speed is decreased, the pressure
the m anifold pressure gauge. increases (Bernoulli's Principle), hence, the increased reading
Since the power of engines which are fitted with controllable on the manifold pressure gauge. The same situation in reverse
or constant speed propellers and turbochargers or super- occurs when the rpm is increased (from coarse to fine pitch).
chargers may be increased by either (a) increasing the rpm The engine speeds up, the fuel/air mixture speeds up passing
through the manifold system, the pressure decreases and
or (b) increasing the pressure, both of which are variables,
it follows that there is an intimate relationship between the there is a decreased reading on the gauge.
tachometer and the manifold pressure gauge.
When increasing power, increase the
If the rpm and manifold pressure of an engine at any given
altitude are known, and the temperature correction for
rpm first and then the manifold pressure.
altitude applied, the brake horsepower of the engine can be When decreasing power, decrease the
determined from a chart. Reversing the process, an en gine manifold f irst and then the rpm.
may be operated up to its critical altitude at any power desired
by maintaining a specified boost and rpm. Som e en gine
manufacturers recommend higher rpm and lower boost while Manifold Pressure & Power
others recommend lower rpm and higher boost to obtain a In the era when there was nothing but the fixed pitch propel-
given power. These factors are governed by the design of each ler, a pilot was able to understand the operation of his/ her
particular engine. It is therefore most important that the rec- piston aeroplane engine much more readily than is the case
ommended power settings for any particular engine, for each today with the more complicated variable-pitch constant-
specified condition, be strictly adhered to. Tables of these speed propellers. With a fixed pitch propeller, opening the
recommended settings are published in the Pilot's Operating throttle increases the manifold pressure and, of necessity,
Handbook (see Fig.3.43) and are also sometimes stated on also the rpm. The power that an engine with a fixed pitch prop
a placard placed somewhere within the cockpit. The chart is producing is determined by reference to a tachometer. The
shown in Fig.3.43 is to be used for flights at altitudes near manifold pressure cannot be developed independently of the
2,500 feet. Similar charts will be prepared for other altitudes rp m. For each throttle setting, or manifold pressure setting,
(e.g. 5,000 ft, 7,500 ft, 10,000 ft). there is a corresponding rpm or BHP of the en gine.

Standard Condit ions • Zero Wind • Lean Mixture • 41.5 2500 However, with the variable-pitch constant-speed propel-
Gal. of Fuel (No Reserve) • Gross Weight - 2500 lbs. Feet ler, opening the throttle will not change the rpm, but it will
PROP. GAL/ ENDR. RANGE increase the manifold pressure, propeller load and horse-
MP "lo BHP TAS MPH
RPM HOUR HOURS MILES
power. It follows, therefore, that the power absorbed by this
23 72 132 10.3 4.0 530
type of propeller is independent of the rpm, for by varying the
22 68 128 9.8 4.3 545
2250 pitch of the blades, the air resistance and the propeller load
21 63 124 9.2 4.5 565
can be changed while the propeller speed remains constant.
20 59 124 8 .6 4.8 580
23 70 131 10.1 4.1 535 The process by which the propeller load or torque, as it is
22 66 127 9.5 4.4 555 more properly called , is absorbed by the propeller is by vary-
2200 ing the pressure acting on the piston. Any factor which affects
21 62 123 9.0 4.6 570
20 57 118 8.4 5.0 585
the pressure acting on the pistons changes the torque. All
23 66 127 9.6 4.3 550
other factors being equal (i.e., mixture ratio, temperature,
22 62 123 9.0 4.6 565
type of fuel used), the pressure developed in the cylinders
2100
21 119 8.5 4.9 580
will depend on the mass of the charge that can be forced
58
into it. This, in turn, will depend on the pressure existing at
20 53 114 8.0 5.2 595
the intake valve ports and is measured by manifold pressure
19 45 101 6.9 6.0 605
(MP). Thus, torque (propeller load) turns out to be a function
18 41 82 6.4 6.5 595
2000 of manifold pressure.
17 36 80 5.8 7.2 575
16 32 66 5.2 8.0 530 Consequently, with variable pitch propellers, a given propel-
ler load may be absorbed at an infinite number of rpm and,
Fig.3.43 Aeroplane Performance Chart (Power Chart)
since power is a fu nction of both MP and rpm, a particular
Excessive manifold pressure raises the compression pressure, h orsepower (BHP) may be developed at an unlimited number
resulting in high stresses on the pistons and cylinder assem- of combin ations of MP and rpm.
blies. If the pressure exceeds the limits of the octane rating There are other variable factors affecting engine power of
of the fuel that is in u se, detonation will result. Excessive which the pilot must be aware if he/she is to operate the aero -
plane engine efficiently.

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 Aero Engines: Operation of the Engine

1. The most important factor affecting power output In addition to the engine monitoring functions listed above,
is the fuel/air ratio. Variations in fuel flow from the power of EMS is such that additional features can be incor-
standard carburetor settings may reasonably porated into their functionality. These additional features
affect power by a factor as high as 8 percent. can include fuel computers that provide fuel used/remaining
2. Inlet air temperatures affect the air density of the information, as well as engine run timers and flight timers.
charge in the intake manifolds. As all conventional Tachometer
Manifold
Pressure
Percentage
Power
Oil Oil
Temperature Pressure
power charts are based on the assumption that "stan-
dard temperature conditions" prevail at the carbure-
tor inlet, a correction must be applied to the aero-
plane performance charts and tables. A conventional
"rule of thumb" for making this correction is to add 1
percent for each 6°C below standard to the chart BHP;
or to subtract 1 percent for each 6°C above standard.
In summing up, we see that in order to determine what per-
centage of BHP is being developed from an engine having a
variable pitch propeller, we need to know the rpm, MP, mix-
ture setting (rich or lean) and temperature of the air entering
the carburetor. Knowing these variables and by reference to
the aeroplane manufacturer's tables or graphs, the pilot is able
to calculate BHP and fuel consumption and is able to antici-
pate aeroplane performance.

Humidity & Power Engine Temperatures

Factors such as outside temperature and altitude have an
important effect on the power output of an aeroplane engine. Fig . 3.44 Multifunction Display (MFD) Engine Data
Does humidity have any effect? Yes, it does, but only to the
extent of about a 2% change.
Water vapour in the air will reduce the performance of an
engine to a slight degree. The water vapour in the fuel/air
3.10 Operation of
mixture that is metered into the engine cylinders is incombus-
tible. Therefore, it follow s that the fuel to air ratio is increased
the Engine
and the engine operates as on a somewhat richer mixture. The
result is some power loss and incomplete combustion. 3.10.1 Engine Operation Considerations
For the most part, this power loss is so negligible that it need The service life of the modern aircraft engine is dependent
not be considered. Testing has indicated a loss of less than 2% on good maintenance and operating procedures. This is espe-
for 100% relative humidity at temperatures of 32°C. The only cially true with the tightly cowled, high performance engines
occasion when the effect of humidity might be considered is in today's sophisticated aeroplanes. It is all too easy to ruin a
during take-off and landing in marginal conditions, as on a fine piece of equipment through improper use.
very hot day when the humidity is high and the aeroplane is Never make abrupt movements of the throttle. Such action
heavily loaded. On such occasions, that 2% change might be can lead to damage and eventual engine failure.
worth remembering in calculating the take-off run the aero-
plane will require and the climb performance it can achieve. On take-off, open the throttle slowly and steadily to take-off
power. In this way, the engine is able to accelerate in rpm at
the same pace as the advancing throttle; the increase in rpm
3,9.s Engine Monitoring Systems (EMS) and manifold pressure keep pace and there is little possibility
Electronic flight information systems (EFIS) have advanced of overboost of the engine cylinders; the propeller governor/
the means by which engine data can be viewed in the cockpit. propeller pitch control mechanism has adequate time to
Pointers and dials have given way to electronic engine moni- respond to the increasing rpm without risking an overspeed
toring systems (EMS), viewable on PFD, MFD or stand-alone condition; and, finally, temperature changes within the cyl-
systems, that show multiple engine parameters. inder and piston assemblies take place more slowly reducing
The EMS module collects and processes data signals from a the possibility of overstress, cracking and breaking that are
wide variety of engine sensors and provides this informa- caused by very rapid temperature changes.
tion via sen sor wire harnesses to the EFIS cockpit display. Once climbing speed is reached, reduce power slowly and
On PFD/MFD systems, displaying of engine information can always climb at the highest indicated airspee d that is consis-
sometimes be shown in multiple user-selectable ways such as tent with safety and other considerations of the flight. At the
half-screen, full-screen and screen sharing modes with other higher climbing speed, the engine will receive better cooling
forms of display. which is essential at a time when higher power is being pro-
EMS can provide a full spectrum of monitoring functions that duced (climbing power). Also during climb, use a rich mixture
to benefit from the cooling effect on the combustion chamber
consolidate into one LCD all the information that multiple
of the evaporating extra fuel. Where installed, cowl flaps
gauges individually show. This information can include the
following: tachometer, oil pressure, oil temperature, manifold should be in the full open position for the take-off and climb.
pressure, fuel flow, fuel pressure, cylinder head temperature, Avoid high speed dives with engine idling. This kind of action
exhaust gas temperature, and outside air temperature. will cause sudden cooling and could cause engine damage,

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Operation of the Engine

specifically, cracks in the cylinder heads around the spark to overcome the internal friction that is produced. This point
plugs or valve ports. In the operation of any en gine, cracked is of particular importance to pilots undertaking long range
cylinders indicate that the pilot has been operating the flights.
en gine at a fairly high temperature, has been abruptly reduc- In an aeroplane fitted with a fixed pitch, all metal propeller,
ing power which thereby suddenly cools the cylinder head. it is important to avoid selecting an rpm that is not within
Gradual let-down without appreciably reducing engine power the operating range recommended by the manufacturer. Both
is best for the engine and is most efficient from the standpoint the engine and the propeller have a natural "resonance" and,
of obtaining maximum air miles per gallon performance. at certain rpm, engine and propeller harmonics will coincide
Avoid long run-ups that overheat the engine. The streamlined and cause sufficient propeller blade vibration to induce blade
and close fitting cowlings of today's general aviation aero- failure.
planes restrict the flow of cooling air over the engine during With turbocharged and supercharged en gines, the "maxi-
ground maneuvering. Overly lengthy ground operation may mum permissible boost" must never be exceeded.
overheat the cylinders which will then be suddenly cooled by
the rush of cool air after take-off. The time to taxi from the Boost pressures greater than "rated boost" are only permis-
ramp to the runway is usually sufficient to bring the engine sible for 5 minutes at a time.
up to its normal operatin g temperature. In the event that over- During a long descent in cold weather, apply sufficient power
heating does occur, turn the aeroplane into wind, ensure that to keep the engine at normal operating temperature.
all cowl flaps are open to their full extent and run the engine
Above all, never switch off an overheated engine. After taxi-
at about 1,000 rpm to allow the propeller to direct cooling air
ing in, allow it to idle a sufficient time to cool off. A lot of
back over the engine.
residual heat has to dissipate.
Avoid high power run-ups, except when necessary for m ain-
If the engine is fitted with idle cut-off, this should always be
tenance checks. They also cause overheating and, if carried
used to stop the engine.
out frequently, will produce a cumulative type of damage that
shows up in the form of broken piston rings, scored pistons The life and dependability of an aero engine depend to an
and cylinders. Turbocharged engines are very susceptible to appreciable extent on the use or abuse the engine suffers at
overheating in high power run-ups. the h ands of the pilot. The reason that some engines go their
full time between overhauls while others do not can usually
Be sure all cowl flaps and cooling devices are open during run-
be credited to the care or lack of care by the pilot in handling
ups and do not use carburetor heat.
the engine controls.
Always use the power settings recommended by the manu-
facturer for cruise. Never over lean the mixture. Always 3.10.2 Engine Maintenance & Care
double check that the method being used to lean the mixture
is reliable. Aeroplanes should be flown frequently in order to prevent
rust and corrosion from occurring inside the cylinders.
The "normal rpm" stated by the engine manufacturer should
Without frequent flights, water and acids collect in an engine.
never be exceeded for more than 5 minutes and then only
These are normally cooked out during flight. It is not suf-
when absolutely essential. ficient, however, just to run up the engine on the ground in
The "maximum permissible rpm" should never be exceeded order to prevent this rusting process. If the oil temperature is
more than momentarily in emergencies. Every engine is rated not brought up to 75°C, water from combustion will be added
at a specified speed, or rpm, above which it may not be oper- to the engine oil. At 75°C water is still a part of the combustion
ated safely. To overspeed the engine, even momentarily, can process, but the oil is hot enough to vapourize the water. If the
cause excessive wear and, if the overspeed is high enough, oil temperature is not raised to 75°C, this water will build up
serious damage and even engine failure. and slowly turn to acid. If it is impossible to fly the aeroplane
The best cruise power setting is one at which the engine runs even around the circuit, the best thing would be to pull the
the most sm oothly at approximately the rpm or MP recom- propeller through a full turn to recoat the cylinders with a
mended by the manufacturer (or at which the propeller load film of oil. However, never touch the propeller unless you have
curve intersects the engine power curve, if these are avail- assured yourself that the magneto switches are OFF.
able for the engine being operated). When selecting certain Change oil at intervals recommended by the manufacturer
rpm/MP power combinations, a pilot should always "go by to avoid excessive engine wear. As the oil flows throughout
the book". Some engines are designed to cruise at 1,600 rpm the engine, it becomes contamin ated with carbon particles,
and 26" MP, while other engines are designed to be operated water, acid and dirt. The old oil should be drained when the
at 2,600 rpm and 23" MP. Concerning rpm/ MP combinations, engine is hot as the oil then flows more freely and there is
there is no "rule of thumb" that applies to all engines. The better assurance that all the contaminated oil will be cleared
manufacturer's performance charts or tables must always be out of the engine.
referred to for every model of aeroplane. When given a choice
Engine manufacturers now recommend that oil be changed
of different power settings (various combinations of rpm and
every 25 hours or every 3 months, whichever comes first.
MP), always use the one that produces the least noise and least
Even if the aircraft has not been flown too often during the
vibration. This action w ill prolong engine life, decrease the
3 months, the engine oil w ill become contaminated by acids
likelihood of damage or failure of parts or components and be
as the aeroplane sits unused. Frequent oil ch anges w ill help
less fatiguing to crew and passengers.
prolong the life of the engine. If an aeroplane is to be put into
A further factor to consider when choosing between several storage for the winter (or for any prolonged period of time),
rpm/ MP combinations that produce the same percentage of it is wise to change the oil before putting it away and again
power is fuel economy. Usually the best fuel economy is when bringing it out of storage before flying it again.
realized with a low rpm and high MP combination because
internal friction is reduced and less fuel is, therefore, required

© Av1at1on Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviat1onpublishers.com

 Aero Engines: Operation of the Engine

An even better procedure for Jong term storage is to replace The correct procedure to prevent shock cooling and thermal
the regular oil with special inhibiting oil. After filling the oil stress is for the pilot to plan descents and approaches as far
tank with the inhibiting oil, run the engine for two or three back from the intended landing area as possible, and to keep
minutes as per the instructions. Inhibiting oil is a special type adjusting the mixture control to maintain the exhaust gas
of oil that is sticky and, therefore, clings to all metal parts temperatures from cruise. In this way, power is gradually
inside the engine and prevents corrosion. When the engine is reduced and no abrupt changes in engine temperature will
to be returned to service, it should be operated for a few min- occur. Generally, monitoring of cylinder head temperatures
utes to bring the oil temperature up to a point that will permit is not a reliable way to ascertain that temperatures are being
the oil to flow. The inhibiting oil should then be drained and adequately maintained during descents - but careful planning
replaced with regular engine oil. of descents is. "Chopping" of power from cruise to idle, then
Installation of auxiliary oil filters are recommended to assist entering a rapid descent, should be avoided.
in preventing foreign matters from circulating through the
engine and causing excessive wear. All oil filters should be 3.10.4 Fuel Management Considerations
regularly inspected and cleaned. The safe conduct of any flight owes much to the careful man-
Service spark plugs regularly and replace them when they are agement of the aircraft's fuel system.
worn to their limits. Be sure to use only the spark plugs rec- DO be thoroughly familiar with your aeroplane's fuel
ommended by the engine manufacturer. Swap top and bottom system and its operation.
spark plugs every 25 to 50 hours. Top plugs scavenge better
than bottom plugs. During operation, avoid over rich mixtures DO know the engine's hourly fuel consumption rate.
which contribute to spark plug fouling. Low operating temper- DO check your fuel supply visually if possible. Be sure
atures coupled with rich fuel mixtures result in incomplete you have the correct type of fuel. Observe the colour
vapourization of the lead in the combustion chambers causing and odour of the fuel as you check the tank. Be
lead deposits on the plugs. Always, therefore, maintain engine sure all fuel caps (and oil tank caps) and covers are
operating temperatures in the normal range. installed and secured properly.
Inspect the ignition harness regularly to assure against worn DO check that each fuel tank vent is clear of obstruc-
insulation and seals that would cause misfiring. tions (dirt, ice, snow, bent or pinched tubes, etc.).
Have the magneto points and timing checked as recom- Fuel tanks must be vented to allow air to enter the
mended by the manufacturer and have a compression check tank as the fuel is used.
run regularly. DO visually check the fuel selector valve when changing
Check the intake m anifold periodically to be sure there are no tanks.
loose con nections. DO make sure, in aircraft w ith a fuel gauge indicator
Air inlet filter screens should be cleaned regularly so they selector, to change both the indicator selector and
can perform their function of keeping sand and dust from the fuel valve selector in switching tanks.
entering the induction system. Ensure that the alternate air DO check the fuel selector valve carefully to be sure that
intake and carburetor heat valves operate correctly and seal it is operating properly. This is especially important
properly. Any accumulation of dust or dirt near the entrance in cold weather. It is possible for a fuel selector
to the alternate air device should be removed to prevent it valve to freeze into position, making it impossible
being drawn into the engine. to select a fuel tank when needed. It is preferable to
make this check before starting to taxi so that, when
3.10.3 Shock Cooling & Thermal Stress ready for take-off, the fuel flow from the take-off
tank to the engine has been stabilized.
Abnormal mechanical and thermal stress are two large
threats to engine reliability. Thermal stress occurs in cyl- DO learn how to use the mixture control properly.
inders through shock cooling, the rapid changing of engine DO make a check during the preflight inspection of
operating temperatures. Shock cooling may occur when a the fuselage and external wing surfaces for stains
pilot closes the throttle to idle thereafter immediately enter- which may indicate fuel system leakage.
ing a high speed descent. Such stress on the engine reduces
DO keep the tanks full when the aircraft is not in use.
cylinder head durability due to the low cycle thermal stress
Water condenses on the walls of partially filled
being superimposed upon the high cycle mechanical stress of
tanks and enters the fuel system.
combustion pressure.
DO periodically inspect and clean all fuel strainers.
When in cruise, an engine is cooled by the large volume of air
flow ing over the cylinders. In a rapid idle descent, however, DO practice good housekeeping in your routine
power is reduced dramatically which thereby reduces heat maintenance.
within the cylinders. At the same time, airflow through the DO calculate your usable fuel as 75% of your total capac-
cowling is vastly increased due to the speed of the aircraft - ity. To determine your safe flight time limit, divide
the perfect set-up for thermal stress to occur. The resultant your usable fuel by your fuel consumption rate.
shock cooling may damage the hottest components in an Include time from start-up to shut-down in total
engine, including the cylinder heads, valve seats and valves. flight time. Fuel exhaustion is an all too common
Aluminum cylinder heads shrink twice as much per unit of cause of accidents. Know your safe flight time limit
temperature Joss as compared to steel cylinder barrels. Valve and don't exceed it.
seats can be distorted or even pop-out, valves can warp or
become stuck, and cylinder heads may crack - often next to DO exercise care in flight planning, taking into account
the spa rk plug hole. any situation which would cause an increase in fuel
consumption. Do compute a reasonable time limit

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Operation of the Engine

for your flight taking into consideration trip length, open from the fully closed position prior to engag-
cruising altit ude, w ind (do not count on forecast ing the starter switch. Immediately after the engine
tailwinds) and gross weight. starts, the throttle should be moved towards the
DO use only the fuel recommended by the engine closed position until the tachometer registers about
manufacturer. 600 to 700 rpm and the engine should be allowed
to run at this rpm until oil pressure is obtained.
DO filter all fuel entering the tanks.
The oil pressure gauge should be checked immediately after
DO drain fuel sumps regularly on preflight checks. engine start up. If it does not register within 10 seconds, shut
Draw a generous sample of fuel from each sump and off the engine and investigate. However, in cold weather,
screen drain it into a transparent container. Check when the oil is cold and sluggish, it may take as much as 30
that there is no water, rust or other contaminants in seconds or more before any pressure registers on the gauge.
the sample.
The action of throttling back immediately after starting the
DO assure that sump drains are fully closed after engine is very important to good engine handling. By doing
draining. so, engine wear is eliminated and friction reduced while the
DO land somewhere short of your planned destination oil pressure is being built up within the engine. Secondly,
if the flight has been slower than anticipated and in the event that chocks are not used and the brakes fail to
there is any doubt that you have enough fuel to hold, reducing the power immediately after the engine starts
complete the entire trip. will prevent the aeroplane from rolling forward. On those
aeroplanes that need to be started by swinging the propeller,
DON'T fly beyond a refuelling stop unless the amount of
reduction of throttle immediately after the engine starts is
fuel remaining is more than enough to get you to
a safety precaution that prevents the aeroplane from rolling
your destination.
forward and seriously injuring the person who swung the
DON'T overlean the mixture to practice false economy. propeller.
DON'T use additives th at have not been approved by the Most internal wear on an engine occurs during start-up due
manufacturer. to the lack of lubrication between moving metal parts. In
DON'T change the fuel selector just prior to take-off. In fact, addition to proper throttle technique, leaning of the mixture
perform the engine run-up on the tank that will be under idling conditions prevents spark plug fouling.
used for take-off. Selecting the exact throttle position, prior to starting, that will
DON'T change the fuel selector during the approach to give 600 to 700 rpm is, in practice, difficult. Sometimes the
landing. Change tanks sufficiently in advance to setting will be accurate; sometimes it will produce an rpm of
ensure that the fuel flow is stabilized. 1,200 or more. Develop the habit of always closing the throttle
slightly after the engine starts and then opening it until the
rpm reaches the desired setting of about 700 rpm. Sometimes
3.10.5 Starting the Engine the engine may tend to "die" if the throttle has been closed too
When starting your engine, consider the following: abruptly. Should this happen, the throttle should immediately
1. Position the aeroplane so that dust will not be advanced sufficiently to keep the engine running.
be blown into hangars or towards other aero- After 1 minute of running in the 600 to 700 rpm range, the
planes. In a strong wind, a light aeroplane should throttle should be adjusted as per the instruction manual to
be faced into wind for run-up, but not where the recommended warm-up rpm which in most aeroplanes
it will blow dust onto other aeroplanes. will be about 1,000 rpm. At this rpm the engine is being
2. Parking brakes full ON. Use chocks if parking warmed up gradually; there is some flow of cooling a ir being
brakes are inadequate to prevent the aeroplane forced through the cowling by the propeller, and the engine
from creeping forward during the warm-up. oil pump is supplying adequate pressure to assure lubrication
to all moving parts.
3. Before starting, the propeller should be pulled
through (i.e. rotated by hand) through several com- The aeroplane may be taxied to the take-off position during
plete turns. This action releases any accumulation of warm-up and, in fac t, this procedure is recommended on all
oil in the combustion chambers and also assists in tightly cowled engines to eliminate excessive ground running
partially priming the engine. (Be sure the switches of the engine. There is insufficient air flow through the engine
are OFF before pulling through.) The propeller must while the aeroplane is on the ground to effect proper cooling.
not be motored over on "Contact" until the pilot is Ideally the engine warm-up should just be completed when
sure that there is no person or property that could the aeroplane reaches the take-off point and is in position for
be injured or damaged when the propeller starts. the pre-take -off check and engine run-up.

When starting a seaplane at a buoy, a line should

be placed loosely around one of the float under-
3.10.6 Procedure for Backfire
carriage struts and not slipped until the pilot During Starting
is sure that the en gine will continue to run.
Due to overprim ing, raw gasoline often collects in the lowest
4. Carry out pre-starting procedures as per the instruc- point of the carburetor induction system and poses a fire
tion m anu al or as previous experience dictates (i.e. threat in the event that a "backfire" should occur. A backfire,
certain amount of prime depending on whether as the name implies, is the burning of the combustible mix-
the engine is hot or cold, mixture FULL RICH, fuel ture back through the intake manifold. It commences in the
selector ON, carburetor heat on COLD, etc.). In most cylinder when, due to abnormal conditions (that exist in start-
aeroplanes, the throttle should be set 1/4" to 1/2" ing), there is still burning within the cylinder at the moment

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _,.......- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aero Engines: Operation of the Engine

the intake valve opens to permit a fresh charge of fuel to enter. turned to OFF. The grounding mechanism preven ts
The fresh charge ignites and burns back through the intake the flow of electricity being generated in the magneto
pipes to the carburetor area where a pool of raw gasoline, if from reaching the spark plugs. A hot or live m ag-
present, could ignite and explode. neto is one which is not grounded. A hot magneto
m ean s that, even though the ignition switch is OFF,
In m ost cases, any fire resulting from a backfire can be quickly
the engine could start if the propeller is moved even
quenched by continuing to crank the engine since this action
fractionally. Move the ignition switch from BOTH to
will suck the flames and explosive vapours into the cylinder
OFF. If the en gine continues to fire when the switch
where they will do no harm. (The advantage of a well charged
is OFF, there is a live or hot magneto. Shut off the
battery can be readily appreciated. It could be disastrous if the
·fuel and check the magneto ground lead after th e
battery went "dead" just when it was needed to turn over the
engine has stopped. The live magneto check should
engine to eliminate an engine fire.) be conducted at low power to prevent damage to
Another form of "backfire" is the exhaust manifold fire. In the engine. To do this check at higher power means
actual fact, it is not technically a "backfire" and is therefore that th e engine jumps from cruise rpm to zero rpm
incorrectly named. This also is caused by overpriming and instantaneously (when the magnetos are properly
occurs when raw gasoline that was introduced into the intake grounded and do shut off when the ignition switch
manifold system by the primer passes through the cylinder is moved to OFF), a procedure that can be very dam-
and into the exhaust manifold without being burned. In aging to the crankshaft and other internal parts.
this case, a pool of raw gasoline could collect in the exh aust Check all instruments for proper indica-
system and could be set afire by the hot exhaust gases which tion while running up the engine, i.e. volt-
may follow starting. In most cases, starting the engine quickly meter or ammeter, manifold pressure gauge,
will smother the flam es before they can spread and do any fuel pressure, rpm indicator, vacuum, etc.
dam age.
3. If the engine is fitted with a controllable or
The fact may now be appreciated that most engine fires which constant speed propeller, test its operation by
occur at the time of starting result from improper technique moving the lever to coarse pitch. See that the
in u se of the primer, throttle accelerator pump (which is the required drop in rpm occurs. Return the lever
proper way to prime m any engines) or other priming devices. to fine pitch after the test. Check the propel-
Do not use the primer too far in advance of starting the ler feathering operation, if applicable.
engine. Th e fuel injected into the system gets m ore time to 4. Test the operation of the carburetor heat con-
condense and run down the manifold to form a combustible trol by selecting "warm air". If the control is
pool somewhere in the system. working satisfactorily, a drop in power will
If an engine fire has started and it cannot be put out by getting be noted. Check the operation of the carbu-
the engine running, the fuel should be shut off and the primer retor air temperature gauge, if fitted.
locked and an external fire extinguisher or an extinguisher 5. See that the primer pump is switched off or
that is part of the engine installation. should be u sed to put that the manual primer is off and locked. Ch eck
out the fire. for correct operation of the mixture control by
m ovin g it from full rich to full lean and back
3.10.7 Running Up the Engine again. The engine should die when th e mix-
ture control is placed in the full lean position.
Always position the aeroplane into wind when doing an
engine run up. The wind increases the flow of air through 6. Idle the engine for a few moments to check the
and around the engine, helping to keep the cylinders cool and idling speed at proper working temperature.
preventing over-heating. During the running up, the pilot should check and listen
The throttle should always be opened and closed slowly. intently for any sign of engine trouble. A minor adjustment
on the ground may forestall a serious situation due to engine
1. Check oil pressure and temperature. Switch
failure on take-off or in flight.
off the engine immediately if the pres-
sure or temperature appear abnormal.
Never attempt to take off with a cold engine.
2. Check the rpm at full throttle. Throttle back to the
engine speed recommended for a magneto check.
Cut the switches one at a time to test each individual A maintenance check of the engine is som etimes necessary
magneto, by moving the switch from BOTH to RIGHT, to test an engine for maintenance purposes and to run it at
to BOTH, to LEFT, and back to BOTH. (You return to full power. The brakes of the aeroplane w ill probably not be
BOTH each time to allow the engine to regain its able to hold the aeroplane stationary during this procedure.
It is essential, therefore, to chock the wheels and even to tie
normal rpm and to clear the inoperative set of plugs
in case they m ay have fouled with oil while their down the aeroplan e. There are many recorded incidents of
magneto switch was off.) The drop in rpm when the an aeroplane jumping the chocks when the brakes have not
magnetos are operated singly as compared to the rpm held, running into another aircraft or stationary installation
when they are operated together should not be more and causing substantial property dam age and person al injury.
When carrying out "full power" testing of this sort, it is w ise
than 75 rpm (unless the manufacturer specifies that
a greater drop is allowable for that particular engine). to position the aeroplane so that it is not in line with anything
An rpm loss in excess of the allowable rate should to which it could cause damage if th e brakes should fail or if
be considered an indication of an ignition problem. the aircraft does jump the chocks and move forward .

A check should also be made to en sure that both

magnetos are properly grounded and that there is a
complete loss of power when the ignition switch is

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Operation of the Engine

possible for the breather line, in that portion which protrudes

3.10.s Engine Operation in Cold Weather from the lower cowling of the aircraft, to freeze shut. Should
Operation in winter requires more care on the part of the pilot this happen, pressure will build up in the oil system causing
and an understanding of the effect of cold on the component the oil filler cap to blow off or a seal to rupture with resultant
parts of the power plant. loss of the oil supply.
In cold weather, taking off with a cold engine and cold oil can To prevent such an occurrence, most aircraft require an oil
put you in the embarrassing position of coping with a loss of breather line modification: a V-shaped notch that is cut into
power during a critical part of the take-off procedure. Aviation the tubing several inches upward from the end, in that por-
lubricants are heavier than the commonly used automotive tion of the breather line that is inside the cowling where the
engine oils and therefore require more time in warm-up to heat of the engine prevents the line from freezing. If the end
obtain normal flow to function properly throughout an air- of the breather line freezes, the notch permits venting of the
cooled aeroplane engine. accumulating moisture. The notch is cut in such a way that, as
long as the breather line is open, the moisture laden oil vapours
At temperatures above freezing, a warm up of 2 or 3 minutes are vented through the line protruding below the cowling. The
at 1,000 rpm may be sufficient to bring engine temperatures moisture is vented through the notch only when the end of the
within operating range. At temperatures below freezing, the breather line is blocked.
warm-up should be longer. With turbocharged powerplants,
even more time is required to assure proper controller opera- WINTER KIT
tion and to prevent manifold pressure overboost. As well as changing to winter grade oil, the manufacturer
In cold weather, it is a good practice to rotate the propeller will have other recommendations for winterizing that should
by hand several times before attempting to start the engine. be followed. This usually involves installation of a winter kit.
This procedure helps to break the seal of cold congealed oil Among other things, a winter kit will probably include baffle
plates for installation in the air inlets in order to cut down the
in the various parts of the engine. Be sure, however, that the
amount of abnormally cold air directed around the engine.
magneto switches are OFF before touching the propeller. As
With baffle plates installed, the engine will be able to reach
an additional safety measure, turn the propeller backwards,
and maintain its normal operating temperatures. Intake pipes
rather than forwards.
are lagged, that is, they are wrapped with insulating mate-
Engines turn over rather sluggishly in cold weather and con- rial such as felt or asbestos. This is done to ensure that the
sequently there is a tendency to overprime to hasten the start. vapourized fuel in the fuel/air mixture does not condense back
This practice may result in an excess of raw gasoline washing into its liquid form in abnormally cold intake pipes. The oil
the oil from the cylinder walls, leaving them vulnerable to tank may also be lagged in order to keep the oil warm.
scoring by the piston. Excess fuel also increases the hazard
All hoses, flexible tubing and seals should be checked for signs
of fire.
of deterioration, cracks or hardening. They get brittle with age
and vibration. Primer lines, especially, should be inspected for
Factors to Consider leaks around fittings to reduce fire hazard.
There is no shortage of factors to consider when operating an
Ignition leads should be inspected, and spark plugs cleaned
aircraft in cold conditions. Below, in more detail, are matters
and reset, or replaced if necessary. Magneto timing will change
to consider when preparing for flights in colder weather.
with wear. Cold weather starts require an ignition system that
OIL is in optimum condition.
As soon as the temperature starts to dip in the fall, change to
FUEL
the weight of oil recommended by the manufacturer for cold
Fuel tank sumps sometimes freeze during cold weather. If
weather operation. The heavier weight viscosity oil recom-
nothing will drain from the sump, it is highly probable that
mended for summer use simply will not flow in cold weather
water in the fuel has turned to ice and blocked the sump. The
until it is warmed. It becomes thick and heavy and sluggish
only solution is to put the aeroplane into a warm hangar until
and will not flow through the very small clearances in the
the ice thaws and the water can be drained out of the sumps.
engine. As a result, not only will it fail to lubricate the moving
The best way to prevent water condensing and turning to ice
engine parts during a cold start, but, in some cases, it will
in the fuel tanks is to fill the tanks immediately after flight.
prevent the engine from turning at sufficient speed to achieve
a start at all. The lighter viscosity oil recommended for cold At temperatures above freezing, any water in the fuel sinks to
weather operation will flow through the small clearances and the bottom of the tank where it can be removed with normal
will provide the essential lubrication to prevent damage during sump draining. However, at temperatures below freezing,
the cold start. Adequate warm-up, of course, is still neces- minute water droplets in the fuel sometimes freeze into tiny
sary before take-off to ensure that the oil is flowing normally ice crystals and remain suspended in the fuel. Normal draining
throughout the engine. of the sumps will not remove them. These ice particles then
may congregate in narrow passages, such as the fuel filters,
Several oil companies have developed a multi-viscosity oil
fuel selector valve, etc., and restrict fuel flow. An anti-icing
which eliminates the need to change oil seasonally. This oil
additive cures the problem, but it must be used with caution
remains thin in extremely cold weather, but also maintains,
and exactly according to the manufacturer's instructions.
at high outside temperatures, the same viscosity as the tradi-
Incorrectly used, ant-icing additives may damage fuel tanks
tional summer grade of oil.
and certain carburetor parts.
The crankcase oil breather should be checked regularly to
Always check the fuel selector valve for proper movement
assure that it is open. Moisture is a natural by-product of the
since it can easily become frozen into position and impossible
heating and cooling and operation of a gasoline engine. This
to move. For this same reason, do not run a tank dry before
moisture is vented to the atmosphere through the oil breather
switching tanks during flight. In case the fuel selector valve
line. In the winter when temperatures are below freezing, it is
has become frozen and you are unable to switch tanks, there

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 Aero Engines: Operation of the Engine

will still be enough fuel in the tank in use to divert to a nearby

airport or to have engine power for a precautionary landing. Engine Fault Finding List
1. Engine will not start.
TURBOCHARGED ENGINES
Avoid over-boosting turbocharged engines in cold weather • No Spark at Plugs (plugs fouled or incorrectly
take-offs. Cold air is heavier than air at a more moderate set - H.T. leads crossed - switch "off" or
temperature and therefore power output of the engines is defective switch - mag wires grounded -
increased. For every S°C below standard air temperature, defective mag - wet plugs, leads or mag).
engine power increases by 1%. • Weak Spark (breaker points dirty or
incorrectly set - faulty condenser).
SPARK PLUGS
• Insufficient Fuel (tanks empty - fuel cocks
The engine may not start at sub-zero temperatures. A common
"off" - insufficient priming - air vents in tanks
cause of this problem is moisture that has frozen on the spark
clogged - leaks or stoppages in fuel system
plug electrodes. Remove at least one plug from each cylinder
- defective fuel pump - float needle valve
and warm them.
sticking - altitude control open - carburetor
BATTERY tuned too weak - vapourization of fuel in lines
A battery that is not fully charged is apt to freeze at below of fuel injection engine caused by hot engine).
freezing temperatures. Any battery that is allowed to sit • Flooding (excessive priming -
unused w ill tend to discharge. In cold weather, the electrolyte fuel pressure too high).
(the sulphuric acid/water mix) in the battery will break down • Cold Engine (engine stiff to t urn).
and change to water. The water m ay then freeze and possibly
• Water or Dirt in Fuel.
burst its case. If the aeroplane will not be used until the next
day or for an even longer period, remove the battery and keep • Mechanical Defects (plugs loose - cylinders
it in a warm place. An unused battery (in storage) should be scored - piston rings stuck, broken or
given a slow charge (about 3 amps per hour) every 5 or 6 weeks. scored - loose intake connections -
poor compression and leaky valves).
PREHEAT • Insufficient Cranking Speed.
In very cold weather, preheating the engine from an auxiliary
• Incorrect Throttle Setting.
heating source is essential. In fact, engine manufacturers usu-
ally recommend preheating at any temperature below -8°C and 2. Engine Misses.
require it at any temperature below -12°C. The heavy oils used • Defective Plugs (oiled up, incorrectly set, or cracked).
in air cooled aviation engines (even those recommended for • Defective Magneto (timing incorrect).
cold weather operation) do not flow at such low temperatures.
• Water or Dirt in Fuel Line.
Inadequate lubrication would result from a cold start and per-
manent damage, such as broken piston rings, scored cylinders • Mechanical Defects (sticking
valve - crack in cylinder).
and pistons, could result. Preheating the engine, as well as
warming th e metal parts, warms the oil and ensures that it • Low Compression in One or More Cylinders.
will flow readily and lubricate all engine parts as soon as the • Cold Engine or Overheated Engine.
engine st arts. • Lack of Fuel (fuel tank vents clogged - fuel
When heating an engine by means of an external source, it is cock not fully open - lean mixture).
most important that a well-insulated cowling cover be used to 3. Backfire.
keep the heat within the engine thus assuring that it will warm
• Incorrect Timing (H.T. leads crossed
all engine parts evenly.
- spark too far advanced).
CARBURETOR HEAT • Defective Carburetor (Sticking
Use carburetor heat as required. In some cases, it may be nec- float, needle or toggles).
essary to use heat to vapourize the fuel, as gasoline does not • Lean Mixture (dirty filters - altitude control open
vapourize readily in cold weather. - fuel pressure low - leaks in fuel system).
However, do not use carburetor h eat in such a w ay that the • Water, Dirt or Air Lock (in carburetor or fuel line).
mixture temperature is raised just to freezing level. Such • Sticking Valve.
action may induce carburetor ice. (See Section Carburetor • Hot Engine (carbon in cylinders -
Icing.) A carburetor air temperature gauge is a very valuable overheated valves, plugs, etc.).
instrument during cold weather operations.
4. Loss of Power.
PROPELLER • Defective Plugs (oiled up - incorrectly set).
If the aeroplane is equipped with a constant speed propeller,
• Incorrect Timing (magnetos defective -
change rpm settings with the prop pitch control about every
not properly synchronized - faulty wiring
half hour to help prevent the oil from congealing in the prop
- breaker points burned or pitted).
dome. Congealed oil may make changing pitch impossible.
• Insufficient Fuel (leaks or stoppages in the fuel
DESCENTS system - defective fuel pump - float needle
Try to avoid power off descents by starting to lose altitude far valve sticking - weak mixture - throttle
enough back from your destination that the entire descent can or carburetor throttle valve not fully open -
be conducted with power. If a rapid descent is unavoidable, use altitude control open - carburetor iced up).
gear and flaps to induce drag so that some engine power (heat) • Excessive Fuel (rich mixture - fuel pressure
may be maintained. too high - air intake restricted).

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aero Engines: Jet Propulsion

• Improper Lubrication (wrong grade of

oil - incorrect oil temperature - leaks 3.11 Jet Propulsion
- low oil pressure - dirty filters).
It is not the blast of hot gases out the exhaust of a jet engine
• Carburetor Heat Used Unnecessarily.
that provides the driving force, but rather the reaction to
• Carburetor Icing. the exhaust jet. Jet propulsion is based on Sir Isaac Newton's
• Excessive Cylinder Temperatures Third Law of Motion, namely that every action will have an
(engine tends to seize). equal and opposite reaction. (Like the "kick" you get from a
• Loss of Compression (plugs loose - piston shotgun.)
rings worn -valve seats worn - clearances Imagine a sphere (Fig.3.45) suspended by a cord and filled
out - springs weak - valves warped, stuck, with air under pressure. The sphere will remain motionless,
or seating improperly - incorrect timing). because the pressure is exerted evenly against all sides. The
• Poor Fuel (or water or dirt in fuel) . pressure at A is balanced by the equal and opposite pressure
• Pre-ignition. at B. The pressure at C is balanced by the equal and opposite
• Engine Too Cold, or Overheating. pressure at D.
• Internal Friction. Now punch a hole in the sphere allowing air to escape at A.
• Engine Needs Overhaul. The pressures at C and D are still equal and opposite. The
pressure at B pushes the sphere forward. The force exerted at
• Detonation.
B is equal and opposite to the momentum of the air escaping
5. Rough Running. at A. A is the Jet. B is the reaction to the jet, which is known
• Propeller or Engine Bearings Loose or Unbalanced. as thrust.
• Bent Crankshaft.
• Defective Plugs.
• Defective Magnetos (timing, wiring, etc.)
• Incorrect Mixture (too rich or too lean).
• Wrong Valve Clearance (or sticking valve).
• Detonation, or Pre-ignition.
• Cold Engine.
6. Engine Stops. Fig. 3.45 Principle of Jet Propulsion
• Lack of Fuel (tanks exhausted - gas cocks
accidentally knocked closed - failure to switch
over to full tank when the one in use runs dry -
3.1u The Ram Jet
water or dirt in fuel - fuel tank air vents clogged - The simplest form of jet engine is the ram jet. This is little
filters clogged - air lock in fuel system - mixture more than a streamlined "stove" in which fuel mixed with
control accidentally moved to idle cut-off). air is burned and exhausted out the "stovepipe" to produce a
7. Engine continues to run with switches off. thrust reaction. The air which enters the intake is "rammed"
into the combustion chamber by the forward speed of the
• Defective Switch or Wiring.
aeroplane (Fig.3.46). As this high speed ram air passes through
• Overheating.
the diffuser section, as indicated in Fig.3.46, the speed
• Pre-ignition . of the air decreases while the pressure increases. This is
8. Engine will not take throttle. brought about by the increase in cross section of the diffuser
• Lean Mixture. (Bernoulli's Principle for Incompressible Flow). The difference
• Cold Engine. in pressure is known, in a ram jet engine, as the pressure
ratio. (When we get to The Turbojet Engine, pressure ratio has
9. Blue smoke from exhaust.
a slightly different meaning.)
• Worn or Stuck Piston Rings.
The slowed down ram air is mixed with fuel introduced by the
10. Black smoke or long red flame from exhaust.
fuel injectors at C. This volatile mixture of fuel and air, once
• Excessive Rich Mixture. ignited, burns, expands and roars out of the exhaust nozzle at
11. Engine overheating. tremendous velocity at E. This creates a thrust reaction simi-
• Detonation. lar to that which we observed in the case of the punctured
balloon. The difference between the high pressure in the
• Stuck Rings.
forward part of the engine and the low pressure towards the
• Insufficient Oil Supply. rear, imparts momentum to the jet stream rushing out of the
• Lean Mixture. nozzle. This momentum has its equal and opposite reaction
12. Excessive oil consumption. in the form of thrust, the force which drives the engine ahead
• Blocked or Frozen Breather (causing and propels the aeroplane forward.
excessive pressure). Initially, the engine is started by a spark, or igniter plug, the
• Sticking Valves. same as a piston engine, but as soon as the fuel is ignited, the
• Worn Piston Rings. ignition is switched off and the fire burns continuously.
13. Long yellow flame from exhaust. The ram jet is extremely simple and particularly suited to high
• Lean Mixture. altitude and h igh speed. First, however, it must be carried
aloft by some other means of power and impelled at sufficient

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 Aero Engines: Jet Propulsion

forward speed to enable it to get started. Its practical use the vanes convert velocity to pressure, in the turbine they
appears limited to missiles, supersonic aeroplanes, etc. convert pressure to velocity. The rotational velocity is arrested
by the blades or buckets of the turbine wheel, thereby produc-
ing sh aft horsepower to drive the compressor. Becau se of the
very h igh temperature of the gases entering the turbine, only
a part of the pressure built up in the compressor is needed to
make the turbine drive the compressor. That is, there is pres-
sure left over after the turbines to make the gas do more work
downstream.
The exhaust cone collects and straightens the gas flow. The
A D E
Air Intake i
Diffu ser i Combustion
Ch a m ber
Exhau s t
Nozzle
length of the exhaust duct, or tail pipe determines the posi-
tion of the exhaust nozzle, an orifice at the rear of the duct,
whose size determines the speed of the gases as they emerge
Fig . 3.46 The Ram J e t Engine from the engine. Increasing the speed of the gases increases
their momentum and hence the amount of thrust produced
3.11.2 The Turbojet Engine by the engine.

In the turbojet engine, the intake air is compressed and The gas generator consists of the parts of the engine which
rammed into the combustion chamber by a compressor, produce gas at a h igh er pressure and temperature than at the
which is driven by a turbine wheel. The turbine in turn is engine inlet. This includes the compressor, the diffuser, the
driven by the momentum of the hot exhaust gases. burner and the turbine. The term "gas" has nothing to do w ith
gasoline. A gas turbine engine is one which is operated by a
The basic layout of the turbojet engine, together with some of gas, as distinct from one operated by steam vapour or water.
its construction features , is illustrated in Fig.3.47, the cutaw ay
drawing of the General Electric J-85 engine. The engine is controlled by the amount of fuel fed to it.
Cutting off the fuel stops the engine.
The engine is started by a starter motor. Air enters the air
inlet duct past the inlet guide vanes which guide the flow of The fuel used is kerosene. Any hydrocarbon can be used in
air at the right angle to the first stage compressor rotor. The a jet engine as long as it can be blown through a nozzle and
air is compressed by the compre ssor. The compressor illus- burned.
trated h as 8 rows of rotor blades one behind the other, axially, Why do some jet engines leave black smoke trails? Usually,
which rotate around a shaft, and is therefore referred to as an the reason is poor combustion. The fuels used in gas turbine
eight-stage axial flow compressor. Between the rows of rotor engines consist almost entirely of hydrocarbons, that is, com-
blades are rows of stationary stator vanes. They are fastened pounds of hydrogen and carbon. When the fuel is burned,
to the engine case and form a complete ring around the inside the hydrogen and carbon combine to form, ideally, water and
of the engine casing. Their purpose is to convert the velocity carbon dioxide. If, however, the combustion is not complete,
imparted by the rotor blades into pressure and to direct the air particles of carbon are formed which are visible as black
at the proper angle to the next set of blades where the process smoke.
is repeated.
The engine is lubricated by a pressure spray or flow of oil
which is fe d to the three bearing assemblies. Synthetic oil is
the type m ost widely used on turbojet engines.
Temperatures in the combustion chambers and around the
turbine in a jet en gine run as h igh as 700°C. Because of the
heat of th e jet stream, a person should not stand nearer than
150 to 200 feet directly back of th e tailpipe.
The jet engine weigh s roughly one quarter the weight of a
piston engine and propeller of similar power output. The fron-
tal area of the axial flow jet engine is approximately one tenth
th at of the frontal area of a radial piston en gine.
The jet engine's power is rated in pounds of static thrust
instead of horsepower. At a speed of 325 knots, one lb. of
Fig. 3.47 General Electric J - 85 Tu r bojet Engine thrust equals roughly one horsepower. At 525 knots at sea
level, the jet en gine's 5,000 lb. of static thrust is equivalent
The m ainfram e section serves as the main structural compo- to 8,000 true thrust horsepower. Assuming 66% propeller
nent. In many turbojet type engines, the section behind the efficiency for the piston en gine, this would be equivalent to
compressor functions as a diffuser. 12,000 hp.
The air from the compressor enters th e bu r ner section Thrust is simply force measured in pou nds (or kilograms).
through holes in the burner skin. (These also help to reduce
the intense heat of the burning gases.) The igniter plug(s) Like the piston en gine, the jet engine's power depends upon
and fuel nozzles, located within the burner section, ignite the weight of air it can consume. As altitude increases, th e
the gases initially and admit the fuel which bu rns with the density of the air (i.e. its weight) decreases. It is for this reason
compressed air to produce terrific heat . The heated gases are that turbochargers are used to maintain the power of piston
allowed to drop in pressure and accelerate through rows of engines at altitude. The turbine engine also suffers from loss
nozzle guide vanes, the whole assembly of vanes being gener- of power at altitude, but this is compensated for by the lower
ally called the turbine nozzle (s). Whereas in the compressor drag (resistance to forw ard speed) and the "ram " effect of the

From the Grou nd Up• 30th Ediuon

Aero Engines: Jet Propulsion

jet's higher speed, which rams more air into the engine to
produce a "turbocharging" effect. 3.11.5 The Turbofan Engine
The pressure ratio of a gas generator usually means the ratio The turbofan engine {Fig.3.49) is the practical application of
of pressure at the compressor exit to that at the compressor the principle of the by-pass engine. It was developed to incor-
inlet. Where the expression "engine pressure ratio (EPR)" is porate the best features of the turbojet, which has excellent
used, it means the pumping pressure ratio of the whole gas cruise speed capability, and the turboprop, which has short
generator, i.e. ratio of pressure at exit of the compressor drive field take-off capability.
turbine to the compressor inlet. The turbofan is a turbojet with a fan attached at the forward
Pressure ratios (of the compressor) at maximum rpm are end ahead of the compressors. The fan diameter is much less
mostly in the range 6:1 to 15 :1. The EPR is usually 1.5:1 or 2 :1. than that of the propeller of a turboprop engine but it contains
many more blades and moves the air at a greater velocity. The
diameter of the fan is, however, greater than that of the engine
3.11.3 Turboshaft &Turboprop Engines proper, so that some of the air passing through the blades is
In addition to jet propulsion, the gas turbine engine can also accelerated backward on the outside of the engine, providing
be used (in lieu of the reciprocating piston engine) to drive a extra thrust. This extra thrust is available for increased take-
propeller, in which case it is known as a turboprop engine, off, climb and cruise performance, reduced fuel consumption
or to drive a helicopter rotor, in which case it is known as a and hence better payload/range.
turboshaft engine. One of the simplest of several different
Axial flow, multiple compressor turbofan engines are widely
methods presently in use is the fixed shaft method. In this
used to power large aircraft, providing efficient, quiet and
arrangement, the turbine drives both the compressor and the
economical operation. They are also used as the powerplant
shaft directly.
on some of the small general aviation jet aeroplanes.
In some gas turbine engines two turbines are used, one to
In recent years, turbofan engines have been improved by
drive the compressor and the other to drive the shaft. When
changes in the design of turbine and compressor blades
these turbines are mechanically free of one another, the
and vanes, by use of improved alloys, by improving internal
engine is called a free turbine engine. The Pratt & Whitney
engine cooling systems and by modification of fan blade
Canada PT6 engine illustrated in Fig.3.48 is an example of a
design. The engines are, as a result, more fuel efficient and
free turbine turboprop engine.
develop more thrust for their weight.
The fan of the turbofan engine includes fixed inlet guide
vanes and fixed outlet guide vanes. Air from the fan is divided
into two airflows by the two stage fan: the primary air is
directed to the main engine core, the secondary air provides
by-pass thrust. The fan turns at the same rate and is driven
by the same turbine section as the low pressure compressor.

Fig.3.48 PT6 Free Turbine Turboprop Engine

Air enters the air intake and is compressed by a three axial stage and
single centrifugal stage compressor before it enters the combustion
chamber. The hot gases from the combustion chamber drive the
compressor turbine. They then drive the separate power turbine,
which in turn drives the propeller shaft. The gearbox reduces the
propeller speed to a fraction of the speed at which the turbine drives
the driveshaft.

3.1i.4 The By-Pass Engine

The propeller generates thrust by imparting a relatively small
acceleration to a relatively large mass of air. The jet gener-
ates thrust by imparting a relatively large acceleration to a
relatively small mass of air. For low airspeeds, the propeller Fig.3.49 Pratt & Whitney 308 Turbofan Engine
is most efficient. For high airspeed, the jet excels because the
jet engine produces its greatest propulsive efficiency at high The low pressure compressor usually consists of eight stages,
airspeeds. At low airspeeds, its thrust efficiency falls off and including the two fan stages, and is driven by the last three
its fuel consumption becomes excessive. The by-pass engine stages of the turbine. The high pressure compressor consists
was designed to improve the efficiency of the jet engine at of seven stages and is driven by the first stage of the turbine.
low airspeeds. Part of the air from the low-pressure compres- The casings that house the compressors include automatic
sor by-passes the high-pressure compressor, the combustion bleed valves which open to prevent compressor surge and
chambers and the turbine. This relatively low speed air is stall. A diffuser changes the direction of the high velocity,
mixed with the high speed hot gases from the combustion high pressure air and directs it to the combustion chamber.
chambers in the tail pipe, thus reducing the overall velocity of Fuel is supplied through a fuel manifold inside the forward
the jet stream. Pure by-pass engines are no longer in produc- end of the main combustion chamber. The air for the turbo-
tion, but the principle is used in the turbofan engine. fan core engine is compressed, ignited and discharged in the

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 Aero Engines: Jet Propulsion

same manner as in a turbojet engine. There are three combus- 45 degrees means that the effective power in reverse thrust is
tion chambers . The hot gases from the individual combustion proportionately less than the power in forward thrust for the
chambers are directed to the turbine rotor which drives the same throttle setting.
compressors. The safety features incorporated into these systems ensure
The turbofan engine is equipped with thrust reversers. The that the reverse thrust lever used to select reverse thrust
effect of the reverser is to reverse the direction of the exhaust cannot be moved to the reverse thrust position unless the
and fan discharges and thus cause the engine to deliver engine is running at a low power setting. Once reverse thrust
reverse thrust. is selected at low power, the pilot w ill then open up the engine
There are three classifications of turbofan engines: low by- to high power to use the full power of the engine to deceler-
pass, medium by-pass and high by-pass. In the low by-pass ate. However, if the reverser is not in the full and correct
engine, the fan and compressor sections are utilizing approxi- reverse thrust position, high engine power cannot be selected.
mately the same mass airflow and have a by-pass ratio of 1:1. Operation of the thrust reverse system is indicated to the
In the medium by-pass turbofan engine, the fan is slightly crew by a series of lights. Baffles, called cascades, deflect the
larger in diameter and provides a by-pass ratio of 2:1 or 3:1. jet blast forward to achieve the reverse thrust.
The high by-pass turbofan engine with fan ratios of 4:1 and A thrust reverser must not affect engine operation either
up has an even larger diameter fan with approximately 80% when the reverser is operating or when it is not. It must with-
of the thrust produced by the fan and 20% by the core engine. stand high temperatures and be mechanically strong but light
Today's advanced jet engine technology is slowly making in weight. When not in use, it should retract into the engine
these engine types more attainable to the average gen- nacelle in a streamlined design. A thrust reverser should be
eral aviation consumer. New light-weight, low-cost, single able to produce in reverse at least 50% of the full forward
power lever fanjets, under development by companies such thrust of which the engine is capable.
as Williams International and Pratt & Whitney, are offer- For N speeds and other terminology applicable to turbine
ing vastly improved overall performance over single-engine engines, see the Glossary.
counterparts but at the same fuel-burn and cost-per-mile
figures achieved by these same single-engine piston aircraft.
Where jet fuel offers significant cost savings over avgas,
the cost-per-mile benefits of such technology cannot be
underestimated.

3.1i.6 Thrust Reverser

Propeller driven aeroplanes, as we already have learned, are
capable of reverse thrust by changing the pitch of the propel-
ler blades in order to reverse the airflow and use the power of
the engine to stop the aeroplane on the ground. Turbine aero-
planes are also capable of reverse thrust, using engine power
as a deceleration force.
There are several methods of obtaining reverse thrust in jet
engines.
1. Clamshell type doors , operated pneumatically,
reverse the exhaust gas stream. The ducts through
which the exhaust gases are defle cted remain
closed during normal operation. When the pilot
selects reverse thrust, the doors rotate to uncover
the ducts and close the normal gas stream exit.
Baffles, called cascades, direct the exhaust gas
stream forward to achieve reverse thrust. When
the reverse is not in use, the clamshell doors
retract and nest neatly around the engine nacelle.
2. The bucket target system uses bucket type
doors to reverse the hot gas stream. Thrust
reverser doors are actuated by a conventional
pushrod system, hydraulically powered.
3. The cold stream reverser system is activated by an
air motor or by hydraulic rams. When the engine
is operating in forward thrust, the cold stream
nozzle is covered by blocker doors (flaps) and by the
movable cowling. On selection of reverse thrust,
the movable cowling moves rearward, the blocker
doors fold and blank off the cold stream nozzle,
diverting the airflow through the cascade vanes.
For aerodynamic reasons, the gas cannot be directed in a com-
pletely forward direction. A discharge angle of approximately

From the Ground Up <30th Edition

Aero Engines: Jet Propulsion

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

Overview of Part 2
4 Aerodromes & Airspace 5 Air Rules & Procedures
4.1 Aerodromes ................... 97 5.1 Rules of the Air .... 117
4.1.1 Runway Numbering .. .. ... . .. .. .. ... . .. 97 5.1.1 Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A) .... .... 117
4.1.2 Runway Markings . .................................... 98 5.1.2 Aeroplane Logs & Licences ..... 117
4.1.3 Taxiways ........ 98 5.1.3 Pilot's Licence .. .. 117
4.1.4 Airside Guidance Signs .98 5.1.4 Flight Experien ce 119
4.1.5 Aerodrom e Markings .. 99 5.1.5 Rules & Right- of-Way .. 119
4.1.6 Wind Indicators 99 5.1.6 Fuel Requirements .120
4.1.7 Aerodrome Lighting 99 5.1.7 Night Requirements 120
4.1.8 Aerodrome Traffic Procedures 102 5.1.8 Over Water Flights 121
5.1.9 Aerobatics 121
4.2 The Canadian Airspace System 101
5.1.10 Aircraft Occurrences 121
4.2.1 Domestic Airspace . ................. 107
5.1.11 Exp losives & Dang erous Goods 121
4.2.2 Altimeter Regions 108
4.2.3 Identification Zones. 108 5.2 Air Traffic Rules & Procedures 122
4.2.4 Uncontrolled Airspace 108 5.2.1 Air Traffic Services (ATS) 122
4.2.5 Controlled Airspace . 108 5.2.2 Clearances & Instruction s ... 122
4.2.6 Classification of Canadian Airspace .......... 110 5.2.3 Position Reports 122
4.2.7 Flight Information Region (FIR) .. 114 5.2.4 Flight Rules 122
4.2.8 Mountainous Regions .. ... 114 5.2.5 Flight Plans & Itineraries 124
5.2.6 Transborder Flights 126
4.3 The U.S. Airspace System 114
5.2.7 Cruising Altitudes 127
4.3 .1 U.S. Domestic Airspace 114 128
5.2.8 Cruising Speeds
4.3.2 U.S. Identification Zones ... 114
5.2.9 Weather Minima for VFR Flight 129
4.3.3 Classification of U.S. Airspace . 115
5.2.10 Special VFR (SV FR) . 129
5.2.11 VFR Over-the-Top (VFR OTT) .. ... 130
5.2.12 Minimum VFR Flight Altitudes .. 130
5.2.13 VFR Flight in
Class B Airspace (CVFR) 130
5.2.14 Holding Pattern 131
5.2.15 Identification Zones 131
5.2.16 Sparsely Settled Areas 132

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

4 Aerodromes The landing of any aircraft should be reported to the airport

operator by the pilot of the aircraft.

& Airspace Those parts of an airport or aerodrome used for the surface
movement of aircraft (movement area) include the maneuver-
ing areas and aprons. The maneuvering area is comprised of
those parts of the airport intended for the taking off and land-
Across the continent, there is an intricate system of aeronau- ing of aircraft and the movement of aircraft, in other words,
tical facilities designed to facilitate the efficient movement of the runways and taxiways. The apron is the area intended
air traffic. It won't be long before new pilots with their new for the loading and unloading of passengers and cargo, the
licence will be anxious to take off from their home and very refuelling, servicing, maintenance and parking of aircraft and
familiar airport to visit som e of the hundreds of other airports the movement of aircraft, vehicles and pedestrians necessary
throughout the country. In order not to be intimidated by new, for such purposes.
different and bigger airports, an understanding of the basics
of airport design is an essential part of a pilot's training. To
reach those other airports, pilots will h ave to cope with the
4.1.1 Runway Numbering
intricacies of controlled and uncontrolled airspace, airways, Airport runways are numbered for the purpose and conve-
control zones, cruising altitudes, etc., etc. This chapter is nience of identification. The number a runway is assigned
designed to introduce the pilot to aerodromes, to the airspace corresponds to its magnetic bearing, rounded off to the near-
system and to the regulations and procedures of flight within est 10°. For convenience, the last zero is omitted. Thus Runway
the airspace system. 09 would be the runway which runs from west to east (090°
magnetic). Since runway numbers are taken to the nearest
10° magnetic, a runway which lies 018° magnetic would be
4.1 Aerodromes considered as being 020° magnetic and would be numbered 02
at its opposite end.
The m any aerodromes across the continent vary widely in Th e runway number is displayed at the approach end of each
the facilities they offer to the itinerant pilot. The large met- runway. A single runway would, therefore, have different
ropolitan airports with several runways, complicated pat- numbers at each of its two ends. These numbers would be
terns of taxiways and sophisticated lighting systems seem 180° apart, or reciprocals of each other. For example, runway
very complex in comparison to the single strip sod runway 09 would be numbered 27 at the other end; runway 02 would
that constitutes the aerodrome of many small communities be 20 at its opposite end.
throughout the country. There are, however, certain standard
While airport runways are assigned numbers based on their
features that apply to every aerodrome, no matter how large
magnetic bearings, those in the Northern Domestic Airspace
or how small.
are assigned numbers based on true bearings. (The Northern
The term, aerodrome, is defined as any area of land or water Domestic Airspace, defined in Section The Canadian Airspace
designed for the arrival, departure, movement and servicing System, comprises the northern and arctic areas of Canada.)
of aircraft and includes buildings, installations and equipment In this northern area, compass indications are unreliable
there situated. because of the nearness of th e north m agnetic pole and there-
The term, airport, is defined as any aerodrome in respect of fore true bearings are considered more reliable for runway
which a certificate is in force. Some airports are designated numbering purposes.
"international airports" to support international commercial At larger aerodromes, there are sometimes two or more run-
air transport. An airport certificate testifies that the airport ways parallel to each other. The letter R added to the number
meets airport certification safety standards. of a runway indicates that it is the right of a pair of paral-
Aerodromes are classified as (1) certified for public use, (2) lel runways. An L indicates the left runway. The letters are
certified for private use, (3) registered or (4) military. The always assigned as viewed from the direction of approach.
majority of aerodromes in Canada are listed in the Canada Triple runways are designated L, C or R and would be called,
Flight Supplement or the Water Aerodrome Supplement. (In for example, "three six left", "three six centre" and "three six
the U.S., they are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory.) The right".
classification of the aerodrome is listed with the information
on the aerodrome operator in these publications.
An airport that h as been issued a Public Use Certificate
(Pub) is open to all aircraft. An airport that has a Private Use
Certificate (Pvt) is private property and is not open, except in
emergency, to itinerant aircraft. The permission of the owner
is required prior to use. Aerodromes that are not certified may
be registered (Reg) for the purpose of publishing aeronauti- 1 Taxiway Centreline
cal information in the Can ada Flight Supplement. Access to 2 Runway Holding Position
a registered aerodrome may be public or limited to private 3 Runway Centreline

use. Since the information on the aerodrome is provided by 4 Runway Numbering

~eft & right)
the owner/operator, it is advisable to verify the statu s and
s Displaced Threshold
condition of the aerodrome prior to use. A military (Mil) aero-
6 Pre-threshold Area
drome may be used by civil aircraft only if prior permission
is obtained or in an emergency. In the event of an in-flight Fig.4 .1 Example of Runway Numbering & Runway Markings
emergency, any aerodrome may be used at the discretion of
the pilot.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

. Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

4.i.2 Runway Markings 4.1.3 Taxiways

The perimeters of unpaved runways are required to be delineated Taxiways are an important part of the aerodrome facilities. They
with frangible, weatherproof markers that are clearly visible both enable aeroplanes to move to and from runways without interfer-
on the ground and from the air. These markers, that may be either ing with traffic taking off and landing.
pyramid shaped or cone shaped, are evenly spaced at intervals of
Yellow lines are usually painted down the centre of taxiways. A
not more than 300 feet along the sides of the runway. Additional
broad yellow line across it indicates the end of the taxiway where
markers are placed at the four corners of the runway at right angles
an aeroplane must "hold short" until ready for take-off. At a con-
to the centreline.
trolled airport, the aeroplane must hold at this position until receiv-
At certified aerodromes, these markers are painted in alternate ing clearance from the tower to enter the runway itself for take-off.
stripes of international orange and white; at other aerodromes, If no taxi holding position is established, an aeroplane should hold
they are solid international orange. at sufficient distance from the edge of the active runway so as not
Evergreen trees about 4 or 5 feet high are sometimes used to mark to create a hazard to arriving and departing traffic (200 feet is the
the perimeters of snow covered landing strips. recommended distance.)
An aeroplane may not cross an active runway at a controlled air-
Paved Runways port without first obtaining clearance to do so. The broad yellow
In addition to the number that is painted in large white figures at line indicates the position at which it must hold until clearance is
the approach end of the runway, lines are usually painted down the received.
centre of the runway to help the pilot align the aeroplane during
At the large airports where there are quite a number of taxiways,
landings and take-offs.
they are assigned letters for identification (e.g. A) and would be
Sometimes the entire paved portion of the runway is not usable as referred to as taxiway alfa.
the landing area. In this case, the threshold of the usable portion
is displaced and its position is marked by a line across the runway
with arrowheads pointing to it. Centreline arrows also point to the
4.1.4 Airside Guidance Signs
threshold line. A displaced threshold usually is made necessary Airside guidance signs are intended to provide direction and infor-
because of obstacles at the end of the runway that require addi- mation to taxiing aircraft and to assist in the safe and expeditious
tional clearance during the approach. The paved area behind the movement of aircraft. Airside guidance signs are illuminated at
displaced threshold can be used for taxiing, the landing roll-out airports that are used at night.
and the initial take-off roll. The displaced threshold portion of the Operational guidance signs provide direction or facilities infor-
runway may be used for landing but it is the responsibility of the
mation and have black inscriptions on a yellow background. The
pilot to ensure that the descent path safely clears all obstacles. A
inscriptions incorporate arrows, numbers, letters or pictographs.
relocated threshold is made necessary if a section of the runway
A location sign is used to identify a taxiway and never contains
is closed either temporarily or permanently. The closed portion
arrows. A direction sign is used to identify intersecting runways
is marked with closed markings and is not to be used for taxiing,
and will contain arrows to identify the angle of intercept. Direction
for the initial take-off roll or for the landing roll-out. A turnaround
signs are normally used in conjunction with location signs. A
bay may be provided at the threshold end of a runway that is not
directly served by a taxiway. It is a widened area which can be used runway exit sign identifies a taxiway exiting a runway. Some
for turnaround but it does not give sufficient clearance from the airports provide rapid exit taxiways which are angled at 30° to
runway edge for holding while other aeroplanes use the runway. the runway to facilitate the rapid clearance of aeroplanes from
the active runway. Destination signs provide directions to certain
Sometimes runways are constructed with lengthy overrun and facilities on the airport. Other signs may include information on
undershoot areas. Such pre-threshold areas are paved but are non- VOR and DME checkpoints, parking areas, etc.
load bearing and are marked for their entire length with yellow
chevrons. Stopways at the end of runways in the direction of take- Example Type of Sign
off are prepared as suitable areas in which an aeroplane can be
stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off. A stopway is marked Mandatory hold position for
taxiway/ runwa y in tersec ti on
over the entire length with yellow chevrons.
Sometimes, special threshold markings are included as part of the
runway marking scheme. These consist of 2 sets of four or more Ta xiway loca tion identifier
bars parallel to the sides of the runway. They serve to indicate that
a non-precision approach facility such as a VOR serves the runway
and that the runway can be used for landing under instrument Taxiway intersection identifier
conditions as well as VFR.
Runways for which there are precision approach facilities, such as
Runway location identifier
an !LS, have additional landing zone markings at 500 foot intervals
down the length of the runway. Touchdown zone stripes, consist-
ing of 2 sets of 3 parallel white stripes are painted at a distance of
Runway exit direction identifier
500 feet from the threshold of the runway; fixed distance markers,
either 2 thick parallel bars or 2 sets of 5 parallel stripes, indicate
1,000 feet; further sets of stripes indicate 1,500, 2,000, 2,500 and
3,000 feet. No ent ry identifier

Runway marking varies depending on runway length and width.

A description of the full range of runway markings is published Fig .4.2 Airside Guidance Signs
in the Transport Canada publication Aerodrome Standards and
Recommended Practices.

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

Mandatory instruction signs are used to identity holding of the windsock. A standard windsock will fly perfectly hori-
positions beyond which pilots must have ATC clearance to zontal in a wind of 15 knots or more but will hang at about
proceed. A holding position sign is installed at all taxiway to 30 degrees below the horizontal in a wind of only 6 knots. A
runway intersections and shows the designation (i.e. number) fluttering windsock indicates gusty conditions . At night, the
of the departing runway. At uncontrolled airports, pilots windsock is illuminated.
are required to hold at points marked by these signs until The tetrahedron, or wind T, is designed like an arrow whose
they have ascertained that there is no air traffic conflict.
small end points into the wind.
Mandatory instruction signs are red with reflective white let-
tering and symbols.

4.1.5 Aerodrome Markings

Wind direction
Certain ground markings indicate the status of some aero-
dromes and pilots are required to comply with these markings.
Example Type of Marketing

Closed ru nway and tax iway marking

Ru nway ho ldi ng position mar kin gs

Fig.4.4 Wind Direction Indicators

Aerodromes with runways greater than 4,000 feet in length

will have a wind direction indicator located at each end of the
Non- movement area runway. Where the runways are less than 4,000 feet in length,
bo un dary mar kings a single wind indicator will be centrally located about midway
along the runway.

4.1.? Aerodrome Lighting

!LS holding po sition ma rkings
For night operations, landing and take-off areas (i.e. run-
ways) are indicated by two parallel lines of white lights that
are visible at least 2 miles in all directions. Low intensity
- - - - - Taxiway holdin g posi t ion mar kin gs white lights are sometimes installed down the centreline of
runways. Some registered aerodromes may use retroreflec-
Fig . 4.3 Aerodrome Markings tive markers in place of lights to mark the edges of runways.
They may also substitute for lights on taxiways or aprons at
A large cross, either white or yellow and at least 20 feet in certified airports. A fixed white light or strobe light must be
length, displayed at each end of a runway or taxiway indicates installed at each end of the runway to assist pilots in locat-
that the runway or taxiway is unserviceable (Fig.4.3). For night ing the aerodrome and aligning the aircraft with the runway.
operations any unserviceable portion of a runway is closed off Retroreflective markers must be capable of reflecting aircraft
by placing red lights at right angles to the centreline across landing lights from a distance of 2 n.m. although pilots should
both ends of the unserviceable area. In addition, the runway remain aware that the proper operational capability of their
lights for the unserviceable area should be turned off. aircraft landing lights is crucial to the reflective capability of
If an unserviceable portion of any maneuvering area or taxi- the markers themselves.
way is small enough that it can be bypassed by an aeroplane The runway threshold is indicated by green lights. These
with safety, red flags are used to outline the area of unser- lights when viewed from the back are red and indicate the end
viceability. At night, the area is marked by steady red lights. of the runway for traffic landing and taking off when the other
Sometimes, in the interest of safety, one or more flashing red end of the runway is active.
lights may be used as well. The edges of taxiways are marked by blue lights. Sometimes
green lights are installed down the centreline of taxiways.
4.1.6 Wind Indicators Clearance bars, which consist of at least 3 flu sh mounted, uni-
The runway in use is determined by the wind direction since directional yellow lights showing in the direction of approach,
aeroplanes, during landing and take-off, operate most effi- are sometimes installed in taxiways to indicate a specific
ciently and safely by flying as directly into the wind as possi- holding position.
ble. All airports are therefore required to display a device that At public use aerodromes, runway, taxiway and approach
indicates which way the wind is blowing. There are several lights (see below) are normally operated on an "as required"
types of wind indicators , as depicted in Fig.4.4. basis and are turned on about 5 minutes before the ETA of the
The windsock or wind cone , (on the left in Fig.4.4), the old reli- approaching aeroplane. At private use aerodromes, lights may
able good samaritan to homecoming airmen since World War be available only during limited hours or by prior request. In
I, is the traditional symbol of flying fields the world over. The some cases, the aerodrome lights can be activated by radio
wind always blows in the big end and out the small end. The control from the aircraft. Aircraft radio control of aerodrome
velocity of the wind is indicated by the amount of extension lighting (ARCAL) is effected via the VHF transmitter in the
aircraft by keying the microphone a given number of times

From the Ground Up • 30th Edition

•• Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

within a specified number of seconds. Each activation will

illuminate the lights for a given period (usu ally 15 minutes). 1---~---:---~---~---~---~-- :oo ~ -~---~----~---~---:---~----1
Pilots are advised to key the activating sequence even if the
. 1 . . . . . • • . . :.._.: • .
lights are on, in order to have the full 15 minutes available for 'L Dual fixtures GO r:i ·
their approach. Specific information about the ARCAL instal-
lation at a particular aerodrome is listed in the Canada Flight
Fig.4.6 Low Intensity Approach Lighting System (UAL)
Supplement.
Omnidirectional Approach Lighting Systems (ODALS) consist
of seven omnidirection al (i.e., transmittin g in all directions)
variable-intensity, sequenced flashing lights. ODALS provide
circling, offset and straight-in visual guidance for non-preci-
sion approach runways. There are five lights on the extended
centreline commencing 90 metres from the threshold and
spaced 90 metres apart over a total distance of 450 metres.
Two lights are positioned 12 metres to the left and right of the
th reshold. The system flashes towards the threshold, then
the two threshold lights flash in unison. The cycle repeats
every second.

~--------------------------- 450m·------------------------ 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 .
l_ Flashing lights ! 90 m i ¢ ·

Fig. 4.7 Omnidirectional Approach Lighti ng System (ODALS)

Medium Intensity Approach Lighting Systems (MALS) or

Fig.4.5 Example of Aerodrome Lighting
Medium Intensity Approach Lighting Systems with Sequenced
An airport beacon helps a pilot to locate an airport amidst all Flashing Lights (MALSF) consist of seven barrettes (i.e., ground
th e other confusing ground lights of a community. The beacon ligh ts closely spaced in a transverse line so that from a dis-
is a white light, visible for about 10 n.m. on a clear night, th at tance they appear as a sh ort bar of light) of variable -intensity
rotates at a con stant speed producing h ighly visible light lights spaced 60 m etres apart, commencing 60 m etres from
flashes at regular intervals of about 2 or 3 seconds. The air- the th reshold, over a distance of 420 metres. In a MALSF, the
port beacon usually operates continuously during nighttime three barrettes farthest away from the threshold contain a
hours. However, if the airport is located near the centre of an sequenced flashing light unit. These lights flash sequentially
urban area where other rotating types of lights would detract towards the threshold, repeating at two cycles per second.
from the effectiveness of the beacon on the air port or if the
airport is easily recognizable because of other visual aids, the
operation of the beacon may be waived. The airport beacon 0 0 0
.
!----------------------------- 420m--------------------------1
• • , wm ,
.
is not operated during the day. Some rotating beacons have
been replaced with strobe type beacons which flash about 30
L Flashing ligh: L Steady bumi~;;:: .
times per minute. Fig.4.8 Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System
Obstruction lights are u sed to m ark tall buildin gs and towers with Sequenced Flashing Lights (MALSF)
that m igh t be flight h azards. These may be red lights that are Medium Intensity Approach Lighting Systems with Runway
either steady or flashing or they may be flashing white strobe Alignment Indicator Lights (MALSR) consist of the following:
lights. seven barrettes of light over a distance of 420 metres, one side
barrette of light on each side of the centreline barrette at 300
Approach Lights m etres from the runway th reshold, and five sequenced flash-
Many airports have an installation of approach lights that ing lights (flashing in sequence towards the threshold at a rate
extends from the centreline of the runway back along the of two cycles per second) over the remaining distance of 300
approach path. They help pilots align the aeroplane with the metres. The system's variable-intensity approach lights are
runway while also helping pilots establish the correct slope spaced 60 m etres apart, commencing at 60 m etres from the
gradient on their descent to the runway. There are various threshold from which they extend back along the approach
types of approach ligh t system s. Most are m edium or h igh path for a total distance of 720 metres.
intensity lights. Some are characterized by steady lights; some

£~~:.:~:·· :·· ·: T:~,}~·"·~·· 1

flash in sequence towards the threshold.

NON-PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAYS

Low Intensity Approach Lighting Systems (LIAL) are pro-
vided on non-precision approach runways (i.e., runways for
Fig.4.9 Medium Intensity Approach Li ghting System
which only horizontal, and not vertical, guidance is provided wit h Runway Alignm e nt Indi cato r Lights (MA LS R)
on instrument approaches). LIAL systems consist of yellow
fixed-intensity twin light units spaced at 60-metre intervals Simplified Short Approach Lighting Systems (SSALS) are the
commencing 60 metres from the threshold from which they same as MALS. However, they use high intensity lights instead
extend back along the approach path for a total distance of of sequenced flashing ligh ts.
900 m etres.

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAYS VASI AVASI

==1
Simplified Short Approach Ligh ting System s with Runw ay

1l
Alignment Indicator Lights (SSALR) are provided on precision
approach runways (i.e., runways at which pilots receive verti- Above approach slope
cal and lateral guidance on instrument approaches). SSALR (D(D
are the sam e as the MALSR. However, they use high intensity
lights instead of sequenced flashing lights.
Approach Lighting Systems with Sequenced Flash ers - CAT II

--A
(ALSF-2) con sist of rows of five white variable -intensity light

~A
units placed at longitudinal intervals of 30 m etres commenc-
On approach slope
ing 30 metres from the threshold and extending for a total (D(D
distance of 720 metres along the approach path. In view of the
very low decision height associated w ith CAT II operations
(see Instrument Landing System (!LS) in Ch apter 9), green
runway threshold lights are provided, as well as 150-metre
distance bars (wh ite with red barrettes) and red side barrettes. Below approach slope

~~-~ J~~i~i~~-~~~:m£·~-~-~--~·5·~-~-i-~--11 Fig.4 .11 VASI & AVASI Approach Lights

0 • • • • • • • • •

Steady burning lights + ~O :n . Th e AVASI con sists of two light units situated on the left side
Fig . 4.10 Approach Li ghting System with of th e runway in the form of a pair of wing bars (one light unit
Sequenced Flashers - CAT II (ALSF- 2) per wing bar). The display is similar to a VASI and is depen-
dent on the position of the pilot's eyes.
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE The VASIS known as a PAPI consists of four light u nits typical-
INDICATOR SYSTEMS (VASIS) ly situated on the left side of the runway in the form of a wing
The Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS) is a light- bar. If the aeroplane is flying the proper approach slope, the
ing system designed to help pilots maintain a correct glide two units nearest the runway show red and the two units far-
path on the approach to a runway. There are four types of thest from the runway show white. If the aeroplane is above
VASIS: the visual approach slope indicator (VASI), the abbre - the approach slope, three or all four units will show white
viated VASI (AVASI), the precision approach path indicator (depending on the degree of displacement from the approach
(PAPI) and th e abbreviated PAPI (APAPI). VASIS is, therefore, slope). If the aeroplane is below the approach slope, three or
the generic term referring to these different approach slope all four units will show red with four reds indicating that the
indicators. aeroplane is well below the approach slope.
A VASIS consists of a series of lights visible from approxi- PAPI APAPI
m ately 4 n.m . and is designed to provide visual indications of
the desired approach slope (usually of 3 degrees) to a runway.
Aircraft following the on-slope signal will have safe obstruc-
tion clearance to a min imum of 6 degrees on either side of Too high
the extended runway cen treline, out to 4.1 n.m. (7.5 km) from
the runway threshold. Descent using VASIS should not be
initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the runway
centreline.
The vertical distance from a pilot 's eyes to the lowest portion
of the aircraft in the landing configuration is referred to as Slightly high
the eye-to-wheel height (EWH). This distance varies from less

OCHA
than 10 ft up to 45 ft depending on the type of aircraft being
piloted. Consequently, approach slope indicator system s are
related to this EWH, and they provide safe wheel clearance On correct
over the threshold when the pilot is descending to the runway approach path
on the on-slope indication.
The VASIS known as a VASI consists of four light units situ-
O•••A Slightly low

····- ··-
ated on the left side of the runway in the form of a pair of wing
bars (two light units per wing bar), referred to as the upwind
and downw ind wing bars. Each light unit of a w ing bar proj- Too low
ects a beam of light. Th e upper part of the beam shows white
Fig .4.12 PAPI & APAPI Approa ch Lights
light while the lower part shows red light. The light units
are so arranged that when an aeroplane is approaching the The APAPI consists of two light units situated on the left side
runway on th e proper approach slope, the upwind bar shows of the runway in the form of a w ing bar. When the aeroplane
red and the downwind bar sh ows wh ite. If the aeroplane is is above the approach slope, both units show white. When the
above the approach slope, both upwind and downwind bars aeroplane is on (or close to) the approach slope, the unit nearer
show white. If the aeroplane is below the approach slope, to the runway edge shows red and the u nit farther from the
both upw ind and downwind bars show red. Ifth e aeroplane is runway edge shows white. When the aeroplane is below the
well below the approach slope, the lights of the two wing bars
approach slope, all units are red.
merge into one red signal.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

To accommodate the greater EWH of large jet aeroplanes and When in the vicinity of an uncontrolled airport, it is impera-
to ensure safe wheel clearance over the runway threshold, tive that you be especially alert for other traffic and exchange
the position of the PAPI light bar in relation to the threshold information by communicating on the MF or ATF (see below).
can be varied. All radio equipped aircraft should monitor the designated fre-
It should be noted that, in certain atmospheric conditions, quency and follow reporting procedures.
VASIS white lights sometimes appear yellowish, orange or When approaching a strange airport, you should enter the
brown. The red lights, however, are not affected; therefore, the airport zone throttled back to slow speed and letting down in
VASIS principles of colour differentiation for slope recognition a gradual descent. Never dive into the area from a height or
are still applicable. out of clouds.
Circuit height should be reached before entering the traffic
4.i.8 Aerodrome Traffic Procedures circuit.
A pattern for traffic movement has been established for use In joining the circuit, always take care to avoid cutting off
at all aerodromes. It is called a traffic circuit (in the U.S., it is other aeroplanes and overtaking the aeroplane ahead of you
called a traffic pattern) and it expedites and separates aero- when approaching to land.
planes using the same aerodrome.
If it is necessary to cross the airport prior to joining the circuit
It is the responsibility of every pilot, for safety and efficiency, (to study an unfamiliar airport, to determine the runway in
to learn and follow the proper traffic procedures when coming use, or for any other reason), the cross-over should be done
in to land at an aerodrome. at least 500 feet above circuit height and descent to circuit
The following definitions apply to portions of the traffic circuit: altitude should be made on the upwind side or well clear of
the traffic circuit.
The upwind side is the area on the opposite side of the land-
ing runway from the downwind leg. Approach should be made Circuit altitude is established as 1,000 feet above the eleva-
into this area at or above circuit height. tion of the aerodrome unless otherwise specified because of
particular circumstances at a certain location. Except when
The circuit joining crosswind is a corridor, lying within the the cloud and ceiling situation prevents it, all aircraft in the
airspace between the centre of the landing runway and its traffic circuit must maintain the 1,000 foot circuit altitude on
upwind end, linking the upwind side and the downwind leg. the crosswind and downwind legs.
The downwind leg is a flight path, opposite to the direction of Landing should be made on or parallel to the runway most
landing, which is parallel to and at a sufficient distance from nearly aligned into wind. However, you as pilot have the final
the landing runway to permit a standard rate-one turn to the authority and responsibility for the safe operation of your
base leg. aeroplane and you may select another runway in the interest
The base leg is a flight path at right angles to the direction of of safety if you choose.
landing and sufficiently downwind of the approach end of the After landing, clear the runway as quickly as possible by turn-
landing runway to permit at least a 1/4 mile final approach leg ing off at the nearest taxiway. If it is necessary to taxi back
after completion of a standard rate-one turn to final approach. along the runway in use, turn left 90° and watch for aeroplanes
The final approach leg is a flight path in the direction of land- landing before proceeding to taxi. All turns made to clear the
ing, commencing at least 1/4 mile from the runway threshold, runway should be made to the left. It is standard practice for a
wherein an aeroplane is in line with the landing runway and pilot landing behind an aeroplane that has just touched down
descending towards the runway threshold. to pass to the right as he/she overtakes the other aeroplane.
Left-hand circuits are normally in use at most airports in
The Traffic Circuit at Uncontrolled Airports North America. At a few, right-hand circuits have been desig-
An uncontrolled airport is one at which no tower is in opera- nated and in that case, the reverse of the traffic flow pictured
tion. (In the United States, it is called a non-tower airport.) in Fig.4.13. would apply. If you are flying circuits, you should,
Some airports have towers which operate only during speci- after each take-off, reach circuit altitude before joining the
fied hours and these airports are considered to be uncon- downwind leg.
trolled during those times when the tower is shut down. If you are taking off from an uncontrolled airport, always
Where no mandatory frequency procedures are in effect check the final approach for traffic coming in to land before
(see Mandatory Frequency within this chapter), you should moving out onto the runway. It is also wise to check the final
approach the traffic circuit (Fig.4.13) from the upwind side of approach paths to other intersecting runways in case an aero-
the runway and enter crosswind at circuit height. Taking due plane is landing from another direction.
account of other traffic, join the circuit on the downwind leg. In taking-off and departing the circuit, you should climb
You may join the circuit directly on the downwind leg provided straight ahead on the runway heading until clear of the traffic
you have ascertained without doubt that there is no conflict circuit. Any turn while operating in the traffic circuit should be
with other traffic. Where mandatory frequency procedures made to the left (except of course when a right-hand circuit is
are in effect and traffic advisories available, you may approach in effect). However, you may make a right-hand turn to depart
straight in or at 45° to the downwind leg and join the circuit at from the vicinity of the aerodrome when the aircraft is well
circuit altitude or you may approach straight in to the base or beyond the circuit area.
final approach legs. However, you must be alert for other VFR
traffic entering the circuit at these positions and for !FR traffic
doing straight in or circling approaches. (In the United States,
there is only one recommended entry to the traffic pattern at
a non-tower airport, a 45° entry to the downwind leg at the
midpoint of the runway at pattern altitude.)

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

Fig.4.13 The Traffic Circuit at Uncontrolled Airports

Standard left-hand circuit. If a right-hand circuit is designated, the opposite of this diagram is applicable. Circuits are normally flown at 1,000 feet
above aerodrome elevation (AAE).

MANDATORY FREQUENCY (MF) In most cases, the specified area associated with the MF is 5
At certain selected uncontrolled airports, mandatory frequen- nautical miles in radius from the airport on which it is centred
cies have been designated. Ordinarily these are airports at and extends up to 3,000 feet AAE.
which there is an instrument approach and at which there is
The mandatory frequency, call sign , and distance are listed
a flight service station (FSS) or a community aerodrome radio w ith other communication information about the airport in
station (CARS), both of which provide airport and vehicle the Canada Flight Supplement. For example, the listing might
advisory service. An MF may also be designated at an airport
read: MF - radio 118.7 04-122 5NM 3050 ASL. In this instance,
with an RCO (remote communication outlet) if it provides
the mandatory frequency is 118.7 MHz and is monitored by
remote airport and remote vehicle advisory service or at any a flight service station. The call sign is the name of the FSS/
other airport where an MF is con sidered necessary because of
airport and the word RADIO (i.e. Dawson Radio). The MF is
special traffic conditions. An MF may also be designated at a
in force from 0400 to 1200 UTC. (This example refers to an
controlled airport for use during the period of the day when airport at which the MF is in effect during the hours when
the control tower is not in operation. Flight service stations,
the control tower is closed. If the MF is in force 24 hours a
community aerodrome radio stations and remote communi-
day, no h ours of operation are mentioned in the Canada Flight
cation outlets are discussed in the Chapter Radio.
Supplement listing.) The specified area within which com -
Mandatory frequencies have been established in the interest munication with the station must be established lies in a 5
of safety, on the premise that a full exchange of information n autical mile radius from the airport and extends up to 3,050
concerning the movement of traffic will prevent unsafe condi- feet ASL which is 3,000 feet above the elevation of the airport.
tions from developing. Aircraft operating within the specified
You should make your first transmission on the MF at least
area of an MF are required to be radio equipped. Pilots must 5 minutes before entering the specified area and you should
report their positions and indicate their intentions and must report your position , altitude, arrival procedure intentions
monitor the mandatory frequency while operating within
and estimated time of landing. You must maintain a listen-
the specified area surrounding the airport at which the MF is ing watch on the mandatory frequency while in the specified
designated.
area. Upon joining the traffic circuit, you should report your
If you are intending to land at or take off from one of these position in the pattern. You should report again when you are
airports, you shall establish communication with the ground establish ed on the final approach. A fin al report should be
station on the published MF frequency. En route VFR traffic transmitted when you are clear of the runway after landing.
operating within the specified area sh all also use the MF to If the ground station fails to respond to your initial transmis-
advise of their position and intentions and to obtain traffic sion, all further reports that you would normally make shall be
information. broadcast. To broadcast means to make a radio transmission
that is not directed to any particular receiving station. In this

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

•· Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

case, the transmission is broadcast for the purpose of advising The specified area associated with an ATF is normally 5 nauti-
any other traffic in the specified area of your intentions. cal miles in radius from the airport on which it is centred and
If you are intending to take off from an airport for which an extends up to 3,000 feet AAE.
MF has been designated, you should request airport advisory The ATF, call sign, hours of operation if applicable and distance
service on the MF prior to taxiing in order to have a good idea of are listed with other communication information about the air-
what traffic is operating in the area of the airport. You should port in the Canada Flight Supplement. For example, the listing
report your intentions and maintain a listening watch on the might read: ATF - unicorn ltd hrs O/T tfc 122.8 SNM 4300 ASL. In
MF frequency. When you are ready to take off, you should report this instance, the ATF is monitored by the ground based UNICOM
your departure procedure intentions and ascertain both by station during limited hours and during this time, you should use
radio and by visual observation that there is no traffic before the call sign UNICOM (i.e. Otter Lake UNICOM). At other times,
moving onto the runway. You should report when you are clear you should use the call sign "traffic" (i.e. Otter Lake Traffic) to
of the circuit and monitor the MF u ntil you are well clear of the relay your intentions in the broadcast mode. The specified area
specified area. lies in a 5 nautical mile radius from the airport and is capped at
En route VFR traffic intending to fly through the specified area 4,300 feet ASL which is 3,000 feet above the airport elevation.
must report position, altitude and intentions prior to entering If you are intending to land at, or take off from , an airport for
the area, maintain a listening watch on the MF while in the area which an ATF has been designated, you would follow the same
and report clear of the specified area when leaving it. If at all procedures as those outlined for an airport at which an MF has
possible, it is advisable to avoid passing through the specified been designated. In other words, if you are intending to land
area of an MF in order to minimize conflict w ith local traffic at the airport, you would make your first transmission before
and to reduce radio congestion on the MF. Monitoring the MF entering the specified area advising of your position, altitude,
frequency while in proximity to the area is nevertheless a wise intentions and expected time of landing, and would make fur-
practice. ther reports as required. If you are intending to take off from the
airport, you would follow the same procedures in making reports
Where an MF is operated by an RCO, it is important to remem-
of your intentions as you would do if operating where an MF is
ber that the RCO is operated remotely by an FSS at another
in operation.
location. The operator is some distance away and cannot see
what is going on at the airport. He/she is able to pass on only NORDO aircraft may operate without restriction at an airport
information that he/she has been given on the radio. where there is an ATF. However, if you are the pilot of a NORDO
aircraft, you must be especially observant since neither the other
Only aircraft equipped with two-way radio capable of com-
aircraft nor the airport service vehicles can be alerted to your
munication with a ground station are permitted to operate
on the maneuvering area of an airport for which a mandatory presence. You should fly a full circuit so that runway availability
frequency has been designated or under VFR within the speci- and traffic can be visually ascertained.
fied area. However, special provision has been made to permit If you are intending to land at an uncontrolled airport for which
NORDO aircraft (i.e. aircraft without radios) to operate if prior neither an MF or an ATF has been designated, in the interest
notice of the intentions of the pilot has been given to the FSS of safety, you should transmit your intentions in the broadcast
or CARS. NORDO aircraft must, of course, be especially obser- mode on the frequency of the ground station, if one exists, or on
vant while operating w ithin the specified area and must enter the general frequency 123.2 MHz, if there is no ground station.
the traffic circuit in a position which will require the aircraft You should switch from 126.7 MHz (the frequency you should be
to complete at least the downwind leg and the base leg of the monitoring during flight in uncontrolled airspace) to 123.2 MHz
circuit before turning onto the final approach path. Information (or the frequency of the ground station) when you are about 5
on the presence ofNORDO aircraft operating either in the air or minutes away from the airport and broadcast a position report
on the ground is provided to other traffic operating within the and your landing intentions. You should monitor the frequency
MF area. Advice on the arrival of a NORDO aircraft is included throughout the period you are in the vicinity of the airport and
in the traffic advisory for 5 minutes before and for 10 minutes report again when you are established in the traffic pattern
after its ETA; on the departure, just prior to take-off and for 10 (as you would do if there was an MF or ATF designated for that
minutes after departure. airport).
(The FAA in the U.S. has established common traffic advisory
frequencies , CTAF, to be used when operating in the vicinity of The Traffic Circuit at Controlled Airports
non-tower airports.) The traffic circuit at a controlled airport is not dissimilar from
that at an uncontrolled airport. It consists also of a crosswind leg,
AERODROME TRAFFIC FREQUENCY (ATF} a downwind leg, a base leg and a final approach leg (Fig.4.14). The
At uncontrolled airports that are considered to be relatively principal difference is that you must establish communication
active, aerodrome traffic frequencies are designated instead of with the control tower.
mandatory frequencies. The designated ATF will normally be
the ground station where one exists. Usually this would be the You must establish and maintain radio communications with
UNICOM frequency 122.8 MHz. Where no ground station exists, the control tower prior to operating within the control zone
the designated ATF would be 123.2 MHz used in the broadcast served by an operational control tower. You must, therefore, call
mode. Vehicle operators, who are trained and authorized to do the control tower on the appropriate frequency prior to enter-
so, can communicate with pilots on the ATF and provide infor- ing the control zone, give your identification and position and
mation about vehicles and aircraft on the maneuvering area and request landing instructions. It is advisable to make this initial
about runway conditions. call about 5 minutes prior to entering the zone. If the control zone
is Class B or Class C airspace, the appropriate clearance must be
received from the controlling agency prior to entry into the clas-
sified airspace. (See Classification of Canadian Airspace.)

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

Fig . 4.14 The Traffic Circuit at Controlled Airports

Standard left-hand circuit. If a right-hand circuit is designated, the opposite of this diagram is applicable. Circuits are normally flown at 1,000 feet AAE

The tower controller will advise the runway in use, wind direc- landing clearance, you must pull up and make another circuit.
tion and speed, altimeter setting and any other pertinent infor- Even after landing clearance is given, the tower may advise you
mation and then will clear you to enter the circuit. "Cleared to to pull up and go around again if the situation on the runway
the Circuit" authorizes you to join the circuit on the downwind becomes unsafe for landing.
leg at circuit height. If, because of your position in relation to If, after landing clearance is accepted, the situation is such that
the runway in use, it is necessary to proceed crosswind prior to you, as pilot, feel that there is a h az ard to the safe operation of
joining the circuit on the downwind leg, do so as indicated in your flight, you should advise ATC of your intentions and go
Fig. 4.14, appro aching the active runway from the upwind side around again. If, for example, the crosswind component is too
at a point midway between each end of the runway staying much for the capabilities of your aeroplane, you m ay request
clear of the approach and departure paths of the active runway. another runway that is more into wind if one exists. Always
When joining the circuit, you must conform as closely as pos- advise ATC of your intention s.
sible to the altitude, speed and size of the circuit being flown
by other traffic. After landing you should clear the runway without delay by
continuing forward to the neares t available taxi strip or turn-
The airport controller m ay clear you to a straight in approach off point. Continue to taxi until you h ave crossed the taxi posi-
and, in this instance, you m ay join the traffic circuit on the tion hold line, or until you are at least 200 feet from the runway.
fin al approach leg without h aving executed any other portion You must not exit a runway onto another runway unless autho -
of the circuit. Once established in the traffic circuit, you should rized by ATC to do so. If you have landed beyond the las t turn-
advise the tower of your position (e.g. "Foxtrot Romeo Lima off point, proceed to the end of the runway, turn off and wait for
Tango is downwind"). The tower will then give you your land- permission to taxi back to an intersection. Do not turn and taxi
ing instructions. back against the direction of landing traffic unless instructed
For Example: to do so by the tower. When clear of the active runway, the
Piper Foxtrot Romeo Lima Tan go tower will advise you to switch to ground control who will give
Tower:
you instructions and authorization to taxi to the parking areas.
you are number one.
At some of the larger controlled airports, more facilities
or,
than just the tower are available. Runway and weath er infor-
Tower: Piper Foxtrot Romeo Lima Tango mation is broadcast on the automatic terminal information
you are number two. Follow service (ATIS) (see Chapter Radio). Always listen to the ATIS
Cessna 185 now on base leg. before contacting the tower and then advise the tower that
You must have landing clearance prior to landing. Normally, you have the ATIS information. Extended areas of Class C
the controller will clear you to land as you turn onto final. If airspace surround some control zones and it is necessary to
this does not happen, it is your responsibility as pilot to request contact the area controller before contacting the tower (see
landing clearance in sufficient time to accommodate the oper- The Canadian Airspace System, following). Always check the
ating characteristics of your aeroplane. If you do not receive Canada Flight Supplement and/or a VTA chart if applicable for

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

•. Aerodromes & Airspace: Aerodromes

special procedures that are in force at any airport at which you a clearance for operation within the airspace. The tower will
intend to land. then be expecting you and will be prepared to give you light
signals. To operate in Class C airspace, you must secure such a
If you are intending to take off from a controlled airport,
you must contact ground control for taxi instructions before prior clearance.
starting off towards the active runway. At some of the larger For NORDO departures, you should taxi with caution to the
airports, you must contact clearance delivery even before runway in use but must stay at least 200 feet from the edge of
contacting grou nd control to advise of your intentions. Ground the runway until clearance is received to take off. If stopped
control will give you instructions on how to proceed to the at any time by a re d light, you must wait for further clearance
active runway and will then advise you to switch to the tower before proceeding. When ready for take-off, turn the aircraft
frequency for take-off instructions. When cleared for take -off, towards the tower to attract the attention of the controller.
you shall acknowledge and take off without delay. Once air- Acknowledge signals by full movement of rudder or ailerons or
borne, remain tuned to the tower frequency during the time by taxiing the aircraft to the authorized position.
you are operating within the control zone and preferably until
The following are authorized light signals to aircraft on the
you are at least 10 miles outside it. You do not require permis-
ground:
sion to change from the tower frequency once you are clear of
the control zone and should not request release or report clear Light Signal Light Meaning
when there is considerable frequency congestion. See also Flashing Green Light Cleared to ta xi.
Radio Communication Facilities in Chapter Radio and Take-Off/ Steady Green Light Cleared for take-off.
Landing Procedures in Chapter Airmanship. Flashing Red Light Taxi clear of runway in use.
Steady Red Light Stop .
SEQUENTIAL & SIMULTANEOUS OPERATIONS Flashing White Light Return to starting point on airport.
ATC procedures allow for sequential and/or simultaneous Vehicles and pedest rians are to
Blin ki ng Run way Lights
operations on intersecting runways at some controlled airports vacate the runwa y immediately.
in the interest of increasing and expediting airport traffic.
Fig .4.15 Light Signals t o Aircraft on the Ground
During sequential operations, controllers may not allow an
arriving aeroplane to cross the arrival threshold or a departing For NORDO arrivals, to join the traffic circuit, you must do so
aeroplane to commence its take-off roll until (1) the preceding from the upwind side of the runway, join crosswind at circuit
aeroplane has passed the intersection, or (2) in the case of an height as in Fig.4.14 and turn onto the downwind leg. You must
arriving aeroplane, it has completed its landing roll and has conform to the size and speed of the circuit and maintain
turned off the runway, or (3) in the case of a departing aero- adequate separation from aeroplanes ahead of you.
plane, it is airborne.
If it is necessary to cross the airport, before joining the circuit,
Simultaneous intersectin g runway operations (SIRO) are per- for the purpose of determining the runway in use or to obtain
mitted on intersecting runways only if the two aeroplanes other landing information, you must do this at least 500 feet
involved are both arriving or one is arriving and the other is above circuit height. Descent to circuit height then should be
departing. Certain conditions are required, the main one being made in the upwind area of the active runway, prior to joining
that there is sufficient runway length before the intersection the crosswind leg of the circuit.
for the arriving aeroplane to come to a stop and hold short of
Before turning on final, you must check for any aeroplanes on
the intersection.
a straight in approach.
A land and hold short operation (LAHSO) clearance should be
The tower will give you landing clearance on final approach by
accepted by pilots only if they are confident that they can bring means of a light signal. If landing clearance is not given, you
the aircraft to a full stop before the intersection or can exit the
must pull up and go around again.
runw ay at the convenient taxiway before reaching the hold
short point. A LAH SO clearance once accepted must be adhered The following are authorized ligh t signals to aircraft in the air:
to. Controllers require a full read back of a LAHSO clearance. Light Signal Light Meaning
In addition, SIRO/ LAHSO may be carried out only if Steady Gree n Light Clear to land.
(1) the weather minima of a 1,000 foot ceiling and 3 n .m . vis- Steady Red Light Do not land. Conti nue in circuit. Avoid maki ng sha rp
or Red Flare turns, climbing or diving after you receive this signal.
ibility are met, (2) the braking action is good and the runways
Recall signal. Retu rn for landing (usually to
are bare, (3) there is a tailwind of not more than 5 kts or a cross- recall an aero plan e whi ch has taken off or has
Flashing Green
wind on a wet runway of not more than 15 kts, and (4) the pilot Light
been previously waved off wi th a red light). This
wi ll be fo llowed by a steady gree n lig ht whe n
of the landing aircraft can accept a clearance to "hold short" th e approa ch path and landing area is clear.
of the intersecting runway. SIRO is not authorized if thunder- Danger. Be on alert . This signal may be used to wa rn
storms, turbulence, wind shear or other conditions exist that yo u of such hazards as danger of co lli sion, obstruc-
Alternating Red and tio ns, soft field, ice on runways, mechani cal fai l-
m ay adversely affect the aircraft's ability to "hold short" Green Light (U .S.) ure of your undercarriage, etc. The danger signal
is not a prohibitive sign al and will be followed by
NORDO (WITHOUT RADIO) AT A a red or green light as circumstances warrant .
CONTROLLED AIRPORT Flas hin g Red Light Ai rport un safe. Do not land.
Aircraft without radio (NORDO) are not permitted to operate at The firing of a red pyrotech nical li ght, whether by da y
Red Pyro technical or nig ht and notwi th standi ng any previou s in struc-
most large controlled airports served by the scheduled air car- Li ght
t ion, means "Do not land for the t ime bei ng".
riers. Where they are permitted to operate (less busy controlled Fig.4.16 Light Signals to Aircraft in the Air
airports), they are directed by visual signals. You, as pilot, must
be alert for the light signals from the tower letting you know By day, acknowledge all light signals from the tower by rock-
what to do. ing the wings of the aeroplane; at night, by a single flash of
the landing light. When cleared to land by a green light signal,
Before initiating a NORDO flight, you should contact the control
come in on a straight glide or power approach for a distance of
tower to inform the controllers of your intentions and to secu re

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: The Canadian Airspace System

not less than 3,000 feet. Do not S-turn. Continue to watch the
tower on final approach for further signals. 4.2 The Canadian
No taxi clearance is required after landing, except to cross any
runway or to taxi back to a turn-off point.
Airspace System
If your aeroplane is equipped with receiver only (RONLY), it is For the purposes of air traffic control, separation and con-
your responsibility to advise the airport controller of this fact, trol of aeroplanes flying by reference to instruments and by
preferably by filing a flight plan. Otherwise, he/she will instruct visual reference, national defence, search and rescue, etc., the
you by means of visual signals. Canadian airspace has been divided in a number of different
ways. It is necessary for a pilot to have an understanding of
The arrival and departure procedures for RONLY aircraft are
the same as those for NORDO aircraft, except that the control- these divisions.
ler may request acknowledgement of his/her transmissions in
a specific manner (i.e. rocking the wings of the aeroplane in 4.2.1 Domestic Airspace
flight) . The Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) includes all airspace
over the Canadian land mass, the Canadian Arctic and
GROUND CONTROL SIGNALS TO AIRCRAFT
Archipelago and certain areas over the high seas. It is divided
Visual hand signals are used by ground personnel to inform
pilots how to maneuver their aircraft. These signals, referred into two areas, the Northern Domestic Airspace and the
to as marshaling of aircraft, are shown in Fig.4.17. Marshalling Southern Domestic Airspace. The boundaries of these two
of aircraft may be employed as an alternative to, or in addition divisions are illustrated in Fig.4.18.
to, radio communications between the aircraft and air traffic
control.

Stop St art englne(s) Hold position Proceed t o

next signalman

Turn Turn Slow down Slow engines

tall t o port (LT) t all to sta rbo ard (RT) lnd lcatea side

Fig.4.18 Canadian Domestic Airspace

Northern Domestic Airspace (NDA)

Chocks Inserted Chocks removed Turn to your left Turn to your right
In close proximity to the north magnetic pole, the earth's
lines of force dip vertically towards the pole, and the com-
pass, which lies in a horizontal plane, loses its ability to point
the way. There is, therefore, a large area of Canada in which
magnetic compass readings are unreliable. Certain navigation
procedures are recommended for operation in the area.
All aircraft operating in the Northern Domestic Airspace must
Move ahead Move back Brakes Brakes
Engage Disengage fly at an altitude or flight level that is appropriate to their
direction of flight as determined by true track calculations .
Runway numbering is oriented to, and surface winds are
reported in, degrees true. Aircraft operating at night or under
!FR must be equipped with a gyroscopic direction indicator.

Southern Domestic Airspace (SDA)

Cu t engine(s) Face me All clear Fire with All aircraft in level cruising flight within the Southern
point to fire
Domestic Airspace must maintain an altitude or flight level
that is appropriate to their direction of flight as determined
Fig.4.17 Ground Control Signals to Aircraft by the magnetic track.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

•: Aerodromes & Airspace: The Canadian Airspace System

Airways and air routes are based on magnetic tracks. Airport by ATC. A trans1t10n level exists between the Altimeter
runways are assigned numbers based on their magnetic bear- Setting Region and the Standard Pressure Region. This is FL
ing. Surface winds are reported in magnetic degrees. 180. When climbing (immediately after ascending through FL
180), change your altimeter from the current altimeter setting
4.2.2 Altimeter Regions (QNH) to standard pressure. When descending (immediately
before passing through FL 180), change from standard pres-
Canadian airspace is divided, for purposes of altimetry, into sure to the QNH altimeter setting.
an Altimeter Setting Region and a Standard Pressure Region.
The geographic limits of these two regions are illustrated in FL 180 is not used for cruising in Canada.
Fig.4.19.
4.2.3 Identification Zones
The Altimeter Setting Region The defence authorities of both Canada and the United States
Prior to take-off from an airport located in the Altimeter have established a number of Air Defence Identification Zones
Setting Region, a pilot must set the aircraft altimeter to the (ADIZ) for the security control of air traffic. It is imperative
current altimeter setting of that airport or, if that altimeter that pilots acquaint themselves with the locations and bound-
setting is not available, to the elevation of the airport. aries of these zones. They are denoted on aeronautical charts,
While cruising within the Altimeter Setting Region, pilots radio facility charts and the Can ada Air Pilot.
must adjust their altimeters to the reported current altimeter The Canadian ADIZ lies off each coast of Canada and extends
setting of the nearest station along their route of flight, or across the roof of the North American continent from Baffin
where such s tations are separated by more than 150 nautical Island on the east to Alaska on the west.
miles, to the nearest station to the route of flight. Altimeter
The procedures and regulations for flight w ithin an ADIZ
setting (QNH) is the setting made to an altimeter so it will are more fully discussed in the Section Air Traffic Rules and
indicate altitude ASL. Procedures, following.
When approaching th e airport of intended landing, the
altimeter must be set to the current altimeter setting of that 4.2.4 Uncontrolled Airspace
airport.
Within the uncontrolled airspace in Canada, aircraft may
The Altimeter Setting Region includes the airspace up to operate free of the control of an ATC unit. However, all aircraft
18,000 fe et only. are required at all times to conduct their activities with regard
to the Canadian Aviation Regulations.
The Standard Pressure Region When cruising in uncontrolled airspace, the lack of infor-
The Standard Pressure Region includes that area of Northern mation of other aircraft in close proximity may constitute
Canada depicted and so designated in Fig.4.19 and also all a potential hazard. Pilots, therefore, are advised to monitor
airspace above 18,000 feet anywhere in Canada. continuously the frequency 126.7 MHz wh enever practicable
In the Standard Pressure Region, the altimeter is set to stan- and to make periodic en route position reports and, especially,
dard pressure (29.92" Hg). For take off and climb, from an air- to report an intended change in flight altitude to the nearest
port in this region, the altimeter should be set to the current FSS on 126.7 MHz. Such a report should include the last known
altimeter setting (or the airport elevation) and reset to the position, the estimated next position, the present altitude and
standard pressure setting upon reaching the cruising altitude. intention (climb/descent) and the planned altitude.
For descent and landing, the current altimeter setting of the At certain uncontrolled airports, mandatory frequencies or
airport of intended landing should be set on the altimeter. aerodrome traffic frequencies have been established. Where
ALTIMETER SETnNOANOSTANOAAO PAESSUffE REGIONS an MF or ATF is designated, all pilots are required to call on
the published frequency and provide details of their inten-
tions to land at the airport. See Mandatory Frequency and
\ Aerodrome Traffic Frequency in Section Aerodromes.

4.2.5 Controlled Airspace

Controlled airspace is the airspace within which air traf-
fic control service is provided and within which some or
all aircraft may be subjected to air traffic control. "fypes of
controlled airspace are High Level Airspace and Low Level
Airspace, both of which are described below.

High Level Airspace

Canadian Domestic Airspace is also divided vertically. All
airspace 18,000 feet ASL and above is considered high level
airspace. All airspace below 18,000 feet ASL is considered low
level airspace.
Th e high level airspace is divided into three regions as depict-
ed in Fig.4.20.
Fig.4.19 Altimeter Regions
The Southern Control Area (SCA). The boundaries of the
Altimeters must be reset after entering and before leavin g Southern Control Area are the same as those of the Southern
the Standard Pressure Region, unless otherwise authorized

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: The Canadian Airspace System

Domestic Airspace. Within the Southern Control Area (i.e. all airspace are high level air routes which are uncontrolled
airspace above 18,000 feet ASL), all air traffic is controlled. airspace.
The Northern Control Area (NCA) extends from the northern High level airways are prescribed tracks between specified
limits of the Southern Control Area to a line approximately radio aids to navigation in the high level airspace. Air traffic
following the 72°N parallel of latitude. It comprises all air- control is provided.
space at and above FL 230. Within the Northern Control Area, High level air routes are prescribed tracks between specified
all air traffic is controlled.
radio aids to navigation but along which air traffic control is
The Arctic Control Area (ACA) extends north from the north- not provided. High level air routes exist only in the Northern
ern boundary of the Northern Control Area to the north pole. Domestic Airspace between 18,000 feet ASL and the bases of
It comprises all the airspace at and above FL 270. Within the the Northern and Arctic Control Areas.
Arctic Control Area, all traffic is controlled.
AACTIC, NORTHERN & SOUT1-I EAN C0Hm0t. AREAS Low Level Airspace
The low level airspace comprises all airspace within the
Canadian Domestic Airspace below 18,000 feet ASL. Not all
/ of the low level airspace is controlled. Boundaries of low level
\
\\ controlled airspace are indicated on pilotage charts by shaded
lines, the solid edge of which defines the outer limits of the
controlled area. Types of controlled low level airspace include
low level airways, control area extensions, control zones,
transition areas, terminal control areas, military terminal
control areas, Class F restricted airspace, Class F advisory
airspace and Class F danger areas.

LOW LEVEL AIRWAYS

Airways are routes between points along which aircraft can
navigate by following non-directional beacon, NDB, or VHF
Omnidirectional Range, VOR, signals (see NDB and VOR in
Chapter Radio Navigation). VHF/UHF airways (also known as
VOR or Victor airways) are navigated by reference to the radi-
als projected by chains of VHF omnirange stations located
approximately 100 miles apart along the airways. They are
designated by the letter V and numbers (e.g. V52).
Fig.4.20 Southern, North e rn & Arctic Control Areas
Low frequency and medium frequency airways, LF/MF air-
In the Northern Domestic Airspace, there is airspace between ways , (see LF/MF in Chapter Radio) are navigated by reference
18,000 feet ASL and the floors of the Northern Control Area to signals from low frequency transmitters such as non-
(FL 230) and the Arctic Control Area (FL 270) which is high directional beacons.
level airspace but which is uncontrolled (and therefore Class The basic width of a VHF/UHF airway is 4 nautical miles on
G airspace in the airspace classification system - see below). each side of the centreline; of an LF/ MF airway, 4.34 nautical
All high level airspace in the Southern Domestic Airspace (i.e. miles on each side of the centreline. Unless it is otherwise
18,000 feet ASL and above - Southern Control Area), however, published on VFR Navigation Charts, an airway has its base at
is controlled airspace. 2,200 feet above ground (AGL). It extends up to the base of the

·------··
overlying high level airspace.
That portion of a low level airway that extends upwards
Southern Control -----
Northern Control__... .... Arctic Control between 12,500 feet and 18,000 feet ASL is designated Class
Area Area Area B airspace and the rules and procedures that apply to flight
............................... ..................... ... ••••••.•.••.••. 2·10
F.~
in Class B airspace must be followed . Below 12,500 feet ASL,
a low level airway is Class E airspace. VFR aircraft following
············································· ···· ················· Fb 230 Uncontrolled a low level airway in Class E airspace are not subject to ATC
··············································-·-······ ······· :1!8,000 AS ~ control. ATC control is, however, provided for !FR flight.
Southern Domestic Northern Domestic When flying VFR along airways, fly down the centreline of
Airspace Airspace
the airway.
Canada/ U.S.A. Border Surface North Pole
Exercise caution when crossing an airway. !FR traffic is using
Southern , Northe rn & Lower Level Uncontro11ed the airway at the 1,000 foot levels and VFR traffic is using the
•
Arctic Control Areas Airspace High Level Airspace
airway at the 500 foot levels.
Fig.4.21 Cross-Section of Vertical Dimensions of
Southern , Northern & Arctic Control Areas CONTROL AREA EXTENSIONS (CAE}
Control area extensions are established at some airports to
Encompassed within the high level airspace are the follow- provide additional controlled airspace to handle !FR traffic. At
ing types of controlled high level airspace: high level airways some busy airports, the controlled airspace contained within
and that portion of any terminal control area, control area the associated control zone and converging airways is not suf-
extension, transition area, Class F restricted airspace, Class F ficient for the maneuvering required to separate arriving and
advisory airspace, military operations area or Class F danger departing !FR traffic. A control area extension provides the
area that may extend above 18,000 feet. Also in the high level required additional controlled airspace. The CAE surrounds

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aerodromes & Airspace: The Canadian Airspace System

and overlies the core control zone and !FR traffic is controlled airspace. The TCA operating rules are established according to
by the area control centre (ACC). Such control area extensions the classification of the airspace within the TCA. !FR traffic is
are usually circular with a defined nautical mile radius. They normally controlled by a terminal control unit (TCU). During
extend upwards from 2,200 feet AGL to 18,000 feet ASL. A periods when the TCU is not in operation, the area control
control area extension is usually classified as Class E airspace. centre (ACC) will provide service.
That portion of a control area extension that lies between
A TCA will normally have a circular configuration centred on
12,500 feet and 18,000 feet ASL is designated as Class B air-
the geographic co-ordinates of the primary aerodrome. The
space. Below the base of a control area extension, a transition
control zone is 7 nautical miles in radius and extends from the
area is established between 2,200 feet AGL and 700 feet AGL ground to 3,000 feet AGL. The first level of the TCA is 12 nauti-
to accommodate !FR traffic doing instrument approaches. In cal miles in radius and is based at 1,200 feet above the airport
vertical cross-section, therefore, a control area extension may elevation. The second level of the TCA is 35 nautical miles in
have the shape of an inverted wedding cake. radius and is based at 2,200 feet AAE. The third level of the
Control area extensions have also been established to connect TCA is 45 nautical miles in radius and is based at 9,500 feet
areas of controlled airspace, such as those that connect the AAE. For convenience, on maps and charts, the base is con-
domestic airways structure with the oceanic control areas. verted to the equivalent height above sea level. For example, if
A CAE, such as this, may be based at other altitudes, such as the airport elevation is 900 feet ASL, the base of the first level
2,000 feet, 5,500 feet or 6,000 feet ASL, etc. of the TCA would be 2,100 feet ASL, the second level would be
3,100 feet ASL and the third level would be 10,400 feet ASL.
CONTROL ZONES As is the case with control area extensions, a TCA takes the
Control zones are designated around certain aerodromes to shape of an inverted wedding cake.
keep !FR aircraft within controlled airspace and to facilitate
As Required
the control ofVFR and !FR traffic.
Terminal Control Area
These control zones are established around airports where CLASS A, B, C or D
· 9500' AGL 9500' AGL· ················-
there are operating control towers. The area of control begins Lower Level
at the surface of the earth. The upper limit is usually 3,000 feet Airway
ClaHE
AGL but may vary at specific airports. Control zones associ- 3000'
ated with a terminal control area normally have a 7 nautical •••
mile radius. Others have a 5 nautical mile radius, although
there are a few that are only 3 nautical miles in radius.
Military control zones usually have a 10 nautical mile radius
and are capped at 6,000 feet AAE. 45 HM 35HM 12 HM 7 •• 7 •• 12 NM 35 HM

Control zones will be classified as B, C, D or E depending on Fig.4.22 Terminal Control Area

the classification of the surrounding airspace.
The airspace between the floor of the terminal control area
Certain airports which are very busy with a great deal of traf- (and the floor of a control area extension) and the ground is
fic are restricted to aircraft with prior reservations. Aircraft uncontrolled airspace. VFR traffic may operate there without
wishing to land at or take off from these airports are required contacting the ATC unit controlling the overlying controlled
to arrange for a slot time for their intended operation. Such airspace. However, the pilot of a VFR aircraft must contact the
control zones may be classified as Class F. appropriate ATC unit before entering the controlled airspace.
VFR traffic may operate within a control zone only if the Pilots operating in this uncontrolled airspace must exercise
weather minima are met. (See Weather Minima for VFR Flight extra caution. Large jet transport aeroplanes may be operating
below.) When weather conditions are below VFR minima, a as low as the floor of the controlled airspace on their approach
pilot operating VFR may request special VFR (SVFR) authoriza- and departure paths and the wake turbulence resulting from
tion to enter the control zone. (See Special VFR below.) their passage will settle down into the airspace below the
controlled area where it may pose a serious hazard to small
TRANSITION AREA aeroplanes. Aeroplanes operating in the uncontrolled area
Transition areas are established between the outer perimeter below the floor of any controlled airspace should, therefore,
of control zones (which are based at ground level) and control maintain sufficient vertical separation from the floor altitude
area extensions and terminal control areas (which are based so as not to create a hazardous situation either for themselves
at 2,200 feet AGL). The transition area extends upward from or for the jet transport aeroplanes which m ay be operating
700 feet AGL to the base of the overlying controlled airspace. there.
The area provided will normally be circular with a 15 nautical
mile radius measured from the centre of the airport. The tran- MILITARY TERMINAL CONTROL AREA (MTCA}
sition area is established to accommodate !FR traffic doing A military terminal control area is a terminal control area in
instrument approaches. which air traffic control is provided by a military terminal
control unit. Special provisions for military aircraft prevail,
TERMINAL CONTROL AREA (TCA} such as VFR above FL 180.
Terminal control areas are established at airports with a high
volume of traffic to provide !FR control service to arriving,
4.2.6 Classification of
departing and en route aircraft.
Terminal control areas m ay be Class A, B, C, D or E airspace.
Canadian Airspace
TCA's usually extend into the high level airspace. That portion The Canadian Domestic Airspace is divided into seven clas-
of the TCA that extends above 12,500 feet is Class B airspace sifications, each identified by a single letter: A, B, C, D, E, F or
regardless of the classification of the rest of the TCA. Any G. Most States worldwide have the same basic classifications,
portion that may extend above 18,000 feet would be Class A albeit with differing limitations and operational criteria.

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: The Canadian Airspace System

Flight within each class of airspace is governed by specific Arctic Control Area (see above). It may also include any other
rules which are defined in the Canadian Aviation Regulations. airspace so designated by the Minister on either a permanent
These rules depend on the classification of the particular or temporary basis.
airspace and not on the name by which the airspace is com- All flights require an ATC clearance to enter Class A airspace,
monly known. For example, control zones and terminal con- must operate in accordance with instrument flight rules and
trol areas may be classified as B, C, D or E. Weather minima, are subject to ATC clearances and instructions. ATC separa-
however, are still related to the common name of the con-
tion is provided to all aircraft. The pilot must have an instru-
trolled or uncontrolled airspace. ment rating and the aeroplane must be !FR equipped and have
Because of variations in dimension and classification of an approved and functioning transponder and approved and
terminal airspace, the actual organization of the airspace is functioning automatic pressure altitude reporting equipment
charted for VFR pilots on the VFR charts. The information on (i.e. Mode C).
individual airports in the Canada Flight Supplement indicates
All flights operating in Class A airspace above 18,000 feet
the classification of the airspace surrounding each airport.
ASL must use Standard Pressure Region procedures in setting
their altimeters.
Class A Airspace
Class A airspace is that airspace within which only !FR flight Class B Airspace
is permitted.
Class B airspace is that airspace where an operational need
It includes all controlled high level airspace between 18,000 exists to provide air traffic control to !FR aircraft and to con-
feet ASL and FL 600 inclusive. It includes, therefore, the trol VFR aircraft. Operations may be conducted under either
Southern Control Area, the Northern Control Area and the

ATS provides
flight informa11on and
alerting service

Yes Yes, in designated areas

alerting service

ATC Establish radio cont act Not Required

Class E Fl600
Class E

45 NM 35NM 12NM 7NM 7NM 12NM 35NM 45NM 25 NM 15 NM 5 NM S NM 15NM 25NM

Fig.4.23 Canadian Airspace Classification

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aerodromes & Airspace: The Canadian Airspace System

!FR or VFR but all aircraft are subject to ATC clearances and with the established NORDO arrival procedu res, any suit-
instructions and ATC separation is p rovided to all aircraft. able aerodrome and inform the appropriate ATC unit of the
VFR fligh ts are conducted as controlled VFR flights. circumstances of th e failure. If the aeroplane is transponder
equipped, the pilot should select code 7600. If the com munica-
It includes all controlled low level airspace between 12,500
tion failure is only in the transmitting capability, pilots should
feet and up to but not including 18,000 feet ASL. Such con-
maintain a listening watch on appropriate frequencies for
trolled airspace comprises the designated airways an d any
control messages or further clearances.
other control area that m ay extend upwards to this level.
Con trol zones and associated term inal control areas m ay also If th e communication failure occurs while operating outside
be classified as Class B airspace. It m ay also include any other of Class C (or Class B} airspace precluding the pilot from
airspace so designated by the Minister. obtaining the appropriate clearance to enter the airspace
and if no suitable nearby aerodrome is available, the pilot is
A VFR flight must file a flight plan indicating altitude and
perm itted to enter the classified airspace, continue VFR and
route requested and receive an ATC clearance prior to enter- comply w ith NORDO arrival procedures.
ing Class B airsp ace. No special licence, rating or endorsem ent
is required by the VFR pilot to operate in Class B airspace. The NORDO aircraft are permitted in Class C airspace during
aeroplane must be capable of two -way radio communication daylight hours and in VFR weather conditions if a clearance
with the appropriate ATC facility and a listening watch must to enter has been obtained from the appropriate ATC unit prior
be maintained at all times. The aircraft must also be equipped to operation within the controlled area. This type of clearance is
w ith radio n avigation equipment capable of utilizing n aviga- usually obtained by telephone prior to initiating the flight.
tion facilities to m aintain the flight plan ned route. When the Authorization from the appropriate ATC unit must be obtained
aircraft is over a reporting point, a position report must be prior to entering Class C airspace or before taking off from an
transmitted to the appropriate unit or FSS, unless otherwise airport within Class C airspace. While airborne, authorization to
instructed by ATC. The aeroplane must be operated in VFR enter this airspace is required whether the aircraft is intending
weather conditions at all times. When it becomes evident that to land at the airport or merely proceeding through the airspace.
it is not possible to operate the aircraft in VMC (visu al meteo- Before entering Class C airspace, a pilot must contact the appro-
rological conditions) at the altitude or along the route speci- priate ATC unit and relay the following information: type and
fied in the ATC clearance, th e pilot sh all request an amended registration (in phonetic letters) of the aircraft; position (either
clearance that will en able the aircraft to be operated in VMC by an accurate fix using a map or by a VOR radial and distance)
to the destination or to an alternate aerodrome. If the airspace to enable the controller to make an identification on the radar
is a control zone, the pilot shall request authorization to oper- screen; altitude and if climbing or descending; destination; and
ate in special VFR flight. transponder status. A VFR fligh t should select code 1200 on the
The aircraft must be equipped w ith a functioning sensitive transponder. If ATIS is available, the pilot should obtain this
pressure altimeter that has been tested, inspected and certi- information prior to contacting the ATC controller and so inform
fied with in the past 24 months and with an approved and him/ her on the initial contact.
functioning transponder with Mode C capability. Authorization for flight in Class C airspace does not relieve the
The procedures for flight with in Class B airspace are more pilot of the responsibility of avoiding other aircraft, of maintain-
fully discussed in the Section Air Traffic Rules and Procedures, ing terrain and obstruction clearance and of rem aining in VFR
following. weather conditions.

Class CAirspace Class DAirspace

Class C airspace is a controlled airspace within which both !FR Class D airspace is a controlled airspace within which both !FR
and VFR flights are permitted. However, VFR pilots must be and VFR flights are permitted. VFR flights must establish two-
cleared by ATC to enter. ATC separation is provided between way communication with the appropriate ATC facility prior to
!FR traffic and, as necessary, to resolve conflicts between VFR entering Class D airspace. ATC separation is provided only to !FR
and !FR aircraft and, upon request, between VFR aircraft that traffic. Other traffic will be provided with traffic information.
are radar identified and in com munication with ATC. Traffic Upon request and equipment and workload permitting, conflict
inform ation is issued to aircraft to warn of other air traffic resolution instructions will be issued. ATC m ay instruct VFR
th at m ay be in close proximity. Runway separation is provided traffic to remain clear of the Class D airspace. Runway separa-
to all aircraft . tion is provided to all aircraft.

Terminal control areas and associated control zones may be Terminal control areas and associated control zones may be
classified as Class C airspace. Class C airspace becomes Class classified as Class D airspace. Class D airspace becomes Class E
E airspace when the appropriate ATC unit is not in operation. when the appropriate ATC unit is not in operation.

To enter and fly in Class C airspace, under VFR conditions, a An aeroplane operating VFR in Class D airspace must be
pilot must h old a valid pilot's licence or a student pilot permit. equipped with radio equipment capable of two-way commu-
No special licence, rating or endorsement is required. nication with the appropriate ATC unit and, at all times while
in Class D airspace, the flight crew must maintain a listening
The aeroplane must be equipped with a functioning two-way watch on the radio frequency assigned by ATC. Certain Class D
radio capable of com munication with the appropriate ATC airspace may be specified as a transponder area in which case
u n it and , at all times wh ile with in Class C airspace, a listen- the aeroplane must be equipped with a transponder with Mode
ing watch must be maintained on the frequency assigned by C capability.
the ATC unit. Aeroplanes must be equipped with a serviceable
and functioning transponder with Mode C capability. NORDO aircraft are permitted in Class D airspace during day-
light hours and in VFR weather conditions, provided permission
In the event of a communications failure while operat- to enter is obtained from the appropriate ATC unit prior to oper-
ing VFR in Class C (or Class B) airspace, the aircraft must ating within the airspace.
maintain VFR at all tim es, divert to and land at, com plying

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: The Canadian Airspace System

Class EAirspace Three-digit Numbers Canadian Region

101to199 British Columbia
Class E airspace is designated where an operational need exists
for controlled airspace but such need does not meet the require- 201 to 299 Alberta
ments for Class A, B, C, or D airspace. 301 to 399 Saskatchewan
401to499 Manitoba
Operations may be conducted under !FR or VFR. ATC separa-
tion is provided only between aircraft operating under !FR. VFR 501 to 599 Ontario
aircraft do not require permission to enter Class E airspace 601 to 699 Quebec
and, except for mandatory frequency areas, are not required to 701 to 799 Mari times
establish communication with an air traffic service (ATS) unit 801to899 Yukon
prior to entering. 901to999 N.W. Territories & Nunavut
Workload and equipment permitting, traffic information may Types of Class F Activities
be provided, upon request, to VFR aircraft. When requesting (A) - Aerobatic s. (F) - Airc raft Test Area. (H) - Hang Gliding, (M) - Military
Operations Area, (P) - Parachuting, (S) - Soaring, (T) - Training
traffic information from ATC, pilots should be aware that air
traffic controllers providing services in Class E airspace are Fig.4.24 Class F Three-digit Identifier Regions
responsible for larger volumes of airspace than those controllers & Class Designation Activities
providing services in Class C or D airspace. As a result, there is a
higher potential that workload and equipment limitations could Thus, by way of example, a Class F area coded CYA511(T)
affect the provision of traffic information. This could include denotes training activity in advisory area 511 which is a des-
the potential discontinuation of service without notification. ignated area in the province of Ontario.
A pilot flying VFR in Class E airspace remains responsible for
ADVISORY AIRSPACE
maintaining a vigilant watch for, and avoiding, other traffic.
Airspace may be classified as Class F advisory airspace if
Low level airways, control area extensions, transition zones there is activity there which, for flight safety purposes, non-
and control zones at airports without an operating control participating pilots should be aware of. There are no specific
tower may be classified as Class E airspace. Certain Class E restrictions which apply to the use of advisory airspace but
airspace may be specified as a transponder zone in which case VFR traffic is encouraged to avoid flight in advisory air-
the aircraft must be equipped with a transponder with Mode C space unless participating in the activity taking place. Non-
capability. participating flights may enter advisory areas at their own
discretion but extra vigilance is essential and pilots of both
Class F Airspace participating and non-participating aircraft are responsible
for collision avoidance.
Class F airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which
activities must be confined because of their nature and within Pilots intending to fly in a Class F advisory area should moni-
which limitations may be imposed on aircraft which are not tor an appropriate frequency, broadcast their intentions when
part of those activities. The restrictions may be on either a per- entering and leaving the area and communicate, when neces-
manent or a temporary basis. sary, with other users to ensure flight safety in the area. In
Class F advisory uncontrolled airspace, 126.7 MHz would be an
Class F airspace may be classified as either advisory airspace,
appropriate frequency. In Class F advisory controlled airspace,
restricted airspace, a military operations area or a danger area.
ATC will assign a frequency.
It can be controlled or uncontrolled airspace or a combination of
both. Note that, for example, an advisory area may have its floor ATC will maintain separation between !FR aircraft and active
in uncontrolled airspace and its ceiling in controlled airspace. Class F airspace unless the pilot states that permission has
This means that the weather minima would be different in the been obtained from the user agency to enter the airspace, or
controlled and uncontrolled portions of the advisory area. the aircraft is operating on an altitude reservation approval
(see below), or the aircraft has been cleared for a contact or
When areas of Class F airspace are inactive, they assume the
visual approach.
rules of the appropriate surrounding airspace.
!FR aircraft shall be provided 500 feet vertical separation from
All designated Class F airspace is published in HI and LO Charts
an active Class F advisory airspace, unless wake turbulence
and on VFR aeronautical charts. Each restricted and advisory
minima is applicable, in which case 1,000 feet vertical separa-
area within Canada has been assigned an identification code
tion shall be applied.
group which consists of the following:
1. The nationality letters CY RESTRICTED AIRSPACE
A restricted airspace is one of defined dimensions above the
2. The letter A for advisory or the letter R for land areas or territorial waters of Canada within which flight
restricted, (or the letter D for danger area if the is restricted in accordance with certain specified conditions.
restricted area is over international waters) A restricted airspace may be designated because of aerial
3. A three-digit number which identifies the area, activity, surface activity or to protect a ground installation.
the first digit of the number identifying the geo- No one may conduct aerial activities within active Class F
graphic area of Canada in which the restricted or restricted airspace unless permission has been obtained from
advisory area is situated, (see Figure below) the user agency. In some instances, the user agency may del-
4. In the case of advisory areas, a letter in egate to a controlling agency, the authority to approve access.
brackets which indicates the type of activ- In most cases, the controlling agency will be on ATC unit or an
ity within the area, (see Figure below) air navigation service provider (ANSP).
Any restricted airspace which may be established over inter-
national waters will be designated as a danger area.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aerodromes & Airspace: The U.S. Airspace System

Temporary restricted areas may be designated to restrict

flight around and over forest fires areas, well fires, disaster 4.2.? Flight Information Region (FIR)
areas, etc. for the purpose of ensuring the safety of flight oper- The Canadian Domestic Airspace is also divided into seven
ations in support of the occurrence. Because the restriction is flight information regions within which flight information
temporary in nature, the restricted airspace is not considered service and alerting service are provided. These regions
to be classified Class F airspace in accordance with Airspace are centred on Vancouver, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Toronto,
Regulations. Such temporary restricted areas are authorized Montreal, Moncton and Gander.
in the Canadian Aviation Regulations and by NOTAM. (See
NOTAM in chapter Radio Communications.) The NOTAM sets
out the location and dimensions of the fire area, the airspace
4.2 _s Mountainous Regions
involved in the restriction. Notwithstanding whatever restric- Mountainous regions are areas of defined lateral dimensions
tions are imposed on flight near a forest fire by a NOTAM, no above which rules concerning minimum !FR altitudes apply
one may operate an aircraft below 3,000 feet AGL with in 5 to ensure that aircraft can fly safely clear of terrain obstacles.
n autical miles of the limits of the forest fire area. Under !FR in the mountainous regions of British Columbia,
Alberta, the Yukon, Baffin Island, Devon Island, and Ellesmere
JOINT USE AIRSPACE Island, an aircraft must be flown at an altitude of at least 2,000
Joint use airspace is Class F airspace within which operations feet above the highest obstacle that is within 5 n .m. of the
may be authorized by the controlling agency when it is not aircraft. When within the mountainous regions of Quebec,
being used by the user agency itself. To ensure maximum use Newfoundland, and New Brunswick, at least 1,500 feet above
of restricted airspace, user agencies are expected to make the highest obstacle within 5 n.m. of the aircraft must be
available restricted airspace for use by other agencies on a maintained.
joint use basis. An ATC agency may be designated to provide
!FR flights within designated airways and air routes that fall
control or information within Class F airspace involved in
within mountainous regions require that the aircraft operate
joint use.
at an altitude that is at least 1,000 feet higher than the mini-
ALTITUDE RESERVATION mum established en route !FR altitude.
An altitude reservation is airspace of defined dimensions
w ithin controlled airspace reserved for the use of a civil or
military agency during a specified period. An altitude reser-
vation m ay be confined to a fixed area (stationary) or moving
4.3 The U.S. Airspace
in relation to the aircraft that operates within it (moving).
Information on the description of each altitude reservation is
System
normally published by NOTAM. Civil altitude reservations are With the significant amount of cross-border flying that takes
normally for a single aircraft, while those for military use are place between Canada and the United States, it is a good
normally for more than one aircraft. idea for pilots from both countries to be familiar with the
Pilots should plan to avoid known altitude reservations. ATC operational limitations of each country's respective airspace
will not clear an unauthorized flight into an active reserva- system . For the most part, Canada and the United States have
tion. !FR and CVFR flights are provided with standard separa- identical classification criteria - most of what has already
tion from altitude reservations. been described in the previous section applies across North
America; however, some variations exist. Airspace definitions
and restrictions in the United States are highlighted here. As
Class GAirspace the reader will see, many of the criteria and operational con-
Class G airspace is airspace that has not been designated Class siderations are the same in both countries.
A, B, C, D, E or F and within which ATC has neither the au thor-
ity nor the responsibility for exercising control over air traffic.
4 .3.1 U.S. Domestic Airspace
It is, therefore, uncontrolled airspace. Included in this cat-
egory are low level and high level air routes and aerodrome Domestic airspace in the United States is defined as that air-
space which overlies the continental land mass of all the U.S.
traffic zones as well as all other airspace that is not classified
states, including Hawaii and all U.S. possessions. It extends 12
as controlled. Although ATC units do not exercise control over
miles offshore of all U.S. land.
air traffic, ATC units and flight service stations do provide
flight information and alerting services.
4 _3.2 U.S. Identification Zones
Flight in instrument conditions is permitted in Class G air-
space only if the pilot-in-command is the holder of a valid As already noted, both Canadian and U.S. defence authori-
pilot licence and a valid instrument rating. ties have established a number of their own respective Air
Defence Identification Zones (AD!Zs). In the case of entry into
LOW LEVEL & HIGH LEVEL AIR ROUTES domestic U.S. airspace, all aircraft from outside the country
Air routes are similar to airways in most respects except that must provide identification prior to entry. Generally, pilots
along air routes air traffic control services are not available. must file an !FR or defense VFR (DVFR) flight plan for all
Air routes are not, therefore, within controlled airspace. operations that enter or exit a U.S. ADIZ. In addition, pilots
Air routes extend between L/MF or VOR navigation aids. They are required to h ave Mode C transponders and two-way radio
extend from the surface of the earth up to Class A airspace. capability. See the Section Air Traffic Rules and Procedures for
They are 9 nautical miles wide and are designated by colours more detailed information on flight into AD!Zs.
and numbers (e.g. Amber Route 5, Blue Route 7).
Air routes exist mainly in the northern areas of Canada.

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 Aerodromes & Airspace: The U.S. Airspace System

c
~ ~ ~ ~

Entry Cloud Minimum Safety Aircraft

Legend Requirements Clearance VFR Visibility Alerts Separation

I •I
Scudent
~~
2Way Radio
Communieatioo
:::i:
~ L
Traffic Advisory

I ~ l
Traffic Advisory
Workloocl Perm1mng
t ATC
~Radio
C.lf>arance Contact
~

SCXYbelow
1.000'above
2.000' horizontal
~

Clear of Cloud
<A>
351atm1les
<S>

1Statmile
+
IFR, SVFR IFR. SVFR. Runway OPS

Fig.4.25 U.S Airspace Classification

be equipped with Mode C transponders in Class C airspace

4.3.3 Classification of U.S. Airspace except if flying in the airspace beneath a Class C area where
they are not required. Generally, Class C extends from the sur-
Class A Airspace face to 4,000 feet above airport elevation with a 5 n .m. radius
In the U.S., Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet MSL to disk at the surface overlaid by a 10 n .m. radius disk from 1,200
FL600 and includes airspace overlying the waters within 12 feet to the 4,000 foot top above the airport elevation.
n .m. of the coast of the majority of contiguous U.S. states and
Alaska. Pilots must be instrument rated to fly in Class A air- Class D Airspace
space, their aircraft must have a transponder and their flight Class D normally extends from the surface to 2,500 feet above
must be under an !FR flight plan with ATC control. In Class A the airport elevation surrounding those airports with opera-
airspace, pilots must set their altimeters to 29.92" Hg. tional control towers but without radar services. Pilots must
not enter Class D airspace without first establishing two-way
Class B Airspace communication with ATC. If a control tower is in operation at
Class B airspace in the U.S. generally covers that airspace a satellite airport within a Class D area where the primary air-
from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation's port control tower is closed, pilots should contact the tower at
busiest airports. Class B areas appear as stacked three-dimen- the satellite airport for arrival and departure. When departing
sional disks and are, thus, regularly described as having a non-tower satellite airport in a Class D area, contact should
the appearances of upside-down wedding cakes. Operations be made with the control tower of the primary airport within
within Class B require two-w ay radio capability, and Mode C the Class D area soon after the take-off.
transponder equipment. Students may fly into some Class B
areas although they are prohibited from entering the busiest Class EAirspace
of such areas. Entry into, or passing through, Class B requires As it is described in the previous section for Canada, criteria
an ATC clearance on the appropriate frequency. Class B depar- for Class E airspace in the U.S. is the same: whatever is con-
tures must include the provision to ATC of altitude and flight trolled airspace and is neither Class A, B, C, nor D, then it is
route intentions. Class E. All the same limitations apply.

Class CAirspace Special Use Airspace

Class C airspace surrounds many busy airports wherein As seen in the previous section, Class F airspace in Canada
ATC provides mandatory-usage radar service. Pilots must includes advisory airspace and restricted airspace designa-
not enter Class C airspace without first having been cleared tions and descriptions. In the U.S., these areas are referred
to do so. Continuous two-way communication with ATC is to as special use airspace; there is no Class F designation in
required at all times when w ithin Class C areas. Aircraft must

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aerodromes & Airspace: The U.S. Airspace System

the United States. Special use airspace is divided into warn-

ing areas (for coastal aerial gunnery or guided missile test-
ing), military operation areas (in which military training and
maneuvers are conducted), alert areas (for activities such
as parachuting, gliding, and student pilot training), national
security areas (restricted fly-over areas for security reasons),
controlled firing areas (a non-restricted firing area), restricted
areas (for artillery firing, aerial gunnery and missile testing,
that is not specific to coastal areas), and prohibited areas
(areas that require prior entry permission).

Class GAirspace
In Canada and the United States, Class G airspace designa-
tions are the same: whatever is not Class A, B, C, D, or E air-
space, and is uncontrolled airspace, is Class G airspace.

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 Air Rules & Procedures: Rules of the Air

5 Air Rules & 2.

3.
Rotorcraft in the normal and transport categories.
Gliders, powered gliders, airships
and manned free balloons.
Procedures No aeropl ane may be flown unless it is registered and has a
flight permit or C of A issued by the aviation authority in the
country of registration. The aeroplane must conform w ith
respect to equipment, maintenance and operation to the con-
s.1 Rules of the Air ditions specified in the certificate. The keeping in force of the
certificate is dependent upon the aircraft being maintained in
Air Regulations are undergoing con stant change and revision. accordance with the standards set out in the Airworthiness
A limited amount of information regarding regulations is Manual. The C of A is continuous but may be out of force if the
included in this textbook. Unfortunately, during the lifetime owner or operator fai ls to take action on airworthiness direc-
of this edition, some of this informa tion m ay become outdated tives (ADs) and manufacturer's service bulletins, scheduled
because of the ongoing revision process in the regulatory inspections or maintenance and the rectification of defects
system. You are, therefo re, urged to refer to the most recent which adversely affect fli gh t safety.
amendments to the aviation regulations to ensure that your An Annual Airworthiness Information Report (AAIR) must be
knowledge in this area is absolutely current. submitted on the anniversary date of the issue of the certifi-
In addition, regulations may differ from country to country. cate. The report requires the owner/operator of the aircraft to
Although there is, for the m ost part, a uniformity in the submit information on the most recent inspection, recent sig-
regulations pertaining to flight procedures, there may be nificant aircraft damage, flying hours in the reporting period,
subtle differences that would impact on your flight patterns. recent modifications, and aircraft, engine and propeller data.
If you are flying in a country other than Canada, you must If this report is not filed, the C of A will automatically expire.
acquaint yourself with the regulations pertaining to flight in It is the responsibility of the owner or operator to ensure that
that country. there is proper documentary evidence in the aircraft journey
log to prove that all required standards have been met.
Indeed, it is your responsibility as a pilot to make yourself
familiar with and to conform to all the regul ations and
requirements which pertain to the aeroplane which you fly 5.i.2 Aeroplane Logs &Licences
and the conditions under which it is being flow n . An aeroplane may not be flown unless there is carried on
The government published Canadian Aviation Regulations board the licences of all members of the flight crew. The
(CARs) and the revisions to this legislation cover all the rules licences must be valid for the aeroplane being flown (i.e.
pertaining to operation of aircraft in Canada. They should single-engine, multi-engine, etc.) and for the type of operation
be carefully studied. Each part of the CARs deal with a par- (land, sea, night, etc.). Also on board must be the certificate of
ticular topic, such as registration, certification and marking, registration and the certificate of airworthiness of the aero -
or licencing, or visual flight rules , etc. They are presided plane, proof of insurance coverage, the licence for the radio
over by Transport Canada. Regulations in the United States equipment installed in the aeroplane and the radio operator's
are published in a document called the Federal Aviation licence of th e pilot or other crew members, and the journey
Regulations (FAR) and are presided over by the Federal log of the aeroplane. An ultralight aeroplane is exempted from
Aviation Administration (FAA). the requirem ent to carry on board the journey log and a cer-
tificate of airworthiness.
The A.l.M. Canada (Aeronautical Information Manual) is espe-
cially useful for it is upd ate d on a regular schedule and incor- A journey log and a technical log must be m aintained for
porates Canadian Aviation Regul ations and other aeronautical every aeroplane, oth er than an ultralight. It is the responsibil-
information that is pertinent to the basic requirements to fly ity of the pilot to keep the logbooks up to date by recording the
w ithin Canadian airspace. A.I. M. am endment s are published facts of every flight.
twice per yea r and are available to all licenced pilots.
Information Circulars are available to all pilots and should be 5.1.3 Pilot's Licence
carefully scrutinized. NOTAM are distributed to all flight ser- Th e Aeronautics Act and Canadian Aviation Regulations
vice station s and are available to pilots on a continuing basis (CARs) contain Canadian aeronau tics legislation , regulations
in those locations. Information Circulars cover practically and standards for fli ght crew licencing. An aviation document
every subj ect to do with aviation in Can ada. They are informa- booklet (ADB), designed to hold aviation-related documents, is
tive in nature, although som e m ay be mandatory. NOTAM deal evidence that a pilot is qualified for certain permits, licences,
mostly with matters of an urgent nature, such as danger and certificates and ratings. The ADB includes the holder's photo-
restricted areas, obstructions, airport construction, chan ges graph and other security features for positive identification. It
in navigation and control procedures. should be noted th at Canadian-issued permits do not conform
to international licencing standards and, thus, are valid only
5.u Certificate of in Canadian airspace, unless the permit is specifically autho-
rized by the country in which the flight is conducted.
Airworthiness (C of A)
Permit and licence holders must hold a Restricted Operator
The C of A is issued for aircraft that fully comply with all stan- Certificate - Aeronautical (ROC -A) in accordance with the
dards of airworthiness for: requirements of Industry Canada, if they are going to oper-
1. Aeroplanes in the normal, utility, aerobatic, ate radiotelephone equipment on board an aircraft. (See also
commuter and transport categories. Radio Communications Procedures.)

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Rules of the Air

The following permits are issued by Transport Canada Civil The validity period of a medical certificate is calculated from
Aviation (TCCA): Student Pilot Permit, Gyroplane Pilot Permit, the first day of the month following the date of the medical
Ultralight Aeroplane Pilot Permit, Recreational - Aeroplane examination or declaration. By way of example, if a 39 year-
Pilot Permit. old pilot and a 40 year-old pilot, both holders of a private pilot
The following licences are issued by Transport Canada licence - Aeroplane, were to each renew their medicals on
Civil Aviation: Glider Pilot Licence, Balloon Licence, Private April 25, 2023, the 39 year-old's medical certificate would be
Pilot Licence - Aeroplane, Private Pilot Licence - Helicopter, valid until May 1, 2028 (i.e., 60 months) while the 40 year-old's
Commercial Pilot Licence - Aeroplane, Commercial Pilot medical certificate would be valid until May 1, 2025 (i.e., 24
Licence - Helicopter, Airline Transport Pilot Licence - months).
Aeroplane, Airline Transport Pilot Licence - Helicopter, Flight A summary of medical validity periods appears in the table
Engineer Licence. below.
No person may act as pilot-in-command or co-pilot of an aero- Flight Crew Medical Validity Periods
plane unless they are the holder of a valid pilot's licence, valid Permit/Licence/Rating Under Age 40 Age 40 or Above
for the particular class and type of aircraft being flown (i.e., Student Pilot Permit 60 mths 60 mths
aeroplane, balloon, glider, ultralight, helicopter, gyroplane). Gyroplane Pilot Permit 60 mths 24 mths
The holder of a student permit may fly an aeroplane only Ultralight Pilot
60 mths 60 mths
Permit - Aeroplane
under the supervision of an authorized instructor and may
Pa sse nger Carrying
not carry passengers. The flight must be conducted within 60 mths 24 mths
Ultralight - Aeroplane
Canada, by day and under VFR. Re creational Pilot Per mit 60 mth s 24 mths
The holder of a pilot licence may not exercise the privileges Glider Pilot Licence 60 mth s 60 mths
of the licence unless he/she has acted as pilot-in-command Balloon Pilot Licence 60 mths 24 mths
or co-pilot of an aircraft within the five years preceding the Private Pilot Licence - 24 mths
60 mths
Aeroplane & Helicopter
flight or has met the written examination requirements for
Commercial Pilot Licence
the licence within the 12 months preceding the flight. If pas- 12 mth s 12 mths •
- Aeroplane & Helicopter
sengers are carried, pilots must have, within the 6 months Airline Transport Pilot
preceding the flight, completed at least 5 take-offs and land- Licence - Aeroplane 12 mths 12 mths •
& Helicopter
ings in an aircraft of the same category and class. These may
Flight Engineer Licence 12 mths 12 mths
be conducted either by day or night, if the flight is to be con-
Fligh t Instructor
ducted by day, but must be conducted by night, if the flight is Rating -Glider
60 mth s 60 mths
to be conducted in whole or in part by night. Flight In structor Rating
60 mth s 60 mths
- Ultralight Aeroplane
Every holder of a pilot licence shall maintain a personal log-
book and record the particulars of every flight: the date of the ' For the holder of a commercial pilot licence or an airline transport
flight, the type and registration of the aircraft, the capacity pilot licence, the validity period of a medical certificate is reduced to
in which they acted and the names of other flight crew mem- 6 months if the holder is: 40 years of age or older and is engaged
bers, the place of departure, the place of arrival, any inter- in a single-pilot operation with passengers on board; or is 60 years
mediate stops and any instrument approaches, the amount of age or older.
of flight time, the conditions under which the flight was con- Fig .5.1 Summary of Medical Validity Periods
ducted, and, in the case of a flight in a glider, the method of
launch used for the flight. Logbook information may be kept In addition to a valid medical certificate, pilots must meet
in electronic form as an alternative to entries on paper. requirements, as set out in the CARs, for recency in order to
exercise the privileges of their permit, licence or rating.
The holder of a pilot licence shall not exercise its privileges
under instrument flight rules (!FR) unless the licence includes The recency requirements address three time periods con-
an instrument rating. sistent with flight crew medical validity periods: five years,
two years, and six months. If a pilot w ishes to act as pilot-in-
A private pilot may carry passengers by day in any aeroplane command (PIC) or co-pilot of an aircraft, they must meet both
which has been endorsed on his/ her licence, but not for the five-year and the two-year recency requirements. If they
remuneration. A commercial pilot may carry passengers for
wish to carry passengers, they must also meet the six-month
hire or reward in any aeroplane endorsed on his/ her licence,
requirement.
provided the aeroplane's flight crew document specifies a
minimum flight crew of one pilot. Pilots carrying passengers For five-year recency, the pilot must have either:
by night must have their licences endorsed for night flying. 1. Flown as pilot-in-command or co-pilot
All holders of Canadian pilot licences or permits (as well as for within the previous five years; or
air traffic controller licences) must undergo a periodic medi- 2. Completed a flight review with an instructor
cal examination to determine their medical fitness to exer- and written and passed the Student Pilot Permit
cise the privileges of their permit or licence. No person shall or Private Pilot Licence for Foreign and Military
exercise, nor attempt to exercise, the privileges of a permit, Applicants, Aviation Regulation Examination, (known
licence or rating unless they hold a valid medical certificate of as the PSTAR), within the previous 12 months.
a category that is appropriate for that permit, licence or rating.
For the 24-month recurrent training program, the pilot must
The medical examination will normally be carried out by have successfully completed a recurrent training program
a designated Civil Aviation Medical Examiner {CAME). The within the previous 24 months, and therefore meet one of the
frequency of the medical examinations depends on the age of following seven conditions:
the applicant and the type of permit or licence for which the
applicant is applying.

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 Air Rules & Procedures: Rules of the Air

1. Complete a flight review with an instructor; PILOT-IN-COMMAND (PIC) FLIGHT TIME

2. Attend a safety seminar conducted by TCCA; This is flight time in an aircraft for which the pilot has full
responsibility and authority for the operation and safety of
3. Participate in a TCCA-approved recurrent training that aircraft.
program;
4. Complete a self-paced study program; PIC UNDER SUPERVISION FLIGHT TIME
This is flight time, other than for receiving flight instruction,
5. Complete a training program or pilot proficiency acquired by a co-pilot under a TCCA-approved pilot training
check (PPC) as required by CARs Part IV, VI or VII; program while acting as PIC under supervision of a PIC. It
6. Complete the requirements for the issue or renewal of allows air operators to institute programs of supervision for
a licence, permit or rating; or co-pilots to credit fli ght time as PIC time.
7. Complete the written exam for a licence, perm it or CO-PILOT FLIGHT TIME
rating. This is flight tim e as a co-pilot in an aircraft certified as
Pilots must also meet specific recency requirem ents fo r other requiring a co-pilot, as specified in the Pilot's Operating
aircraft categories, instrument ratings and passenger carrying Handbook or by the air operator certificate (AOC). It may also
operations, as per Section IV of the CARs. be flight time in an aircraft that must be operated, in accor-
dance with TCCA requirements, with a minimum of two crew.
5.1.4 Flight Experience
To meet Canadian aviation regulation requirements regarding
5.L5 Rules &Right-of-Way
flight training and flight proficiency, the following definitions The few basic rules outlined below do not by any means
apply. attempt to cover the entire subject of Air Traffic Regulations. It
is vitally important that pilots keep themselves fully informed
DUAL INSTRUCTION FLIGHT TIME on current air traffic matters by reference to the advisory
This is the flight time during which a person is receiving flight circulars issued regularly by Transport Canada and to amend-
instruction from a person qualified to provide it. Pilot flying ments to the Canadian Aviation Regulations and the A.l.M.
time is flight time during which a licenced pilot, for profi- Canada.
ciency purposes, shows to an instructor the required pilot-in-
It is the responsibility of the pilot not to fly his/her aircraft in
command (PIC) skills while carrying out duties as if they were
such close proximity to another aircraft as to create a colli-
the PIC of the aircraft. Pilot monitoring/pilot-not-flying time is
sion hazard.
flight time during which a licenced pilot, for proficiency pur-
poses, shows to an instructor the required co-pilot (or second- When two aircraft are approaching head-on or approximately
in-command) skills while carrying out duties as if they were so, each should alter course to the right in order to avoid any
the co-pilot of the aircraft. danger of collision.
No person is authorized to give instruction unless they hold a An aircraft overtaking another, whether climbing, descending
flight in structor rating. Commercial or airline transport pilots or in h orizontal flight, sh all alter its heading to the right to
(ATPs) m ay, h ow ever, give a check-out to a licenced pilot on a pass on the right. This is the only air traffic rule which differs
new type of aeropl ane. Flying time in the logbook is entered from motor traffic regulations. It shall not resume its original
as dual, pilot-in-command, or co-pilot in accordance with the heading until it h as entirely passed and is clea r of the other
duties the pilot performed . aircraft .
When two aeroplanes are on converging courses at approxi-
SOLO FLIGHT TIME
mately the sam e altitude, the aeroplane that h as the other
This is the fli ght time necessa ry to ac quire a flight permit,
on its right must give way. The aeroplane th at h as the right-
licence or rating. For a pilot, it is the time during which the
of-w ay should m aintain its course and speed but h as, at the
pilot is the sole fli ght crew m ember. For a student pilot permit
s ame time, a responsibility to take any such action that is
holder, it is the flight time during which the permit holder is
necessary to avoid collision.
the sole occupan t of an aircraft while under the direction and
supervision of a qu alified flight instructor for the appropriate The aircraft that is required to give way sh all not pass over or
category of aircraft. under or cross ahead of the other aircraft unless it does so at a
distance sufficient not to create any risk of collision.
INSTRUMENT FLIGHT TIME
This is any fli ght tim e in an aircraft when flying by sole refer- Base d on their ability to m aneuver, aircraft h ave priority for
ence to the aircraft's fli ght instruments. This fli ght time is the right-of-w ay in the followin g order:
accumulated while operating under instrument flight rules 1. Fixe d or free balloons.
(!FR) in instrument m eteorological conditions (IMC). It also
2. Gliders.
includes flying in visual meteorological conditions (VMC)
during flight training when !FR conditions are being simulated 3. Airships.
by means of having the student wear a vision-limiting device. 4. Power driven fixed wing or rotary wing aeroplanes.
INSTRUMENT GROUND TIME An aeroplane towing another has priority over other aircraft
This is instrument time in a TCCA-approved flight simula- having mechanical power.
tion training device (FSTD) for the purposes of flight training. If two aeroplanes are approaching to land at the same time,
For such instrument ground time to be recognized, the FSTD the aeroplane flying at the greater altitude must give way to
must be controlled by sole reference to its flight instruments. the aeroplane at the lower altitude. However, the pilot of the

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Rules of the Air

latter must not take advantage of this requirement to maneu-

ver in front of another aircraft that is about to land. The pilot
Night Equipment - Aeroplanes
of a power driven aeroplane must give way to a motorless Aircraft operating at night must be equipped with the follow-
aeroplane, if both are approaching to land at the same time at ing approved, serviceable and functioning flight instruments:
the same airport. an airspeed indicator, a sensitive pressure altimeter, a direct
reading magnetic compass, a turn and bank indicator, a gyro
No person shall take off or attempt to take off until there is no magnetic compass or heading indicator (if the flight is to be
apparent risk of collision with any other aircraft. conducted beyond the immediate vicinity of the airport), and
An aircraft that is in flight or maneuvering on the ground or a means to illuminate the flight instruments. An aircraft that
water must give way to another aircraft that is about to land. is to be flown within the Northern Domestic Airspace must
have on board a means of establishing direction that is not
Over the built-up area of any city, tow n or other settlem en t or
dependent on a m agnetic source. Each crew m ember must
over any open air assembly, the minimum altitude at which
h ave access to a reliable time piece and a functioning fla sh -
an aircraft m ay be flown is an altitude that w ill permit, in
light. Any aircraft operating in controlled airspace must be
the event of an em ergency, the landing of the aircraft without
equipped with a functioning two-w ay radio communication
creating a h azard to persons or property on the ground. In any
system.
case, this minimum altitude may not be less than 1,000 feet
above the highest obstacle within a radius of 2,000 feet from
the aircraft. Night Lighting - Aeroplanes
Aeroplanes operating at night, in the air and while maneuver-
Elsewhere than over the areas mentioned above, the mini-
ing on the ground, must also be equipped with a functioning
mum altitude is 500 feet above the highest obstacle within a
navigation light system.
radius of 500 feet from the aircraft.
Except when taking off or landing, an aeroplane may not be . ........ ---:-- Navigation Light s
flown at a height of less than 2,000 feet over an aerodrome. //···· !
Single-engine aeroplanes in Canada may be flown over open
water beyond gliding distance from the shore only if they are
not engaged in a commercial air service. -~ -·

5.1.6 Fuel Requirements

Any aircraft operated under VFR flight (see Flight Rules) must
carry enough fuel to allow it to fly to its destination plus an
additional 30 minutes at normal cruising speed when oper- . -\~_ ...........
ated during the day. When operated at night, the aircraft must
Fig. 5.2 Navigation Lights
be able to fly an additional 45 minutes beyond its intended
des tination, at norm al cruising speed. On the left wing tip, a s teady red light and, on the right wing
In !FR conditions , fuel requirem ents are such that a propeller tip, a steady green light, each visible for 2 miles from dead
driven aircraft must be able to execute both an approach and ahead through an unobstructed angle of 110°. On the tail, in
a missed approach at its destination aero drome, and still h ave a position as far aft as possible, a single steady white light,
enough reserve fu el to fly an extra 45 minutes. If an altern ate visible for a di stance of 2 miles through an angle of 140°. (If
aerodrome is specified in its flight plan or itinerary (see Flight installation of a single light is impractical, two rear fa cing
Plans and Itineraries) then the aircraft must be able to fly steady white ligh ts m ay be displaye d.)
to, and land at, its alternate aerodrome with 45 minutes of An anti-collision light must also be installed on any aeroplane
reserve fu el still on board the aircraft . that will be operated at night. This high intensity flashin g
When determining fu el re quirem ents , pilots must take into light may be either white or re d or red/white segm ented. It
consideration taxiing time and possible take-off delays , must be visible through 360° and project 30° above and below
weather conditions , possible air traffic delays, enging failure the h orizontal plane of the aircraft.
if flying a multi-engine aircraft, and any other fo reseeable Navigation lights must be displaye d by all aircraft operating at
conditions th at could delay the arrival of the aircraft to its nigh t in Ca nada, and between sunset and sunrise in the U.S.
destin ation aerodrome.
Between sunset and sunrise, an aircraft moored on the w ater
and anchored to a fi xe d object either on land or in the w ater
5.i.1 Night Requirements must di splay a white light visible in all direc tions for a dis-
Night is any period of time during which the centre of the sun tance of 2 miles unless it is m oored at a place where aircraft
is more than 6° below the horizon. That is, for any place where are customarily moored (i.e. a seaplane base).
the sun rises and sets daily, it is the period between the end of Anti-collision beacons should not be on while flying in dense
evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twi- cloud because of the possible flicker vertigo effect on the
light. It may be taken as commencing not less than one half
pilots. In any event, they should be switched off at the first
hour after sunset and ending one half hour before sunrise. indication of dizziness.
Sunrise occurs when the upper limb (edge) of the sun appears Fuselage lights, when installed, are white lights mounted on
to be on the horizon . Sunset occurs when it is about to disap- the top and bottom of the fuselage in line, spanwise, with the
pear. Times of sunrise, sunset and twilight at any place on any running lights on the wing tips.
date may be found in the Air Almanac.

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 Air Rules & Procedures: Rules of the Air

where an engine fa ils; smoke or fire occurs; a malfunction of

5.1.s Over Water Flights an aircraft system causes difficulties in controlling the air-
Seaplanes must be equipped with an approved life jacket for craft; fu el shortage or depressurization occurs; the aircraft is
every person on board the aeroplane. An approved life jacket refuelled with incorrect fuel; there is loss of separation or risk
for an adult is one that is capable of providing a total buoyancy of collision during the flight; or, during landing or take-off,
of at least 15.9 kg. It must also be equipped with a means of there is failure of the aircraft to execute a safe and effective
illumination for the purpose of facilitating the location of procedure.
persons in the water. In the case of an accident, the information to be rep orted
All persons must be informed of the location and method of includes the type, model, nationality and registration m arks
use of the life saving equipment carried for their use. of the aircraft, the n ame of the owner or operator of the air-
craft, the n am e of the pilot-in -comm and, the date and time
A single -engine land aeroplane m ay m ake an overwater flight
of the accident, the las t point of departure and the point of
if it rem ains within gliding distance of land. Beyond gliding
intended landing of the aircraft, the position of the aircraft
distance (or 50 n autical miles) from land, it must be equipped
with reference to some easily identified geographical point,
with approved life jackets for all persons on board. If it is
the number of crew members and passen gers and whether
operating more than 100 nautical miles from shore, it must be
they were killed or seriously injured, the nature of the acci-
equipp ed with a life raft(s) with sufficient capacity to accom-
dent and the extent of damage to the aircraft, a description
modate all person s on board the aeropl ane. The life ra ft must
of any dangerous goods aboard the aircraft, the name and
be equipped w ith emergency stores such as water purification
address of the person making the report.
tablets, food, flares, signal mirror, first aid kit, etc.
If an aircraft is missing, a report with similar information
5.1.9 Aerobatics should be fil ed with an FSS or ATC unit.
The police should be notified as soon as possible to secure and
Any maneuver intentionally performed by an aircraft, involv-
guard the accident site until the arrival of the investigating
ing an abrupt change in its attitude, an abnormal attitude,
team. Except to rescue or remove survivors, extinguish a fire
or an abrupt variation in speed is considered to be aerobatic
or to prevent danger to any person or property, noth in g at the
flight.
site should be touched or removed. The preservation of any
Aerobatics are not permitted over any urban or populous marks on th e ground or objects along the accident trail is also
area. They are not permitted in controlled airsp ace or in any of critical importance.
air route or over any assembly of people except with written
The purpose of accident or incident investigation is to furth er
authorization from Transport Canada. Aerobatics are permit-
aviation safety and to attempt to prevent recurrence of that
ted in uncontrolled airspace. Certain advisory areas, classi-
type of occurrence through the dissemination of safety infor-
fied as Class F airspace, have been especially designated as
mation. Therefore, assist accident investigators as much as
areas in which aerobatics may be carried out.
possible as they try to determine the cause of the occurrence.
The performance of aerobatics must not in any way constitute
a h azard to air traffic.
SECURITAS Program
Passengers m ay not be carried in an aircra ft performing aero - A confidential aviation safety reporting sys tem h as been
batics unless the pilot-in-command of the aircraft has at least established by the TSB whose purpose is to en able aviation
10 hours dual flight instruction in the conducting of aerobatic occurrences, deficiencies and discrepancies in the aviation
maneuvers, or 20 hours conducting aerob atic m aneuvers and system to be reported to the Board on a confidential basis.
at least one hour of conducting aerobatic m aneuvers in the The TSB encourages pilots who are aware of such occurrences
preceding six m onths. and defici encies to report them to the TSB's SECURITAS office.
Aerobatics should always be conducted at a safe altitude. The Analysts use the reports to identify and m ake recommenda-
recovery from a practice spin should be m ade at an altitude tions to correc t safety deficiencies.
not lower than 2,000 feet above the ground. Although there is The legislation establishing the system prohibits the identi-
no re quirem ent that a pilot conducting aerobatic flight mus t fication of the person submitting the report. In any legal or
w ear a parachute, it is a recommended safety precaution. disciplinary proceedings ari sing from the report, the source is
guaranteed anonymity.
5.uo Aircraft Occurrences
It is the responsibility of the pilot, operator, owner or any crew 5.u1 Explosives &Dangerous Goods
m emb er involved to report an aircraft occurrence (accident Explosives or other dan gerou s articles or subst ances, includ-
or incident) as soon as possible to the Transportation Safety ing magnetized m aterials , m ay not be transported in an aero -
Board (TSB). Such a report may be m ade to the Regional TSB plane except with permission from the Minister of Transport.
office or to the nearest flight service station or air traffic con-
If such permission is granted, all applicable prescribed safety
trol unit wh o w ill pass on the information to the TSB.
requirements must be met, the dangerous goods must be
A reportable aviation accident is defined as an occurrence accompanied by all applicable prescribed documents, and
associated with the operation of an aircraft that takes place the means of containment and transport must comply with
between the time the first person boards the aircraft for the all applicable prescribed safety standards and display all
purpose of flight and the time the last person disembarks in required safety markers.
which (1) any person suffe rs death or serious injury, or (2) the
aircraft sustains substantial damage or is destroyed.
A reportable aviation incident is defined as an occurrence
involving an aircraft with a gross weight of over 5,700 kg

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

you must read back the text of the clearance only if requested
s.2 Air Traffic Rules by ATC to do so.

& Procedures A clearance is identified by use of some form of the word

"clear" in its text.

For flight within Canadian airspace, there are many proce- Acceptance of an air traffic control clearance or instruction
dures and regulations which pilots must know and which (below) does not relieve you, the pilot, of the responsibility
they must follow to ensure separation from other traffic and of avoiding other traffic. If all or part of an air traffic control
the safe and efficient operation of their own flight. Procedures clearance is unacceptable to you, because, for example, of
and regulations are constantly under-going change and it is a the operational capabilities of yourself or your aeroplane,
pilot's responsibility to keep himself/herself informed of such you must so inform ATC and ask for other instructions. Even
changes by consulting the Canadian Aviation Regulations and after accepting a clearance, if you sub sequently find that you
the AIM. cannot comply, you should so inform ATC and ask for new
directions. If you find it n ecessary to ch ange speed, altit ude
For definitions of terms and services in Air Traffic Control, see
or course while proceeding on an ATC clearance, you must
the Glossary.
inform ATC. Separation from other flights is predicated by
ATC on the assumption that the clearance is being exactly
5.2.1 Air Traffic Services (ATS) followed.
The air traffic control (ATC) and information services An air traffic control instruction is a directive issued by an
described below are provided by ATC through area control ATC unit for air traffic control purposes. You are required to
centres (ACCs), terminal control units (TCUs) and control comply with and acknowledge receipt of an ATC instruction
towers (TWRs). which is directed to you provided the safety of the aircraft is
Airport control service is provided by airport TWRs to aircraft not jeopardized. An instruction is always worded in such a
and vehicles on the maneuvering area of an airport and to way as to be readily identified, although the word "instruct"
aircraft operating in the vicinity of an airport. may not be used.

Area control service is provided by ACCs to !FR and CVFR Provision is made for pilots to deviate from an ATC clearance
flights operating within specified control areas. or instruction to follow ACAS/TCAS (i.e. collision avoidance,
see Secondary Surveillance Radar) resolution advisories. ATC
Terminal control service is provided by ACCs to !FR and CVFR must be informed as soon as possible of the deviation and
flights operating within specified control areas. It is also the pilot should return quickly to the last ATC clearance or
provided by !FR units to VFR aircraft operating within Class instruction received and accepted. ATC is not responsible for
C airspace. separation for an aircraft responding to an ACAS resolution
Terminal Radar Service is provided by ATC units to !FR air- advisory until the aircraft has returned to the last ATC clear-
craft operating within the radar service area. ance received and accepted or an alternate ATC clearance or
Alerting service notifies appropriate organizations regarding instruction has been issued.
aircraft in need of search and rescue services, or alerts for
crash equipment, ambulances, m edical responders, and any 5.2.3 Position Reports
other safety services. A position report is a report to ATC from an aeroplane en route
Altitude reservation service provides mission planning sup - made upon passing a reporting point. A position report must
port for altitude reservations (ALTRVs) and other military include identification of the aircraft, position, time of passing
activities, airspace coordination for military or specialized the reporting point, altitude , type of fli ght plan and de stina-
operations in controlled airspace, coordination with user tion. The estimated time of arrival at the des tin ation or at the
agencies and affected ATS units , and issuing approvals and next reporting point may be included. That repor ting point
clearances for aircraft to operate within approved ALTRVs. should be nam ed (to identify the route).
Aircraft movement information service (AMIS) is provided by Pilots on VFR flights are not required to m ake position reports
ACCs for the collection, processing and dissemination of air- but are encouraged to do so. These reports should be made to
craft movem ent information for use by air defence units rela- the nearest flight service station (FSS) or flight information
tive to fli ghts operatin g into or within Canadian Air Defence centre (FIC).
Identification Zones (ADI Z). A reporting point is a geographical location in relation to
Flight Information Service is provided by ATC units to assist which the position of an aeroplane is reported. Compulsory
pilots by supplying information about known h azardous flight reporting points are shown on radio facility ch arts as solid
conditions. (See Flight Information Service in Ch apter 8.) triangles (.6.), non -compulsory reporting points as outline
triangles (l'l). Reporting points are usually navigational aids
s.2.2 Clearances & Instructions such as a VOR. However, they may be non-directional radio
beacons or the intersection of an omni radial with the radial
An air traffic control clearance is an authorization from an which lies along the airway being flown . (In the latter case, an
ATC unit for an aircraft to proceed within controlled airspace arrow indicates the direction of the intersection position line.)
under specific conditions. If you, as pilot, are unsure of the
exact meaning of any part of an ATC clearance, you must ask
for clarification before accepting it. Once you accept it, you are
5. 2.4 Flight Rules
required to comply with an ATC clearance. You also must read Visual flight rules (VFR) are the rules which apply when flying
back the text of the clearance if you are on an !FR flight. IfVFR, by means of visual reference to the ground.
Instrument flight rules (!FR) are the rules which apply when
flying by means of reference to the instruments in the cockpit.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

NAV CANADA CANADIAN FLIGHT PLAN AND FLIGHT ITINERARY

PLAN DE VOL ET ITIN~RAIRE DE VOL CANADIEN
ICAO FLIGHT PLAN
PLAN DE VOL OACI
PRIORllY I PRIORJTE ADDRESSEE(S) I DESTINATAIRE(S)

<<=FF~ 1-------------------------------,
<<=
FILING TIME I HEU RE DE DEPOT ORIGINATOR I EXPEDITEUR

...__.__~.....__~~~' ~ l.__...___.___.___.___..__._.....___.I << =

SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSEE(S) AND/OR ORIGINATOR/ IDENTIFICATION PRECISE DU(DES) DESTINATAIRE(S) ET/OU DE L'EXPEDITEUR

3 MESSAGE TYPE 7 AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION I 8 FLIGHT RULES I TYPE OF FLIGHT I

TYPE DE MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION DE L'AERONEF REGLES DE VOL TYPE DEVOL
<< "' (FPL - I c. r. - x .v 'Z . IWAKE TURBULENCE CAT./
- [i] I G <<
9 NUMBER/NOMBRE TYPE OF AIRCRAFT I TYPE D'AERONEF CAT. DE TURBUf&liliE DE SILLAGE 10 EQUIPMENT I EQUIPEMENT

-I . I Ic l . .., . i. I t LJJ - I 1so1e I <<=

13 DEPARTURE AERODROME I AERODROME DE DEPART TIME/HEURE

- lc.Y.X.P I li..o.3.o l«=

15 CRUISING SPEED I
VITESSE DE CROISIERE ALTITUDE I LEVEL/ NIVEAU ROUTE I ROUTE
~----------------------~
IN.O,l,4,0l IA ~ DAO I Iv.sot YYC \13o+ '(;A ».o5oN140

16 DESTINATION AERODROME TOTAL EET I DUREE TOTALE ESTIMEE SAR ALTN AERODROME I 2NO ALTN AERODROME I
AERODROME OE DESTINATION OAYSIJOURS HRS MINS ~-HR=S--"'MIN:o.:S=---~ AERODROME DE DEGAGEMENT 2e AEROOROME OE oEGAGEMENT
- lc.v
18 OTHER
.w Gt I I .. o. s. 3.o
I Dl'N-l'U'.Nl'MENTS nn=ne
I l._~~·~·~l~lc 't 9.K l~c "( Y .r. l«=
- I

19 ENDURANCE I AUTONOMIE EMERGENCY RADIO I RADIO DE SECOURS

HRS MINS PERSONS ON BOARD I PERSONNES A BORD UHF VHF ELT ELT TYPE I TYPE D'ELT

E/ !o,s 2. 0 I ~P/ lo,o

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT I EQUIPEMENT DE SURVlE
~ I ~R/~
JACKETS I GI
~
S DE SAUVETAGE
~ lA,F I

m
POLAR DESERT MARITIME JUNGLE LIGHT FLUORES

~T
POLAIRE LAMPES VHF

[§]
NUMBER
I ~
DINGHIES I CANOTS
mE

CAPACITY COVER
~QJ
COLOUR
t[I] F)g
®. [YJ
NOMBRE CAPACrrE C~RE COULEUR

-+~11. 1~ I , 1~~~1.________~I«= AMPHIBIAN

AIRCRAFT COLOUR AND MARKINGS I COULEUR ET MARQUES DE L'AERONEF WHEELS SEAPLANE
ROUES HYDRAVION SKIS AMPHIBIE

A l
l 9LW, WITM WllIW TIUl<t I x: - - -
~ REMARKS I REMARQUES

-+ ~ ''L-------------------------~
I
I<<=
AN ARRIVAL REPORT WILL BE FILED WITH UN COMPTE REN DU D'ARRIVEE SERA NOTIFIE A :

I
NAME AND PfjONE NUMBER OR ADDRESS Of PERSONS(S) OR COMPANY TO BE NOTIFIED IF SEARCH AND RESCUE ACTION INITIATED I
NOM ET NVMCRO DE TELEPHONE OU AQRESSEOHA !DESI PERSotflE!Sl OU CQMPA(iNIE A A'l!SER SI PES RECHERCHES SONT ENTREPRISES

1-111• AYIM'Olll &.TO. WUMlt'le, ~·'

PILOT-IN-COMMAND I PILOTE COMMANDANT DE BORD
ClO't SSS-lu+
PILOrS LICENCE NO. I N" OE LICENCE OU PILOTE
I
c , , A'P. c. ICllOf' I ATOOOl I )« =
FILED BY I D~POS~ PAR I SPACE RESERVED FOR ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS I ESPACE RESERvE A DES FINS SUPPLEMENTAIRES

NAVCAN26-0515 (200-Hl1 )

Fig .5 .3 Sample IC AO Fli ght Plan for Canada

An !FR flight plan has been chosen as an example because it meets all the complete requirements for flight planning. The VFR flight plans are
somewhat less detailed. In the example here, the aircraft is an C172 with standard NAV/COM equipment (VHF, VOR, !LS) and a DME and a
transponder with Mode A and Mode C. Its departure is CYXD (Edmonton, AB) at a proposed time of 2030 UTC. Its cruising speed will be 140
knots at an initial cruidsing altitude of 80 (8,000 feet) via V301 (Victor airway 301) to YYC (Calgary, AB), then via V304 (Victor airway 304) to
YEA (Empress, AB). From this point, the cruis ing altitude will be 50 (5,000 feet) via R18 (Romeo airway 18) to YYN (Swift Current, SK), then via
V300 (Victor airway 300) to YXB (Broadview, SK), and then via V304 (Victor airway 304 (Victor airway 304) to the point of first intended landing,
CYWG (Winnipeg, MB). Alternate airports are CYQK (Kenora, ON) and CYYI (Rivers, MB). Emergency and survival equipment that are crossed
out indicate that these items are not carried on board the aircraft. Other portions of the sample flight plan should be self-explanatory.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

It is the responsibility of the pilot-in-command to determine Code Equipment

whether a flight w ill be conducted in accordance with visual N No NAV/ COMM/Approach equipment
or instrument flight rules . s Standard (VHF, VOR and !LS)
!FR flight is only permissible when the pilot has a valid instru- D DME
ment rating and the aeroplane is suitably instrument and F ADF
radio equipped fo r !FR fli gh t . G GNSS
H HF RTF
While m any references are m ade to !FR flight in this textbook,
I INS
a description of the rule s for visual flight is the prima ry focus
J Data Link
throughout this publication.
K MLS
L !LS
5.2.5 Flight Plans & Itineraries 0 VOR
For any VFR flight that will be conducted beyond a radius R PBN
of 25 nautical miles from the airport of departure, the T TACAN
pilot-in-command is required to file an !CAO-standard u UHF
(International Civil Aviation Organization) VFR fl ight plan v VHF
or a VFR fl ight itinera ry w ith an ATS unit such as an air w RVSM Certification
traffic cont rol (ATC) unit, a flight service st ation (FSS), a x MNPS Certification
fli gh t info rm ation centre (FIC), or a community aerodrome y VHF with 8.33 kHz channel spaci ng.
rad io station (CA RS). The pilot also has the op tion of leaving z Other Equipment
a flight itine rary with a responsible person who will noti fy Fig. 5.4 Nav/Comm Equipment
Search and Rescue in the event that the flight is overdue.
Notwithstanding the above, a VFR flight plan must be If the letter Z is used, specify in "Other
filed for any flight to or from a military aerodrome. (Prior Information" what other equipment is carried.
permission from the military authorities is also required
Code Equipment
before landing at a military field .) As described further into
N Nil or equipment unserviceable.
this section, a VFR flight plan must also be filed for any
A Transponder, Mode A.
transborder fligh t between Canada and a foreign state, the
c Transpo nde r, Mode A and Mode C.
United States include d, as well as for any fli ght that w ill
Transponder, Mode S with aircraft identification, pressu re-
penetrate an Air Defence Identification Zone. E
altitude and extended squ itter (ADS -8) capabili ty.
After fi ling of the fli ght plan, a VFR flight pla n or flight Transpo nder, Mode S wit h aircraft identification, pressure-
H
altitude and enhanced surveillance capa bility.
itinerary should n ormally be opened (i.e. activate d) w ith
Tran spon der, Mode S with aircraft identification
a TWR, an FSS, an FIC or a CARS upon departure. Opening I
but no pressure-altitude capab ility.
of the filed flight plan activates the alerting service. If Transponder, Mode S with aircraft identification, pressure-altitude,
L
an extension or a cancellation to the flight plan or flight extended squitter (A DS-B) and enhanced surveillance capability.
itinerary is not received by the proposed departure time p Transponder, Mode S with pressure altitude transmission
but no aircraft identification capability.
identified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, ATS will ac ti-
Tran sponder, Mode S with both pressure altitude
vate the flight plan or flight itinerary using the estimated s and aircraft identification capability.
depa rture time as the actual departu re time. Tran spond er, Mode S without both aircraft
x identification or pressure altitude transmission.

VFR Flight Plan Bl ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-8 Out capabi lity.
82 ADS-B with ded icated 1090 MHz ADS-8 Out and In capability.
To complete a fligh t pla n, requi red informa tion must be
Ul ADS-8 Out capability using UAT.
inserted into the appropriate boxes on the fl ight plan form.
U2 ADS-8 Out and In capability using UAT.
Flight plans may be filed through NavCanada's Internet
Vl ADS-8 Out capability using VOL Mode 4.
fligh t planning system (known as the Collaborative Flight
V2 ADS-B Out and In capability using VOL Mode 4.
Plan ning System, CFPS) where it is possible to file, amend,
01 ADS-C with FANS 1/ A capabilities.
delay or cancel flight plans online. Flight plan filing may
also be accomplished through web-based services or flight Gl ADS-C with ATN capabilities .

sup port Apps that have licence agreements with NavCanada Fig.5 .5 SSR Equipment Codes
for the fil ing of flight plans.
For Example:
A fli ght plan should contain the following information:
C172/0V/N - a Cessna 172 w ith VOR
1. Type of fli gh t plan (e.g. VFR). and VHF only and no tran sponder
2. Aircraft identification (i.e. registration), colour PA46/SDH/C - a Piper Malibu with VHF, ADF, VOR,
and markings. If the flight is a MEDEVAC, th e suf- !LS, DME, HF and transponder with Mode A and C
fix / M should be entered after the call sign.
4. Cruising speed in knots .
3. The type of aircraft and the type of navigation 5. Point of departure , using the 3 or 4 let-
(NAV), communication (COMM), and secondary sur- ter identifier of the aerodrome.
veillane radar (SSR) equipment expressed by means 6. Flight altitude/level and route (on the VFR flight
of the equipment codes that follow in the list below. plan, it is necessary only to indicate VFR).
Note: the fir st suffixes must indicate the NAV/COM 7. Destination airport.
equipment foll owe d by an oblique stroke an d anoth -
8. Tim e of departure (UTC) - proposed/actu al.
er suffix to denote SSR (surveill ance) equipment.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

9. Estimated elapsed time (EET) en route A composite flight plan may be filed for a flight within Canadian
expressed in hours and minutes. airspace. Such flight plans describe parts of the route as operat-
10. Alternate airports. ing under VFR and other parts of the route as operating under
11. Fuel on board expressed in hours a nd minutes. !FR. The rules that govern VFR shall apply to the VFR portions
of the flight and the rules that govern !FR shall apply to the !FR
12. Type of emergency locator transmitter.
portions of the flight.
ELT Type ELT Meaning A pilot who files !FR for the first part of a flight and VFR for the
Type A or AD automatic ejectable or automatic deployable. next part will be cleared by ATC to the point within controlled
Type For AF fixed or automatic fixed. airspace at which the !FR part of the flight ends. A pilot who
Type AP automatic portable. files VFR for the first part of a flight and !FR for the next part
Type P personnel. is expected to contact the appropriate ATC unit for clearance
Type W or S water activated or survival. prior to approaching the point where the !FR portion of the fligh t
commences. If direct contact with an ATC unit is not possible,
Fig. 5.6 ELT Equipment Codes
the pilot may request ATC clearance th rough an FIC. Until ATC
13. The type of communication equipment to be used en
clearance for !FR is received and acknowledged by the pilot, the
route. If standard frequencies are used, specify VHF, flight must continue to be flown under conditions for VFR flight.
UHF or HF as appropriate. Frequencies other than An Arrival Report and closing of a flight plan, (i.e. reporting
standard should be listed. The word RONLY means your arrival) must be submitted to an ATC unit or to an FSS/FIC
receiver only or the word NORDO means no radio. or CARS within one hour after landing or at the SAR initiation
14. The total number of persons on board time specified in your flight plan. If this is not done, the alerting
at the point of first departure. service of the FSS/FIC or the ATC unit will contact stations along
your intended route and if they are unable to obtain information
15. Pilot's name, and pilot's licence number. as to your whereabouts, they will contact the search and rescue
16. Name and address of aircraft owner. service. In the event that you have had to terminate your VFR
flight at an aerodrome other than the one to which the flight
17. Other information such as whether the aircraft is on
was planned or if you have had to make any changes in the
wheels or skis, is a seaplane or amphibian, duration of
flight route, ETA, etc., you must notify ATC as soon as possible
stops, the nature of any hazardous or dangerous cargo
of the change in the flight plan. Alerting service and subsequent
on board. When the point of departure is from a loca-
search and rescue action is based on the estimated elapsed time
tion without air/ground communication with ATS, it is
indicated in the flight plan.
required to include in the "Other Information" section
a telephone number that may be used by ATS to con- The pilot is at all times responsible for the closing of his/ her
duct communication searches if the flight is overdue. flight plan and should never assume that the tower personnel
will automatically file an arrival report. An arrival report should
18. SAR time. This block is used when the pilot requires
include (1) the aircraft registration, (2) the type of flight plan, (3)
a SAR time which is different th an the SAR time
the aerodrome of departure, the date and time of arrival and (4)
th at is autom atically provided (1 hour for a VFR
the aerodrome of arrival.
flight plan and 24 hours for a flight itinerary).
Pilots who plan to file an arrival report from a remote location,
19. Where the arrival report is to be filed. If the flight is
such as a farm, ranch, lake, etc., must be sure that adequate
to a remote location, it is necessary to include spe-
communication facilities are available at destination to permit
cific information on how the arrival report will be
the filing of the report.
filed. For example: XY tower - telephone - MacKay
farm - Anytown. When the pilot has filed a flight Once you have filed a flight plan or a flight itinerary, follow it. If
plan, search and rescue services will be alerted a deviation from your intended route or altitude becomes nec-
if the aircraft is overdue by 1 hour. The pilot may essary, advise ATC or an FSS/FIC as soon as practicable of the
specify a preferred SAR initiation time if he/she intended change. If the flight is being conducted in controlled
wishes it to be other than the automatic 1 hour. airspace, you must receive an air traffic control clearance before
making the intended change. Search and rescue operations are
20. Customs notification if the flight is a transborder
conducted based on the information in the flight plan. If you
flight, number of U.S. and non U.S. citizens on board.
have deviated from your flight plan and are involved in a crash
21. Survival equipment (type, jackets, dinghies). or forced landing, rescue planes may lose valuable time search -
A flight plan may be telephoned to an FSS/ FIC (call ing for you in the wrong place.
1-866-WX-BRIEF). If telephoning is impossible, a VFR flight plan
may be filed by radio with the nearest FSS/FIC as soon as practi- Flight Itinerary
cal after take-off. However, it is not advisable, because of possible With the exception of VFR flight to and from a military aero-
overloading, to use the air/ground communication frequencies drome or flight within an identification zone, pilots have the
for filing flight plans when any alternate method is available. option of filing a VFR flight itinerary in lieu of a VFR flight plan.
A single flight plan may be filed for a flight th at will include one A flight itinerary must be filed with a responsible person, an ATC
or more stop-overs as long as the stop-overs are of short dura- unit, an FSS/FIC or a CARS. A responsible person is an individual
tion (e.g. boarding passengers , refuelling, etc.). The stops must be who has agreed to notify the proper authorities in the event that
indicated by name on the route section of the flight plan form; the flight is overdue. (The proper authorities are an ATC unit,
the duration of each stop must be indicated in the other infor- an FSS/ FIC, a CARS or a Rescue Co-ordination Centre.) The pilot
mation section. When intermediate stop-overs are planned, the filing a flight itinerary has the option of specifying an SAR initia-
estimated elapsed time must be calculated as the total time to tion time. If no such specific time is specified, SAR services will
the destination, including the duration of each stop-over.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

be alerted automatically if no arrival report has been filed by 24 The first cross-border landing in either direction after taking
hours after its expected time of arrival. off must be made at a customs User Fee Airport (in the U.S.)
A flight itinerary should contain the same information as a flight or an Airport of Entry (AOE) in Canada. Upon landing, you
must not leave your aeroplane until customs and immigra-
plan not least with an emphasis on the following:
tion officers arrive at the airport to clear you. On transborder
1. Aircraft registration and type. flights, you must have your pilot's licence in your possession
2. Estimated duration of flight and ETA at destination. and the aeroplane registration and airworthiness certificates
must be on board.
3. Route of flight or the specific boundar-
ies of the area of flight operations. The CANPASS - Private Aircraft program simplifies customs
clearance at airports in Canada for low-risk travelers arriv-
4. Location of overnight stops, if applicable. ing in the country from the U.S. Private aircraft that meet the
Upon the termination of a flight for which a flight itinerary requirements of the CANPASS - Private Aircraft program can
was filed, the pilot must file an arrival report with ATS, if the land at any AOE at any time that the airport is open, regard-
itinerary was filed with ATS, or with the responsible person less of the hours of operation of the local CBSA office. The
with whom the itinerary was filed. The arrival report must be aircraft can also land at a designated CANPASS-only airport.
filed within 24 hours of the ETA specified on the flight itiner- The pilot of the aircraft must report all passengers and their
ary or by the SAR initiation time, if that option was exercised goods on behalf of the aircraft and can do so via a telephone
by the pilot. The pilot on a flight itinerary who realizes that reporting centre (TRC) by calling the 1-888-CANPASS number
his/her ETA will be later than that specified on the flight at least 2 hours before but no more than 48 hours prior to the
itinerary should make every possible attempt to contact ATS aircraft's estimated time of arrival in Canada. The TRC allows
about the delay so that an unnecessary SAR is not undertaken. individuals who enter Canada by private or corporate aircraft
to report their arrival and make their declarations to the CBSA
by telephone.
5.2.6 Transborder Flights
To have CANPASS - Private Aircraft privileges, the aircraft
A flight plan must be filed for any flight that crosses the may not carry more than 15 people (including the crew), and
border into, or that returns from, the United States as well as the pilot cannot charge passengers a fee for passage when
any flight to or from any foreign state other than the United using CANPASS privileges. The pilot must ensure that all pas-
States. ATS does not accept flight itineraries, composite flight sengers have the appropriate travel documents for entering
plans or CVFR flight plans for flights between Canada and Canada.
the U.S.
During that first telephone call to the TRC, the pilot must pro-
All pilots crossing the U.S. border in either direction are vide the following information to the CBSA:
required to transmit electronically (via the Internet) to the U.S.
Custom and Border Protection (CBP), via the CBP's Electronic 1. the estimated time of arrival (ETA);
Advance Passenger Information System (eAPIS), passenger 2. the aircraft tail number/registration number;
manifest information for each individual travelling onboard
3. the full name, date of birth and citi-
the aircraft, as well as aircraft and trip information. The data
zenship of all persons on board;
in the manifests must be received by eAPIS no later than 60
minutes before departing from, or arriving into, the U.S. Pilots 4. passport and visa information of passen-
can file with eAPIS as far in advance as they wish. An approval gers (including the crew), if applicable;
from eAPIS must be received by the pilot before take-off. Pilots 5. the destination, purpose of the trip and length
overflying the U.S. on a Canada-to-Canada flight , or who are of stay in Canada for non-residents;
overflying Canada on a U.S.-to-U.S. flight do not require eAPIS.
6. the landing point (must be an AOE
To be an eAPIS user, pilots must be enrolled with the service, or CANPASS-only airport);
and thus have an account, before it can be used to file reports.
It is, therefore, advisable that any pilot planning a cross-bor- 7. the length of absence for each passenger
der flight, enroll well in advance of their planned departure to who is a returning resident of Canada;
ensure that they are signed up to use the service. 8. a declaration of all goods being import-
For flights to the U.S. from Canada, direct contact must be ed, including firearms and weapons;
made with agents from the U.S. CBP at least two hours before 9. a declaration of all currency and/or monetary
arriving into the U.S. For flight from the U.S. into Canada, instruments totaling CAN$10,000 or more;
direct contact must be made with the Canadian Border
10. for returning residents of Canada, a report of all
Services Agency (CBSA), via CANPASS (1-888-CANPASS), also
repairs or modifications made to goods (includ-
at least two hours (but not more than 40 hours) before arriv-
ing the aircraft) while outside Canada.
ing into Canada. In either case, this contact must be made to
arrange for customs inspection. An eAPIS report itself is not If the ETA changes by more than 30 minutes or if there are
sufficient for ensuring that a customs agent will be present for any changes to the point of arrival, to the list of passengers
inspection upon arrival. or to their declarations, the pilot must advise the TRC prior to
arrival in Canada.
A Mode A and C transponder and a communication radio are
required by the U.S. government to cross the U.S. border in The pilot must remain at the point of arrival until the ETA
either direction. Pilots must be in communication with the reported to the TRC has elapsed. No second call to the TRC
governing ATC agency (i.e. the FAA in the U.S. or NavCanada is required. If there is no customs officer waiting to meet the
in Canada) before crossing, and as they cross, the border. The aircraft upon its arrival at the reported ETA or actual time
ATC agency will issue a unique transponder code that aircraft of arrival, whichever is later, the aircraft may proceed to the
must squawk on the transponder as they cross the border. final destination and passengers may disembark.

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 Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

In addition to the above, the pilot is responsible for ensuring

that all persons being transported into Canada on board the
Cruising Altitudes - Canada
aircraft are in possession of all travel documents required by VFR CRUISING ALTITUDES
law. VFR Cruising Altitudes Below 12,000 Feet ASL
Non-CANPASS permit holders must arrive during customs On or Off Airways
office hours at a designated AOE and must contact CANPASS Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown
in the same way as permit holders. In addition, non-permit ODD thousands plu s 500 feet
holders must contact CANPASS a second time upon arrival to 000° to 179° For example: 3,500', 5,500',
7,500' AS L, etc.
inform an officer of their arrival. The officer will then indi-
EVEN thousands plus 500 feet
cate to the non-permit holder whether they are free to enter tao• to 359° For exa mple: 4,500', 6,500',
Canada or whether they must wait for a customs officer for 8,500' ASL, etc.
completion of documentation and aircraft inspection. No one Fig.5.8 VFR Cruising Altitudes & Cruising
is permitted to leave the aircraft until authorization is given Flight Levels Below 12,000 Feet ASL
by customs to do so.
At altitudes below 12,000 feet ASL (on or off airways), the alti-
5.2.1 Cruising Altitudes tudes shown in the table below must be flown. Note that, in
level cruising flight at or below 3,000 feet AGL, the specified
Cruising altitudes appropriate to the direction of flight must cruising altitudes are not compulsory but should be flown if
be maintained at all times regardless of whether a flight plan practicable.
has, or has not, been filed.
At altitudes above 12,000 feet but below 18,000 feet ASL (in
In the Southern Domestic Airspace, cruising altitudes are uncontrolled airspace), the altitude shown in the table below
based on magnetic tracks. In the Northern Domestic Airspace, must be flown.
cruising altitudes are based on true tracks. Altitudes below
18,000 feet ASL are stated in thousands of feet. Altitudes at VFR Cruising Altitudes Above 12,000 Feet and Below 18,000 Feet ASL
In Uncontrolled Airspace
or above this altitude are referred to as flight levels examples
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown
of which are: FL 180 (i.e. 18,000 feet), FL 210 (i.e. 21,000 feet),
ODD thousands plus 500 feet
FL330 (i.e. 33,000 feet), etc.
000° to 179° For example: 13,500',
On airways, !FR cruising altitudes are assigned by ATC. In 15,500', 17,500' ASL

uncontrolled airspace, a cruising altitude appropriate to the EVEN thousands plus 500 feet
track of the flight must be chosen by the pilot-in-command 180° to 359° For exa mple: 12,500',
14,500', 16,500', ASL
and it must be maintained. The pilot-in-command of an air-
craft operating within controlled airspace between 18,000 feet Fig . 5.9 VFR Cruising Altitudes Above 12,000
ASL and FL 600 (i.e. 60,000 feet) inclusive, must ensure that the Feet & Below 18,000 Feet ASL
aircraft is operated in accordance with !FR unless otherwise
At altitudes above 18,000 feet ASL but below FL 290 (in uncon-
authorized.
trolled airspace), the altitudes shown in the table below must
VFR and !FR cruising altitudes and cruising flight levels are be flown. (Note that this is uncontrolled airspace only in
summarized in the table below. Northern Domestic Airspace. In Southern Domestic Airspace,
this is Class A airspace and, therefore, it is controlled !FR
Cruising Altitudes for 18,000 Feet and Below airspace.)
Aircraft Track of 000° to 179° (East) Aircraft Track of 180° to 359° (West)
!FR & CVFR VFR !FR & CVFR VFR VFR Cruising Altitudes Above 18,000 Feet ASL and Below FL 290
In Uncontrolled Airspace
1,000 -- 2, 000 --
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown
3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500
ODD fli ght levels
5,000 5,500 6,000 6,500
000° to 179' For exa mple: FL 190, FL
7,000 7,500 8,000 8,500 210, FL 230, etc.
9,000 9,500 10,000 10,500 EVEN Fligh t levels
11,000 11,500 12,000 12,500 180° to 359° For example: FL 180, FL
200, FL 220, etc
13,000 13,500 14,000 11,, 500
15,000 15,500 16,000 16,500 Fig .5. 10 VFR Cruising Altitudes Above
17,000 17,500 18,000 Feet ASL & Below FL 290
Cruising Flight Levels for FL 180 and Above
FL 190 FL 190 FL 180 FL 180 CVFR IN CLASS B AIRSPACE
FL 210 FL 210 FL 200 FL 200
In Class B airspace between 12,500 feet and 18,000 feet ASL,
VFR flights are controlled, (thus, they are CVFR), they are
FL 230 FL 23 0 FL 220 FL 220
assigned cruising altitudes and their altitudes must be flown
FL 250 FL 250 FL 240 FL 240
as shown in the table below.
FL 270 FL 270 FL 260 FL 260
FL 290 -- FL 280 FL 280 CVFR Cruising Altitudes Between 12,500 Feet and 18,000 Feet ASL
On Airways
FL 330 -- FL 310 --
FL 370 -- FL 350 -- Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown
FL 410 -- FL 390 -- ODD thousa nd s
000° to 179° Fo r example: 13,000',
etc. -- etc. -- 15,000', 17,000' ASL
EVEN thousands
Fig.5.7 Summary of Cruising Altitudes & Cruising Flight Levels 180 ° to 359°
For example: 14,000', 16,000', ASL

Fig. 5.11 CVFR Cruising Altitudes Between

12,500 Feet & 18,000 Feet ASL

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Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

IFR CRUISING ALTITUDES VFR Cruising Altitudes Above FL 290

In controlled airspace, the altitude or flight level to be flown is On or Off Airways

the one assigned by air traffic control. In uncontrolled airspace, Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown

when operating !FR in level cruising flight, the altitude or flight At 4,000' intervals beginning at
000° to 179° 30,000' press ure altit ude
level must be appropriate to the direction of flight as shown in For example: FL 300, Fl 340, Fl 380
the tables below. At 4,000' interva ls beginning at
180' to 359° 32,000' pressure altitude
!FR Cruising Altitudes Below FL 290 For exa mple: FL 320, Fl 360, Fl 400
In Controlled and Uncontrolled Airspace
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown Fig.5.16 VFR Cruising Altitudes Above FL 290

ODD t housands or flight leve ls

000' to 179° For exa mple: 3,000', 5,000' IFR CRUISING ALTITUDES
ASL, or FL 190, FL 210, etc. In controlled airspace, pilots operating an aircraft in level cruise
EVEN thousands or flight levels flight must maintain the altitude or flight level assigned to their
180' t o 359° For example: 2,000', 4,000' ASL,
etc., or Fl 200, Fl 220, etc. aircraft by ATC, such as in the table below.

Fig .5 .12 IFR Cruising Alt i tudes Below FL 290 !FR Cruising Altitudes Below FL 290
On or Off Airways
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown

!FR Cruising Altitudes Above FL 290 ODD thousands

000 ° to 179' For example : 1,000', 3,000'
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown MSL ... Fl 190, Fl 210, etc.

At 4,000' inte rvals begi nn ing at EVEN th ousands

29,000' pressure altitude 180' to 359' For example: 2,000', 4,000'
000° to 179° MSL ... FL 180, FL 200, etc.
For example : FL 290, FL
330, Fl 370, etc.
Fig.5.17 IFR Cruising Altitudes Below FL 290
At 4,000' inte rva ls beginning at
31, 000' pressure altitude
180° to 359° At altitudes above FL 290, the altitudes to be flown are shown in
For example: FL 310, FL
350, Fl 39 0, etc . the table below.
Fig.5.13 IFR Cruising Altitudes Above FL 290 !FR Cruising Altitudes Above FL 290
On or Off Airways
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown
RVSM Cruising Altitudes Above FL 290
At 4,000' intervals beginning at
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown 29,000' pressure altit ud e
000° to 179°
For example: FL 290, FL
At 2,000' intervals beginning at FL 330, FL 370, etc.
290
000 ° to 179 ° At 4,000' intervals beginning at
For example: FL 290, Fl 310, Fl 330,
Fl 350, Fl 370, Fl 390, Fl 410 31,000' pressure altitude
180° to 359°
For example : Fl 310, Fl
At 2,000' intervals beginning at Fl 310 350, Fl 390, etc.
180° to 359° For example: FL 310, FL 330, FL 350,
FL 370, FL 390, FL 430, FL 4 70
Fig.5. 18 !F R Crui s ing Alti tud es Ab ove FL 29 0
Fig.5.14 RVSM Crui s i ng Alt i tud es Above FL 2 90

Minimum Cruising Altitudes

Cruising Altitudes - United States Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA) - the mini-
Cruising altitudes in the U.S. are slightly different from those in mum MSL altitude along an airway segment which will permit
Canada and are listed in the FAA FAR/AIM. Note that whereas the aeroplane to clear obstructions by 1,000 ft.
Canada refers to altitudes ASL (above sea level), the U.S. refers to Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA) - the minimum MSL altitude
altitudes MSL (mean sea level). which will clear obstructions and also permit satisfactory radio
reception. It is the minimum altitude to be considered for !FR
VFR CRUISING ALTITUDES flight plans. (See Table of VHF Reception Distance.)
At altitudes below FL 290 and above 3,000 feet AGL, the altitudes
to be flown are shown in the table below. Both MOCA and MEA are indicated on !FR En Route Charts.

5.2.s Cruising Speeds

VFR Cruising Altitudes Below FL 290 and Above 3,000 Feet AGL
On or Off Airways
Aircraft Track Altitude to be Flown All Canadian controlled airspace below 10,000 feet ASL is consid-
ODD thou sa nd s MSL plu s 500 feet ered as a "speed limit area", and all aircraft must conform to the
000 ° to 179° For example: 3,500', 5,500', 7,500'
MSL ... FL 235, FL 255, FL 275 regulations pertaining to operation within this area.
EVE N th ousa nd s MSL plu s 500 fee - Within 10 nautical miles of a controlled airport and at an altitude
180° to 359° For example: 4,500', 6,500', 8,500'
MSL ... FL 245, FL 265, FL 285 of less than 3,000 feet AGL, aeroplanes may be flown at an indi-
cated airspeed no greater than 200 knots.
Fig.5 .15 VFR Cruising Altitudes Below FL
290 & Above 3,000 Feet AGL In controlled airspace but beyond the 10 nautical mile limit
around controlled airports and below 10,000 feet ASL, aeroplanes
At altitudes above FL 290, pilots must maintain the altitude or may be flown in a climb, descent or in level flight at an indicated
flight level assigned by ATC, such as in the table below. airspeed no greater than 250 knots, unless otherwise authorized
by an ATC clearance or instruction.
Only if the minimum safe speed for a particular aircraft is greater
than the above mentioned speeds, may the aircraft be operated
at a higher speed.

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 Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

5.2.9 Weather Minima for VFR Flight Within Uncontrolled Airspace

Weather minima for flight in uncontrolled airspace are shown
Weath er minima references, as shown in Fig.5.19, are the
established boundaries about which minimum criteria exists in the tables below.
for aircraft to remain in VFR flight. The criteria relate to the Weather Minima within Uncontrolled Airspace
following: At or Above 1,000 Feet AGL
Reference Minima
1. Vertical distance above cloud
Flight Visibility by Day Not less than 1 mile
2. Vertical distance below cloud Flight Visibility at Night Not less than 3 miles
3. Horizontal distance from cloud Distance from Cloud
Vertically: 500'
Horizontally: 2,000'
4. Height above the surface/ground
Fig . 5.22 Weather Minima within Uncontrolled
5. Ceiling (i.e. distance from the sur- Airspace from 1,000 Feet & Above
face to the cloud base)
6. Visibility Weather Minima within Uncontrolled Airspace (Except Helicopters)
Below 1,000 Feet AGL
r Reference Minima
.....t.~ --'"'
§- "F' - Flight Visibility by Day Not less than 2 miles
Flight Visibility at Night Not less than 3 miles
Vertical Distance Above Distance from Cloud Clear of Cloud

Fig. 5.23 Weather Minima within Uncontrolled Airspace

below 1,000 Feet AGL - Non-helicopters

Ceiling
Vertical Distance Below Weather Minima within Uncontrolled Airspace (Helicopters Only)
Below 1,000 Feet AGL
Reference Minima
Oillll Honzonta
. 1
Flight Visibi lity by Day Not less tha n 1 mile
Distance
Flight Visibility at Night Not less than 3 miles
Distance from Cloud Clear of Cloud
Height
above Fig. 5.24 Weather Minima within Uncontrolled
Surface Airspace below 1,000 Feet AGL - Helicopters

The elevation AGL that determines the criteria for distance

from clouds in uncontrolled airspace is 1,000 feet.

5.2.10 Special VFR (SVFR)

Fig.5.19 Weather Minima References Within control zones, air traffic control m ay au thorize a pilot
to fly special VFR under weather conditions that are below
VFR minima. The rules for special VFR are designed to allow
Within Control Zones VFR rated pilots to arrive at and depart from controlled air-
Weather minima for flight in control zones are described in
ports when the weather is below VFR limits. The pilot must
the table below. Aircraft must always be operated with visual
request special VFR. It is not offered automatically by the ATC
reference to the surface. They shall be operated at a height
above the surface and at a distance from any cloud that is not unit working the control zone. The controller cannot autho-
less than as shown in the following table. rize SVFR on h is/ her own. It must be approved by the ACC or
TCU who will authorize it only if the !FR traffic flow permits.
Weather Minima within Control Zones If there is actual or anticipated !FR traffic, special VFR may be
Reference Minima denied or delayed.
Flight Visibility & Ground
Not less t han 3 miles
Visibility (when reported) A pilot who has received a clearance from an ATC unit to pro-
Distance from Cloud Vertically: 500' ceed in the control zone under special VFR may ask for a radar
Horizontally: 1 mile
vector (at an airport where surveillance radar is available) in
Heig ht above Surface 500' AGL
order to have assistance, under restricted visibility, to locate
Fig. 5.20 Weather Minima within Control Zones the airport. This service must be specifically requested. It is
not offered automatically. It is the pilot's responsibility, even
when being directed by radar vectors, to remain clear of cloud
Within Controlled Airspace and to refuse a vector that would prevent him/ her from main-
Weather m inima for flight in controlled airspace are shown tain ing contact w ith the surface.
in the table below.
Special VFR m ay be au thorized only if the flight visibility
Weather Minima within Controlled Airspace
and the ground visibility (when reported) are each not less
Reference Minima
th an 1 mile. In th e case of a helicopter, the fligh t and ground
Flight Visibility & Ground
Visibility (when reported)
Not less than 3 miles visibility must be not less than 1/2 mile. Because of the lim-
Vertically: 500' ited visibility, it is advisable that the h elicopter be operated
Distance from Cloud
Horizontally: 1 mile at a reduced airspeed that will give the pilot-in-command
adequate opportunity to see other air traffic or obstructions
Fig. 5.21 Weather Minima within Controlled Airspace
in time to avoid them.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

The aircraft requesting SVFR must be equipped with a func-

tioning two-way radio capable of maintaining communica- 5.2.12 Minimum VFR Flight Altitudes
tions with the ATC unit. The pilot-in-command shall keep The regulations impose minimum flight altitudes for VFR
a listening watch on a frequency that permits the receipt of flight based on the type of area over which the flight is being
ATC clearances and instructions. conducted.
The aircraft must be operated clear of cloud and within sight For Built-up Areas, except when landing or taking off, the
of the surface of the earth at all times. It must be operated minimum altitude at which an aircraft in VFR flight may be
at not less than 500 feet from any person, vessel, vehicle or flown over the built-up area of any community or over any
structure. open air assembly of people is an altitude that, in an emergen-
Special VFR at night is authorized only for the purpose of cy, would permit the landing of that aircraft without creating
allowing the aircraft to enter the control zone in order to land. a hazard to persons or property on the ground. In no case can
the altitude be less than 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle
within a radius of 2,000 feet from the aircraft .
s .2.11 VFR Over-the-Top (VFR OTT)
For Non-built- up Areas , except when landing or taking off,
With a VFR Over-the -top rating, a pilot who does not hold
the minimum altitude at which an aircraft may be flown
an !FR rating has an option for dealing with poor weather
over areas that are not built up is 500 feet above the highest
conditions along part or all of the intended route. The VFR
obstacle within a radius of 500 feet from the aircraft.
OTT rating allows a pilot to conduct a flight in VFR conditions
above the en route cloud layer providing the following condi- For Unpopulated/Open Water Areas, provided no hazard is
tions exist: created for people or property on the ground, an aircraft may
be flown over non-populous areas or over open water at lower
1. The flight is conducted during the day (VFR OTT
altitudes so long as it is at least 500 feet from any person,
is not permitted at night).
vessel, vehicle or structure.
2. Departure and climb above the en route cloud
Special exemptions are made to these minimums only for
layer can be done under VFR.
aircraft engaged in recognized special purpose operations,
3. Descent and arrival at the destination can be such as fire fighting, crop spraying, pipeline and power line
accomplished under VFR. surveyin g, etc.
4. During the cruise portion of the flight conduct-
ed above the cloud layer, the aircraft is operated 5 .2.13 VFR Flight in
at a vertical distance from cloud of at least 1,000
feet, and visibility is always at least 5 miles.
Class B Airspace (CVFR)
Class B airspace is part of the controlled airspace system. VFR
5. Where the aircraft is operated between two
flight is permitted, but it is subject to the control services
cloud layers, the vertical distance between the
provided by ATC. It is, thu s, called controlled VFR (CVFR).
layers is at least 5,000 feet.
All aircraft are subject to ATC clearances and instructions
6. The weather at the de stination aerodrome is and ATC separation is provided. No special licence, rating or
forecast to have a sky condition of scattered endorsement is required to act as pilot-in-command of an
cloud or to be clear; ground visibility of 5 miles aircraft in CVFR flight in Class B airspace.
or more with no forecast of precipitation, fog,
CVFR flights must be conducted in accordance with proce-
thunderstorms or blowing snow. The forecast
dures designed for use by !FR flights. However, the flight must
conditions sh all be valid, in the case of an aero -
be conduc ted in VFR weather conditions (i.e. weather minima
drome forecast, for one hour before and for two
for control areas) with visual reference to the ground.
hours after the estimated time of arrival. If no
aero drome forecast is available and the forecast Before entering the Class B airspace, the pilot-in-command of
used is an area forecast , the forecast conditions the aeroplane must file a VFR fli ght plan stating the altitude
shall be valid for one hour before and for three at which the fli ght is to be conducted and the route that is to
hours after the estimated time of arrival. be followed, (e.g. Flight Altitude 14,000 feet/VFR, Route V71).
Acquisition of the rating requires a minimum of 15 hours Clearance for VFR flight to enter Class B airspace is given only
dual instrument time of which a m aximum of 5 hours may be if the altitude requested is available and if traffic conditions
instrument ground time. are such that the flight ca n be accommodated. Clearance is
not usu ally given prior to take-off but rather upon receipt of a
Pilots should be wary of confu sing the expression VFR Over-
position report that the flight h as reached the last 1,000 foot
the-top with VFR-on -top, both expressions of which exist in
altitude below the base of the Class B airspace.
U.S. air regulations. They are, however, not the same thing.
While VFR Over-the-top exists in the U.S. for the same pur- A functioning two-way radio is, of course, essential and,
poses for which it exists in Canada, VFR-on-top exists in the throughout the flight, the pilot must maintain a listening
U.S. only. To fly VFR-on-top in the U.S., a pilot must be instru- watch on the appropriate radio frequency and must make
ment rated, flying on an !FR flight plan, and must request a position reports as required by the ATC unit. Installed equip -
VFR-on-top clearance. (VFR-on-top is also sometimes referred ment in the aircraft must also include radio navigation equip-
to as !FR Over-the-top.) ment that is capable of utilizing navigation facilities to enable
the aircraft to be operated in accordance with the flight plan.
A transponder capable of Mode C altitude reporting is also
required.

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 Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

Pilots are responsible at all times for maintaining VFR flight . Emergency While VFR in Class B Airspace
If the weather observed ahead falls below VFR minima, they
If instrument weather conditions are encountered, leave
may request an amended ATC clearance which will allow
the Class B airspace immediately either horizontally or by
them to maintain VFR. If this is not possible, they must leave descending. Advise ATC as soon as possible of your action.
Class B airspace by the shortest route exiting either horizon-
tally or by descending. When clear of the Class B airspace, In the event of radio failure, leave the Class B airspace imme-
they must take whatever action is necessary to continue the diately and, when clear, proceed with the flight maintaining
VFR. Report your action as soon as possible after landing.
flight under VFR conditions and, as soon as possible, inform
ATC of the action taken. In the event of engine failure or any other cause necessitating
an immediate descent, advise ATC immediately (using the
If the aircraft is operating CVFR in a control zone that is des-
emergency frequency 121.5 MHz if necessary).
ignated Class B airspace and if the weather falls below VFR
minima, the pilot must land at the aerodrome on which the
control zone is based. s .2.14 Holding Pattern
It is essential that the assigned altitude be maintained with There are several situations in flying in which a pilot may
be asked to hold over a particular fix. This can happen if
precision and that no deviation be made from the clearance
clearance to proceed past a clearance limit cannot be given.
without advising ATC.
Sometimes on arrival at an airport, a pilot is asked to hold
It may seem that the Class B airspace is just another unnec- over a beacon until landing clearance can be given (!FR flights).
essary complication for the VFR pilot. However, it is common
For the pilot who is maintaining visual reference to the sur-
practice for airlines to fly instrument flight rules most of the face, adhering to a precise holding pattern is not absolutely
time regardless of the weather; they probably are not look- necessary. It is, however, good practice to learn to fly a holding
ing out of the window watching for unexpected traffic. With pattern precisely. The standard form of holding pattern is the
modern high speed aeroplanes, the rate of closing between elliptical, or race track pattern. It is illustrated and explained
two approaching aeroplanes can be in excess of 500 knots, or in Fig.5.25. The holding fix may be a marker beacon, VOR, non-
8 miles a minute. This means that with 3 miles visibility, a directional radio beacon or any facility which can be definitely
200 knot aeroplane approaching a 300 knot aeroplane would identified by a radio signal when you are directly overhead.
have 22 seconds to alter course. In practice, the time is not so

'
long. There is a lag between the time the pilot sights another
aeroplane and the time it takes for corrective action. There .--------~.-is!:• B>-----.....: ·
is a further lag in the response of the aeroplane. These lags (
take up an average of 15 seconds, leaving 7 seconds to avoid
a collision. The purpose in providing control services to, and
separation of, all traffic within control areas is to prevent col-
lision potential.
To prepare for a VFR flight in Class B airspace, check
the appropriate Enroute Low Altitude Charts for distances
between reporting points along the route. Take along a Fig . 5.25 Standard Holding Pattern
computer.
Ouer the radio fix at A, start a standard rate turn to the right (180°
You are required to make pos1t10n reports en route when for 1 minute). Fly 1 minute outbound, if at or below 14,000 ft ASL, or
passing all compulsory reporting points or when requested by l 'h minutes, if above 14,000 ft ASL. Execute a standard rate turn to
ATC . On filing a position report, it is necessary to state your the right at C. Fly the inbound course to the radio fix, parallel to B.
estimated time of arrival at the next reporting point. This (Note: Compensate for wind if required.) The holding pattern is flown
means that you have to compute groundspeeds and ETA's as in a specified direction in relation to the holding fix. Assuming the top
you go. of the page to be north, the holding pattern illustrated would be east
ATC will clear you to a specific point. This may be your desti- and the aircraft would be said to be "Holding East of (name of Radio
Fix)". The track outbound, B, would be 090° and the track inbound, D,
nation airport, an omni or other radio station, or a reporting
is 270°. (Note: The outbound time should be increased or decreased,
point en route. The location to which you are cleared is known
according to the wind conditions, to effect 1 minute (or 1'h minutes)
as the clearance limit.
inbound to the fix.)
Should you arrive at the clearance limit without clear-
Do not leave the holding pattern until cleared by ATC to do so.
ance beyond, or holding instructions, you must immedi-
ately request further clearance and, meanwhile, hold at the
assigned altitude. The reason for this is that another aero- VFR Visual Holding Pattern
plane may be flying at your altitude beyond this point. (If you Because of traffic congestion, VFR flights may be asked to
orbit visually over a geographic location, VFR checkpoint or
do not wish to hold, however, you may request a clearance to
call up point until they can be cleared to the airport. The pilot
exit the Class B airspace.)
is expected to proceed to the specified geographic location,
A flight plan may not be changed en route without authority orbit within visual contact of the checkpoint and be prepared
from an ATC centre. If you should desire to make a change in to proceed to the airport immediately upon receipt of a clear-
altitude, route or destination, obtain an amended clearance ance to do so. If the ATC request to oribt is not acceptable to
from ATC. the pilot, the pilot should inform ATC and state their inten-
tions. While orbiting the checkpoint, the pilot should make
left hand turns. Terrain and collision avoidance are his/her
responsibility.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

5.2.15 Identification Zones Radar Assistance

The Canadian Armed Forces can provide assistance in
Special procedures are in effect for aeroplanes operating in
an emergency to civil aircraft operating within the ADIZ.
the Air Defence Identification Zones (ADIZ). These rules are
Assistance consists of track and groundspeed checks and the
applicable to all aircraft. Unidentified aircraft which enter an
position of the aircraft in geographic reference or by bearing
ADIZ will be directed by NORAD aircraft to land at a published
aerodrome port of entry where they will be cleared by Canada and distance from the station. Position of heavy cloud in rela-
Customs and the RCMP. tion to the aircraft can also be indicated.

To enter or fly within an ADIZ, it is required that the pilot-in- To obtain assistance in the North Warning system (NWS)
command file an !FR flight plan, a Defence VFR (DVFR) flight area, call "Radar Assistance" on 126.7 MHz. In ADIZ areas, con-
plan or a flight itinerary with an air traffic control unit, a flight tact should be made on 121.5 MHz or on the UHF frequenc ies
service station or a community aerodrome radio station. No 243.0 MHz or 364.2 MHz.
deviation from the flight plan is permitted without prior noti-
fication to the ATC unit. When prior notification is impossible, Interception of Civil Aircraft
ATC must be advised of the deviation as soon as possible. Interceptions are made only where the possibility is consid-
The flight plan or flight itinerary should be filed prior to take- ered to exist that an unidentified aircraft may be truly hos-
off. However, in the event there is no facility for the transmis- tile in intent. Intercepted aircraft should maintain a steady
sion of flight plan information, the flight plan or flight itiner- cou rse, avoid attempting evasive action and follow these
ary may be filed in the air as soon as possible after take-off. procedures:
An aircraft, making an air file, may be asked to fly at a speed 1. Follow the radio and visual instructions given by
of less than 150 knots for 5 minutes or more to enable the ATC the intercepting aircraft, interpreting and respond-
unit to make a positive identification. ing to the prescribed visual signals and procedures
For aircraft either with an airport departure point outside the that have been established for use by both the inter-
ADIZ intending to penetrate the ADIZ, or for aircraft intending cepting aircraft and by the intercepted aircraft. A
to take off from an airport within the ADIZ, the flight plan or copy of these procedures and signals is required
flight itinerary shall include the estimated time and place of to be carried on board any aircraft operating in
ADIZ penetration. As soon as possible after take-off, the pilot Canadian airspace. They are outlined in the Canadian
shall establish radio communication with the ATC unit, a Aviation Regulations and are also included in the
flight service station or community aerodrome radio station Can ada Flight Supplement and the A.l.M . Can ada.
and make a position report, advising ATC of any variance
2. If possible, advise the appropri-
in the time or place of ADIZ penetration from that indicated
ate ATC unit of the interception.
in the flight plan or flight itinerary. Revised estimates shall
be reported if the aeroplane will not be within 5 minutes of 3. Attempt to establish radio communication with
its forecast time of arrival at a reporting point, the point of the intercepting aircraft on the emergency fre-
penetration of the ADIZ or the destination within the ADIZ. quencies 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz giving the iden-
Deviations of more than 20 nautical miles from the centreline tity and position and the nature of the flight.
of the intended route or from the estimated point of penetra-
4. Unless instructed to do otherwise by the
tion of the ADIZ must be reported.
appropriate ATC unit, select Mode A Code
In the case of an aircraft taking off from a location within the 7700 if you have a transponder.
ADIZ, it will be required to establish radio contact as soon as
Should you receive instructions by radio from any source
possible and make a position report.
which conflict with those received from the intercepting
A functioning two-way radio is required equipment and the aircraft, you should request immediate clarification while
pilot must maintain a listening watch on the appropriate continuing to comply with the instructions received from the
freque ncy throughout the time that the aircraft is within intercepting aircraft.
the boundaries of the ADIZ. In the event of communication
failure, a VFR flight is required to proceed in accordance with
the flight plan or to land at the nearest available airport and
5.2.16 Sparsely Settled Areas
advise ATS. Much of the geographical area of Canada is virgin land with
An arrival report must be filed when closing a flight plan or very few settlements. Flight in such sparsely settled areas
flight itinerary. requires special precautions and procedures because of lim-
ited navigation facilities, severe weather conditions, lim-
The rules of the Emergency Security Control of Air Traffic ited weather information, limited fuel supplies and servicing
Plan (ESCAT) will be implemented only in times of war and facilities. To fly in such areas, an aeroplane should be capable
national security. The ESCAT rules are, however, periodi-
of two-way radio communication with a ground station in the
cally tested. Pilots must, therefore, while operating within
area. An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) of an approved
Canadian Domestic Airspace or the ADIZ, maintain a listening
type should always be carried on board.
watch on an ATC frequency at all times. When notified that
ESCAT rules are in effect, pilots must comply with all instruc- When operating within sparsely populated areas or when
tions from ATC. VFR and IFR flights may be ordered to change operating over water at a distance of more than SO miles
course, or altitude, or even to land at the nearest facility. On from shore, pilots are expected to continuously monitor the
such occasions, a pilot planning a flight within an ADIZ shall emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, unless they are carrying out
obtain approval for the flight prior to take-off and shall pro- communications on other VHF frequencies or if cockpit duties
vide position reports, if operating in uncontrolled airspace, or aircraft electronic equipment limitations do not permit
at least every 30 minutes during the flight or, if operating in simultaneous monitoring of two VHF frequencies.
controlled airspace, as requested by the ATC unit.

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 Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

Survival Equipment Dress for Survival

Regulations require certain survival equipment to be carried All crew members and passengers should be dressed in, or
on board any aircraft operated over land, especially in the have on board the aircraft, clothing that will be adequate for
sparsely settled areas and anywhere where rescue is more survival in the coldest conditions for the season of the year
difficult because of inaccessibility. This equipment must be in which the flight is conducted. Even in summer, loose fit-
sufficient for the survival on the ground, for a minimum of 72 ting cotton pants and a long sleeve cotton shirt should be the
hours, of each person carried on board. In selecting the equip- minimum that you wear. The long pants and long sleeve shirt
ment to be carried, special consideration needs to be given will help to protect you from sun burn and from insect bites as
to the geographic area, the season of the year and the antici- well as chilly temperatures at night. Sturdy shoes and cotton
pated seasonal climatic variations of the area over which the socks are essential. Layering materials and wearing outer gar-
aircraft will be operating. ments that are loose fitting will minimize heat loss.
Locating and saving people in aeronautical emergencies has One of the greatest problems in any emergency or crash
been greatly improved by the introduction and widespread landing is the possibility of fire . Getting out of the aircraft as
use of ELTs and the detection capability of the SARSAT/ quickly as possible and avoiding inhaling the hot gases should
COSPAS system. Detection and location of crash sites and the be your first concern. Inhaling the hot air can burn the lung
rescue of survivors is commonly effected very quickly and tissues and result, in the worst case scenario, in pneumonia.
rarely takes more than 72 hours. So hold your breath as you escape from a burning aircraft.
In a survival situation, the first rule is to provide shelter Your chances of surviving a fire with minimum burns and
that will keep you dry and protected from the wind in order injury are greatly enhanced by wearing clothing made of
to prevent hypothermia. The following items are therefore proper materials. Wool, cotton and a fire retardant fabric
suggested: a tent; an 8 foot by 8 foot tarpaulin, ideally bright called Nomex are the best choice. Most synthetics, such as
orange in colour (it can be used to make a shelter and can also polyester, nylon and rayon, will melt and shrink. The fabric
be laid out to attract the attention of searching aircraft); a saw in contact with the skin will melt into the skin and solidify
to cut branches to make a shelter; personal rain protection; making the burn injury worse. Cotton, wool and especially
space blankets; an air inflated mattress or unicell foam pad Nomex will decompose and char instead of melting.
to provide insulation from wet and cold ground; one sleeping Exposed skin has no protection against burn injury from fire.
bag for each two persons; a sewing kit to repair clothing; mos- So choose your flying apparel carefully and wear it.
quito head nets and insect repellent (in spring and summer)
and tape to tape jacket sleeves and trouser pant bottoms for Be sure also that what you choose to wear is clean. The bacte-
protection from insects. A good survival manual is useful. ria on dirty clothing (or skin) will invade your skin through a
burn and cause severe infection.
Since rescue can be expected reasonably quickly, food is no
longer considered a critical item in survival kits. If you choose
to carry food, food with a calorific value of about 1,500 calo-
ries for each person on board is sufficient for 72 hours. Water
is more important than food. Water purification tablets will
ensure you have safe drinkable water. If you prefer to boil your
water, you will need a billy kettle or other suitable container.
You might also include, in your survival kit, 500 ml of drinking
water for each 4 persons.
In order to make a fire, you will need waterproof matches car-
ried in a waterproof container, a candle to help in lighting a
fire, fuel tablets and an axe.
In order to attract the attention of searching aircraft, a holo-
graphic mirror is the best item you can carry. It is effective
over 20 miles. A 2-sided signalling mirror with a hole in the
centre is second best, but it requires some training and skill
to use it effectively. For night signalling, a good strobe light
can be seen on a clear night up to 8 miles away. A flashlight is
effective for about one-half mile.
Every aircraft is required to have a first aid kit on board. A
basic kit should contain antiseptic wound cleaner and dispos-
able applicators, a variety of bandages, burn dressings, wound
dressings, gauze dressings, adhesive dressings and adhesive
tape, hand cleaner and cleansing towelettes, tweezers, scis-
sors, splint set with padding, eye pad/shield and a first aid
manual.
Survival gear should be stowed securely in a rear baggage
compartment where it is less likely to be damaged or become
inaccessible in the event of a crash. Survival gear stowed in
a forward baggage compartment (such as one in the nose) is
likely to be damaged in a crash.

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Air Rules & Procedures: Air Traffic Rules & Procedures

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Overview of Part 3
6 Aviation Weather 6.11 Turbulence 171
6.11.1 Mechanical Turbulence 172
6.1 The Atmosphere 137 6.11.2 Thermal Turbulence .172
6.1.1 Properties of the Atmosphere 137 6.11.3 Frontal Turbulence ............. .. 172
6.1.2 Divisions of the Atmosphere ... .................... . 137 6.11.4 Wind Shear... . 172
6.1.3 Standard Atmosphere 138 6.11.5 Clear Air Turbulence 173
6.2 Clouds .. 138 6.12 High Level Weather 173
6.2.1 Classification of Clouds 138 6.12.1 Winds at High Levels 173
6.2.2 Sky Condition 140 6.12.2 Turbulence at High Levels 173
6.2.3 Cloud Formation 140 6.12.3 Visibility at High Levels . 173
6.3 Pressure .. 141 6.12.4 Icing at High Levels ...... 174
6.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure 141 6.12.5 Canopy Static ... 174
6.3.2 Sea Level & Station Pressure .. 142 6.13 Weather Awareness 174
6.3.3 Pressure Systems 142
6.3.4 Pressure Changes 143 6.14 Weather Information 174
6.3.5 Pressure Gradient 143 6.14.1 Weather Charts 174
6.3.6 Coriolis Force .143 6.14. 2 Weather Observation Systems .176
6.3.7 Surface Friction .144 6.14.3 Weather Reporting Systems 176
6.3.8 Centrifugal Force 144 6.14.4 Aviation Weather Forecasts 185
6.3.9 Convergence & Divergence 144 6.14.5 Weather Information Sources 189
6.14.6 "Weather Sense" 190
6.4 Winds 144
6.4.1 Hemispheric Prevailing Winds . 144
6.4.2 Upper Level Winds .145
6.4.3 Surface Winds 145
6.4.4 Wind Speed & Direction 147
6.4.5 Wind Shear.. 147
6.4.6 The Jet Stream . 148
6.5 Humidity, Temperature & Stability. 150
6.5.1 Humidity 150
6.5.2 Temperature 151
6.5.3 Stability . 153
6.5.4 Vapour Trails (Contrails) . 154
6.6 Air Masses... .154
6.6.1 Weather in an Air Mass 155
6.6.2 Modification of Air Masses .155
6. 7 Fronts 156
6. 7.1 Polar Front Theory.. 156
6.7.2 Types of Front 157
6.7.3 Fro ntal Weather 159
6.8 Precipitation & Fog . 161
6.8.1 Precipitation 161
6.8.2 Fog 162
6.8.3 Haze 163
6.8.4 Visibility ..... 163
6.8.5 VMC & IMC .. . 163
6.8.6 Lake Effect Snowfalls . 163
6.9 Thunderstorms 164
6.9.1 Thunderstorm Weather 165
6.9.2 Thunderstorm Avoidance 166
6.10 Icing 168
6.10.1 How Icing Affects the Aeroplane 169
6.10.2 Types of Icing .169
6.10.3 Intensity of Icing 170
6.10.4 Icing in Clouds & in Precipitation 170
6.10.5 Protection From Icing 170
6.10.6 Icing Avoidance ................. 171

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 Aviation Weather: The Atmosphere

6 Aviation Weather often present in sufficient quantities to reduce visibility. They

also have a function in the condensation process.
The upper layers of the atmosphere do not contain dust par-
"Man lives at the base of an invisible ocean of air termed the atmo- ticles or impurities off which the sun's light can reflect and,
sphere." - Pick. for this reason, appear deep cobalt blue to black in colour.

This atmosphere is forever in a state of commotion and The atmosphere has weight. Although the weight of the atmo-
physical change, giving rise to weather conditions which vary sphere is only about one millionth the weight of the earth, it
throughout the range of an extremely vast scale. The pilot not does exert a force or pressure on the surface of the earth. A
only lives at the base of this sea of air but navigates through square inch column of air weighs approximately 14.7 lbs. at
it. The weather, therefore, is a matter of vital concern to him/ sea level. This weight diminishes with altitude. At 20,000 feet,
her, particularly conditions such as fog, ice formation, thun- a square inch column weighs 6.75 lbs.
derstorms and line squalls, which present unusual hazards The characteristics of the atmosphere vary with time of day,
to flying. season of the year and latitude. Consequently only average
To minimize the hazards to air navigation that are constantly values are referred to in this manual.
being manufactured in the "weather factory", a vast world-
wide meteorological organization has been built up, to collect, 6.u Properties of the Atmosphere
analyze and broadcast information relative to the ever chang- Mobility, capacity for expansion and capacity for compres-
ing phenomena of the upper air. sion are the principal properties of the atmosphere. These
Pilots can today avail themselves of last minute weather characteristics are of the utmost importance in a study of
reports and forecasts along all the regularly established air weather for they in combination are the cause of almost all
routes. In addition, they can secure much valuable weather atmospheric weather phenomena. The capacity for expan-
data with reference to areas located off the organized airways. sion is especially important. Air is forced to rise by various
They must, however, possess sufficient "weather sense" to lifting agents (thermal, frontal or mechanical means). Rising
be able to size up and deal with sudden changing conditions in areas of decreasing pressure, the parcel of air expands. In
which may be encountered at any stage along their route. The expanding, it cools. The cooling process may bring the tem-
information in this chapter is intended to cover the highlights perature of the parcel of air to the degree where condensation
of the subject only. The student of aviation will be well advised occurs. Thus, clouds form and precipitation may take place.
to include meteorology among the subjects marked for further Conversely, sinking air, as the external pressure increases,
detailed study and read some of the excellent manuals which decreases in volume with an attendant rise in temperature.
are available on the subject.
Beyond the atmosphere lies space and the most challenging 6.1.2 Divisions of the Atmosphere
adventure man has ever set his mind to embark upon. Some of The atmosphere consists of four distinct layers surrounding
you who read these lines will be destined to play an active role the earth for a depth of many hundreds of miles. They are, in
in the conquest of space. But the approach to that mysterious ascending order, the troposphere, the stratosphere, the meso-
realm of the stars lies through the atmosphere. Navigation sphere and the thermosphere.
through this atmosphere will be the primary concern of this
chapter on meteorology.
The Troposphere
This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and varies in height

6.1 The Atmosphere in different parts of the world from roughly 28,000 feet above
sea level at the poles to 54,000 feet at the equator. Within
the troposphere, the pressure, density and temperature all
Air, which is the material of which the atmosphere is com-
decrease rapidly with height. Most of the "weather" occurs in
posed, is a mixture of invisible gases. At altitudes up to
the troposphere because of the presence of water vapour and
250,000 feet, the atmosphere consists of approximately 78%
strong vertical currents produced by the radiation of the sun's
nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The remainder is made up of argon,
rays from the earth's surface. In the upper regions of the tro-
carbon dioxide, several other gases and water vapour. Water
posphere, very strong, fast moving and complex winds occur
vapour acts as an independent gas mixed with air.
called jet streams.
Water vapour is found only in the lower levels of the atmo-
The top layer of the troposphere is known as the tropopause.
sphere. From the standpoint of weather, however, it is the
Within the troposphere the temperature drops to a low of
most important component of the air. Because it can change
-56°C which marks the beginning of the tropopause. Through
into water droplets or ice crystals under atmospheric condi-
the tropopause, the temperature reverses and begins to
tions of temperature and pressure, water vapour is respon-
increase. The height of the tropopause varies, as already
sible for the formation of clouds and fog. However, just when
stated, from the poles to the equator, but also from summer
and under what conditions water vapour will change to a
to winter.
visible form is difficult to predict and is made more difficult
by the fact that the amount of water vapour in the air is never
constant but varies from day to day and even from hour to
hour.
The lower layer of the atmosphere contains an enormous
number of microscopic impurities such as salt, dust and
smoke particles. They are important to aviation for they are

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Clouds

- - - - - - - - Exosphere Space
Since air becomes gradually thinner with increasing altitude,
Note: Th atn o hrre - - - - Therrnosphere
the upper limit of the atmosphere is, for all practical purposes,
d1•p1cted here has
been st a led up f r difficult to define. The temperature in space can rise as high
Ju tiation purposes.
as 3,000°C at 600 kilometers. This does not mean that a space-
ship, if it was cruising at this altitude, would experience a
25,000'-30,000' temp erature of 3,000°C within this realm. The only heat the
at poles spaceship would experience would be what it would receive
from the radiation of the sun.
Now that man has invaded the cosmic realm of outer space,
the question arises as to just where space actually begins. At
an altitude of 140 to 160 kilometers, one is entering the realm
of satellites and aerodynamic lift is no longer a prerequisite
for maintaining height above the earth. This region has been
accepted by some authorities as the boundary of outer space.
Ninety miles is recognized as the limit of national sovereignty.

6.1.3 Standard Atmosphere

The decrease with height of pressure, density and tempera-
ture which occurs in the lower layers of the atmosphere is not
constant but varies with local conditions. However, for aero-
nautical purposes, it is necessary to have a standard atmo-
Fig. 6.1 Divisions of the Atmosphere
sphere. There are several different standard atmos pheres in
use but they vary only slightly.
The Stratosphere Pressure in
For a distance of about 50,000 feet above the tropopause, there Temperature in
Alttitude inches of Relative Density
degrees Cesius
is a layer known as the stratosphere in which the pressure Mercury

continues to decrease but in which the temperature continues Sea Level 29.92 +15 1.00
to increase gradually to 0°C. This layer also varies in thick- 5,000ft. 24.89 +5.1 0.86
ness, being quite deep over the poles and thinner over the 10,000ft. 20.58 +4.8 0.74
equator. Water vapour is almost non-existent and air currents 15,000ft. 15.88 -14.7 0.63
are m inimal. A layer of ozone is present in the stratosphere 20,000ft. 13.75 ·24.6 0.53
which absorbs the sun's ultraviolet rays and, hence, creates 30,000ft. 8.88 ·44.4 0.37
the rise in temperature. The top layer of the stratosphere is 40,000ft. 5. 54 -56.5 0. 24
called the stratopause wherein the temperature, once again, 50,000ft. 3.44 -56 .5 0.15
begins to fall. Fig.6.2 Standard Atmosphere

The Mesosphere The !CAO standard atmosphere for the continent of North
The mesosphere is ch aracteri zed by a marked decrease in America, based on summer and winter averages at latitude
temperature that is carried through from the stratopause. It is 40° assumes the following conditions:
in the mesosphere that meteorites typically burn up as they 1. The air is a perfectly dry gas.
enter the atmosphere. In the top layer of the mesosphere,
2. A mean sea level pressure of 29.92
called the mesopause, the temperature bottoms out at a low
inches of mercury (1013.25 hPa).
of about -100°C at 275,000 feet above the earth, then begins to
rise again with greater altitude. 3. A mean sea level temperature of 15°C.
4. The rate of decrease of temperature with
The Therrnosphere altitude is 1.98°C per 1,000 feet.
Temperature continues to rise in the thermosphere and The chart in Fig.6.2 plots standard atmosphere through vari-
beyond, increasing for an indefinite distance into space. Air ous altitude levels.
molecules are few in this layer which extends upwards from
a point 100 kilometers (called the Karman line), above the
earth's surface.
6.2 Clouds
The Exosphere To a pilot knowledgeable in the science of meteorology, clouds
Beyond the thermosphere lies a layer wherein pressure drops are an indication of what is happening in the atmosphere .
to little more than a vacuum. Under these conditions, the con- The location and type of cloud are evidence of such weather
cept of temperature has little meaning and is usually replaced phenomena as fronts , turbulence, thunderstorms and tell the
by definitions of the energy states of individual molecules. pilot what type of conditions may be expected during flight.
The spectacular auroras form in the regions of the exosphere,
the bottom of which is found at 500 kilometers above the 6.2.1 Classification of Clouds
earth's surface.
Clouds are classified into four families: high clouds, middle
clouds, low clouds and clouds of vertical development.

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 Aviation Weather: Clouds

As well, clouds are identified by the way in which they form.

There are two basic types: cumulus and stratus.
Cumulus clouds form in rising air currents and are evidence
of unstable air conditions.
Stratus clouds form in horizontal layers and usually form as a
layer of moist air is cooled below its saturation point.
Clouds from which precipitation falls are designated nimbus
clouds.
The cloud heights referred to below are for the temperate
regions. In the polar regions, clouds tend to occur at lower
heights and in the tropics at greater heights.
Fig.6.5 Altocumulus
Base Height Temperate Regions Polar Regions Tropical Regions
Altocumulus (Ac) are a layer or series of patches of rounded
20,000 to
High Cloud 16,500 to 45,000 ft. 10,000 to 25,000 ft.
60,000 ft. masses of cloud that may lie in groups or lines. Sometimes
Middle Cloud 6,500 to 23,000 ft . 6,500 to 13,000 ft. 6,500 to 25,000 ft. they indicate the approach of a front but usually they have
Low Cloud Up to 6,500 ft. Up to 6,500 ft. Up to 6,500 ft. little value as an indication of future weather developments.
Altocumulus Castellanus (Ace) are altocumulus with a tur-
Fig.6.3 Cloud Types & their Corresponding Heights & Regions reted appearance. Instability, turbulence and shower activity
are characteristic. Altocumulus castellanus may develop into
cumulonimbus.
High Clouds Altostratus (As) are a thick veil of grey cloud that generally
The bases of h igh clouds range from 16,500 feet to 45,000 feet
covers the whole sky. At first, the sun or moon may be seen
and average about 25,000 feet in the temperate regions. They
through the cloud, but they disappear as the cloud gets thick-
are composed of ice crystals.
er. The presence of altostratus indicates the near approach
of a warm front. Some light rain or snow may fall from thick
altostratus. Icing may occur in this cloud.
There is usually little turbulence associated with middle
clouds unless cumulus clouds are embedded in them or
unless altocumulus is developing.

Low Clouds
The bases of low clouds range from surface height to about
6,500 feet. They are composed of water droplets which may be
supercooled and sometimes of ice crystals.
Fig.6.4 Cirrus Stratus (St) are a uniform layer of cloud resembling fog but not
resting on the ground. Drizzle often falls from stratus. Stratus
Cirrus (Ci) are very high, thin wavy sprays of white cloud made
cloud broken up by wind is called stratus fractus (Sf).
up of slender, delicate curling wisps or fibres. Sometimes they
take the form of feathers or ribbons or delicate fibrous bands.
They are often called cats' whiskers or mares' tails.
Cirrocumulus (Cc) are thin clouds, cotton or flake-like. Often
they are called mackerel sky. They provide little indication of
future weather conditions.
Cirrostratus (Cs) are very thin high sheet cloud through which
the sun or moon is visible, producing a halo effect. Cirrostratus
is frequently an indication of an approaching warm front or
occlusion and therefore of deteriorating weather.
High clouds have little effect on flying. Some moderate turbu-
lence may be encountered. Fig.6.6 Stratus

Stratocumulus (Sc) is a layer or series of patches of rounded

Middle Clouds masses or rolls of cloud. It is very often thin with blue sky
The bases of middle clouds range from 6,500 feet to 23,000 showing through the breaks. It is common in high pressure
feet. They are composed of ice crystals or water droplets, areas in winter and sometimes gives a little precipitation.
which may be at temperatures above freezing or may be Nimbostratus (Ns) is a low layer of uniform, dark grey cloud.
supercooled. When it gives precipitation, it is in the form of continuous rain
or snow. The cloud may be more than 15,000 feet thick. It is
generally associated with warm fronts.
Little turbulence occurs in stratus. The low cloud bases and
poor visibility make VFR operations difficult to impossible.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Clouds

1. Clear: No clouds.
Clouds of Vertical Development
The bases of this type of cloud may form as low as 1,500 feet. 2. Few: 2 oktas (8ths) or less of the celes-
They are composed of water droplets when the temperature tial dome is covered by clouds.
is above freezing and of ice crystals and supercooled water 3. Scattered: 3 to 4 oktas of the celes-
droplets when the temperature is below freezing. They may tial dome is covered by clouds.
appear as isolated clouds or may be embedded in layer clouds.
4. Broken: 5 to 7 oktas of the celestial dome is
Cumulus (Cu) are dense clouds of vertical development. They covered by a layer of clouds based aloft.
are thick, rounded and lumpy and resemble cotton balls.
5. Overcast: 8 oktas of the celestial dome is covered.
They usually have flat bases and the tops are rounded. They
cast dense shadows and appear in great abundance during
the warm part of the day and dissipate at night. When these 6.2.3 Cloud Formation
clouds are composed of ragged fragments, they are called Clouds form when the invisible water vapour that is present
cu mulus frac tus (Cf). Flight under the bases of cumulus clouds in the air changes into its visible form as water droplets or ice
is usually bumpy. crystals.
The process by which water vapour changes into water droplets
is called condensation and occurs when the relative humidity is
high, when condensation nuclei are present in the air and when
there is cooling of the air.
The level at which water vapour condenses and becomes visible
is known as the condensation level. This level is, in practice,
the base of the clouds. If the cloud forms at ground level, it is
called fog rather than cloud.
Except at temperatures well below freezing, clouds are com-
posed of very small droplets of water which collect on micro-
scopic water absorbent particles of solid matter in the air (such
Fig.6. 7 Cumulus as salt from evaporating sea spray, dust, and smoke particles).
The abundance of these particles, called condensation nuclei,
Towering Cumulu s (TCu) are cumulus clouds that build up on which the droplets form, permits condensation to occur
into high towering m asses. They are likely to develop into generally as soon as the air becomes saturated. If the condensa-
cumulonimbus. Rough air will be encountered underneath tion nuclei are particularly abundant, condensation may occur
this cloud. Heavy icing may occur in this cloud type. at less than 100% relative humidity.
Cumulonimbus {Cb) are heavy masses of cumulus clouds Clouds which form at temperatures well below freezing are
that extend well above the freezing level. The summits often usually composed of small particles of ice known as ice crystals
spread out to form an anvil sh aped top that is characteristic which form directly from water vapour through the process
of thunderstorm and showery conditions. Violent vertical cur- of deposition. When the temperature is between freezing and
rents exist within the cloud. about -15°C, clouds are composed largely of supercooled water
droplets with some ice crystals as well. See Supercooled Water
Droplets in section Humidity.
Saturated warm air holds much more water vapour than does
satu rated cold air. Cooling saturated warm air will result in
more water vapour condensing into visible water droplets than
is the case when cooling saturated cold air. Denser, thicker
cloud formations occur when condensation occurs in a warm
air mass.
Clouds are formed in two ways. (1) Air, in which water vapour
is present, is cooled to its saturation point and condensation
occurs. The cooling process will occur as warm air comes in
contact with a cold surface or with a surface that is cooling by
radiation or as air is affected by adiabatic expansion. (2) Air,
without a change in temperature taking place, may absorb
Fig.6.8 Cumulonimbus additional water vapour until its saturation point is reach ed
with the result that clouds are formed.
Hail is frequently present within the cloud and may occasion-
Of these, the most common cause of cloud formation is
ally fall from it. A line of cumulonimbus is often an indication
adiabatic expansion, that is, cooling due to expansion brought
of a cold front. The cloud should be avoided because of its
about by lifting.
turbulence, the danger of heavy icing and violent electrical
activity. Cumulonimbus clouds may be embedded in strati- Stability of the air, of course, is one of the major factors which
form clouds. determines the strength and extent of vertical motion and
th erefore cloud formation. In stable air, the cloud forms in
horizontal sheets of stratus cloud. In unstable air, cumulus
6.2.2 Sky Condition clouds develop.
There are five types of sky condition relating to cloud cover.
The lifting process is initiated by a number of different
In the METAR weather reporting code, the sky is divided into
phenomena.
8 segments called oktas. The sky conditions are:

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 Aviation Weather: Pressure

The eddy motion consists of ir regular up and dow n currents.

Orographic Lift The air in the upward current cools and, if sufficient m oist ure
Air blowing against a range of hills or mountains is forced is present and if the t u rbulence is vigorous, condensation
upward, reaches a region of lower pressure, expands and m ay take place in the upper part of the turbulent layer. Th e
cools. Condensation w ill occur when the dewpoint is reach ed. cloud layer has an undulating base which is lower in the rising
The type of cloud formed will depend on the m oisture content eddies than in the sinking eddies. The top of the cloud marks
and on the stability of th e air. The slope and height of the ter- the top of the turbulent layer and tends to be very flat. Very
rain and the strength of the wind component that produces often an inversion exists above the turbulent layer and it is
the upslope flow also have an effect. this which blocks further vertical motion. The cloud layers
If the air is dry, very little cloud will form . Stratus cloud will tend to be stratocumulus in form.
form if the air is moist and stable, cumulus and cumulonim- Sometimes con vection occurs in combination with the
bus if the air is moist and unstable. mech an ical turbulence and then cumulus clouds will develop
A long bank of cloud from which rain may fall forms on the and w ill be embedded in the stratocumulus layer.
windward side and on the upper parts of the hills or m oun- If the air is very stable, the m echanical t urbulence is damp -
tains. Due to the fact that the rising ground is always in the ened and confined to very low levels. Only if the air is very
same place, orographic clouds and rain are typically persis- moist will clouds form in this slight lifting action and then
tent and usu ally widespread. The descending air on the lee- they will be strat us in form . If the wind is strong, stratus
ward side of the m ountains will be compressed and heated, factus may be associated with the strat us layer.
causing dissipation of the clouds.

Convergence
Convection When air piles up over a region as at the centre of a low pres-
Warm air rises. Owing to th e heating of the ground by the sure area, convergence is said to be occurrin g. The excess air
sun, rising currents of air occur. The upward movement of is forced to rise; it expands and cools and, when the con densa-
air is known as convection. (The downward movement of tion level is reach ed, clouds form. Since all fronts lie in region s
air is known as subsidence.) As cu rrents of air rise due to of low pressure, convergence is often a contributing factor to
convection, they expand. Th e expansion is accompanied by front al weather.
cooling. The cooling produces condensation ; a cumuliform
cloud forms at th e top of each rising column of air. The cloud
will grow in h eigh t as long as the rising air within it remains
warmer than the air surrounding it. The height of the cloud, 6.3 Pressure
however, is also dependent on the stability of the air in the
Atmospheric pressure is important to the pilot for two rea-
m id-levels of the troposphere. If the air is stable, fair weather
sons. Firstly, aeroplane altimeters are operated by atmospher-
cumulus, on ly a few thou sand feet thick, will form. If the air is
ic pressure and must be properly set to give correct readings
u nstable through the troposphere right up to the tropopause,
of altitude. Secondly, pressure distribution in the atmosphere
towering cu mulus and cumulonimbus will develop. Heavy
controls the winds which are of great importance to the pilot
rainshowers and thunderstorms are typically associated with
in planning cross-country fligh ts.
convection clouds.
Convection also occu rs when air m oves over a surface that is 6.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure
warmer than itself. The air is heated by advection and con-
vective currents develop. Warming of air by advection does The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is due to th e
not depend on daytime heating. Convection will, therefore, weight of overlying air. Pressure at the surface of the earth is
continue day or night so long as the airflow remains the same. usually measured by the mercury barometer and is expressed
in inches of mercury (written "Hg). Th e mercury barometer
consists of an open dish of mercury in to which the open en d
Frontal Lift of an evacuated glass t ube is placed. Atm ospheric pressure
When a m ass of warm air is advancing on a colder mass, the
forces mercury to rise in the tube. Th e greater th e pressure,
warm air rises over the cold air on a long gradual slope. Th is
the high er th e column rises. A measurem ent expressed in
slope is called a w arm frontal surface. The ascent of the w arm
inches is, in effect, the len gth of the column of mercury, th e
air causes it to cool and clouds are form ed, ranging from h igh
weigh t of which will balance a column of air extending from
cirrus through altostratus down to thick nimbostratus from
th e ground to the top of the atmosphere (Fig.6.9).
which continuous steady rain may fall over a wide area.
When a mass of cold air is advancing on a mass of warm air,
the cold air undercuts the warm air and forces the latter to
rise. The slope of the advancing wedge of cold air is called a Column of mercury
cold frontal surface. The clouds which form are heavy cumu- Weight of atmosphere
lus or cumulonimbus. Heavy rain, thunderstorm s , tu rbulence
and icing are associated with the latter.

Turbulence
When a strong wind blows over a rough surface, the fric -
tion between the ground and th e air produces mechanical
turbulence, or eddy motion. The intensity of the turbulence
is dependent on the roughness of the underlying surface, the
strength of the wind and the instability of the air. Fig. 6.9 Principle of the Mercury Barometer

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Pressure

Pressure, however, is a force and in meteorological work it is concentric circles and form themselves into distinct areas of
common to employ a unit, the hectopascal {hPa), to measure high and low pressure.
it. A hectopascal is a pressure exerted on an area of 1 square The various types of pressure systems are: lows, secondary
centimeter by a force of 1,000 dynes. lows, troughs, highs, ridges and cols. They are illustrated in
One hectopascal is equal to one millibar, the term in common Fig.6.10 as they would appear on a typical weather map.
usage prior to the adoption of metric terminology.
A pressure expressed as 29.92 inches of mercury is equivalent
to 1013.2 hectopascals .
In the weather information given on public radio and televi-
sion broadcasts, atmospheric pressure is commonly expressed
in kilopascals (kPa). One kilopascal equals 10 hectopascals.
A pressure expressed as 103.32 kPa is equivalent to 1033.2
hectopascals.

6.3.2 Sea Level & Station Pressure

Station pressure is the actual atmospheric pressure at the ele-
vation of the observing station. It is, in other words, the actual
weight of a column of air extending up from the station level
to the outer limit of the atmosphere. The value is determined
directly from the mercury barometer at the observing station.
Since the weight of the atmosphere decreases with altitude, it Fig.6.10 Pressure Systems
follows that the atmospheric pressure reading at a station at
The pressure patterns on the weather map are like contour
5,000 feet elevation will be less than that at a station at 1,000
lines on a topographic map; the high pressure areas correspond
feet and still less than that at a station at sea level.
to hills and the low pressure areas to valleys. It is important to
To have a consistent record of the distribution of atmospheric recognize that the pressure systems are relative to the pressure
pressure, it is necessary to reduce the station pressures to a around them. A high pressure area, in the centre of which the
common level. This standard is called mean sea level {MSL) pressure reading is, for example, 1,000 hectopascals, is classed
pressure. The reduction to MSL pressure involves adding to a high because the surrounding pressure is less than 1,000
the station pressure the weight of an imaginary column of air hectopascals. A pressure area with the same pressure reading
extending from the station level down to mean sea level. In of 1,000 hectopascals at the centre would be classed as a low
determining MSL pressure, local temperature must be taken if the surrounding pressure is higher than 1,000 hectopascals.
into account. The temperature value is based on the average of
These pressure systems are constantly moving or changing in
the surface temperatures at the time of observation and for 12
appearance. Lows may deepen or fill and highs may build or
hours before the time of observation. Mean sea level pressure
weaken. Most systems move in a general west to east direction.
is expressed in hectopascals.
If we put down on a map beside the barometer readings and
To make an altimeter in an aeroplane correctly read the true
wind arrows the state of the weather, we shall see that, in
height above mean sea level, it must be set to a standard atmo-
the high pressure areas, it is usually fine and clear, probably
spheric pressure. This pressure reading is called the altimeter
cooler, while in the low pressure areas, it is generally rainy and
setting. It differs slightly from the mean sea level pressure. In
cloudy on the east side and probably fine on the west side. The
reducing station pressure to sea level pressure for altimeter
weather, in fact, is intimately connected with the shape of the
setting purposes, the standard sea level temperature of 15°C
isobars.
and the standard lapse rate of 1.98°C per 1,000 feet is used in
computing the equivalents. When correctly set, the altimeter
will then read the true elevation of the airport at which the Low Pressure Areas
aeroplane is parked. {Conversely, if a pilot does not know the Areas of low pressure are called cyclones, depressions or
altimeter setting but does know the elevation of the airport at simply lows. A low is a region of relatively low pressure with
which the aeroplane is parked, he/she can dial in the correct the lowest pressure at the centre.
elevation and get also the correct altimeter setting.) Altimeter A low may cover a small region such as a county, or it may
setting is reported in inches of mercury. extend across half a continent. Some are much deeper than
others. A tornado, for example, is a very deep, small but con-
6.3.3 Pressure Systems centrated low. A deep low is one where the pressure is very low
in the centre and the isobars are rather close together. A shal-
The pressure readings that are taken at various weather report-
low depression is low in the centre, but not much lower than
ing stations all over North America are transmitted to forecast
the surrounding areas.
offices and are plotted on specially prepared maps. Areas oflike
pressure are joined by lines, wind direction arrows are entered Depressions seldom stay long in one place but generally move
and the result is a weather map that gives the weather man a in an easterly direction. Their average rate of movement is 500
symbolic picture of the weather over the whole continent. miles (about 800 kilometers) a day in summer, and 700 miles
(about 1,100 kilometers) a day in winter. Their drift is generally
The lines that join, on a weather map, areas of equal barometric
to the north-east or south-east. Only rarely is there an excep-
pressure are called isobars. These lines are drawn on the map
tion to this pattern of easterly drift of low pressure areas.
at intervals of four hectopascals, above and below the value
of 1,000 hectopascals. When the isobars are drawn in, they
form definite patterns. They never cross, but form roughly

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 Aviation Weather: Pressure

Secondary Low 6.3.5 Pressure Gradient

A secondary low is a smaller disturbance of a cyclonic nature
If some of the air were removed from a room, the pressure
which forms within the area dominated by the main depres-
would be reduced and the pressure outside would force air
sion. The secondary centre revolves around the main centre
in through the doors and windows until the room was again
in a counterclockwise direction . Secondaries are frequently
filled with the normal amount of air. Similarly, in the case
associated with thunderstorms in summer and gales or h eavy
of low and high pressure areas, there is a tendency for th e
precipitation in winter.
higher pressure air in a high to flow towards the area of lower
pressure.
Trough of Low Pressure The speed at which this m ovement of air occurs depends on
A trough is an elongated U-shaped area of low pressure with
the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient is defined as the
higher pressure on either side, which may bring about a
rate of change of pressure over a given distance measured at
gradual windsh ift.
right angles to the isobars.
The term "trough" is also applied to the V-shape formed by
The steepness of the pressure gradient is m easured by the
the sharp bending or kinking of the isobars along a frontal
nearness of the isobars. Where the isobars are spaced widely
surface, sometimes referred to as a V-shaped depression (see
apart, the pressure gradient is shallow and the movement of
Fronts). Sudden windshifts may be expected, accompanied by
air (wind) is slow or light. Where the isobars are very close
the type of weather generally associated with fronts.
together, the gradient is steep and the wind is strong.

Col 6.3.6 Coriolis Force

A col is a neutral region between two highs and two lows.
Weather conditions are apt to be unsettled. In winter, the The air moving from a high pressure area to a low pressure
mixing of air of dissimilar air masses frequently produces area does not flow directly from the one to the other. It is
fog. In summer, showers or thunderstorms may occur. While deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere by a force
it is quite possible for weather conditions to be fair, generally called the Coriolis force and as a result flows parallel to th e
speaking, cols may be regarded as regions of undependable isobars.
weather. Anything moving above the surface of the earth will continue
to move in a straight line if no force acts on it, but the earth in
High Pressure Areas its rotation moves under the moving body. The moving body
A high, or anticyclone, is an area of relatively high pres- is, therefore, apparently deflected to the right in the Northern
sure, the pressure being higher than that of the surrounding Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, the apparent
regions. The pressure is highest at the centre and decreases deflection is to the left. This is known as Ferrel's Law. The
towards the outside. The accompanying weather is usu- apparent deflecting force is called Coriolis force (Fig.6.11).
ally fine to fair, clear and bright, with light, moderately cool Hence, the wind does not blow straight into an area of low
breezes. The temperature becomes cooler at night with pos- pressure from all sides but is deflected to the righ t and blows
sibly a little frost. In winter, a high very often brings clear, cold around the area of low pressure cou nterclockwise in the
weather. Occasionally, however, an anti-cyclone occurs in Northern Hemisph ere. As the air tries to turn to the right, th e
which a persistent cloud sheet develops, causing dull, gloomy low pressure system will try to draw the air into itself, and
weather. the result is that air is held into a circle that actually turns
The winds associated with high pressure are usually light and to the left.
rather variable. They circulate in a clockwise direction around In the case of a high pressure area, the air flows out from th e
the centre, blowing outwards into the lows. area of high pressure, but is deflected to the right because of
Highs m ove much more slowly across the country than the Coriolis force. As a result, the wind blows clockwise round
depressions and occasionally remain almost station ary for an area of h igh pressure in the Northern Hemisphere.
days at a time.

Ridge of High Pressure

An anticyclone ridge is a neck or ridge of high pressure with Earth's rotation -->
lower pressure lying on either side. The weather in a ridge is
generally fine to fair.

6.3.4 Pressure Changes

Fig .6.11 Coriolis Force
Pressure readings are taken at regular intervals (usually
hourly) at weather stations. Weather maps are prepared four Cut out a paper disk to represent the earth. Place a pin through the
times a d ay at six hour intervals. From these readings and centre to represent the north pole. Rotating the disk around the pin
maps, the changes in pressure can be observed and approach - (counterclockwise) to represent the earth's rotation, attempt to draw a
ing weather forecast. If a low, for example, is approaching a straight line (the dotted line in the figure) to represent a wind blowing
station, the pressure will steadily fall. Once the centre of the from north to south. The line will curve as shown, or in other words,
low h as passed by, the pressure will begin to rise. This pattern be deflected to the right.
of ch anging pressure is called pressure tendency.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Wind s

6.4.1 Hemispheric Prevailing Winds

Buys Ballot's Law: if you stand with your
Since the atmosphere is fixed to the earth by gravity and
back to the wind, the low pressure area
rotates with the earth, there would be no circulation if some
will be on your left side. In the Southern force did not upset the atmosphere's equilibrium. The heating
Hemisphere, the reverse is the case. of the earth's surface by th e sun is the force responsible for
creating the circulation that does exist.
Because of the curvature of the earth, the m ost direct rays of
6.3.J Surface Friction the sun strike the earth in th e vicinity of the equator result-
In the lower levels of the atmosphere, a third force acts on the ing in the greatest concentration of heat, th e largest pos-
direction and speed of the air m oving from areas of high pres- sible amount of reradiation and the maximum h eating of the
sure to areas of low pressure. This force is surface friction. atmosphere in this area of the earth. At the same time, the
Friction between the air masses and the surface of the earth sun's rays strike the earth at the poles at a very oblique angle,
tends to slow down the movement of the air, thereby reduc- resulting in a much lower concentration of heat and much
ing the wind speed. This in turn retards th e Coriolis force. As less reradiation so th at there is, in fact, very little heating of
a result, air tends to m ove across the isobars at a slight angle the atmosphere over the poles and consequently very cold
inwards towards the centre of the lows an d outwards from the temperatures.
centres of the highs. Cold air, being more dense, sinks and hot air, being less
dense, rises. Consequently, the rising warm air at the equator
becomes even less dense as it rises and its pressure decreases.
An area oflow pressure, therefore, exists over the equator.
Warm air rises until it reaches a certain height at which it
starts to spill over into surrounding areas. At the poles, the
cold dense air is sinkin g. Air from the upper levels of the atmo-
sphere flows in on top of it increasing the weight and creating
an area of high pressure at the poles.
Fig . 6.1 2 Surface Fr iction Effect on Air Movement Across Isobars
Polar High (North Pole) •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • - :
The m ore surface friction , the greater the angle at which the Polar Easte rlies ,J'ilft~~
flow of air is deflected from a flow parallel to the isobars. Over
water, it is less than over land where the rough ness of the
60° Sub-PolarLow ······-----.-
Prevailing Westerlies -----e ~;;~~~~~~~~
30° Sub-Tropical High .•••._ T~JT~'ld".Mlr~
terrain may cause a deflection of as much as 40°. Over w ater,
(Variable winds & calm) _ .
the deflection is rarely m ore than 10°. The friction effect is Trade Winds
greatest near th e su rface of the earth but may be carried aloft 0° Equatorial Low··· - - •._
(Variable winds & calm)
by turbulence to heights as great as 2,000 feet. Above this
altitude, it is practically negligible and the winds tend to flow
parallel to the isobars as a result of the Coriolis force.

6.3.8 Centrifugal Force

Centrifugal force, acting on the circulating flow of air around Fig.6 .13 Wind Ci rculat ion
th e high and low pressure areas, tends to increase wind speed
in the high pressu re areas and decrease it in the low pressure The air that rises at the equator does not flow directly to the
areas. poles. Due to the rotation of the earth, there is a build-up of air
at about 30° north latitude. (The same phenomenon occurs in
the Southern Hemisph ere.) Some of the air sinks, causing a belt
6.3.9 Convergence &Divergence of high pressure at this latitude.
The flow of air into an area is called convergence. It is usu-
Th e sinking air reach es the surface and flows north and south.
ally accompanied by an upward m ovem ent of air to permit The air that flows south completes one cell of the earth's cir-
the excess accumulation of air to escape. Areas of convergent culation pattern, as shown in Fig.6.13. The air that flows north
winds are favou rable to the occurrence of precipitation in the becomes part of anoth er cell of circulation between 30° and 60°
form of thunderstorms, rain , hail or snow. north latitude. At the same time, the sinkin g air at the north
When th ere is a flow of air outwards from a region, th e condi- pole flows south and collides with the air moving north from
tion is known as divergence. Th e outflow is compensated by the 30° h igh pressure area. The colliding air is forced upward
a downward m ovem ent of air from aloft. Areas of divergent and an area of low pressu re is created near 60° north. The third
winds are not favourable to the occu rrence of precipitation. cell circulation pattern is created between the north pole and
60° north.
Because of the rotation of the earth and the Coriolis force, air is
6.4 Winds deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. As a result,
the movement of air in the polar cell circulation produces the
The h orizon tal movem ent of air, called w ind, is a factor of polar easterlies. In th e circulation cell that exists between 60°
great importance to a pilot as he/she plans a flight . Upper and 30° north, the movement of air produces the prevailing
winds encountered en route will affect groundspeed either westerlies. In the tropic circulation cell, the northeast trade
favourably or detrimentally and thus have a bearing on time winds are produced. These are the so-called permanent wind
en route and fuel consumption . Surface w inds are important systems of the earth . They are illustrated in Fig.6.13.
in landing and take -off.

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 Aviation Weather: Winds

erratic for some distance as it flows out of the hilly area and
6.4.2 Upper Level Winds into the flatter countryside.
There are two main forces which affect the movement of air Daytime heating and nighttime cooling of the hilly slopes
in the upper levels. The pressure gradient causes the air to cause day to night variations in the airflow. At night, the sides
move horizontally, forcing the air directly from a region of of the hills cool by radiation. The air in contact with them
high pressure to a region of low pressure. The Coriolis forc e, becomes cooler and therefore denser and it blows down the
however, deflects the direction of the flow of the air (to the slope into the valley. This is a katabatic wind (sometimes
right in the Northern Hemisphere) and causes the air to flow also called a mountain breeze). If the slopes are covered with
parallel to the isobars (or contours as the lines joining areas ice and snow, the katabatic wind will blow, not only at night
of equal pressure are called on Upper Level Weather Charts). but also during the day, carrying the cold dense air into the
Winds in the upper levels will blow clockwise around areas warmer valleys. The slopes of h ills not covered by snow will
of high pressure and counterclockwise around areas of low be warmed during the day. The air in contact with them
pressure. becomes warmer and less dense and, therefore, flows up the
slope. This is an anabatic wind (or valley breeze).
The speed of the wind is determined by the pressure gradient.
The winds are strongest in regions where the isobars are close In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow is even
together and where the pressure gradient is highest. more severe. Rocky surfaces, high ridges, sheer cliffs, steep
valleys, all combine to produce unpredictable flow patterns
6.4.3 Surface Winds and turbulence. The most treacherous of the local wind sys-
tems associated with m ountains, however, is the mountain
Surface friction plays an important role in the speed and wave.
direction of surface winds. As a result of the slowing down
of the air as it moves over the ground, wind speeds are less THE MOUNTAIN WAVE
than would be expected from the pressure gradient on the Air flowing across a mountain range usually rises relatively
weather map and the direction is changed so that the wind smoothly up the slope of the range but, once over the top, it
blows across the isobars into a centre of low pressure and out pours down the other side with considerable force, bouncing
of a centre of high pressure. up and down, creating eddies and turbulence and also creating
powerful vertical waves that may extend for great distances
The effect of friction usually does not extend more than a
downwind of the mountain range. This phenomenon is known
couple of thousand feet into the air. At 3,000 feet above the
as a mountain w ave. Fig.6.14 illustrates the type of wave pat-
ground, the wind blows parallel to the isobars with a speed
tern which may be activated by a very strong wind. Note the up
proportional to the pressure gradient.
and downdrafts and the rotating eddies formed downstream.
Even allowing for the effects of surface friction, the winds,
If the air mass has a high moisture content, clouds of very
locally, do not always show the speed and direction that
distinctive appearance will develop.
would be expected from the isobars on the surface weather
map. These variations are usually due to geographical fea- Cap Clouds are caused by orographic lift and form along the
tures such as hills, mountains and large bodies of water. top of the ridge. The wind carries this cloud down along the
Except in mountainous regions, the effect of terrain features leeward slope where it dissipates through adiabatic heating.
that cause local variations in wind extends usually no higher The base of this cloud lies near or below the peaks of the ridge;
than about 2,000 feet above the ground. the top may reach a few thousand feet above the peaks.
Lenticular Clouds (Lens-Shaped) form in the wave crests aloft
Land &Sea Breezes and lie in bands that may extend to well above 40,000 feet.
Land and sea breezes are caused by the differences in tem- Rotor Clouds form in the rolling eddies downstream. They
perature over land and water. The sea breeze occurs during resemble a long line of stratocumulus clouds, the bases of
the day when the land area h eats more rapidly than the water which lie below the mountain peaks and the tops of which may
surface. This results in the pressure over the land bein g lower reach to a considerable height above the peaks. Occasionally
than that over the water. The pressure gradient is often strong these clouds develop into thunderstorms.
enough for a wind to blow from the water to the land.
The clouds, being very distinctive, can be seen from a great
The land breeze blows at night when the land becomes cooler. distance and provide a visible warning of the mountain wave
Then the wind blows towards the warm, low pressure area condition. Unfortunately, sometimes they are embedded in
over the water. other cloud systems and are hidden from sight. Sometimes the
Land and sea breezes are very local and affect only a narrow air mass is very dry and the clouds do not develop.
area along the coast. Th e severity of the mountain wave and the height to which the
disturbance of the air is affected is dependent on the strength
Mountain Winds of the wind, its angle to the range and the stability or instabil-
Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow associated ity of the air. The most severe mountain wave conditions are
with the prevailing pressure system a nd the pressure gradi- created in strong airflows that are blowing at right angles to
ent. Strong up and downdrafts and eddies develop as the air the range and in very unstable air. A jet stream blowing nearly
flows up over hills and down into valleys. Wind direction perpendicular to the mountain range increases the severity of
ch anges as the air flows around hills. Sometimes lines of hills the wave condition.
and mountain ranges will act as a barrier, holding back the The mountain w ave phenomenon is not limited only to high
wind and deflecting it so that it flows parallel to the range. mountain ranges, such as the Rockies, but is also present to a
If there is a pass in the mountain range, the wind w ill rush lesser degree in smaller mountain systems and even in lines
through this pass as through a funnel with considerable of small hills.
speed. The airflow can be expected to remain turbulent and

From the Grou nd Up 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Winds

Diurnal Variations
Strong Wind Given an isobaric pattern and a pressure gradient that are
fundamentally identical, surface winds can usually be expect-
CapCloud 1 ed to be stronger and gustier during the day than during the
night. In unstable air, there are ascending and descending

() currents that provide a vertical link between winds at differ-

ent levels in the convective layer. In stable air, especially in
an inversion that typically occurs at night, this link does not
exist and winds can be very different above and below the
inversion.
When the sun sets and night falls, the nocturnal inversion
Fig . 6.14 The Mountain Wave develops (the surface air cools by radiation an d there is warm
air above the cooler surface layer). With no surface heat-
Mountain waves present problems to pilots for several reasons:
ing, turbulence diminish es and the convective current link
1. Vertical Currents. Downdrafts of 2,000 feet per min- between the low level air affected by the earth's surface and
ute are common and downdrafts as great as 5,000 the free flowing air above disappears. The surface layer of air
feet per minute have been reported. They occu r along becomes more strongly influenced by the frictional effects of
the downward slope and are most severe at a height the earth's surface. The surface winds decrease in speed and
equal to th at of the su m mit. An aeroplane, caugh t back in direction (see Veering and Backing below).
in a downdraft , could be forced to the ground.
Wh en the sun rises, warming breaks down the nocturnal
2. Turbulence. This is usually extremely inversion and vertical currents develop. The resulting tur-
severe in the air layer between the ground bulence causes the faster air aloft to be brought down to the
and the tops of the rotor clouds. surface and the slower surface air to be carried aloft. Since
3. Wind Sh ear. The wind speed varies dramati- the wind direction at the h igher level is parallel to the isobars
cally between the crests and troughs of the and its speed is greater than the surface wind which is slowed
waves. The w ind speed variation is usu- by friction, the mixing causes the surface wind to increase in
ally most dramatic near the mountain range speed, veer in direction and become gusty. It reaches its great-
and is responsible for severe wind shear. est speed during the afternoon when the temperature rises to
4. Altimeter Error. Th e increase in wind speed results a maximum value.
in an accompanying decrease in pressure which Diurnal variations do not occur over large lakes and oceans
in t urn affects the accuracy of the pressure altim - since nocturnal inversions do not develop over water.
eter. (See also Mountain Effect in the Section
The Altim eter in Chapter Theory of Flight .)
Eddies
5. Icing. The freezing level varies considerably Friction between the moving air mass and surface features
from crest to trough. Severe icin g can occu r of the earth (hills, mountains, valleys, trees, buildings, etc.)
because of the large supercooled droplets sus- is responsible for the swirling vortices of air commonly called
tained in the strong vertical currents. eddies. They vary considerably in size and intensity depending
When flying over a mountain ridge where wave conditions on the size and roughness of the surface obstruction, the speed
exist: (1) Avoid ragged and irregular shaped clouds - the of the wind and the degree of stability of the air. They can spin
irregular sh ape indicates turbulence. (2) Approach the moun- in either a horizontal or vertical plane. Unstable air and strong
tain at a 45 degree angle. If you should suddenly decide to turn winds produce more vigorous eddies. In stable air, eddies tend
back, a quick turn can be made away from the high ground. to quickly dissipate. Eddies produced in mountainous areas are
(3) Avoid flying in cloud on the mountain crest (cap cloud) especially powerful.
because of strong downdrafts and turbulence. (4) Allow suf-
The bumpy or choppy up and down motion that signifies the
ficient heigh t to clear the high est ridges with altitude to spare
presence of eddies makes it difficult to keep an aeroplane in
to avoid th e downdrafts and eddies on the downwind slopes.
level fligh t. Because th ey are present predominantly in the
(5) Always remember that your altimeter can read over 3,000
lower levels, pilots encounter these eddies during landing and
ft. in error on the high side in mountain wave conditions.
take-off when the bumpiness and sudden drops and increases
in wind speed and direction may be critical.
Gust
A gust is a rapid and irregular fluctuation of varying intensity
in th e upward and downward movement of air currents. It
Dust Devils
may be associated w ith a rapid ch an ge in wind direction. Dust devils are phenomena that occur quite frequently on the
Gusts are caused by mechanical turbulence that results from hot dry plains of mid-western North America. They can be of
friction between the air and the ground and by the unequal sufficient force to present a hazard to pilots of light aeroplanes
heating of the earth's surface, particularly on hot summer flying at low speeds. They are small heat lows that form on
afternoons. clear hot days. Given a steep lapse rate caused by cool air aloft
over a hot surface, little horizontal air movement, few or no
clouds, and the noonday sun heating flat arid soil surfaces to
Squall high temperatures, the air in contact with the ground becomes
A squall is a sudden increase in the strength of the wind of
super-heated and highly unstable. This surface layer of air
longer duration than a gust and may be caused by the passage builds until something triggers an upward movement. Once
of a fast moving cold front or thunderstorm. Like a gust, it may started, the hot air rises in a column and draws more hot air
be accompanied by a rapid change of wind direction. into the base of the column. Circulation begin s around this

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 Aviation Weather: Winds

heat low and increases in velocity until a small vigorous whirl- Wind Speed Wind Speed Sign
wind is created. Dust devils are usually of short duration and A wind of 1 smoke drifts and water ripples.
are so n am ed because they are made visible by the dust, sand to 2 knots
and debris that they pick up from the ground. A wind of 4 leaves rustle; small wavelets break t he surface
to 6 knots of water bodies but there are no white caps.
Dust devils pose the greatest hazard near the ground where A wind of 7 leaves and small twigs move as do flags; scattered
they are most violent. Pilots proposing to land on superheated to 10 knots whitecaps break the surface of water bodies.
runways in areas of the mid-west where this phenomenon is A wind of 11 small branches move; long waves and freq uent
to 16 knots whiteca ps can be seen on water surfa ces.
common should scan the airport for dust swirls or grass spirals
A wind of 17 small trees sway; many long white-
that would indicate the existence of this hazard. to 24 knots caps break the water surface.
A strong wind of large branches move; large waves, spray and white
Tornadoes 25 to 31 knots foa m crests brea k t he surface of water bodies.

Tornadoes are violent, circular whirlpools of air associated

Fig. 6.15 Wind Speed Identifiers
with severe thunderstorms and are, in fact, very deep, concen-
trated low pressure areas. They are sh aped like a funnel han g-
ing out of the cumulonimbus cloud and are dark in appearance 6.4. 5 Wind Shear
due to the dust and debris sucked into their whirlpools. They
Wind shear is the sudden "tearing" or "shearing" effect encoun-
range in diameter from about 100 feet to one half mile and
tered along the edge of a zone in which there is a violent change
move over the ground at speeds of 25 to 50 knots. Their path
in wind speed or direction. It can occur at high or low altitude
over the ground is usually only a few miles long although tor-
and is most often associated with strong temperature inver-
nadoes h ave been reported to cut destructive swaths as long as
sions or density gradient. It produces churning motions and
100 miles. The great destructiveness of tornadoes is cau sed by
consequently, turbulence. Under some conditions, wind direc-
the very low pressure in their cen tres and the high wind speeds
tion changes of as much as 180 degrees and speed changes of
which are reputed to be as great as 300 knots.
as much as 80 knots have been m easured.
The effect on aeroplane performance of encountering wind
6.4.4 Wind Speed &Direction shear derives from the fact that the wind can change much
Wind speeds for aviation purposes are expressed in knots (nau- faster than the aeroplane m ass can be accelerated or decelerat-
tical miles per hour). In the weather reports on Canadian public ed. Severe wind shears can impose penalties on an aeroplane's
radio and television, wind speeds are given in kilometers per performance that are beyond its capabilities to compensate,
hour while in the U.S. they are given in miles per hour. especially during the critical landing and take-off phase of
In a discussion of wind direction, the compass point from flight.
which the wind is blowing is considered to be its direction.
Therefore, a north wind is one that is blowing from the north In Cruising Flight
towards the south. In aviation weather reports , area and aero- In cruising flight, w ind shear will likely be encountered in
drome forecasts, the wind is always reported in degrees true. In th e transition zon e between the pressure gradient wind and
ATIS broadcasts and in the information given by the tower for the distorted local winds at the lower levels. It will also be
landing and take-off, the wind is reported in degrees magnetic. encountered when climbing or descending through a tem -
perature inversion and wh en passin g through a frontal su r-
Veering & Backing face. Wind shear is also associated with the jet stream (see
The wind veers when it changes direction clockwise. Example: below). Aeroplanes encountering wind shear may experience
The surface wind is blowing from 270°T. At 2,000 feet it is blow- a succession of updrafts and downdra fts, reductions or gains
ing from 280°T. It h as ch anged in a right-h and, or clockwise, in headwind, or wind sh ifts that disrupt the established fligh t
direction and is called a veering wind. path. It is not usu ally a m ajor problem because altitude and
airspeed margins w ill be adequate to counteract th e shear's
The w ind backs when it ch anges direction counterclockwise. adverse effects. On occasion, however, the wind shear m ay
Example: The w ind direction at 2,000 feet is 090°T, at 3,000 feet be severe enough to cause an abrupt increase in load fac tor
085°T. It is changing in a left-hand, or counterclockwise, direc- which might stall the aeroplane or inflict structural damage.
tion and is called a backing w ind.
In a descent from several thousand feet above the grou nd to Near the Ground
grou nd level, the wind will usually be found to back and also Wind sh ear, encountered near the ground, is more serious and
decrease in velocity, as the effect of surface friction becomes poten tially very dangerous. There are four common sources of
apparent. Above the friction/surface layer (2 to 4 thousand wind sh ear encountered near the ground: frontal activity, low
feet), the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force are in balance level wind sh ear associated with thunderstorms , temperat u re
and the air is moving parallel to the isobars. In the friction layer inversions and stron g surface w inds passing around natural
near the surface, wind speed starts to decrease due to fric- or m an -made obst acles.
tion. Because of the reduced w ind speed, the Coriolis force is
also reduced and the air is not deflected to the right as much . FRONTAL WIND SHEAR
Conversely, in a climb from the surface to several thousand feet Wind shear is usu ally a problem only in fronts w ith steep
AGL, the wind will veer and increase. wind gradients. If the temperature difference across the front
at the surface is 5°C or more and if the front is movin g at a
Wind Speed speed of about 30 knots or m ore, wind sh ear is likely to be
There are certain tell tale signs th at help a pilot to determine present. Fron tal wind shear is a phenomenon associated w ith
the speed of the wind. fast moving cold fronts but can be present in warm fronts as
well.

From the Grou nd Up" 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Winds

As the inversion dissipates in the morning, the shear plane and

gusty winds move closer to the ground, causing wind shifts and
Cold air ou tflow increases in wind speed near the surface.

SURFACE OBSTRUCTIONS
The irregular and turbulent flow of air around mountains and
hills and through mountain passes causes serious wind shear
problems for aircraft approaching to land at airports near
mountain ridges. Wind shear is a phenomenon associated
with the mountain wave (see Mountain Wave above). This type
Runway of wind shear is almost totally unpredictable but should be
expected whenever surface winds are strong.
In t ended flight p ath ..... . Wind shear is also associated with hangars and large buildings
Flight p ath -----· at airports. As the air flows around such large structures, wind
direction changes and wind speed increases causing shear.
Wind shear occurs both horizontally and vertically. Vertical
shear is most common near the ground and can pose a serious
hazard to aeroplanes during take-off and landing. The aero-
plane is flying at lower speeds and in a relatively high drag con-
figuration. There is little altitude available for recovering and
stall and maneuver margins are at their lowest. An aeroplane
encountering the wind shear phenomenon may experience a
large loss of airspeed because of the sudden change in the rela-
tive airflow as the aeroplane flies into a new, moving air mass.
The abrupt drop in airspeed may result in a stall, creating a
dangerous situation when the aeroplane is only a few hundred
feet off the ground and very vulnerable.
Runway
The operational aspects of flight in wind shear zones is dis-
Fig.6.16 Thunderstorm Wind Shear cussed in the Chapter Airmanship.

LOW LEVEL WIND SHEAR 6.4.6 The Jet Stream

Low level wind shear, associated with thunderstorms, occurs as
the result of two phenomena, the gust front and downbursts. As Narrow bands of exceedingly high speed winds are known to
the thunderstorm matures, strong downdrafts develop, strike exist in the higher levels of the atmosphere at altitudes rang-
the ground and spread out horizontally along the surface well in ing from 20,000 to 40,000 feet or more. They are known as jet
advance of the thunderstorm itself. This is the gust front. Winds streams. As many as three major jet streams may traverse the
can change direction by as much as 180° and reach speeds as North American continent at any given time. One lies across
great as 100 knots as far as 10 miles ahead of the storm. The Northern Canada and one across the U.S. A third jet stream may
downburst is an extremely intense localized downdraft flowing be as far south as the northern tropics but it is somewhat rare. A
out of a thunderstorm. The power of the downburst can exceed jet stream in the mid-latitudes is generally the strongest.
aircraft climb capabilities. The downburst (there are two types The jet stream appears to be closely associated with the tro-
of downbursts: macrobursts and microbursts) usually is much popause and with the polar front. It typically forms in the
closer to the thunderstorm than the gust front. Dust clouds, roll break between the polar and the tropical tropopause where the
clouds, intense rainfall or virga (rain that evaporates before it temperature gradients are intensified (see Fig.6.17). The mean
reaches the ground) are clues to the possibility of downburst position of the jet stream shifts south in winter and north in
activity but there is no way to accurately predict its occurrence. summer with the seasonal migration of the polar front. Because
(See also Thunderstorms.) The two diagrams in Fig.6.16 depict the troposphere is deeper in summer than in winter, the tropo-
the possible accident sequence when an aircraft encounters pause and the jets will normally be at higher altitudes in the
severe wind shear during the take-off or landing approach. summer.

TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS -45° -50° -60°

Overnight cooling creates a temperature inversion a few hun-
dred feet above the ground that can produce significant wind 60 ,000 ---<---~----b"'-------­
-70°
shear, especially if the inversion is coupled with the low level
Tropical Tropopa us e
jet stream.
-60°
As a nocturnal inversion develops, the wind shear near the
-50°
top of the inversion increases. It usually reaches its maximum -40°
-45°
speed shortly after midnight and decreases in the morning as -30°
daytime heating dissipates the inversion. This phenomenon is -40°.... .... -············ ·············· ······························· -20°
.. -···········
known as the low level nocturnal jet stream. The low level jet 20.000 - - -..~
..... -~- . ·················· -10°
-30°. ···················
stream is a sheet of strong winds, thousands of miles long, hun-
dreds of miles wide and hundreds of feet thick that forms over Fig.6.17 The Jet Stream & the Tropopause
flat terrain such as the prairies. Wind speeds of 40 knots are
common, but greater speeds have been measured. Low level jet Long, strong jet streams are usually also associated with well
streams are responsible for hazardous low level shear. developed surface lows beneath deep upper troughs and lows.
A low developing in the wave along the frontal surface lies

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 Aviation Weather: Winds

south of the jet. As it deepens, the low moves near the jet. performance aeroplanes. It occurs at high altitudes, usually
As it occludes, the low m oves north of the jet which crosses above 15,000 feet and is more severe near 30,000 feet. CAT
the frontal system near the point of occlusion. Th e jet flows develops in the turbulent energy exch ange along the bound-
roughly parallel to the front (see Fig.6.18}. ary between contrasting cold and w arm air masses. Such cold
The subtropical jet stream is not associated with fronts and warm advection along with strong wind shear develops
but form s because of strong solar h eating in the equatorial near the jet stream especially where curvature of the jet
regions. The ascending air turns poleward at very high levels stream increases sharply.
but is deflected by the Coriolis force into a strong westerly jet.
The subtropical jet predominates in w inter. Turbulent Area
The jet streams flow from west to east and may encircle the
entire hemisphere. More often, because they are stronger in I Maximum
some places than in others, they break up into segments some Turbulent Area
_..,....~··/...-~··1
1,000 to 3,000 nautical miles long. They are usually about 300 Warm I
n 'f !• :'
nautical miles wide and may be 3,000 to 7,000 feet thick. These Tropopause
jet stream segments move in an easterly direction following
the movement of pressure ridges and troughs in the upper
atmosphere.
L. ..... ./
Frontal Surface
Winds in the central core of the jet stream are the strongest
and may reach speeds as great as 250 knots, although they are
Fig.6.19 Turbulence Associated with the Jet Stream
generally between 100 and 150 knots. Wind speeds decrease
toward the outer edges of the jet stream and may be blowing The most probable place to expect CAT is just above the cen-
at only 25 knots there. The rate of decrease of wind speed is tral core of the jet stream near the polar tropopause and just
considerably greater on the northern edge th an on the south- below the core. Clear air t urbulence does not occur in the core.
ern edge. (Note the closeness of the isotach s , lines joining CAT is encou ntered more frequently in winter when the jet
points where winds of equal speed have been recorded, on stream winds are strongest . Nevertheless, CAT is not always
the polar edge of the jet in Fig.6.17.) Wind speeds in the jet present in the jet stream and, because it is random and tran-
stream are, on average, considerably stronger in winter than sient in nature, it is almost impossible to forecast.
in summer.
Clear air turbulence may be associated with other weath er
patterns, especially in wind shear associated with the sharply
curved contours of strong lows, troughs and ridges lying
aloft, at or below the tropopause, and in areas of strong cold
or warm air advection. Mountain waves create severe CAT
that may extend from the mountain crests to as high as 5,000
feet above the tropopause. Another form of CAT which may
be encountered at lower levels is wing tip vortices, which are
discussed in th e Ch apter Airmanship.
Since severe CAT does pose a hazard to aeroplanes, pilots
Fig.6.18 Jet Stream Position Relative to a Frontal System
should try to avoid or minimize encounters with it. These
The air in a jet rotates slowly around the core with the upward rules of thumb may h elp. Avoid jet streams with strong winds
motion on the equatorial edge. If the air is moist, cirrus clouds (150 knots) at the core. Strong wind shears are likely above and
will form in the ascending air. Their ragged, windswept below the core.
appearance is always an indication of very strong winds. CAT w ithin the jet stream is more intense above and to the lee
Sometimes quite dense cirrostratus clouds form in broad of mountain ranges.
bands over the ridge of the jet stream, following the flow of
If the 20 knot isotachs (lines joining areas of equal wind
the jet. They may be 10 to 12 thousand feet thick. The clouds
speeds) are closer than 60 nautical miles on the ch arts show-
taper off, sometimes quite sharply, at th e polar edge of the jet.
ing the locations of the jet stream, wind sh ear and CAT are
Dense, jet stream cirriform cloudiness is most prevalent along
possible.
mid-latitude and polar jets.
Turbulence is also related to vertical shear. If the wind speed
Like oth er weather phenomena, jet streams grow, shift, inten-
is increasing by more than 5 knots per thousand feet, turbu-
sify, decline and die. Since th ey do shift location rapidly from
lence is likely. Vertical shear is also related to temperature
day-to-day and with the seasons, their position can best be
gradient. If the 5°C isotherms on the upper level charts are
found with reference to specially constructed charts prepared
closer than 120 nautical miles (2 degrees of latitude), there is
by weathermen. Knowing the location of the jet stream is
usually turbulence.
important in planning long range flights at high altitudes. For
obvious reasons, on a flight eastbound, a pilot would want Wind shift areas associated with pressure troughs are fre -
to take advantage of the excellent tail winds the jet stream quently turbulent. The sharpness of the wind shift affects the
would provide, whereas on the flight westbound, he/she degree of turbulence.
would want to avoid it. Curving jet streams are likely to have turbulent edges, espe-
cially those that curve around a deep pressure trough.
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) When moderate or severe CAT has been reported or is
Closely associated with the jet stream is clear air turbulence forecast, adjust speed to rough airspeed immediately on
(CAT}, a bumpy, turbulent condition that occurs in cloudless
sky and can be severe enough to be a hazard to modern high

From the Ground Up" 30th Ed ition

Aviation Weather: Humidity, Temperature & Stability

encountering the first bumpiness or even before encountering droplets while remaining at the same temperature, energy is
it to avoid structural damage to the aeroplane. released to the atmosphere in the form of heat. This heat is
The areas of CAT are usually shallow and narrow and elongat- known as the latent heat of vaporization. In the reverse pro-
ed with the wind. If jet stream turbulence is encountered with cess, heat is absorbed when liquid evaporates to its invisible
a tailwind or headwind, a turn to the right will find smoother state at the same temperature.
air and more favourable winds. If the CAT is encountered in Melting and freezing involve the exchange of the latent heat
a crosswind, it is not so important to change course as the of fusion . In the process of deposition, the change directly
rough area will be narrow. from water vapour to ice crystals, the release of energy in the
Establish a course across a sharp pressure trough line rather form of heat is equal to the latent heat of vaporization plus the
than parallel to it if turbulence is encountered in an abrupt latent heat of fusion.
wind shift associated with the trough. Proof of the energy inherent in latent heat is seen in the
Mountain waves produce intense vertical and horizontal wind thunderstorm and in the hurricane. The tremendous power
shear. If the flight path crosses a mountain range where a of these two weather phenomena is derived from the energy
mountain wave condition may exist, select turbulence pene- released in the form of the latent heat of vaporization and of
tration speed and avoid areas where the terrain drops sharply. fusion as the water vapour changes to water droplets and to
ice crystals. These violent forms of weather customarily occur
in very warm, moist air since more energy is released during

6.s Humidity, Temperature condensation and deposition at warmer temperatures than at

cooler ones.

& Stability The process of condensation or deposition cannot take place

unless there are microscopic particles present in the air on
which the water vapour can condense. The atmosphere con-
6.s.1 Humidity tains a vast quantity of impurities , such as fine dust from
deserts, smoke from industrial regions, salts from the oceans,
Of all the elements which compose the lower atmosphere,
and seeds, pollen, etc. Since these originate from the earth,
water vapour is the most variable. Although it forms but a
they exist only in the lower layers of the atmosphere. They act
small proportion of the total mass of air at any time, its effects
as condensation nuclei on which the condensation of water
from a flying point of view are of great importance. It is the
vapour takes place when air is cooled below its saturation
only gas which can change into a liquid or a solid under ordi-
temperature (dewpoint).
nary atmospheric conditions and it is because of this charac-
teristic that most of the "weather" develops.
Supercooled Water Droplets
The moisture in the atmosphere originates principally from
One would expect that visible water droplets in the air would
evaporation from the earth's water bodies (oceans, lakes,
freeze as soon as the ambient temperature drops to 0°C. In
rivers, etc.) and from transpiration from the earth's vegeta-
fact, liquid water droplets often persist at temperatures well
tion. It exists in the atmosphere in two forms. In its invisible
below 0°C and are then referred to as supercooled.
form, it is water vapour. In its visible form, it is either water
droplets or ice crystals. The reason for the existence of liquid water droplets at tem-
peratures well below freezing is complicated. Briefly, it might
By a process called condensation, water vapour changes into
be said that the freezing process is initiated by the nuclei on
water droplets. By a process called deposition, water vapour
which the water droplets form. These nuclei are of different
changes directly into ice crystals. In its visible form, as
composition and because of their varying chemical character-
either water droplets or ice crystals, moisture forms clouds
istics, some of them do not initiate the freezing process until
and fog. Further developments within a cloud may lead to
quite low temperatures. The temperature at which a super-
precipitation.
cooled water droplet freezes also depends on its size. Large
The amount of water vapour that a given volume of air can droplets freeze at temperatures only slightly below freezing
contain is governed by its temperature. Warm air can hold whereas very minute droplets may remain in liquid form until
more moisture than cold air. When a mass of air contains the temperature nears -40°C. Below -40°C, very few, if any,
the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold at a given supercooled droplets exist. Supercooled water droplets are
temperature, it is said to be saturated. If the temperature often found in abundance in clouds at temperatures between
falls any lower after the air is saturated, some of the invisible 0°C and -15°C.
water vapour will condense out in the form of visible water
droplets . By this process of condensation, clouds, fog and dew Dewpoint
are formed.
The temperature to which unsaturated air must be cooled at
If the temperature is below freezing when the saturation constant pressure to become saturated (without the addition
occurs, the water vapour changes directly into ice crystals or removal of any water vapour) is called the dewpoint.
without passing through the visible water droplet stage. This
When the spread between the temperature and dewpoint is
process is deposition .
very small, the air can be said to be nearly saturated and a
The reverse of deposition is sublimation: if the visible water slight drop in temperature may cause condensation in the
droplets or ice crystals are heated, they will turn back into form of clouds, fog, or precipitation.
the invisible gas, water vapour. Therefore, if fog or clouds are
heated, they will disappear. Relative Humidity
Any change of state, even though there is no change of tem- The relative humidity is the ratio of the actual water vapour
perature, involves a heat transaction. During the process present in the air to the amount which the same volume of
of condensation, as water vapour changes to visible water air would hold if it were saturated (at the same atmospheric

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 Aviation Weather: Humidity, Temperature & Stability

pressure and temperature). Saturated air has 100% relative Seasonal Variation is the result of the axis of the earth's
humidity. Completely dry air has 0% relative humidity. tilt to the plane of its orbit. Th e angle at which the solar
When a given mass of air is heated and no new water vapour radiation strikes the earth varies from season to season. The
Northern Hemisph ere receives more solar energy in June,
is added, the relative humidity of air decreases. If the mass of
July and August and is therefore warmer and receives less in
air is cooled, the relative humidity increases. If cooling con-
December, January and February and is therefore cooler.
tinues long enough, the relative humidity will reach 100% and
the air will be satu rated. Latitude has an effect because the sun is more directly
Hence, the smaller the spread between temperature and dew- overhead in equatorial regions than at higher latitudes. The
point, the higher will be the relative humidity. tropics consequently receive the most radiant energy and are
warmer than the polar regions where the slanting rays of the
Fog or low clouds are likely to form when the temperature is sun deliver less energy over a given area.
within 2°C of the dewpoint.
Topography has an effect because land surfaces absorb more
Absolute humidity expresses the weight of water vapour per solar radiation than do water surfaces and radiate it more
unit volume of air. It is usually stated in grains of water vapour readily. Land surfaces therefore warm up more rapidly during
per cubic foot of air. (A grain is 1/7,000th part of a pound.) the day and cool more rapidly at night. All land surfaces do
not, however, absorb radiation at a uniform rate. There is great
Dew &Frost variation in radiation absorption by varying types of land sur-
On clear, still nights, vegetation often cools by radiation to a face. Wet soil (as found in swamps and marshes) is almost as
temperature below the dewpoint of the adjacent air. Moisture, effective as water in suppressing temperature changes. Heavy
known as dew, then collects on the leaves. vegetation acts as an insulation against heat transfer. The
greatest temperature changes occur over arid, barren surfaces
Frost forms in the same way, when the dewpoint is colder
such as deserts and rocky plains.
than freezing. Through the process of deposition, ice crystals
will form and adhere to any object (such as a metal aeroplane) Some of the solar radiation is reflected back out to space by
which has lost sufficient heat by radiation cooling to be cooler the earth's surface and is not absorbed at all. Some of this
than the dewpoint. Sometimes dew forms and later freezes. reflection is due to the angle at which the radiation strikes
Frozen dew is hard and transparent. Frost, however, is white the surface but the principal cause of reflection is the type of
and opaque. surface. A snow surface, for example, can reflect 90% of the
radiation.
6.s.2 Temperature Clouds greatly affect the rate of radiation. A layer of clouds
w ill reflect a h igh percentage of the incoming solar radiation
The source of energy which warms the earth's surface and
back out to space, drastically reducing the amount of energy
its atmosphere is the su n . The method by which the heat is
reaching the earth to warm it. On a cloudy night, the clouds
transferred from the sun to the earth is known as solar radia-
absorb the outgoing terrestrial radiation and radiate a consid-
tion. Radiation itself is not heat. The temperature of a body is
erable part of it back to earth, hindering the escape of heat.
affected only if it can absorb radiation.
Some of the solar radiation that reaches earth is absorbed
in the stratosphere and the ionosphere but the rest passes
How the Atmosphere is Heated
The lower layers of the atmosphere are heated by radiation,
through the lower portions of the troposphere and is absorbed
as we have learned, and to some small degree by conduction.
by the earth. The earth, in turn, radiates energy back into
Air is, however, a poor conductor of heat and thus conduction
the atmosphere. This outgoing radiation is known as ter-
plays only a small role. The heat is distributed to the higher
restrial radiation. On a world wide basis, the average heat
layers of the troposphere by several processes.
gained through incoming solar radiation is equal to the heat
lost through terrestrial radiation in order to keep the earth 1. Convection. The air over a very warm surface
from getting progressively hotter or cooler. However, regional becomes buoyant and rises rapidly through the atmo-
and local imbalances between solar and terrestrial radiation sphere. A compensating flow of cold air descends to
cause temperature variations that have great significance in take its place. A vertical circulation is thereby created
weather formation. that distributes the heating through the upper layers.
Some of the outgoing terrestrial radiation is absorbed by the 2. Advection. A flow of air that moves from a cold area
lower levels of the atmosphere. The rest passes out into space. over a warm area will be heated in its lowest layers by
The lower levels of the atmosphere are therefore not heated the warm earth over which it is flowing. Warming of
directly by the sun. The sun heats the earth and the earth the air in this m anner is known as advection heating.
heats the atmosphere. This fact is of the greatest importance 3. Turbulence. Mechanical turbulence which
in an understanding of weather. The atmosphere is heated is the result of friction between the air and
from below and not from above. the ground causes a mixing process that
The amount of solar energy received by any region varies spreads the surface heat into the air aloft.
with time of day, with seasons, with latitude and with surface 4. Compression . There are some weather systems which
topography. Temperatures can, therefore, vary widely. are favourable for the development of sinking air.
Diurnal Variation occurs during the day when solar radia- This occurs in anticyclonic pressure systems or in air
tion exceeds terrestrial radiation and the surface of the earth flowing down the side of a mountain range. As the
becomes warmer. At night, solar radiation ceases but terres- air descends, it reaches regions of increased atmo-
trial radiation continues and cools the surface. Warming and spheric pressure and is compressed and its tempera-
cooling of the atmosphere occur as a result of this diurnal ture rises. This phenomenon is called subsidence.
imbalance.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Humidity, Temperature & Stability

based on the lapse rate of ICAO Standard Air which is defined

Temperature Scales as 1.98°C per thousand feet . It is this figure which is univer-
The scales commonly used in meteorology to measure the sally used in the calibration of altimeters .
temperature are the Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Absolute {Kelvin)
Scales. The Celsius scale is used in Canada for all m eteorologi- This lapse rate, however, can really be only a theoretical
cal temperature readings. In the U.S., the Fahrenheit scale is figure. In practice, it seldom exists since there are such wide
most commonly use d. variations in air masses and the cooling process. Sometimes,
th e temperatu re rem ains unch an ged through several thou-
c. F. sand feet. Sometimes, the temperatu re will rise w ith height.
100 212 373 (See Inversions and Isothermal Layers below.)
w The atmosphere is cooled by several processes. At n ight,
I-
:> solar radiation ceases but terrestrial radiation continues. The
...J
0 temperature of the earth, therefore, gradually decreases. Air
en in contact with the cooling earth will in turn be cooled. This
ID
< cooling process is known as radiation cooling. It rarely affects
more than the lower few thousand feet of the atmosphere.
0 32 273 Radiation cooling w ill be reduced if a blanket of clouds is pres-
ent. The clouds absorb the terrestrial radiation and refl ect it
back to earth, slowing down the rate at which the earth cools.
Fig . 6.20 Temperature Scales If th e circulation is such that air from a warm region moves
over a colder region, the air w ill be cooled. Cooling due to this
The Celsius scale has a freezing point of 0° and a boilin g point process is known as advection cooling.
of 100°.
The most important cooling process in the atmosphere is
The Fahrenheit scale has a freezing point of 32° and a boiUng cooling resulting from expansion as air is forced to rise. As a
point of 212°. parcel of air rises, it encounters lower pressure and expands.
The Kelvin scale assumes an absolute zero of -273.15°C. The As it expands, the temperature of the air decreas es. In a
absolute temperature can be found by adding 273.15 to the rising current of air, the temperature decreases at a rate that
Celsius temperature. is entirely independent of the lapse rate in the surrounding
non-rising air. Such a temperature change results from the
For Example: +10°C = 283.15° Absolute ad iabatic process, the word adiabatic meanin g that the tem-
-10°C = 263.15° Absolute. perature change takes place w ithout adding or taking away
To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, or Fahrenheit to Celsius , use heat from ou tside the parcel of air. Conversely, if a parcel of air
th e following formulae: should sink, it will be compressed by the increasin g pre ssure
and its temperature w ill rise (adiabatic heating).
To Obtain Degrees F 9/5 c + 32
To Obtain Degrees C 5/ 9 (F - 32) ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES
Saturated air cools by expansion at a different rate than does
For Ex ample: 20°F = 5 I 9 {20 - 32) = -6.7°C. unsaturated air. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is considered to
20°C = (9 I 5 x 20) + 32 = 68°F. be 3°C per 1,000 feet .
Fig. 6.21 How to Convert between Celsius & Fahrenheit If a pa rcel of air rises and cools until the temperature reaches
the dewpoint, condensation will occur, since the air has now
Nine degrees on the Fah renheit scale equal five degrees on the
becom e saturated. The change of water vapour to water drop -
Celsius scale. Do not, however, interpret this to m ean th at 9°F
lets involves a h eat transaction, the latent heat of vaporiza-
equals 5°C (9°F equals -12.8°C).
tion, wh ich causes the air to cool at a slower rate than that
at which unsaturated air cools. The satu rated adiabatic lapse
Isotherms rate is about 1.5°C per 1,000 feet. The saturated adiabatic lapse
On meteorological maps, lines joining places of equal tem- rate, however, shows considerable variation because it is
perature are known as isotherms . dependent on the rate at which the water vapour is condens-
ing and the figure of 1.5°C must be regarded as an average
Density & Temperature value only. In actuality, the saturated adiabatic lapse rate can
The density of air means its mass per u nit of volume. Cold air vary from 1°C to almost 3°C.
is dense because the molecules which compose it are moving If saturated air aloft begins to sink, it w ill be compressed and
relatively slowly and are packed closely together. Warm air its temperature will rise. As it warms, it becomes unsaturated
is less dense because the molecules which compose it m ove and w ill h eat at th e dry adiabatic lapse rate. Adiabatic heating
about rapidly. Hence, they take up more space and there are of air flowing down the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains
fewer molecules in a given volume. Since cold air is denser, it produces the warm, dry Chinook wind.
is therefore heavier and tends to sink due to the forc e of grav-
Understanding and applying the adiabatic lapse rate is impor-
ity. Warm air, being lighter, is pushed up by the denser cold
tant to you as a pilot. Knowing surface temperature and
air and tends to rise.
dewpoint, you are able to determine at what altitude you
might expect the bases of the clouds to be. You are also able
How the Atmosphere is Cooled to determine at what altitude you might expect to encounter
Since the atmosphere is heated from below, the temperature icing conditions. You are able to calculate the temperature at
usually decreases w ith height through the troposphere. The various altitudes .
rate of decrease with height is called the lapse rate. The aver-
age lapse rate is about 2°C per thousand fee t . This figure is

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 Aviation Weather: Humidity, Temperature & Stability

Let us consider the following situation. The surface tempera- a frontal surface (see Fronts below), is another cause of an
ture is 1S°C and the dewpoint is S°C. The surface elevation is inversion.
1,SOO feet. At what height might the bases of the convective The intensity of an inversion is weak during windy conditions,
type clouds be expected to be? We know th at the temperature under a cloud cover and in maritime areas and it is strong
in a rising column of unsaturated air decreases 3°C per 1,000 under calm conditions and in valleys. A ground based inver-
feet. The calculation to find the answer to this problem is not sion favours poor visibility by trapping fog, smoke and other
a simple case of determining the spread between the surface obstructions in the lower levels of the atmosphere.
temperature and the dewpoint and dividing that figure by
3. The fact is that the dewpoint also falls as the column of
unsaturated air rises. It decreases at a rate of about O.S°C per 6.5.3 Stability
1,000 feet. Therefore, in a rising column of unsaturated air, The normal flow of air tends to be horizontal. But distur-
temperature and dewp oint converge at a rate of about (3°C less ba nces m ay cau se vertical updrafts or downdrafts to develop.
0.5°C) 2.5°C per 1,000 fee t. In this problem, the spread between Air th at will resis t upward or downward displacem ent and
temperature and dewpoint on the sur face is 10°. Ten divided tends to return to its original horizontal level is said to be
by 2.S is 4. The bases of the clouds can be expe cted to be at a stable. Air which tends to move further away when disturbed
height of approximately 4,000 feet AGL or 5,SOO feet ASL. The is unstable. The vertical currents associated with an unstable
dewpoint temperature at this altitude would be 3°C. condition may cause turbulence and, if intensive enough,
A quicker method by which to calculate the bases of cumulus thunder shower activity.
clouds is to determine the spread between temperature and When air rises, it expands and cools adiabatically. If a mass
dewpoint and multiply by 400. of rising air (cooling by expansion) is still warmer than the air
At what height might icing conditions be encountered in the surrounding it, it is considered to be unstable. If disturbed, it
cloud? In saturated rising air, the lapse rate averages about will tend to rise further.
1.5°C per 1,000 feet. The base of the cloud is at 5,500 feet ASL If a mass of rising air is cooler than the air around it, it is
at a temperature of 3°C. The spread between the dewpoint and considered to be stable. If disturbed, it will tend to sink back
freezing is 3°C. Three divided by 1.5 is 2. The freezing level, to its original level.
therefore, could be expected at about 2,000 feet above the The lapse rate in the part of the air which is not rising is one·of
bases of the clouds, or at 7,500 feet ASL.
the most important factors which determines the stability of
What is the temp erature at 10,000 feet ASL? The temperature air. If the lapse rate is steep, there is colder air aloft which will
at 5,500 feet is 3°C. For the remaining 4,500 feet, the temp era- tend to sink to the surface if the air is disturbed and the warm
ture decreases 1.5°C per 1,000 feet, giving a cooling of 4.5 x 1.5 air of the lower levels w ill rise. If the lapse rate is shallow so
or 6.6°. The temperature at 10,000 feet would, therefore, be 3° that there is only a slight temperature decrease with height
less approximately 7°, or -4°C . or if there is warmer air on top, there will be no tendency for
It must be remembered that the temperature within a rising vertical motion to develop.
column of air is quite different than the temperature in the The relationship between lapse rate and stability, therefore,
surrounding non-rising air. depends on the steepness of the lapse rate. Unstable air is
The foregoing discussion of lapse rates m ay leave the impres- indicated by a steep lapse rate; st able air by a shallow lapse
sion that lapse rates are constant. In fac t, they are not but vary rate , an isothermal layer or an inversion . It follow s , also, that
considerably around the stated averages . Many fa ctors , such any modification of the lapse rate results in modification of
as moisture content of the air, stability, decrease in lapse rate stability. If the lapse rate becom es steeper, the air becom es
with height, decrease in dewpoint with h eight will affec t the more unstable. If the lapse rate becomes less steep, the air
rate at which temp erature decreases with height. becomes m ore stable.

Inversions & Isothermal Layers Unstable

Normally, the temperature of the atmosphere decreases with
height. However, this is not invariably the case. Sometimes,
Warmer Cooler
w armer air may be found at higher altitude. Such a reversal
of norm al conditions is known as an inversion if the tem -
perature is actually increasing with height. In an isoth ermal Stable
layer, the temperature rem ains const ant throughout a layer
of some depth.
Inversions and isothermal layers can occur on a clear, still
night when the cold ground cools the air above it in the lower
levels. The temperature at the top of an inversion so formed
may be 1S 0 to 20°C warmer than the temperature at the sur-
Fig .6.22 Stable & Unstable Air
face. If there is a wind, the turbulence will mix the air in the
lower few thousand feet of the atmosphere and distribute the A lapse rate can be steepened by increasing the lower level
cooling effect. In this case, the inversion will be much weaker temperature (as happens with daytime heating of the earth)
or the temperature may be so uniform as to produce an iso- or by decreasing the temperature aloft. It can be made more
thermal layer. shallow by decreasing the temperature in the lower levels (as
Inversions may also occur as cold air, which is denser than happens with nighttime cooling of the earth) or by increasing
warm air, flows into a low lying area such as a valley and the temperature aloft (as in an inversion).
becomes trapped there. Warm air, lifted above colder air over

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Air Ma sses

Since the lapse rate is seldom uniform with height, there is will remain invisible as long as the humidity of
considerable variation in the degree of stability or instability. the surrounding air has not reached its saturation
In some situations, the rising currents may reach 20,000 feet point. Warm air can contain much more invisible
or more; in other situations, the rising air will rise only a few water vapour than can cold air before it becomes
thousand feet. It is possible for air to be stable near the surface saturated. In the extreme low temperatures encoun-
and unstable aloft, but more commonly, it is unstable in the tered at very high altitudes, the cold air is incapable
lower few thousand feet and stable aloft. of absorbing the excess water vapour coming out
So far, we have considered masses, or parcels, of air which of the exhaust. The water vapour therefore con-
have, for any reason, been di splaced upwards. If a layer of air denses into a visible cloud of water droplets or
becomes warmer in the lower levels or cooler in the upper ice crystals. This is known as an exhaust trail.
levels, it will have a steep temperature lapse rate. It will there- 2. Wing Tip Trails. As we learned in Theory of Flight
fore become unstable. A layer of air which has a small tem- (Drag), vortices, in the form of eddies rotating with a
perature lapse rate will be stable. There will be little tendency corkscrew motion, are formed off the tips of an aero-
for vertical currents to develop. plane wing in flight. These rapidly rotating vortices
have considerable centrifugal force acting outwards,
Flight Characteristics
which causes a rarefaction and therefore an expan-
Weather Element Jn Stable Air In Unstable Air
sion of the air in the middle of the vortex. Air, which
Poor low level visibil- Good visibility (except
Visibility
ity (fog may occur) in precipitation) expands, cools. If the vortex is strong enough and
Cloud Type Stratus Cumu lus or Cumulonimbus
the humidity of the air high enough, this cooling will
Precipitation Steady Showery
cause condensation. The white cloud-like trails which
Steady which can chang e
form off the wing tips are known as wing tip trails.
Winds Gusty
markedly with altitude
The creation of a super-saturated plume capable of generating
Turbulence Smooth flying conditi ons Moderate to severe
a contrail depends on the quantity of water vapour, as well
as the plume's temperature and pressure. These are linked to
Fig .6.23 Flight Characteristics in Stable & Unstable Air
engine speed, aircraft aerodynamics and altitude.
Also, the presence of condensation nuclei, which are primar-
Lifting Agents ily linked to engine emissions, influence contrail formation.
There are five principal conditions that provide the lift to initi- Soot produced by combustion, most of which are made of pure
ate rising currents of air. carbon or hydrocarbons, can provide nuclei. Other aerosols
1. Convec tion . The air is heated through contact with that may form nuclei include natural ones (such as mineral
the earth's surface. The rising columns are usu- dust coming from desert regions) and anthropogenic ones
ally local and separated by areas of sinking air. (such as sulfates from sulfur dioxide).
They result from unequal heating of different types
of land surface and especially from the different
surface temperatures of land and water areas. 6.6 Air Masses
2. Orographic Lift. Air moving up a sloping ter-
In the past, the weatherman based predictions of the weather
rain, such as a mountainside, will continue its
mainly upon the existence and movement of high and low
upward movement, especially if it is unstable.
pressure areas and the wind and weather systems which are
3. Frontal Lift. When different air masses meet, associated with them. Today, the whole system of weather
warm air is forced aloft by the advancing or forecasting is based upon the properties of air masses (of which
rec eding wedge of cold air. (See Fronts below.) pressure is only one factor), the changes which occur as an air
4. Mech anical Turbulence. Friction between the air mass moves away from its source, and the weather phenomena
and the ground disrupts the lower levels of the which can be predicted along the front where two air masses of
air into a series of eddies . These eddies are usu- different properties come in contact.
ally confined to the lower few thousand feet of An air mass may be defined as a large section of the tropo-
the atmosphere but may extend higher if the sphere with uniform properties of temperature and moisture
air is unstable and surface winds are strong. in the horizontal. An air mass may be several thousands of
miles across.
5. Convergence. In a low pressure area, the
winds blow across the isobars into the centre It takes on its original properties from the surface over which
of the low. Air accumulates in the centre of it has formed. An air mass which has formed over the ice and
the low and the excess air is forced to rise. snow surfaces of the Arctic would be cold and dry. An air mass
that has formed over the South Pacific would be warm and
moist.
6.5.4 Vapour Trails (Contrails)
An air mass which has formed over a large body of water and
The white vapour, or condensation, trails (contrails) you see
is therefore moist is referred to as maritime air. One which
high up in the blue behind jet aeroplanes owe their origin to
originates over a large land area and is therefore dry is referred
two different causes. to as continental air.
1. Exhaust Trails. When, in the combustion process, The three main sources of the air masses of North America are:
the hydrogen and carbon in aviation fuel are burned, (1) The Arctic Region, which extends from the north pole south
the exhaust is composed of a colourless gas, which to the permafrost line. (2) The Polar Region, which extends
is a product of the burned carbon, and water vapour,
which is a product of the burned hydrogen. Both of
these by-products are invisible. The water vapour

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 Aviation Weather: Air Masses

south from the permafrost line to where the mean temperature

is 10°C. (3) The Tropical Region, which lies below Latitude 30°N. 6.6.2 Modification of Air Masses
The principal air masses of North America are as follows: Although the characteristics of an air mass are determined by
the area over which it forms, as an air mass moves away from
1. Continental Arctic (cA) and Continental Polar (cP). its source area it is modified by conditions over which it passes.
Cold dry air masses which originate over the intensely If the modification is extensive both horizontally and vertically,
cold ice and snow covered surface of the far north the air mass is given a new name. Continental Arctic air, for
and bring a cold wave when they move south. example, by moving out over the oceans, becomes moist and
2. Maritime Arctic (mA) and Maritime Polar (mP). These may be renamed Maritime Polar or Maritime Arctic.
are cold air masses which form over the Arctic
Temperatures may vary considerably within an air mass as the
and acquire moisture as they move south over the air is warmed while passing over relatively warm surfaces and
cold waters of the North Atlantic and North Pacific cooled while passing over relatively cool surfaces.
oceans. The Maritime Polar air mass is air which
has moved farther out and over the ocean and, Moisture content may also vary. The air mass will pick up mois-
through contact with the ocean surface, has become ture as it passes over lakes, wet ground or melting snow. Moist
more warm and moist than Maritime Arctic air. air passing over a mountain range may lose a great deal of
moisture as precipitation as it ascends the western slope of the
3. Maritime Tropical (mT). Because the continent of range. The air will be much drier when it reaches the prairies.
North America narrows down towards its southern
extremity, most of the tropical air in the southern Stability characteristics also may vary considerably. Air warm-
latitudes is in contact w ith the warm ocean sur- ing from below by radiation becomes unstable as convective
face and becomes hot and moist. Source regions for currents develop. Air that is cooled from below becomes more
Maritime Tropical air are: The Gulf of Mexico, the stable as vertical motion is blocked. Changes in stability alter
Caribbean Sea, and the Tropic of Cancer regions weather conditions quite considerably.
of the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. These variations in the properties of a particular air mass
In winter, the most common air masses that form over North during its life are not unusual. As a result, it is impossible to say
America are Maritime Polar, Maritime Arctic and Continental that a certain weather pattern will always occur in an air mass
Arctic. Continental Polar seldom appears over this continent. that is classified, for example, as Continental Arctic.
In most cases, Maritime Arctic and Maritime Polar air masses Nevertheless, it is possible to define in broad terms some typi-
found over the continent have entered from the west. Maritime cal characteristics of the particular air masses.
air masses found over the Atlantic Ocean affect only the east
coast. The air mass in the southern portion of the continent is Air Mass Characteristics
Maritime Tropical. forms over a region that is covered with ice and snow.
In summer, snow and ice melt, leaving numerous small lakes moi sture content is low.
in the northern reaches of Canada and Alaska. These lakes as it moves south, it is gradually heated. Strong
winds set up turbulence and, if it acquires moisture,
provide moisture that affects the forming air masses. In strato cumulu s cloud s with light snow will develop.
summer, therefore, Maritime Arctic is the principal air mass Continental if it moves over open water, such as t he Great Lakes,
and Continental Arctic rarely appears. Maritime Polar which Arctic (cA) it will be heated and acquire moisture. A steep
enters from the Pacific Ocean and Maritime Tropical are the lapse rate and acco mpanyin g in stability give rise to
cumulu s cloud s and snow showers. Eddying, gu sty
other common summer air masses. wind s ca use restricted visibility in blowing snow.
usually follow s a path from the po lar regio ns
6.6.1 Weather in an Air Mass across the prairies and into the eastern part of th e
co ntinent. It rarely affects the Pacifi c Coa st.
There are three main factors that determine the weather in form s over Siberia or Ala ska and t ravels across the
North Pac ific where it becomes moist and un sta ble.
an air mass - moisture content, the cooling process and the
stratocumulu s cloud s.
stability of the air.
when the ai r is lifted by coasta l mountain s,
Some air masses are very dry and little cloud develops. t hunder storms develop . Pre cipi tat ion occu rs in
the form of snow showers, snow and rai n.
Maritime air h as a high moisture content and cloud, precipita- Maritime
Arctic (mA) loses most of its moisture as precipitation on th e western
tion and fog can be expected. slopes of the Rockies and is dry when it rea ches the prairi es.
Even if the air is moist, condensation and cloud formation mA that deve lops ove r th e North Atlantic affe cts
only the east coast of North Am erica .
occur only if the temperature is lowered. The cooling processes
in summer, rnA develops in polar regions and moves
that contribute to condensation and the formation of clouds south over the lakes of the north ern part of the
are (1) contact with a surface cooling by radiation, (2) advection contin en t. Daytime heatin g makes the air un stable.
over a colder surface and (3) expansion brought about by lifting. reaches th e Pac ific Coast after a long journey over
It follows, therefore, that cloud formation within an air mass is t he ocea n. It is more exten sively modified t han
Maritime mA and the air mass is somewhat more stable.
not uniform. Clouds may form, for example, in an area where Polar (mP) orographic lift along the mountains produces
the air is undergoing orographic lift even though the rest of the extensive cloud formation and considerable rain. It
air mass is clear. is, therefore, drier when it reaches the prai ries.
forms over oceans and water bodies of the Tropics.
Stability of the air is of prime importance. In stable air, layer
very warm and moist.
cloud and poor visibility are common. Good visibility and
rarely penetrates north of the Great Lakes in
cumulus cloud are common in unstable air. Maritime winter, although it does frequently appear aloft.
Tropical (mT)
un sta ble when it is lifted at a front, giving snow,
freezing rain, rain, severe icing and turbu lence.
extensive fog often occu rs, especially on the east coast.

Fig.6.24 Types of Air Masses

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Fronts

Characteristics of Air Masses

Cold Air Mass Warm Air Mass
(when war med from below) (when cooled from below)
In sta bilit y Sta bi lity
Turbulence Smoot h Ai r
Good Vis ibility Poor Visibility
Cumuliform Clouds Stratiform Clouds and Fog
Showers, Hail, Thunderstorms Drizzle
Fig.6.25 Characteristics of Air Masses MT

6.7 Fronts Fig .6.27 Air Masses

The troposphere is m ade up of air m asses. The transition zone Development of a Frontal Depression
between two air mass es is called a front. The interaction of The air on the northern side (considering the Northern
th ese air masses, along their frontal zones, is responsible for Hemisphere) of this surface of separation is termed arctic and
weather changes. polar air. It is normally cold and dry. The air on the southern
side is termed tropical air. It is normally warm and moist.
Due to the difference in the properties of these two air
Tropical Air Tropical Air masses, the polar front is known as a surface of discontinu-
ity. Depressions form along this surface of discontinuity (the
polar front) and are the means whereby interchange takes
place between the warm and cold air masses.
Along the polar front, the cold polar air flows from the north-
east towards the south-west on the north side (Fig.6.28) while
the warm air flows from south-west towards the north-east
on the south side.

COLD

Fig.6.26 The Polar Front

6.7.1 Polar Front Theory

The present day theory, wh ich explains the form ation of
depressions or lows , w as developed by the Norwegians and
is known as the Polar Front Theory. It is based on the fa ct
WARM
that the polar regions are covered by a m ass of cold air and
the equ atorial regions by a m ass of w arm air. In the temper-
Fig. 6. 28
ate zone, the two air m asses m eet . Air m asses do not usually
mix. The transition zone between the two m asses is therefore The arran gem ent is not a stable one but is subj ect to con-
n arrow and is called a polar front. tinual disturbances due to the w arm air bulgin g north and
From the discu ssion of air m asses, it is evident th at the cold cold air bulging southward (Fig.6.29). This nor thward bulge,
air dome covering the polar region, in fac t, encloses two once h aving started, continu es to develop, the cold air on
other domes and that frontal system s will be found along the the northwa rd side swinging round at the back, setting up
zones separating them. Continental Arctic (cA) air m akes up a counterclockwise circulation and emphasizing the bulge.
the sm alles t and m os t northerly dome and its edge, the cA This bulge is the new depression (low pressu re area) just
front, is the most northerly frontal system to be found on the born . It norm ally travels northeastward along the polar front.
w eather map. A dome of Maritime Arctic (mA) air overlies the The polar front has now been bent or broken into two sec-
cA air and its edge lies somewhere between the Continental tions , the w arm front (A A A A A) and the cold front
Arctic front and the polar front. The front s are named for the (__,,;.__ ..J.... __,,;.__ ..J.... ..J.... ). This deform ation is called a front al
colder air m ass involved in the system . The sloping surface of wave (Fig.6.30).
each dome acts as a lifting surface fo r the warmer air mass
associated with it. Fig.6.27 illustrates in vertical cross section COLD
the four air masses and the three frontal surfaces separating
them.
A front, correctly defined, is the transition zone between two
air masses as it appears on the surface. The sloping side of the
cold air is called a frontal surface.
The dis cussion below deals with the development of frontal
waves and depressions along the polar front. Similar fro ntal WARM
waves and depressions occur along the Continental Arctic and
the Maritime Arctic fronts. Fig. 6.29

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 Aviation Weather: Front s

The area contained within the bulge of the polar front is the
w arm sector and contains the warm or tropical air, while the
rest of the area is composed of the polar air.

Fig.6 .33

Fig.6.30

The pressure at the peak of the frontal wave falls and the low
pressure area deepens. The surface winds become stronger
and the fronts begin to move. Both fronts are curved in the
direction toward which they are moving. The peak of the
wave is called the crest. At the cold front, the cold flow of air
from the northwest is undercutting the warm southwesterly
flow. At the warm front, the southwesterly flow of warm air is
overrunning the retreating flow of cold air. At the same time,
the entire system in the immediate future is moving over Fig . 6. 34
the ground in a direction parallel to the isobars in the warm
A cold front is that part (or parts) of a frontal system along
sector (see Fig.6.40, isobars in the warm sector). The wave is
which cold air is advancing and is coloured blue on the
rotating about the centre.
weather map.
A warm front is that part (or parts) of a frontal system along
which cold air is retreating and is coloured red on the weather
map.

6.7.2 Types of Front

The Warm Front
As a mass of warm air advances on a retreating mass of cold
air, the warm air, being lighter, ascends over the cold air in a
long gentle slope.
Fig.6.31
Warm air stable
The cold front moves faster than the warm front (Fig.6.31)
and soon catches up with it. The two fronts merge caus-
ing an occluded front, or occlusion (A .;... A .;... A )
(Fig.6.32). As the occlusion increases in dimension, the
Cold air
low pressure area weakens and the movement of the
fronts slows down. Sometimes a new frontal wave may
begin to form on the westward portion of the polar front
(Fig.6.33). In the fin al stage, the two fronts h ave become
Fig.6. 35 A Warm Front with Ove rrunning Warm, Stable Air
a single stationary front again (..-,, y ..-,, y ..-. ).
The low pressure area h as virtually disappeared (Fig.6.34). As a result, the cloud formation associated with the warm
frontal system may extend for 500 or more nautical miles in
advance of it. Warm fronts usually move at relatively slow
speeds and therefore affect a vast area for a considerable
length of time.
If the warm air is moist and stable, stratiform clouds develop
in a distinctive sequence. The first signs of an approaching
warm front are high cirrus clouds which thicken to cirrostra-
tus and altostratus as the warm front approaches. The ceiling
gradually falls and there follows a long belt of steady rain
falling from heavy nimbostratus cloud. Precipitation may lead
the frontal surface by as much as 250 nautical miles.
Fig.6. 32
If the warm air is moist and somewhat unstable, cumulonim-
bus and thunderstorms may be embedded in the stratiform
layers.

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Fronts

and eventually dissipate. Sometimes, however, after several

days, it will begin to move and then it becomes either a warm
front or a cold front.

The Occluded Front

With the progress of time, as a depression advances, the cold
front gradually overtakes the warm front and lifts the warm
sector entirely from the ground. It is simply a case of the cold
air catching up with itself as it flows around the depression.
Thus only one front remains which is called an occluded front
Fig.6.36 A Warm Front with Overunning Warm , Unstable Air
or occlusion. An occluded depression soon commences to fill
Heavy showers in advance of the surface front can then be up and die away.
expected.
Very low stratus and fog throughout the frontal zone are typi-
cal characteristics of warm fronts.
Cool air
The passing of the warm front is marked by a rise of tempera-
ture, due to the entry of the warm air, and the sky becomes
relatively clear.

The Cold Front

When a mass of cold air overtakes a mass of warm air, the Fig.6.38 A Warm Front Occlusion Lifting
Warm , Moist, Unstable Air
cold air being denser stays on the surface and undercuts
the warm air violently. Surface friction tends to slow down The cold air, in the distance it has travelled, may have under-
the surface air while the upper air, not being subject to the gone considerable change. Therefore it may not be as cold
friction, retains its speed and tends to catch up. As a result, as the air it is overtaking. In this case (cool air advancing on
the slope of the advancing cold front is quite steep. The rapid colder air), the front is known as an occluded warm front or a
ascent of the warm air gives rise to cumuliform cloud. The warm occlu sion and has the characteristics of a warm front,
width of cloud cover is usually relatively narrow, only about with low cloud and continuous rain and drizzle. If the warm
50 nautical miles (Fig.6.37). Precipitation in the form of rain, air is unstable, heavy cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud may
snow or hail will be of the showery type and quite heavy. The be embedded in the stratiform cloud bank (Fig. 6.38).
cumuliform clouds that form at the frontal surface frequently
If the cold air is colder than the air it is overtaking (cold air
build up into thunderstorms creating some of the most violent
advancing on cool air), the front is known as an occluded cold
weather a pilot may encounter. Sometimes, a continuous line
front or a cold occlusion. A cold occlusion has much the same
of thunderstorms (a squall line) will develop ahead of a par-
characteristics as a warm front, with low cloud and continu-
ticularly fast moving cold front.
ous rain (Fig.6.39). If the warm air is unstable, cumulonimbus
and thunderstorms are likely to occur, with the violent tur-
Warm air bulence, lightning and icing conditions associated with these
clouds.
Cold air
It will be noted that, in the case of either a warm or cold occlu-
sion, three air masses are present, a cool air mass advancing
on a cold air mass, or a cold air mass advancing on a cool
air mass, with, in either case, a warm air mass lying wedge
shaped over the colder air. This wedge shaped mass of warm
Fig.6.37 A Cold Front Undercutting Warm, Moist, Unstable Air air is known as a trowal in Canada. (In some other countries,
it is called an upper front .)
A sharp fall in temperature, a rise in pressure and rapid clear-
ing usually occur with the passage of the cold front.
Sometimes, an advancing cold front will be relatively slow
moving. Because it does not undercut the warm air so vio-
lently, a rather broad band of clouds develops extending a fair Cold air
distance behind the frontal surface. If the warm air is stable,
these clouds will be stratiform; if the warm air is unstable,
they are cumuliform and possibly thunderstorms. With pas-
sage of the frontal surface, clearing is more gradual.
Fig.6.39 A Cold Front Occlusion Lifting Warm, Moist, Unstable Air
The Stationary Front
There is generally some part of a front along which the colder
air is neither advancing nor retreating. There is no motion to
The Upper Front
In Canada, the term upper front refers to a non-occlusion situ-
cause the front to move because the opposing air masses are
ation. Sometimes, cold air advancing across the country may
of equal pressure. The surface wind tends to blow parallel
encounter a shallow layer of colder air resting on the surface
to the front and the weather conditions are similar to those
or trapped in a topographical depression. The advancing cold
associated with a warm front although generally less intense
air rides up over the colder, h eavier air. The cold front which
and not so extensive. Usually a stationary front will weaken

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 Aviation Weather: Fronts

is the leading edge of the advancing cold air leaves the ground
and moves along the top of the colder air. It is then known as
an upper cold front.
Sometimes, the structure of the advancing cold front is such
that the cold air forms a shallow layer for some distance along
the ground in advance of the main body of cold air. The fron-
tal surface of the main mass of cold air, in this situation, will
usually be very steep. The line along which the frontal surface
steepens is also known as an upper cold front.
On occasion, an advancing warm front rides up over a pool
or layer of cold air trapped on the ground. A station on the
ground does not experience a ch ange of air mass because the
front passes overhead. This is known as an upper warm front.
Sometimes, the surface of the cold air that is retreating ahead
of an advancing warm front is almost flat for some distance Fig . 6.40 Development of a Depression Showing Isobars
ahead of the surface front and then steepens abruptly. The
The isobars are bent into the form of a "V" or "trough" at both the
line along which the surface of the retreating cold air steepens
warm and cold fronts.
sharply is also called an upper warm front.
Frontogenesis means a front which is increasing in intensity.
6.7.3 Frontal Weather Frontolysis means a front which is decreasing in intensity.
The theory of the polar front, which for the sake of simplic- If you examine the diagrams showing fronts on a weather
ity has been described in the form of its original conception, map, you will notice that all fronts lie in regions of lower pres-
might leave the impression that depres sions form only along sure. The isobars are bent sharply at a front. These two factors
some well defined line lying somewhere midway between the are characteristic of all fronts.
poles and the equator. Air masses are in a constant state of
formation over all the land and water areas of the world. Once Weather at the Cold Front
formed, they tend to move away from the source regions over
Cold fronts are not all the same. The weather associated
which they form. The same frontal processes and phenomena
with a cold front may vary from a minor windshift to severe
occur whenever a mass of warm air and a mass of cold air
thunderstorms, low ceilings, restricted visibility and violent
come in contact.
gusty winds. The severity of the weather is determined by the
There is a widespread impression among pilots that fronts moisture content and stability of the warm air mass that the
always bring bad weather and that all bad weather is frontal. cold air mass is undercutting and the speed of the advancing
Actually some fronts have little or no weather associated with cold front.
them. A slight ch ange of temperature and a windshift may
Fast moving cold fronts may travel across the country with a
be the only evidence that the front h as gone through . And,
speed of 30 knots or more. If the w arm air th at is being under-
of course, bad weather can develop without the passage of a
cu t by the cold air m ass is very moist and unstable, towering
front. Fog, for example, generally occurs when no fronts are
cumulus clouds and thunderstorms are likely to develop.
present and severe thunderstorms may develop in an air mass
Heavy rain or hail m ay be associated with the front. A slower
which has no frontal ch aracteristics.
moving cold front advancing on more stable and drier air in
Another common misconception is that the front is a thin the warm sector will produce less severe weather conditions,
wall of weather. This false idea is perhaps occasioned by the stratus or altocumulus clouds with light or no precipitation.
line that indicates a front on a weather map. The line on the
A long line of cumulus clouds on the western horizon is usu-
map only shows the surface location at which the pressure
ally an indication of an approaching cold front. Sometimes
ch ange, windshift and temperature ch ange occur. The actual
a deck of altocumulus cloud or decks of stratus and strato -
weather associated with the front may extend over an area
cu mulus extending ahead of the front will mask the main
many miles in width, both well ahead and also for many miles
frontal cloud from the view of the h igh flying or low flying
behind the actu al line on the weather map.
pilot respectively.
A front itself is actually a transition zone between two large
air m asses w ith different properties of temperature and mois- WEATHER CHANGES
ture. Each individual air mass may extend over hundreds of The weather ch anges that may be observed at the cold front
thousands of square miles. Everywhere along the boundary of are:
an air mass, where it overrides or undercuts the air mass upon 1. Windshift. The wind direction will always
which it is advancing, and for a considerable height upward veer as the front passes. Gustiness may
from the surface as well, there is a frontal zone. The frontal be associated with the windshift.
zone aloft is called a frontal surface. The frontal zone on the
In flying through a cold front, the w indshift may be
ground is called the front. The frontal weather associated with
quite abrupt and occurs at the frontal surface rather
the front, therefore, can be expected to extend for hundreds of
than at the front. The windshift is always such that
miles along the boundary of the air m ass.
an alteration in course to the right is required, no
matter which way you are flying through the front.
2. Temperature. On the ground, the temperature may
drop sharply as the front passes, but usually it drops
gradually. The air immediately behind the front has

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Fronts

been warmed in passing over the warm ground. moves in, merging with the altostratus, with the result that a
Therefore, it may be several hours before the tem- solid deck of cloud extending from near the surface to 25,000
perature drops to the true value of the cold air mass. feet or more covers the whole area. Precipitation is usually
In flying through a cold front , there will heavy.
be a noticeable temperature change when WEATHER CHANGES
passing through the frontal surface. The weather changes that may be observed at the warm front
3. Visibility. Visibility usually improves after passage are:
of a cold front. If the front is moving fairly rapidly, 1. Windshift. With the passage of a warm front,
the width of frontal weather generally is less than the wind will veer but the change will be much
50 miles. If the front is moving slowly, however, m ore gradual than in the case of a cold front.
fli ght operations m ay be affected for m any hours.
When flyin g through a warm fron t, the wind-
4. Pressure. The approach of a cold fro nt is accom- shift will occu r at the frontal surface and will
panied by a decrease in pressure. A marked rise be more noticeable at lower levels. Wh en fly ing
will be noticed wh en the front h as passed. through a warm front, the windshift is such that
5. Turbulence. Turbulence may be associated with a course alteration to the right is necessary.
the cold front if it is active, although thunder- 2. Temperature. The warm front brings
storms are not always present. Even in cases a gradual rise in temperature.
where there are no clouds, turbulence may be
a problem. As a rule, flight through an active A pilot flying through the frontal surface will
cold front can be expected to be rough. notice a more abrupt temperature rise.

6. Precipitation. The frontal rain or snow is usually 3. Visibility. Low ceilings and restricted visibil-
narrow, especially if it is showery in character. ity are associated with warm fronts and, because
warm fronts usually move quite slowly, these
Icing in the turbulent cumulus clouds can be severe. conditions persist for considerable time.
SQUALL LINE When rain falls from the overrunning warm air,
A long line of squalls and thunderstorms which sometimes masses of irregular cloud with very low bases form
accompanies the passage of a cold front is called a squall line in the cold air. Fog is frequently a condition 50 nau-
(or line squall). It is usually associated with a fast moving cold tical miles ahead of an advancing warm front.
front that is undercutting an unstable warm air mass. It may
4. Turbulence. Cumulonimbus clouds are frequently
form anywhere from 50 to 300 nautical miles in advance of the
embedded in the main cloud deck and these
front itself. The squall line is a long line of low, black, roller like
storms are responsible for the most severe tur-
cloud, which often stretches in a straight line for several hun- bulence associated with a warm front. However,
dred miles and from which heavy rain or hail falls for a short
these storms and the turbulence they occasion
time. Thunder and lightning fre quently occur. The squall is are less severe th an those associated w ith cold
also accompanied by a sudden wind ch ange from southerly front s. The principal problem with these storms
or south-westerly to north or north-wes terly, toge ther with
is th at they cannot be located by sight since
a sudden drop in temperature and a rise in barometric pres-
they are embedded in the m ain cloud cover.
sure. The actual wind squall las ts only fo r a few minutes but is
often extrem ely violent, constituting a serious m enace bo th to 5. Precipitation. The fi rst precipitation begins in
shipping and to aeroplanes. The signs indicatin g the approach the region where the altostratu s layer of cloud
of a squall line are unmistakable. Aeroplanes on the ground is from 8,000 to 12,000 feet above the ground . As
should be immedi ately h anga red. Those in th e air should at all the front approaches, the precipitation becom es
costs avoid this violent weather phenomenon . heavier. Occasional very heavy precipitation is an
indication of the presence of thunderstorms.
Weather at the Warm Front Warm air
Warm front ch anges are usually less pronounced than cold
front ch anges. The ch ange is also generally very gradu al.
However, the weather at a w arm front is u sually more exten - SN SN SN SN
sive and m ay cover thousands of square miles . o•c · ------- ---------
RA
--- --RA
--- -- ----
RA
--- -- ----- -- --·
A wide variety of weather characterizes w arm fronts. The Cold air
weather m ay even vary alon g a given front.
The degree of overrunning and the moisture content and SN
stability of the overrunning warm air determine the severity
of the weather. If the warm air is very moist, the cloud deck
Fig . 6.41 Precipitation in a Warm Front in Winter
forming in the overrunning air may extend for hundreds of
miles up the slope of the retreating cold air. If the warm air is
WINTER WARM FRONT
unstable, thunderstorms may be embedded in the cloud deck.
In winter, when temperatures in the cold air are below freezing
High cirrus cloud is the first sign of the approach of an active and temperatures in the lower levels of the warm air are above
warm front. Cirrostratus soon follows (the high thin cloud freezing, snow and freezing rain can be expected.
which causes a halo around the sun or moon). The cloud
Snow falls from that part of the warm air cloud that is high and
gradually thickens and the base lowers until a solid deck of
therefore below freezing in temperature. From the lower cloud,
altostratus/altocumulus covers the area. Low nimbostratus
where temperatures are above freezing, rain falls. However,

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 Aviation Weather: Precipitation & Fog

as the rain falls through the cold air (of the cold air mass that In a stable cloud such as stratus, there is very little vertical
the warm air is over running), it becomes supercooled and will motion, not even enough to sustain small water droplets. They
freeze on contact with any cold object. This is known as freez- frequently escape and drift slowly to the earth. This form of
ing rain (FZRA). precipitation is called drizzle.
In the area ahead of the freezing rain, there is a region where A second mechanism by which precipitation occurs requires
the rain falling through the cold air becomes sufficiently super- that ice crystals and water droplets exist side by side in a
cooled to freeze and falls to the ground as ice pellets (PL). cloud at temperatures below freezing. The ice crystals grow
A pilot approaching the frontal surface at higher altitudes may at the expense of the water droplets. The droplets tend to
not encounter the ice pellets, but the pilot flying at quite low evaporate and the resulting water vapour deposits on the ice
altitudes can expect to encounter snow, ice pellets and then crystals. The ice crystals grow in size and weight. They are
freezing rain. sustained in the cloud until they grow large enough that their
terminal velocity exceeds the updraft velocity in the cloud.
Icing is a problem associated with warm fronts in winter. Snow They then fall as precipitation. If the temperature below the
is not responsible for icing, unless it is very wet when it can region of formation is above freezing, the crystals will melt,
stick to an aeroplane and form ice. Freezing rain, however, coalesce with other drops and will arrive at the earth as rain.
causes a rapid build-up of ice. Icing will also be a problem in If the temperatures are cold all the way to the ground, the ice
the cloud layers. crystals will aggregate into snow flakes . In Canada, heavy
rainfall usually occurs as a result of a combination of deposi-
Weather at Trowals & Upper Fronts tion and coalescence.
The weather that occurs with a trowal is a combination of cold Two facts are therefore significant. If the ice crystals are nec-
and warm front conditions. The cloud pattern ahead of the essary for the occurrence of heavy precipitation, the cloud
approaching trowal is similar to that of a warm front. Cold front from which the rain is falling must have built up well above
cloud formations will exist behind it. Cumulus build-ups and the freezing level. Since the size of a raindrop is a function of
thunderstorms are likely to be interspersed with stratiform the turbulence in the parent cloud, large drops and heavy pre-
clouds, continuous precipitation and widespread low ceilings. cipitation are an indication of strong vertical motion.
In winter months, freezing rain and severe icing conditions are
likely hazards as the rain aloft in the occluded warm air falls Steady precipitation falls from a layer of stratus cloud. A
through the freezing temperatures of the ground based cold shower, a sudden heavy burst of precipitation, falls from a
sectors. The maximum precipitation, convective activity and well developed cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud, which may
icing conditions usually occur in the northeast sector of the low be embedded in a stratus layer.
and extend some 50 to 100 miles ahead of the occluded front. Precipitation may take many forms such as drizzle, rain, hail,
snow and ice.

6.B Precipitation & Fog Drizzle

Precipitation in the form of very small drops of water which
appear to float is called drizzle. At temperatures at or below
6.s.1 Precipitation the freezing level, drizzle will freeze on impact with objects
Precipitation occurs when the water droplets (visible as a cloud) and is known as freezing drizzle.
grow sufficiently in size and weight to fall due to gravity. In
clouds with temperatures above freezing, vertical air currents Rain
cause the droplets to move about. As a result, they collide Precipitation in the form of large water droplets is called rain.
with other drops and gradually grow in size as they absorb Freezing rain is composed of supercooled water droplets that
those drops with which they collide. They gain momentum freeze immediately on striking an object which is itself at a
until they fall through the air as rain. A single water droplet temperature below freezing.
must grow enormously in order for precipitation to take place.
The average raindrop is about one million times larger than
a cloud water droplet. This process is known as coalescence.
Hail
Precipitation due to coalescence alone generally occurs only in Observations have revealed the fact that water drops, cer-
warm climates. tainly in the liquid form, can exist with temperatures as low
as -40°C. It is clear, then, that small drops can be supercooled
a long way without freezing.
Most big clouds formed as a result of an upward current of air
are divisible into three well defined regions.
First there is the lowest layer where the cloud particles are in
- - -- -- - - Snow and supercooled the form of water drops .
water drop region
Next there is a region where some of the water droplets are
frozen into ice crystals (snow) but some are still liquid but
supercooled.
- - - - - - - - - Water region Third there is the highest region of the cloud where the water
vapour, via deposition, changes into minute ice crystals.
There is no sharp dividing line between the snow and super-
cooled water regions. For some distance, the ice crystals and
Fig.6.42 Regions of a Cloud supercooled water drops are co-existing. When a supercooled

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Precipitation & Fog

water drop collides with an ice crystal, it at once freezes on

the latter, imprisoning a little air which causes it to freeze in 6.8.2 Fog
the form of soft ice. As it falls through the supercooled region, Fog is, in fact, a cloud, usually stratus, in contact with the
more soft ice is deposited on it, increasing its size. The ball of ground. It forms when the air is cooled below its dewpoint, or
soft ice so formed then falls through the water region. Water when the dewpoint is raised to the air temperature through
freezes on it in the form of hard, transparent ice. Finally the the addition of water vapour.
ball falls out of the base of the cloud as a hailstone, a hard,
To form a water drop in the atmosphere (the basis of fog
transparent layer of ice covering a soft, white core.
formation). there must be present some nucleus on which
Sometimes gusts carry h ailstones back up to the top of the the water may form. Dust, salt, sulphur trioxide, smoke, etc.
cloud, in which case the whole process is repeated, perhaps provide this function.
several times. In this way, very large hailstones are formed.
Given a sufficient number of condensation nuclei, the ideal
The vertical gusts which produce very large hailstones may
conditions for the formation of fog are high relative humidity
h ave speeds in excess of 85 knots. The conditions which pro-
and a small temperature dewpoint spread and som e cooling
duce h ail are very similar to those in which thunderstorms
process to initiate condensation. Light surface winds set up a
originate. Hence hail is often encountered in a cumulonimbus
mixing action which spreads and increases the thickness of
thundercloud.
the fog. In very still air, fog is unlikely to form. Instead dew
will collect.
Snow Pellets (Soft Hail) Fog is most likely to occur in coastal areas where moisture is
If the water region lyin g below the supercooled region of the
abundant. Because of the high concentration of condensation
cloud is not of great depth, the hailstone does not acquire the
nuclei, it is also comm on in industrial areas.
hard, transparent covering and arrives at th e ground as the
original soft, white ice. It is then known as a snow pellet or Smoke and dust in the air over large cities produce the
soft hail. "pea soup" fogs characteristic of large industrial centres.
The carbon and dust particles cause such fogs to be dark.
Snow Otherwise, when composed of water drops only, fog is white
in colour.
In the formation of snow, the invisible water vapour in the
air ch anges directly into ice crystals via deposition, without For weather reporting purposes, pilots should be aware that
passing through any intermediate water stage. Snow flakes fog is identified when the reported visibility is 1 kilometer or
are formed of an agglomeration of ice crystals and are usu ally less. When visibility is greater than 1 kilometer but less than
of a hexagonal or star like sh ape. Snow grains are tiny snow 5 kilometers, aviation weather reports refer to fog as m ist.
crystals that have acquired a coating of rime. They fall from (See Aviation Weather Reports.) Fog and mist both apply to
non-turbulent clouds. hydrometeors; in other words, moisture is involved in their
presence.
Ice Prisms Fog is usually dissipated by sunlight filtering down through
Ice prism s are tiny ice crystals in the form of needles. They the fog or stratus layer. This results in heating from below.
may fall from cloud or from a cloudless sky. They exist in
stable air masses and at very low temperatures. Radiation Fog
Radiation fog is formed on clear nights with light winds. The
Ice Pellets ground cools losing heat through radiation. The air in direct
Ice pellets are formed by the freezing of raindrops. They are contact with the earth's surface is cooled. If this air is moist
h ard transparent globular grains of ice about the size of rain- and the temperature is lowered below the dew point, fog will
drops. They generally rebound when striking the ground. form. The ideal conditions for the formation of radiation fog
are a light wind which spreads the cooling effect through the
Precipitation & Cloud Type lower levels of the air, clear skies that permit maximum cool-
ing and an abundance of condensation nuclei. This type of
Each of the various forms of precipitation is associated with
fog is commonly called ground fog, since it forms only over
a particular type of cloud. While the table below is generally
land. Radiation fog normally forms at nigh t but sometimes it
typical, exceptions do occur.
thickens or even forms at sunrise as the initial slight heating
from the sun causes a weak turbulence. Radiation fog tends to
Precipitation Cloud Type
settle into low areas, such as valleys, and it is usually patchy
Drizzle, freezing
Stratus and stratocumulus and only a few hundred feet thick. It normally dissipates
drizzle, snow grains
Snow or rain within a few hours after sunrise as the sun warms the earth
Thick altostratus and nimbostratus
(continuous) and radiation heating causes the temperature to rise.
Snow or rain
Thick altostratus and stratocumulus
(intermHtent)
Snow showers,
Altocumulus, heavy cumulus and cumulonimbus
Advection Fog
rain showers Advection fog is caused by the drifting of warm damp air over
Snow pellets, a colder land or sea surface. This type of fog may persist for
Cumulonimbus pellet showers
hail, ice
days and cover a wide area. It occu rs most frequently in coast-
Ice pellets Any cloud t hat gives rain - the
(continuous) temperature is below freezing al regions. Widespread fog forms when moist air from a warm
Ice prisms No cloud necessary region of the ocean moves over colder waters. It will persist
for lengthy periods since the water surface is not affected by
Fig. 6.43 Cloud Types & their Associated Precipitation
daytime heating. Advection fog will spread over land if the
circulation is from the sea to a colder land surface and will

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 Aviation Weather: Precipitation & Fog

persist until the direction of the wind changes. Although it Restrictions to visibility would include cloud, precipitation,
may dissipate or thin during the day from daytime heating, it fog, haze, smoke, blowing dust or snow. Blowing snow, dust
will reform at night. The warm sector of a frontal depression and sand can produce very poor visibility conditions. Blowing
is also favourable for the formation of advection fog. snow can be responsible for optical illusions. Precipitation, in
the form of rain, snow and drizzle, appreciably reduces vis-
Upslope Fog ibility. Drizzle which occurs in stable air is often accompanied
Upslope fog is caused by the cooling of air due to expansion by fog or smog.
as it moves up a slope. A light upslope wind is necessary for Reduced visibility is a function of the stability of the air. If the
its formation. air is stable, impurities that contribute to haze are trapped in
the lower levels. Stable air is also favourable to drizzle and fog.
Stearn Fog If the air is unstable, vertical currents scatter the haze par-
Steam fog forms when cold air passes over a warm water ticles but cause blowing snow and dust which also contribute
surface. Evaporation of the water into the cold air occurs until to reduced visibility.
the cold air becomes saturated. The excess water vapour con- Visibility means the distance at which prominent objects may
denses as fog. Steam fog occurs over rivers and lakes, espe- be seen and identified by day and prominent lighted objects
cially during the autumn. by night.
Flight visibility is the average range of visibility forward from
Precipitation-Induced Fog the cockpit of an aeroplane in flight. It is sometimes called
Precipitation-induced fog is caused by the addition of mois- "air-to-air visibility".
ture to the air through evaporation of rain or drizzle. This type Slant range visibility is the distance a pilot can see over the
of fog is associated mostly with warm fronts and is sometimes nose of the aeroplane towards the ground. It is sometimes
known as frontal fog. The rain, falling from the warm air, called "approach visibility".
evaporates and saturates the cooler air below.
Ground visibility is the visibility at an airport, as reported by
an accredited observer.
Ice Fog
Ice fog forms in moist air during extremely cold calm condi- Prevailing visibility is the distance at which objects of known
tions. The tiny ice crystals composing it are formed by subli- distance are visible over at least half the horizon. It is reported
mation and are often called needles. Ice fog is caused by the in miles and fractions of miles .
addition of water vapour to the air through fuel combustion. Runway visual range (RVR) represents the distance a pilot will
The very cold air cannot hold any additional water vapour be able to see the lights or other delineating markers along
and the excess sublimates into visible ice crystals . Ice fog may the runway from a specified point above the centreline that
appear suddenly when an aircraft engine is started. corresponds to eye level at the moment of touchdown. RVR is
reported in hundreds of feet. A device, called a transmissom-
6.8.3 Haze eter, that is installed adjacent to the runway samples a speci-
fied portion of the atmosphere and converts the sample into
Haze is composed of very small water droplets, dust or salt
an estimate of the runway visual range. The reading derived
particles so minute that they cannot be felt or individually
from a transmissometer located adjacent to the runway
seen with the unaided eye. Haze produces a uniform veil that
threshold is reported as RVR "A"; that from a transmissometer
restricts visibility. Against a dark background, it has a bluish
located adjacent to the runway midpoint is reported as RVR
tinge. Against a bright background, it has a dirty yellow or
"B". RVR information is available from ATC, the control tower
orange hue.
and the flight service station. The actual RVR reading is pro-
Smoke, industrial pollutants and smog from vehicular vided to pilots if the RVR is less than 6,000 feet.
exhausts are responsible for the thick blanket of haze that
severely restricts visibility in some urban and industrial
areas. When flying in such conditions, visibility is very poor,
6.8.5 VMC &IMC
especially when flying into the sun. Visual meteorological conditions (VMC) is a term used by
meteorologists to indicate that visibility, distance from cloud
For weather reporting purposes, pilots should be aware that and ceiling are equal to or better than the minima under
haze is identified when the reported visibility is 5 kilometers which flight according to the visual flight rules (VFR) may be
or less and the obscuration is predominantly of lithometeors; conducted.
that is, it is due to solid particles in the air and not moisture.
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) is a term that
Haze is a problem only in very stable air. In unstable condi- indicates that visibility, distance from cloud and ceiling are
tions, the particles scatter. below minima and flight can be conducted only under instru-
ment flight rules (!FR).
6.8.4 Visibility
Visibility is one of the most important elements of weather 6.8.6 Lake Effect Snowfalls
from the standpoint of aircraft operations. It, in conjunction Lake-generated snow squalls form when cold air, passing for
with the height of cloud layers aloft, determines whether an long distances over the relatively warm waters of a large lake,
airport is open to traffic. VFR operations generally require a picks up moisture and heat and is then forced to drop the
minimum of three miles ground and flight visibility and a moisture in the form of snow upon reaching the downwind
height of cloud layers aloft that ensures that the aircraft can shore. Lake-effect snows are common over the Great Lakes
maintain 500 feet distance from the cloud base and 500 feet
above the surface of the ground.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Thunderstorms

region because these large bodies of water can hold their

summer heat well into the winter, rarely freeze over, and
provide the long fetch which allows the air to gain the heat
and moisture required to fuel the snow squalls. Lake-effect
snows are most pronounced and effective wherever terrain
features such as small hills or mountains are oriented along
the lee shores.
Each year as the warm weather of early autumn fades and the
cold of winter starts to appear, the waters of the Great Lakes Direction ofStonn
become increasingly warmer relative to the cold air masses
formed in the north. When cold and relatively dry air tra-
verses the lake, the lower levels are warmed and moistened.
This air now becomes lighter than the air above it, a condition
known as convective instability, and starts to rise. Depending
on the degree of instability of the air mass (i.e. how much
warmer the lake water is compared to the air temperature),
bands of either stratus, stratocumulus, or cumulus clouds
will form over the water, advancing with the wind toward the
downwind shore.
The upward motion of air increases further along the lee shore
where the land surface slows down the onshore flow, creating
a convergence of air. The air, having no place else to go, rises
rapidly, triggering the formation of snow showers or squalls.
Sloping terrain along the shoreline also enhances vertical Fig.6.44 Thunderstorm Cell in Mature Stage
motions. If snow showers have not begun to fall over the lake,
they soon fall as the air rises over the shoreline. There are three distinct stages in the life cycle of a thunder-
storm. Every thunderstorm begins life as a cumulus cloud.
The cloud starts growing upward, driven by the latent heat of
6.9 Thunderstorms vaporization and/or fusion as water vapour condenses. Strong
updrafts prevail throughout the cell and it rapidly builds up
A thunderstorm is a weather phenomenon whose passage into a towering cumulonimbus cloud. Temperatures within
creates extremely serious hazards to flying. It has aptly been the cell are higher than temperatures at the same level in the
described as a cumulus cloud gone wild. It is always accom- surrounding air, intensifying still more the convective cur-
panied by thunder and lightning, strong vertical drafts, severe rents within the cell. There is usually no precipitation from
gusts and turbulence, heavy rain and sometimes hail. It is the storm at this stage of its development since the water
a weather condition of which a pilot should be enormously droplets and ice crystals are being carried upwards or are kept
respectful. It has been estimated that, at any one time, there suspended by the strong updrafts.
are about 1,800 thunderstorms in progress over the earth. With
this kind of frequency, every pilot is sure to come occasionally In its m atu re stage , the build-up of a towering cumulonimbus
in contact with one. thunderstorm may reach heights as great as 60,000 feet . The
updrafts may attain speeds of 6,000 feet per minute. As the
The basic requirements for the formation of a thunderstorm water droplets grow large enough to fall, they drag air down
are unstable air, some form of lifting action and a high mois- with them, starting a downdraft in the middle region of the
ture content. Since these are also the requirements for the
cell that accelerates downward. The speed of the downdraft,
formation of a harmless cumulus cloud, it follows that the
although not as great as the updrafts, may nevertheless be as
intensity of the conditions is the key to development of a
thunderstorm. These violent weather factories occur when an high as 2,000 feet per minute. Violent turbulence is associated
air mass becomes unstable to the point of violent overturning. with the up and down drafts. The appearance of precipitation
Such unstable atmospheric conditions may be brought about on the ground is evidence that the thunderstorm cell is in its
when air is heated from below (convection), or forced to ascend mature stage. The mature stage lasts for about 15 to 20 min-
the side of a mountain (orographic lift) or lifted up over a frontal utes, although some thunderstorms have been known to last
surface (frontal lift). The resulting buoyancy causes air which is as long as an hour. Lightning, microbursts, gust front wind
warmer than its environment to push up in the form of convec- shear, hail and tornados are all phenomena associated with a
tion currents, like drafts up a chimney flu. thunderstorm in its mature stage.
Then the cell begins to dissipate. The cool precipitation tends
to cool the lower region of the cloud and the cell loses its
If a mass of superheated moist air
energy. The downdraft spreads throughout the whole area of
rises rapidly, an equal amount of cooler the cell with the exception of a small portion at the top where
air rushes down to replace it. updrafts still occur. The rainfall gradually ceases . The top of
the cell spreads out into the familiar anvil structure.
When these conditions lead to the development of a thunder- Individual thunderstorms are usually no more than 10 nau-
storm, the area in which the rising and descending currents tical miles in diameter. However, they do tend to develop
are active is called a thunderstorm cell. A thunderstorm may
in clusters of two or more. Such clusters, with individual
be composed of a number of such cells. As a storm develops,
thunderstorms in various stages of development, may cover
each successive cell grows to a greater height than did the
vast areas and last for many hours, travelling great distances
previous one.
across the country during their life cycle.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: Thunderstorms

There are two main types of thunderstorm: air mass thunder- and even reverse, causing very severe and dangerous wind
storms and frontal thunderstorms. shear. Because of the rapidly changing winds, both in speed
Air mass thunderstorms usually form either singly or in clus- and direction, an aeroplane encountering a microburst may
ters on hot summer days in warm moist air. Being scattered, lose so much lift that it cannot remain airborne. Depending
there is u sually VFR weather around them and they are there- upon the intensity of a thunderstorm, microbursts may occur
anywhere up to 10 miles from the storm cell itself. Sometimes
fore easy to avoid. They form either as a result of convection
or orographic lift. micro-bursts are concentrated into a line structure and, under
these conditions, activity may continue for as Jong as an hour.
Frontal thunderstorms are associated most commonly with Once microburst activity starts, multiple microbursts in the
an advancing cold front but do develop in warm fron ts as same general area are common.
well. They usually form a line that may extend for hundreds
of miles. They pose a special hazard to pilots because they Lightning flashes are the visible manifestation of the dis-
are often embedded in other cloud decks and are therefore charge of electricity produced in a thunderstorm. Areas of
impossible to see. An advancing line of frontal thunderstorms positive and negative charge accumulate in different parts of
should be avoided. Squall line thunderstorm s rolling along in the cloud until the difference in electrical potential reaches
advance of a cold front are particularly violent. a critical value and the air breaks down electrically. A light-
ning flash, a large electrical spark in the atmosphere, then
follows. The mech anism by which electrification occurs in
6.9.1 Thunderstorm Weather the thunderstorm is complex and varied. Ice particles and
Thunderstorms produce very complex wind patterns in their supercooled water droplets impacting on pellets of soft hail,
vicinity. Wind shear can be found on all sides of a thunder- the upward tran sport of rain in the strong vertical currents,
storm cell, in the downdraft directly beneath the cell and coalescence of droplets, mass movement of charge by air flow
especially at the gust front that can precede the actual storm are all factors.
by 15 nautical miles or more. In an active thunderstorm, the positive charge usually col-
lects in the upper portion of the cloud and the negative
charge in the cloud base. Flashing in a single thunderstorm
Cold air out1fow Wind Shear Zone cell may reach a peak of five discharges in a minute. Besides
Warm air inflow Gust Front I the activity w ithin the individual cell, lightning may travel
from one cloud to another or from the cloud to the groun d.
----------------------------------•--------l Occasionally, it w ill travel from the ground to the cloud, if a
~~- ! negative charge has accumulated in the ground.
Thunder is the noise which accompanies a lightning flash.
Fi g. 6.45 Gust Front
It is attributed to the vibration set up by the sudden heating
In the cumulus stage of a thunderstorm's development, there and expansion of the air along the path of the lightning flash .
is an inflow of air (updraft) into the base of the cloud. As the Hail may be regarded as one of the worst h azards of thunder-
thunderstorm matures, strong downdrafts develop and the storm flying. It usually occurs during the mature stage of cells
cold air rush ing down out of the cloud spreads out along the having updrafts of more than average intensity. The forma-
surface of the ground well in advance of the thunderstorm tion of hail has been covered earlier in this section.
itself undercutting the warm air in such a manner as to
resemble a cold front. This is the gust front and turbulence
w ithin this lower level of spreading air is severe. The gust
front generates strong, gusty winds near the surface which
can change direction by 180 degrees and gust up to 50 knots
in a matter of seconds upon gust front passage.
The severe downward rush of air and its outburst of damaging
winds on or near the ground is commonly called a downburst.
Downbursts can be classified as either macrobursts or micro-
bursts. A macroburst is a large down burst with a diameter of 2
nautical miles or more when it reaches the earth's surface and
with damaging winds which last from 5 to 20 minutes. The
most intense of these cause tornado like damage.
Smaller downbursts with a surface outflow diameter of less
than 2 nautical miles and peak winds that last less than 5 Fig . 6.46 Electrical Activity in a Thunderstorm
minutes are called microbursts. Wet microbursts occur in
the presence of storm clouds with precipitation reaching the Icing in a thunderstorm is encountered at or above the freez-
ground. Dry microbursts originate in moisture laden tower- ing level in the areas of heaviest turbulence during the matu re
ing cumulus clouds. The downward flowing column of air stage of the storm. The altitudes with in a few thousand feet
contains precipitation (called virga) wh ich evaporates before of the freezing level, above or below, are especially dangerous.
reaching the ground. The evaporation of the water appears to The barometric pressure ahead of a thunderstorm falls
further cool the air, increasing the intensity of the microburst. abruptly as the storm approaches, rises quickly when the
Downdrafts in microbursts can have vertical speeds as great rain comes, and returns to normal when the storm subsides.
as 6,000 fe et per minute. As they near the ground, these down- Occasionally after a storm, the pressure falls below normal,
drafts spread out in all directions to becom e horizontal winds then rises to n ear normal again. All this can h appen in a
with speeds as high as 80 knots. They rapidly change direction matter of 10 to 15 minutes.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Thunderstorms

The dangers of flying in or close to a thunderstorm are: 7. Rain. The thunderstorm contains vast amounts of
1. Turbulence. Turbulence, associated with thunder- liquid water droplets suspended or carried aloft by
storms, can be extremely hazardous, having the the updrafts. This water can be as damaging as hail
potential to cause overstressing of the aircraft or to an aircraft penetrating the thunderstorm at high
loss of control. Thunderstorm vertical currents speed. The heavy rain showers associated with thun-
may be strong enough to displace an aircraft up derstorms can cause contamination of the wing sur-
or down vertically as much as 2,000 to 6,000 feet. face that results in early stall. If encountered during
The greatest turbulence occurs in the vicinity of approach and landing, heavy rain can reduce visibil-
adjacent rising and descending drafts. Gust loads ity and cause refraction on the windscreen of the air-
can be severe enough to stall an aircraft flying craft, producing an illusion that the runway threshold
at rough air (maneuvering) speed or to cripple it is lower than it actually is. Water lying on the runway
at design cruising speed. Maximum turbulence can cause hydroplaning which destroys the braking
usually occurs near the mid-level of the storm, action needed to bring the aircraft to a stop within
between 12,000 and 20,000 feet and is most severe the confines of the airport runway. Hydroplaning
in clouds of the greatest vertical development. can also lead to loss of control during take-off.

Severe turbulence is present not just within the

cloud. It can be expected up to 20 miles from severe
St. Elmo's Fire
thunderstorms and will be greater downwind than If an aeroplane flies through clouds in which positive charges
into wind. Severe turbulence and strong out-flowing have been separated from negative charges, it may pick up
winds may also be present beneath a thunderstorm. some of the cloud's overload of positive charges. Flames may
Microbursts can be especially hazardous because flash along the wings and around the propeller tips. These are
of the severe wind shear associated with them. called St. Elmo's Fire. They are awe-inspiring but harmless. If
the aeroplane flies in the vicinity of a cloud where negative
2. Lightning. Static electricity may build up in the air- charges are concentrated, its positive overload may discharge
frame, interfering with operation of the radio and into the cloud. In this case, it is the aeroplane which strikes
affecting the behaviour of the compass. Trailing the cloud with lightning! The electricity discharges cause a
antennas should be wound in. "Lightning blind- noisy dist urbance in the lower frequency radio bands but do
ness" may affect the crew's vision for 30 to 50 sec- not interfere with the very high frequencies. This precipita-
onds at a time, making instrument reading impos- tion static, as it is called, tends to be most severe near the
sible during that brief period. Lightning strikes of freezing level and where turbulence and updrafts and down-
aircraft are not uncommon. The probability of a drafts occur.
lightning strike is greatest when the temperature
is between -S°C and S0 C. If the aeroplane is in close
proximity to a thunderstorm, a lightning strike can
6.9.2 Thunderstorm Avoidance
happen even though the aircraft is flying in clear air. Because of the severe hazards enumerated above, attempting
Lightning strikes pose special hazards. Structural to penetrate a thunderstorm is asking for trouble. In the case
damage is possible. The solid state circuitry of avi- of light aeroplane pilots, the best advice on how to fly through
onics is particularly vulnerable to lightning strikes. a thunderstorm is summed as follows - DON'T DO IT.
Electrical circuits may be disrupted. The possi- Detour around storms as early as possible when encoun-
bility of lightning igniting the fuel vapour in the tering them en route. Stay at least S miles away from a
fuel cells is also considered a potential hazard. thunderstorm with large overhanging areas because of the
3. Hail. Hailstones are capable of inflicting seri- danger of encountering hail. Stay even farther away from a
ous damage to an aeroplane. Hail is encoun- thunderstorm identified as very severe as turbulence may be
tered at levels between 10 and 30 thousand encountered as much as lS or more nautical miles away. Vivid
feet. It is, on occasion, also encountered in clear and frequent lightning indicates the probability of a severe
air outside the cloud as it is thrown upward thunderstorm. Any thunderstorm with tops at 3S,OOO feet or
and outward by especially active cells. higher should be regarded as extremely hazardous.
4. Icing. Heaviest icing conditions occur above Avoid landing or taking off at any airport in close proximity to
the freezing level where the water droplets an approaching thunderstorm or squall line.
are supercooled. Icing is most severe during Microbursts occur from cell activity and are especially haz-
the mature stage of the thunderstorm. ardous if encountered during landing or take-off since severe
S. Pressure. Rapid changes in baromet- wind shear is associated with microburst activity. Dry micro-
ric pressure associated with the storm bursts can sometimes be detected by a ring of dust on the
cause unreliable altimeter readings. surface. Virga falling and evaporating from high based storms
can cause violent downdrafts.
6. Wind. Abrupt changes in wind speed and direc-
tion in advance of a thunderstorm present a The gust front, another zone of hazardous wind shear, can
hazard during take-off and landing. Gusts in be identified by a line of dust and debris blowing along the
excess of 80 knots have been observed. earth's surface.
Very violent thunderstorms draw air into their cloud Swirls of dust or ragged clouds hanging from the base of the
bases with great intensity. Sometimes the rising air storm can indicate tornado activity. If one tornado is seen,
forms an extremely concentrated vortex from the expect others since they tend to occur in groups.
surface of the ground well into the cloud, with vortex Do not fly under a thunderstorm even if you can see through
speeds of 200 knots or more and very low pressure to the other side, since turbulence may be severe. Especially,
in its centre. Such a vortex is known as a tornado.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: Thunderstorms

do not attempt to fly underneath a thu nderstorm formed and presents th em on a small, circular, radar like screen. The
by orographic lift. The wind flow th at is responsible for the static electrical disch arges picked up by th e equipment may or
formation of th e thunderstorm is likely to create dangerous may not be associated with lightning. It receives these signals
updrafts and downdrafts and turbulence between the moun- through 360 degrees around the aeroplane and from as far
tain peaks. away as 200 nau tical miles.
Reduce airspeed to maneuvering speed wh en in the vicinity of
a thunderstorm or at the first indication of turbulence.
Do not fly into a cloud mass containing scattered embedded
thunderstorms unless you h ave airbor ne radar.
Do not attempt to go through a narrow clear space between
two thunderstorms. The turbulence there may be more severe
than through the storms themselves. If the clear space is sev-
eral miles in width, however, it may be safe to fly through the
centre, but always go through at the highest possible altitude.
When flying around a thun derstorm, it is better to fly around
the right side of it. The wind circulates anticlockwise and you
will get more favourable w inds.
If circumstances are such that you must penetrate a thunder- Fig.6 .47 Lightning Detection Equipment
storm, the following few simple rules may help you to survive
the ordeal: Each static disch arge is represented by a bright green dot on
the cathode ray tube display. Clusters of dots indicate areas
1. Go straight through a front, not across of thunderstorm activity. The display can be programmed
it, so that you will get through the storm to 3 different range settings, 40, 100 and 200 miles. It is
in the m inimum am ount of time. most accurate on the 40 m ile range. On the 200 mile range,
2. Hold a reasonably constant heading that w ill get you the equipment sees everything but range is not so accurate.
through the storm cell in the shortest possible time. Generally, the display is more accurate and easier to read as
th e storm inten sifies. In heavy electrical activity, the system
3. Before entering the storm, reduce the air-
speed to the aeroplane's maneuvering air- has a problem called radial spread. The dots tend to spread
speed to minimize structural stresses. over the display screening the areas between major clumps of
storm caused dots.
4. Turn the cockpit lights full bright. (Th is helps to mini-
Ligh tning detection equipment has som e advantages over
mize the risk of lightn ing blindness.) Turn on the pitot
weather radar. Radar measures rainfall intensity. Lightning
heat and check the carburetor heat. Ensure seat belts
detection equipment is capable of detecting turbulence in
are tightly fastened. Secure loose objects in the cabin.
clouds that have little or no precipitation. It is also able to see
5. Try to maintain a constant attitude and power set- through areas of heavy precipitation to detect turbulent areas
ting. (Vertical drafts past the pitot pressure source beyond . It does not, however, see rain .
and clogging by rain cause erratic airspeed readings.)
There is an advantage in having both lightning detection
6. Avoid unnecessary maneuvering (to pre- equipment and weather radar installed in the aircraft, since
vent adding m aneuver loads to those they each provide valuable information in locating thunder-
already imposed by turbulence). storms. Models of this equipment are available that interface
7. Determine the freezing level and avoid with radar, displaying information from both systems on the
the icing zone. Avoid dark areas of the cell same screen.
and those areas of h eavy lightning. Lightning detection equipment is not dependent on line-of-
8. Do not use the autopilot. It is a constant altitude sight. It will see, for example, the weather behind mountains.
device and will dive the aeroplane to compensate The system can, therefore, be used on the ground to deter-
for updrafts, causing excessive airspeed, or climb m ine weather for a 200 mile radius and is a useful fligh t plan -
it in a downdraft, creating the risk of a stall. ning tool.

Lightning Detection Equipment Weather Radar

Lightning detection equipment, installed in the aeroplane, can Airborne weather radar is one of the best instrument aids
help a pilot avoid thunderstorms. that a pilot can have in locating and avoiding thunderstorms.
It is able to detect and display on the cockpit radar screen
This equipment detects the electromagnetic discharges asso-
any significant weather th at lies ahead on th e flight route.
ciated with vertical air currents. All thunderstorms contain
The radar equipment does this by measuring precisely rain-
strong updrafts and downdrafts. These opposing ascending
fall density of targets under observation. The antenna of the
and descending air currents rub against each other, generat-
weather radar radiates a very narrow and h ighly directional
ing static electricity. The electrons tend to accumulate in posi-
beam, in the X band of the radio spectrum, straight ahead
tive and negative charges and wh en they h ave built up suffi-
of the aircraft. The beam is cone-shaped and from 3 to 10
ciently, the potential difference will cause a current discharge.
degrees in diameter. (Beam width is a function of antenna size
This discharge manifests itself not only as lightning but also
and type.) The antenna scans left and right to cover a sector
in the radio spectrum. The lightning detection equipment
of abou t 120 degrees.
picks up the radio frequencies from these discharges, a com-
puter processes the signals, plots them by range and azimuth

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Icing

Although weather radar is not able to detect turbulence itself, There are some limitations to weather radar. Moisture in
the intensity of precipitation within a storm is a reliable relatively close proximity to the aeroplane can scatter the
indication of the amount of turbulence within a storm since radar beams. This problem, called attenuation, means that
strong drafts and gusts are necessary to produce water drops heavy rain areas can block out a radar return from significant
of significant size and quantity. Radar sees only water drops weather that lies beyond. Moisture and ice on the radar dome
that are large enough to be affected by gravity and fall as (the radome) installation on the nose of the aeroplane can
rain. Because of the characteristics of X band radio waves and diminish the radar signal. Useful range of the weather radar
water, raindrops reflect the radiated beam back to the radar is only about 90 to 100 miles.
receiver. The sum of the reflections from all the raindrops
appears on the screen as a target.
The computerized receiver measures the rainfall rate and 6.10 Icing
grades the targets into levels which are represented on the
screen by colours, green for level 1 which is light rain, yellow When an aeroplane, while flying at a level where the tem-
for level 2 which is medium rain and red for level 3 which perature is at or below freezing, "strikes" a supercooled water
is heavy rain. Areas of steep rain gradients are easy to see droplet, the droplet will freeze and adhere to the aeroplane.
because of the colour coding. A precipitation rate that changes Dangerous icing can occur in cloud, freezing rain, or freezing
from minimum to maximum over a short distance is known drizzle.
as a steep rain gradient and usually is associated with a shear The cloud in which icing most frequently occurs in w inter is
zone. Any target that is showing red is said to be contouring, stratocumulus, but the heaviest deposits are encountered in
is considered to be a storm and must be avoided and detoured. cumulus and cumulonimbus. Clouds composed of ice crystals
Areas of no precipitation between targets remain black and (such as cirrus) do not present an icing hazard. The ice crys-
are called corridors. tals do not adhere to the wing.
The more dangerous types of icing are encountered in dense
clouds, composed of heavy accumulations of large super-
cooled drops, and in freezing rain.
The seriousness of icing depends on the air temperature, the
temperature of the aircraft skin and the amount of water
striking the aircraft.
A supercooled water droplet freezes if disturbed. When struck
by an aircraft, the drop begins to freeze immediately but,
as it freezes, it releases heat to raise its temperature to 0°C.
Freezing by impact then ceases and the remaining liquid in
the drop begins to freeze more slowly as a result of cold sur-
Fig. 6.48 Airborne Weathe r Rada r roundings. At very low temperatures, a large part of the drop
The airborne display is gradated into mileage rings. Distance freezes by impact. At higher temperatures, a smaller part of
to the storm as well as its bearing with respect to the aero- the drop freezes by impact leaving a greater amount to freeze
plane's heading are displayed. As a result, the pilot is able to more slowly.
select a safe and smooth flight path through thunderstorm How fast this liquid part of the drop freezes depends on the
areas. It is wise to give all contouring targets at least a 10 mile temperature of the aircraft skin. The higher the temperature,
clearance. A corridor between 2 targets should be at least 20 the more the drop will spread from the point of impact before
miles wide before considering it a safe passage. freezing is complete.
Most weather radar systems manufactured today present Whether or not a drop freezes completely before another drop
a digital display that does not fade between sweeps. Some strikes the same spot is another factor affecting the character
equipment incorporates automatic tilt to compensate for the of icing. The amount of water intercepted by an aircraft in a
attitude of the aeroplane. On some models, tilt is handled given time is called its rate of catch . This rate varies with the
manually. Since the weather radar only can display targets liquid water content of the cloud, the size of the water drop-
illuminated by the radar beam, tilt management of the radar lets, the airspeed and the type of wing of the aircraft.
antenna is essential. The tilt feature controls the up and down
The liquid water content varies from level to level within the
angle of the antenna and consequently the plane of scan of the
cloud. Generally, the amount of supercooled water in a cloud
antenna. This feature is important in evaluating weather. The
increases with height when the temperature is just a little
antenna beam does not see the whole storm, but only a 3 to 10 below 0°C but decreases with height when the temperature
degree slice of it. By setting the tilt higher, the beam scans the
is well below freezing, since at such low temperatures, more
upper region of the cell. By setting it lower, the beam scans the
drops will freeze into ice crystals reducing the liquid content.
lower region of the cell. Since rain is most concentrated in the
middle and lower regions of a thunderstorm, the best part of The size of droplets also affects the rate of catch. Small drops
a storm to scan is this middle/lower area that gives the best tend to follow the airflow and are carried around the wing.
indication of size and intensity. Large, heavy drops tend to strike the wing. When a small
drop does hit, it will spread back over the wing only a small
It does take skill and training to use airborne weather radar
distance. The large drop spreads farther.
most effectively. Interpreting the display is not an exact sci-
ence but depends on the pilot's general knowledge of thun- As for airspeed, the number of droplets struck by the aircraft
derstorms, the quality of the preflight briefing that he/she has in a certain time increases as the airspeed increases.
received, and his/her familiarity with the limitations of the
radar equipment in his/ her aeroplane.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: Icing

The curvature of the leading edge of the wing also has an

effect on the rate of catch. Thin wings catch more droplets
Tailplane Stall
than do thick wings. Because of the narrow camber of the airfoil section and the
small radius of curvature of the leading edge, tailplanes are
The rate of catch is, therefore, greatest for an aircraft with thin very susceptible to ice accretion . The tailplane has an ice
wings flying at high speed through a cloud with large droplets collection efficiency that is twice or three times that of the
and a high liquid water content. wings. If there is a half inch of ice on the wing, the accumula-
tion on the tailplane may be an inch or more. In certain cir-
6.10.1 How Icing Affects the Aeroplane cumstances, ice may be accumulating on the tailplane when
Ice collects on and seriously hampers the function of not only there is no visible ice on the wing.
wings, control surfaces and propellers, but also windscreens The principal danger attributable to tailplane ice occurs
and canopies, radio antennas, pitot and static pressure sourc- during approach and landing when the flaps are extended
es, carburetors and air intakes. Turbine engines are especially or after nose-down pitch and speed adjustments are made
vulnerable. Ice forming on the intake cowling constricts the following flap extension. Most tailplanes are set at an angle
air intake. Ice on the rotor and stator blades affects their per- of incidence to provide negative lift to balance the lift of the
formance and efficiency and may result in flame out. Chunks wings. During approach and landing, the tail is already at a
of ice breaking off may be sucked into the engine and cause high angle of attack. Extension of the flaps causes a major
structural damage. change in the downwash on the tail and a further increase in
The first structures to accumulate ice are the surfaces with the angle of attack of the tailplane. If, at the same time, there
thin leading edges: antennas, propeller blades, horizontal is substantial ice contamination of the tailplane, tailplane
stabilizers, rudder, landing gear struts. Usually the pencil- stall is likely to occur.
thin outside air temperature gauge is the first place where Buffeting, reduction in the elevator effectiveness, unusual
ice forms on an aeroplane. The wings are normally the last nose-down trim changes and nose-down pitch warn of
structural component to collect ice. impending tailplane stall. Corrective action should entail
Sometimes, a thin coating of ice will form on the windshield, immediate retraction of the flaps to the previous setting and
preceded in some instances by frosting. This can occur on an increase of the airspeed commensurate with the reduced
take-off and landing and with sufficient rapidity to obscure flap setting. Pilots should apply sufficient power for the
the runway and other landmarks during a critical time in configuration and conditions while heeding manufacturer's
flight. recommendations for power settings. Increasing the airspeed
increases the margin of safety when the wing is approach-
Icing of the propeller generally makes itself known by a slow ing the stall condition; however, pilots should be aware that
loss of power and a gradual onset of engine roughness. The higher power settings may reduce the margin of safety in
ice first forms on the spinner or propeller dome and then some aircraft because the increased airspeed increases the
spreads to the blades themselves. Ice customarily accumu- downwash on the tailplane. Any nose-down pitch changes
lates unevenly on the blades, throwing them out of balance. should be made slowly. Land the aircraft with the reduced
The resulting vibration places undue stress on the blades and flap setting.
on the engine mounts, leading to their possible failure .
If the propeller is building up ice, it is almost certain that the 6.10.2 Types of Icing
same thing is happening on the wings, tail surfaces and other
The three main types of ice accretion, in order of their hazard
projections. The weight of the accumulated ice is less serious
to flying, are as follows:
than the disruption of the airflow around the wings and tail
surfaces. The ice changes the airfoil cross section and destroys
lift, increases drag and raises the stalling speed. At the same Clear Ice
time, thrust is degraded because of ice on the propeller blades A heavy coating of glassy ice which forms when flying in
and the pilot finds him/ herself having to use full power and dense cloud or freezing rain is known as clear ice or glaze
a high angle of attack just to maintain altitude. With the high ice. It spreads, often unevenly, over wing and tail surfaces,
angle of attack, ice will start to form on the underside of the propeller blades, antennas, etc. Clear ice forms when only a
wing adding still more weight and drag. Landing approaches small part of the supercooled water droplet freezes on impact.
and landing itself can be particularly hazardous under icing The temperature of the aircraft skin rises to 0°C with the heat
conditions. Pilots should use more power and speed than released during that initial freezing by impact of part of the
usual when landing an ice-laden aeroplane. droplet. A large portion of the droplet is left to spread out,
mingle with other droplets before slowly and finally freezing.
If ice builds up on the pi tot and static pressure sources, flight
A solid sheet of clear ice thus forms with no embedded air
instruments may cease operating. The altimeter, airspeed
bubbles to weaken its structure. As more ice accumulates, the
and rate of climb would be affected. Gyroscopic instruments
ice builds up into a single or double horn shape that projects
powered by a Venturi would be affected by ice building up on
ahead of the wing, tail surface, antenna, etc. on which it is
the Venturi throat.
collecting. This unique ice formation severely disrupts the
Ice on radio antennas can impede VOR reception and destroy airflow and is responsible for an increase in drag that may be
all communications with the ground. Whip antennas may as much as 300 to 500%.
break off under the weight of the accumulating ice.
The danger of clear ice is great owing to (1) the loss of lift,
because of the altered wing camber and the disruption of
Carburetor icing may occur in clear air at the smooth flow of air over the wing and tail surfaces, (2)
higher than freezing temperatures. the increase in drag on account of the enlarged profile area
of the wings, (3) the weight of the large mass of ice which
may accumulate in a short time, and finally (4) the vibration

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Icing

caused by the unequal loading on the wings and on the blades situation. Light icing is usually not a problem unless the air-
of the propeller(s). When large blocks break off, the vibration craft is exposed for a lengthy period.
may become severe enough to seriously impair the structure
Clear ice is considered more serious than rime ice since the
of the aeroplane.
rate of catch must be high to precipitate the formation of clear
When mixed with snow, clear ice may have a whitish appear- ice.
ance. (This was once classified as rime-glazed but it is now
The seriousness of an icing situation is, of course, dependent
considered to be a form of clear ice.) Clear ice occurs most
on the type of aircraft and the type of de-icing or anti-icing
often in the 0°C to -10°C temperature range and is often found
equipment with which the aircraft is equipped or the lack of
in cumulus clouds and unstable conditions. such equipment.

Rime Ice 6.10.4 Icing in Clouds &in Precipitation

An opaque, or milky white, deposit of ice is known as rime. It
accumulates on the leading edges of wings and on antennas, Severe icing is likely to occur in the upper half of h eavy cumu-
pitot pressure sources, etc. For rime to form, the aircraft skin lus clouds approaching the mature cumulonimbus stage espe-
must be at a temperature below 0°C. The drop will then freeze cially when the temperatures are between -25°C and 0°C. The
completely and quickly without spreading from the point of horizontal extent of such cloud is, however, limited so that the
impact. It is also dependent on a low rate of catch of small aircraft is exposed for only a short time.
supercooled water droplets. Icing is usually less severe in layered stratus cloud than in
Rime forms when the aeroplane is flying through filmy, strati- cumulus type clouds but it can be serious if the cloud has a
form clouds with temperatures between -10°C and -20°C. The high water content. Since stratus cloud is widespread in the
deposit has no great weight. Its danger lies in the aerodynamic horizontal, exposure to the icing condition can be prolonged.
alteration of the wing camber and in the choking of the ori- Icing is more severe if cumulus clouds are embedded in the
fices of the carburetor and instruments. Rime is usually brittle stratus layer.
and can easily be dislodged by de-icing equipment. Freezing rain is common ahead of warm fronts in winter.
Occasionally, both rime and clear ice will form concurrently. Serious icing occurs when the aircraft is flying near the top
This is called m ixed icing and has the bad features of both of the cold air mass beneath a deep layer of warm air. Rain
types. drops are much larger than cloud droplets and therefore give
a very high rate of catch. In freezing temperatures, they form
clear ice.
Frost
A white semi-crystalline frost which covers the surface of Drizzle falls from stratus cloud with a high water content. As
the aeroplane forms in clear air by the process of sublima- the droplets fall through the clear air under the cloud, their
tion. This has little or no effect on flying but may obscure size decreases due to evaporation. Therefore, icing in freezing
vision by coating the windshield. It may also interfere with drizzle is usually maximum just below the cloud base where
radio transmission and reception by coating the antenna with the drops are largest. Such icing is of the clear ice type with
ice. It generally forms in clear air when a cold aircraft enters the resultant ice formations becoming large and strangely
warmer and damper air during a steep descent. shaped. Freezing drizzle occurs most often in the Great Lakes
and maritime regions where the air in frontal systems can
Aircraft parked outside on clear cold nights are likely to be be loaded with large quantities of water. While it is predomi-
coated with frost by morning. The upper surfaces of the nantly a low altitude phenomenon occurring at the altitudes
aircraft cool by radiation to a temperature below that of the at which most piston-engined aeroplanes fly, research aircraft
surrounding air. have encountered freezing drizzle at altitudes up to 15,000
Frost which forms on wings, tail and control surfaces must be fee t at -10°C.
removed before take-off. Frost alters the aerodynamic ch arac- Snow and ice crystals do not adhere to cold aircraft and do not
teristics of the wing sufficiently to interfere with take-off by usually constitute an icing problem. However, if the aircraft is
increasing stall speed and reducing lift. warm, the snow may melt as it strikes the warm surface and
Frozen dew may also form on aircraft parked outside on a ice accretion may result. If supercooled water droplets are also
night when temperatures are just below freezing. Dew first present with the snow, a rapid build-up of rough ice can occur.
condenses on the aircraft skin and then freezes as the surface
of the aircraft cools. Frozen dew is usually clear and some- 6.10.s Protection from Icing
what crystalline, whereas frost is white and feathery. Frozen
Many modern aeroplanes that are designed for personal and
dew, like frost, must be rem oved before take-off.
corporate use, as well as the larger transport type aeroplanes,
In fact , any snow or moisture of any kind should be removed are fitted with various systems designed to prevent ice from
since these m ay freeze to the surface while the aeroplane is forming (anti-icers) or to remove ice after it has formed
taxiing out for take-off. The h eat loss due to the forward speed (de-icers).
of the aeroplane may be sufficient to cause congelation.
1. Fluids. There are fluids which are released through
slinger rings or porous leading edge members
6.10.3 Intensity of Icing to flow over the blades of the propellers and the
Icing m ay be described as light, moderate and severe (or surfaces of th e wings. A fluid is an anti-icing
h eavy). In severe icing conditions, the rate of accretion is such device since it m akes it difficult for ice to form.
that anti-icing and de-icing may fail to reduce or control the 2. Rubber Boots. Membranes of rubber are attached to
hazard. A change in heading and altitude is considered essen- the leading edges. They can be made to pulsate in
tial. In moderate icing, a diversion m ay be essential since the
rate of accretion is such that there is potential for a hazardous

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: Turbulence

such a way that ice is cracked and broken off after installed as this instrument will warn of temperatures that
it has already formed. This is a de-icing device. are conducive to icing conditions.
3. Heating Devices. Heating vulnerable areas is a method Avoid flight into an area where icing conditions are known to
for preventing the build-up of ice. Hot air from the exist. Do not fly through rain showers or wet snow when the
engine or special heaters is ducted to the leading temperature is near 0°C. Do not fly into cumulus clouds when
edges of wings, empennages, etc. Electrically heated the temperature is low.
coils protect pitot pressure sources, propellers, etc. Pilots flying with autopilot (see Autopilot under Radio
Navigation) should take particular note of the hazards of
6.10.6 Icing Avoidance freezing precipitation and icing when flying with the autopilot
Few single-engine aeroplanes, or even light twin-engine engaged. Prior to engaging the autopilot, the pilot must trim
types, incorporate any means of ice prevention and none are the aircraft to establish straight-and-level flight. In this way,
certified to fly in icing conditions. Even for those aircraft that there is no undue strain on the autopilot to keep the aircraft
are equipped with de-icing and anti-icing systems, certifica- flying in the stable manner selected by the pilot. Should the
tion testing probably did not produce quantitative documen- aircraft fly into icing conditions after the pilot has engaged
tation on how effective the de-icing equipment would be in the autopilot, the icing occurring unevenly over the various
coping with severe icing or, in fact, anything heavier than control surfaces will put severe strain on the autopilot as it
light icing. A few tips are therefore in order to help pilots avoid attempts to maintain the original stability selected by the
or get out of icing situations. pilot. Such loads on the airframe unbalance the aircraft in
flight. Under such meteorological circumstances, a pilot
When ice formation is observed in flight, there is only one should frequently disconnect the autopilot and re-trim the
certain method of avoiding its hazards and that is to get out aircraft before re -engaging the autopilot.
of the ice-forming layer as quickly as possible. This may be
done by quickly performing a 180° turn to fly back out of the Always consult a weather office or flight service station to
icing situation. If the accumulation of ice has already become obtain a forecast about expected icing conditions before
serious, it may be necessary to make a precautionary landing. taking off on any flight in fall or winter.
The second alternative would be to descend and fly "contact" Do not remain in icing conditions any longer than necessary.
below the ice forming zone. The advisability of this course For that reason, during climbs or descents through a layer in
would depend on the ceiling and visibility along the route at which icing conditions exist, plan your ascent or descent to
the lower level. The third alternative is to climb above the ice be in the layer for as short a time as possible. However, keep
forming zone. This alternative would obviously require an your speed as slow as possible consistent with safety. Speed of
aeroplane having good performance and fitted with radio and an aeroplane affects accretion of ice. The faster an aeroplane
proper instruments for flying "over the top". moves through an area of supercooled water drops, the more
Prompt action on the radio is important when icing starts. moisture it encounters and the faster will be the accumula-
Information about the latest weather for altitudes above and tion of ice.
below will help the pilot to make the decision on what action If ice has started to build up on the aeroplane, do not make
to take. steep turns or climb too fast since stalling speed is affected
In any event, the decision must be made rapidly since, once by ice accumulation. Fuel consumption is greater due to
ice has started to form, the condition may become critical in a increased drag and the additional power required. Land with
matter of approximately six minutes. more speed and power than usual. Do not land with power off.

Freezing rain and freezing drizzle account for the most rapid The problem of icing takes on new aspects for pilots of jet air-
and most hazardous build-up of ice on an aircraft. Freezing craft. At one time, the pilots of aeroplanes flying through high
precipitation is commonly accepted as forming from precipi- cirrus clouds did not worry about ice forming on the aeroplane
tation aloft falling through an above zero warm layer into a as cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals rather than
sub zero zone at the surface. The warm precipitation then water droplets. With the increased speeds of which jet aero-
either supercools in the cold air at low level or freezes on planes are capable, the heat of friction is sufficient to turn the
contact with a cold surface. Large supercooled droplets in ice crystals in the cloud to liquid droplets which subsequently
this situation develop through a condensation-coalescence freeze to the aeroplane.
process. However, studies have found that freezing precipita-
tion (especially freezing drizzle) can occur without a region of
warm air aloft. Supercooled warm rain falls from cloud that
is entirely below 0°C (called supercooled warm rain process).
6.11 Turbulence
This phenomenon is particularly common on the east coast of Turbulence is one of the most unpredictable of all the weather
Canada where 60 to 75% of freezing drizzle events occur with phenomena that are of significance to pilots. Turbulence is an
no warm air aloft. They occur when winds are from the north irregular motion of the air resulting from eddies and vertical
and east (i.e. from over the ocean). Since the classic course of currents. It may be as insignificant as a few annoying bumps
action to get out of an icing condition is to climb into the warm or severe enough to momentarily throw an aeroplane out of
air aloft, pilots are cautioned to understand that in the situa- control or to cause structural damage.
tion described above, there may be no warm layer aloft. The Most of the causes of turbulence have been mentioned in
higher you go, the smaller will be the freezing droplets and other sections of this chapter since turbulence is associated
the smaller will be the rate of catch. However, there will be no with fronts, wind shear, thunderstorms, etc.
warm air to melt the accumulated build-up.
In reporting turbulence, it is usually classed as light, mod-
Pilots flying in light aeroplanes which are not fitted with an erate, severe or extreme. The intensity of the turbulence is
outside air temperature gauge will be well advised to have one

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Turbulence

determined by the nature of the initiating agency and by the

degree of stability of the air. 6.11.2 Thermal Turbulence
Light turbulence momentarily causes slight changes in alti- Turbulence can also be expected on warm summer days when
tude and/or attitude or a slight bumpiness. Occupants of the the sun heats the earth's surface unevenly. Certain surfaces,
aeroplane may feel a slight strain against their seat belts. such as barren ground, rocky and sandy areas, are heated
more rapidly than are grass covered fields and much more
Moderate turbulence is similar to light turbulence but some- rapidly than is water. Isolated convective currents are there-
what more intense. There is, however, no loss of control of the fore set in motion which are responsible for bumpy conditions
aeroplane. Occupants will feel a definite strain against their as an aeroplane flies in and out of them. This kind of turbu-
seat belts and unsecured objects will be dislodged. lence is uncomfortable for pilot and passengers. In weather
Severe turbulence causes large and abrupt changes in altitude conditions when thermal activity can be expected, many
and/or attitude and, usually, large variations in indicated pilots prefer to fly in the early m orning or in the evening when
airspeed. The aeroplane may momentarily be out of control. the thermal activity is not as severe.
Occupants of the aeroplane w ill be forced violently against Convective currents are often strong enough to produce
their seat belts. air mass thunderstorms with which severe turbulence is
In extreme turbulence, the aeroplane is tossed violently about associated.
and is impossible to control. It may cause structural damage. Turbulence can also be expected in the lower levels of a cold
Whether turbulence w ill be light or more severe is determined air mass that is moving over a warm surface. Heating from
by the nature of the initiating agency and by the degree of below creates unstable conditions, gusty winds and bumpy
stability of the air. flying conditions.
Normal glide path Effect of convection currents
6.1u Mechanical Turbulence -::;"-. ---------
·~

Friction between the air and the ground, especially irregular

terrain and man-made obstacles, causes eddies and therefore

---
turbulence in the lower levels. The intensity of this eddy
motion depends on the strength of the surface wind, the
nature of the surface and the stability of the air. The stronger
Rocky Ploughed Trees Pavement Trees Landing field
the wind speed, the rougher the terrain and the more unstable
the air, the greater w ill be the turbulence. Of these factors Normal glide path Effect of convection currents
that affect the formation of turbulence, stability is the most
important. If the air is being heated from below, the vertical
motion will be more vigorous and extensive and the choppi-
ness more pronounced. In unstable air, eddies tend to grow in
size; in stable air, they tend not to grow in size but do dissipate
more slowly.
Trees River Wheat field Landing field
Turbulence can be expected on the windward side and over
the crests of mountains and hills if the air is unstable. There
Fig .6.50 The Effect of Thermal Turbulence
is less turbulence on the leeward side since subsidence sta-
bilizes the air. Mountain waves produce some of the most Thermal turbulence will have a pronounced effect on the
severe turbulence associated with mechanical agencies. In flight path of an aeroplane approaching a landing area. The
strong winds, even hangars and large buildings cause eddies aeroplane is subject to convective currents of varying inten-
that can be carried some distance downwind. sity set in motion over the ground along the approach path.
These thermals may displace the aeroplane from its normal
glide path with the result that it will either overshoot or
undershoot the runway (see Fig.6.50).

6.1i.3 Frontal Turbulence

The lifting of the warm air by the sloping frontal surface and
friction between th e two opposing air masses produce tur-
bulence in the frontal zone. This turbulence is most marked
wh en the warm air is moist and unstable and will be extreme-
ly severe if thunderstorms develop. Turbulence is more com-
monly associated with cold fronts but can be present, to a
lesser degree, in a warm front as well.

Fig .6.49 Mechanical Turbulence 6.1i.4 Wind Shear

Strong winds are usually quite gusty; that is, they fluctuate Any marked changes in wind with height produce local areas
of turbulence. When the change in wind speed and direction
rapidly in speed. Sudden increases in speed that last several
is pronounced, quite severe turbulence can be expected. Clear
minutes are known as squalls and they are responsible for air turbulence is associated at high altitudes with the jet
quite severe turbulence. stream. (See also Wind Shear and The Jet Stream.)

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: High Level Weather

6.1i.5 Clear Air Turbulence

Clear air turbulence (CAT) is the turbulent movement of air
masses in a sky that is practically devoid of any clouds . It
results from the intersection of bodies of air that are moving
at widely differing speeds, most often associated with the jet
stream.
Temperature gradient, wind shear, and mountain waves are
most often causal factors in the appearance of CAT. Most
frequently encountered in the upper levels of the troposphere
where it meets the tropopause, CAT is difficult to detect,
although it is often present when thin cirrus cloud is visible.
Colloquially referred to as an "air pocket", CAT can be hazard-
ous to the safety of any flight . (See also The Jet Stream.)

6.12 High Level Weather Fig.6 .52 250 hPa Chart

In recent times, there has been a rapid increase in the number High level charts are prepared by the weather service indicat-
of general aviation aeroplanes capable of flight at high levels. ing pressure distribution at heights of 18,000 feet (500 hPa)
As a result, some comment about weather conditions at these and 34,000 feet (250 hPa). The contour lines represent the
heights, between 20 and 60 thousand feet, would seem to be approximate height of the pressure level indicated by the map.
in order. There are certain aspects of weather at high levels The wind direction is parallel to the contour lines and flows
that differ from the weather that predominates at the lower
from west to east. The winds are strongest where the contour
levels. For the most part, the weather at the lower levels does
lines are closest, where the gradient is the steepest (Fig.6.52).
not extend to these great heights.
These charts are of immense value to pilots planning high
63° level flights.
50,000 55°
6.12.1 Winds at High Levels
40,000 45°
In the temperate latitudes, the prevailing winds blow from the
west to the east. The sub polar low and the subtropical high
30,000 created by the circulation cells at 60 degrees north latitude
and 30 degrees north latitude are responsible for this general
20,000 wind pattern. (See The Hemispheric Prevailing Winds.)
_ _ _ 50 The most important wind pattern in the high levels, however,
10,000 Tropical air _ __
is the jet stream, a narrow band of extremely high speed
~--------45°
winds, that flows from west to east and takes a snake like
1--..d==:::I...._L-.:::..LL..LlL__J~....L~~~• South
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Miles pattern in its path across the hemisphere. The jet streams are
closely associated with the tropopause, especially with the
Fig.6.51 Temperature Cross-Section through a Typical Front
break in the tropopause that occurs over the polar front . (See
As has been seen earlier in this chapter, the troposphere also The Jet Stream in the Section Winds.)
extends up to a level between 20 and 60 thousand feet and
is characterized by a general decrease of temperature with 6.12.2 Turbulence at High Levels
height. Separating the troposphere from the stratosphere is
Cumulonimbus clouds very often extend to very great heights
the tropopause.
even several thousand feet into the stratosphere. Severe tur-
The troposphere is composed of a number of different air bulence is associated with such towering build-ups even at
masses with different characteristics and temperatures. The high levels.
height of the tropopause over warm air masses originating in
The most severe turbulence at high levels is clear air turbu-
hot regions is quite high, over cold air masses originating over
lence, a bumpy condition that occurs in cloudless sky and, for
arctic regions quite low. As these air masses move away from
that reason, is encountered without warning. It can be severe
their source regions, they carry their tropopauses with them.
enough to be hazardous to high performance aeroplanes.
As a result, at the polar front that separates the warm tropical
Clear air turbulence is associated with wind shear within
air mass from the cold polar air mass, the height change of the
the jet stream. (See also Clear Air Turbulence in the Section
tropopause occurs rather abruptly, producing a distinct break
Winds.)
in it. Sometimes the two parts seem to overlap and sometimes
there is quite a gap between them (Fig.6.51).
The position of the tropopause can sometimes be visually
6.12.3 Visibility at High Levels
recognized quite clearly. There is frequently a haze layer with Usually there is little smoke or dust at altitudes above 20,000
a definite top at the tropopause. Anvil tops of thunderstorms feet. In some cases, smoke from large forest fires and smoke
spread out at the tropo-pause even though the convective and dust from volcanic eruptions may rise to the tropopause.
core of a particularly active cell may extend up into the However, such occurrences are not common.
stratosphere. Winds are normally strongest at the tropopause, Haze layers which are not visible to a ground observer are fre-
decre asing above and below it. Wind shear and turbulence quently present in the upper troposphere. They are less dense
occur near the tropopause. than cirrus cloud but nevertheless do restrict visibility to zero

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Awareness

when the aeroplane is flying into the sun. Such haze layers Look for showers when
occur in stagnant air masses. • Thunderclouds develop in a westerly wind.
Most cloud above 20,000 feet is composed of ice crystals. The • Cumulus clouds develop rapidly in the early
cirrus layers may vary in thickness from less than 100 feet to afternoon in the spring or summer.
more than 20,000 feet. Cirrus cloud is frequently found above • The barometer rises.
30,000 feet and sometimes above 40,000 feet.
• The wind shifts into the west or northwest.
Substances, such as dust, smoke and haze, that are obstruc- • The temperature falls.
tions to visibility originate on the earth's surface and must be
Look for continued bright weather when
carried aloft by strong vertical currents. In the stratosphere
the air is stable. Obscuring materials therefore cannot be • You can look directly at the sun
transported above the tropopause. Visibility in the strato- when it sets like a ball of fire .
sphere is excellent. However, it is very difficult to spot other • The barometer is steady or slowly rising.
aeroplanes in the stratosphere, possibly because there is lack • Cloudiness decreases after 3 p.m. or 4 p.m .
of detail in the surroundings to provide contrast or to provide
• Morning fog breaks within two hours after sunrise.
a focal point on which the eyes can focus. The condensation
trail formed by the passage of an aeroplane is about the only • There is a light breeze from the west or northwest.
way to spot that aeroplane at distances greater than 5 nautical • There is a red sunset.
m iles. (See also Vapour Trails .) Look for higher temperatures when
• The barometer falls. In summer a falling
6.12.4 Icing at High Levels barometer may indicate cloudy weather
Icing above 20,000 feet is rare since most clouds are composed which will be cooler than in clear weather.
of ice crystals. • The wind swings away from the north or the west.
However, very high speed aeroplanes may experience icing • The morning sky is clear, except when the
problems in cirrus clouds . The heat due to friction is suf- barometer is high or is rising in wintertime, or
ficient to melt the ice crystals in the cloud to liquid droplets if the wind is strong from the north or west.
which subsequently freeze to the cold exterior surfaces of the Look for lower temperatures when
aeroplane. • The wind swings from the southwest into the west,
or from the west into the northwest or north.
6.12.5 Canopy Static • When skies are clearing (although clearing skies
Canopy static is sometimes a problem at high levels. It is in the morning will likely mean warmer weather
caused by the discharge of static electricity generated by the by afternoon, particularly in the summer).
friction between solid particles in the atmosphere, especially • In the winter, the barometer rises.
the ice crystals in the cirrus clouds, and the plastic covered • Snow flurries occur with a west or north wind.
aeroplane surfaces. It reduces radio reception and can occur
• Pressure is low and falling rapidly, wind east
in such rapid succession that it seems to be a continuous
or northeast and backing slowly into north.
disturbance. Changing altitude will generally eliminate the
(The fall in temperature will be gradual.)
problem.

6.14 Weather Information

6.13 Weather Awareness
The format and method by which aviation weather informa-
Look for cloudy u nsettled w eather when tion is distributed is subject to frequent revision. The reader is
• The barometer is falling. advised to check recent NOTAMS and the AIM for any changes
• The temperature at night is higher than usual. that might have been incorporated since publication of this
edition.
• The clouds move in different
directions at different levels.
6.14.1 Weather Charts
• High thin white clouds (cirrus) increase. A
large ring appears around the sun or moon Canadian weather charts are prepared on a regular schedule
and stays there until the overcast clouds by the Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) and dissemi-
thicken and obscure the sun or moon. nated to all weather offices and flight service stations. They
• Summer afternoon clouds darken. are used by meteorologists and briefers to give weather brief-
Look for steady precipitation w hen ings to pilots. Along with weather reports and forecasts, they
provide a comprehensive picture of the weather.
• There have been signs of unsettled weather.
• The wind is south or southeast, the pressure Surface Analysis Charts
falling. Rain (or snow) within a day if the Surface analysis charts are issued in all countries to show the
pressure is falling slowly. If it is falling
state of the weather at a specific date and time.
rapidly, rain soon with winds increasing.
The construction of the analysis chart, so far as the represen-
• The wind is southeast to northeast, the
tation of high and low pressure areas, with their accompany-
pressure falling. Rain (or snow) soon.
ing wind systems, temperatures and frontal conditions will be
• Thunderclouds developing against more readily understood by reference to the sections Isobars,
a south or southeast wind.

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 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

High and Low Pressure Areas, Air Masses and Fronts which Dashed lines represent isotherms connecting areas of equal
were discussed in the preceding pages of this Chapter. temperature and are labelled in 5° increments. They appear
Surface pressure patterns can be considered as representative only on the 850 hPa charts and the 700 hPa charts.
of the atmosphere up to 3,000 feet AGL. Some surface analysis Fronts are indicated on upper level charts only when they
charts may include additional weather information. extend up to the pressure level of the chart and appear usually
only on the 850 h Pa charts. Information from a reporting sta-
A typical surface analysis chart prepared by the Meteorological
Service of Canada is reproduced as Appendix B at the end of tion is indicated as on a surface analysis chart but is called a
this book. This chart depicts the surface weather at a given plotting model rather than a station model. Information about
time for all of Canada and the United States. The information wind direction and speed is included in the plotting model.
used to compile such a chart is received from weather stations
all over the continent which m ake hourly reports. The charts Upper Level Prognostic Charts
themselves are issued fou r times a day at six hour intervals. Upper level prognostic (forecast) charts, like their surface
However, it is several hou rs after the information is received counterparts, are useful in anticipating weather condition s
before th e charts can be prepared and distributed, so that which may be expected to exist at some later specified time.
they are always several hours out of date when received at
Upper level wind and temperature prognostic (forecast) charts
the weather office. The time of the observations on which the are prepared for FL240, 340, 390 and 450. They are issued 12
chart is based is indicated in the title box on the corner of the hours before the time for which they are valid and depict
chart. Reporting stations are marked by circles and weather forecast winds and temperatures for the chart level. They are
information is placed around the station circle in a standard issued four times a day.
pattern called a station model. All of the symbols used on a
weather chart are depicted and explained on the reverse side
of the weath er chart in Appendix B, at the end of this book.
TEMPERATURE
-47°C
Surface Prognostic Charts •......-.;.....;:=-i. 60" WEST
Surface prognostic (forecast) charts are issued to sh ow wh at LONGITUDE
the weather ch art is expected to look like, a specified number STATION
IDENTIFIER
of hours hence. Th ey are actually graphic forecasts of the
expected movement of high and low pressure areas, with
WIND250"T
their accompanying weather systems, and hence are valuable AT30KT
to a pilot in predicting changes which may occur before his/
FL340 WIND!TEMPERATURES VALID 0000 UTC SUN 26 JUN 2022 BASED ON 1200
her actual time of departure or during the progress of his/ UTC SAT 2S JUN 2022 WIND SPEED IN KNOTS, TEM PS UNSIGNED UNLESS POSITIVE
her flight. The charts are issued 48 hours before the time for
which they are valid and a second revised chart is issued 12 Fig.6.53 Upper Level Wind & Temperature Prognostic Chart
hours later (36 hours before the time for wh ich it is valid). As
Winds are depicted using arrow shafts with pennants (50
w ith surface analysis charts, the pressure patterns depicted
knots each), full feathers (10 knots each) and half feathers (5
can be considered representative of the atmospheric weather
knots each). Th e orient ation of the arrow indicates wind direc-
up to 3,000 feet AGL.
tion in degrees true and a small number at the pennant end of
the arrow shaft gives the 10s digit of th e wind direction.
Upper Level Analysis Charts
Temperatures in degrees Celsius are presented in circles at
Upper level analysis charts are similar in construction to
fixed grid points for the flight level. All temperatures are nega-
surface analysis charts, except that they show flow patterns
tive unless otherwise noted.
aloft. Actual weather conditions in the upper air are measured
twice a day at OOOOZ and at 12002. The data is plotted on con- Wind and temperature information from these charts, in con-
stant pressure analysis charts for specific pressure levels in junction with the upper winds and temperature forecast (FD)
the atmosphere. Each upper level analysis chart depicts actual and the significant weather prognostic (forecast) charts (see
weath er conditions aloft at a specific time. following) can be used to determine wind shear and clear air
t u rbulence (CAT).
Upper level analysis charts are prepared for 850, 700, 500
and 250 hectopascals (representing on the average the 5,000
ft/1,500 m, 10,000 ft/3,000 m, 18,000 ft/5,500 m and 34,000 Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
ft/10,400 m levels). These charts show reported atmospheric Significant weather prognostic (forecast) charts are prepared
conditions at the pressure levels, such as wind speed and for FL 100 - 240 (the mid levels of the atmosphere) and for FL
direction, temperatures, moisture content and frontal and 250 - 630 (the high levels). They show occurring and forec ast
pressure systems. Used in conjunction with the surface analy- conditions considered to be of concern to aircraft operations.
sis charts, they give a picture of the extent of the weather They are issued 4 times a day, 12 hours before the time for
systems, cloud levels, thunderstorms, rain, etc. which they are valid.
The solid lines on an upper level analysis chart represent the The charts for FL 250 - 600 forecast any significant weather,
approximate heigh t of the pressure level indicated by the ch art such as thunderstorms, cloud heights when they extend
and are called contour lines rather than isobars as they are into the heights depicted by the chart, tropopause heights,
called on surface analysis ch arts. The contours are labelled in jet streams, turbulence, severe squall lines, icing and hail,
decameters (10's of m etres). On a 500 hPa chart, for example, widespread sand and dust storms, tropical cyclones and hurri-
540 means 5,400 metres. On a 250 hPa chart, 020 means 10,200 canes, and the surface positions of frontal systems associated
metres. Contours are spaced 60 metres apart on 850, 700 and with significant weather phenomena.
500 hPa charts and 120 metres apart on 250 hPa charts.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

2. The Limited Weather Information System (LWIS)

JET STREAM CORE SPEED 130 KTS
AT FL340 INCREASE TO 150KTS which collects limited data hourly, report-
AT FL350
ing wind direction, speed and gust, tempera-
TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT
ture, dew point, and altimeter setting
FL340
Both AWOS and LWIS may be equipped with a voice generation
~~""1~&rii~~kll / MODERATE TURBULANCE BETWEEN
'; FL300 AND FL400 WITHIN AREA module that users may access via VHF radio. Frequencies may
BOUNDED BY BROKEN LINE
be found within those Canada Flight Supplement listings where
the service is available.
Note that with respect to AWOS data gathering, it may take
upwards of 15 minutes for the weather to cross the AWOS
sensors before the weather is fully detected. AWOS system
algorithms can only then process the data. Owing to this con-
sideration, the reported weather observation m ay differ from
the current weather in the vicinity of the aerodrome.
At major airports, a fully automatic and computer-controlled
operational information display system (OIDS) provides con-
Fig . 6.54 Significant Weather Prognostic Chart tinuously updated information for the now wind and the mean
wind. The now wind is averaged over the last 5 seconds; the
The charts for the lower levels (FL 100 - 250) depict any of
mean wind is averaged over the last 2 minutes. The mean wind
the above conditions which are applicable and also include
is given in ATIS broadcasts; landing and taxiing information
information on moderate to severe icing, cloud layers of sig-
is inputted into the AWOS data. The now wind is given for
nificance, marked mountain waves, the freezing level line at
landing and take-off clearance and on pilot request. OIDS also
10,000 feet and the surface positions and direction of move-
determines the current altimeter setting and reads the runway
ment of frontal and pressure systems. The recorded pressure
visual range (RVR) as an average over the last 1 minute.
at the centre of high and low pressure areas is indicated in
hectopascals; for example, H x 1020 or L x 996. NavCanada aviation weather cameras (WxCam) are installed
at weather observation sites. These transmit images every
The symbols used in significant weather prognostic (fore-
10 minutes to the NavCanada Aviation Weather Web Site for
cast) charts are depicted and explained on the reverse of the
viewing by site users. (See Internet in this Chapter.) Also, one
weather chart in Appendix B.
or more cameras (webcams) not belonging to NavCanada but
accessible to pilots, may be installed at various observation
Interpreting Weather Charts sites. Aerodrome operators should be contacted for information
In the reproduction of the surface weather chart (see Appendix regarding the presence of on-site webcams.
B), note the frontal pattern, the distribution of pressure, and
the general circulation of the wind. The following observations 6.14.3 Weather Reporting Systems
are a few of the many and varied deductions that a pilot might
make by studying the weather ch art. An aviation weather report is a statement of weather condi-
tions actually existing at a particular place at a given time.
A cold front, now lying off the Atlantic coast, brought sunny They are taken hourly by trained observers or by AWOS/ LWIS at
skies to the Maritime Provinces. The high pressure area has
hundreds of stations throughout Canada and the United States.
also brought cool temperatures. A quasi-stationary front, lying
in an east west line through Maryland and Virginia will proba- Information about current weather is also available via the
bly move towards Nova Scotia, bringing cloud and precipitation weather radar network which issues reports in graphic form.
to that area. An arctic cold front is moving southward out of the Observations of actual conditions observed by pilots during
prairies towards southern Ontario. Temperatures in the cold flight are available as PIREPs. Runway surface condition
air are near freezing. A warm front has moved across British reports detail runway conditions at aerodromes all across the
Columbia and has now reached central Alberta. A widespread continent.
area of rain and low cloud is affecting the weather there.
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
6.14.2 Weather Observation Systems Weather data is transmitted in a code called METAR which is
the name given to the international meteorological code for an
Weather observations are taken every hour at selected aero-
aviation routine weather report. METAR observations are nor-
dromes and at other locations throughout Canada and the U.S.
mally taken and disseminated on the hour. A SPEC!, a special
Th ere are over 230 surface weather observation sites in Canada.
aviation weather report, is reported when weather changes of
Observations are taken by specially trained observers or by
significance to aviation are observed. METAR and SPEC! reports
automated systems. The weather data is collected then coded
are not encoded by the observer but are generated electroni-
into weather observations for dissemination.
cally. The code used for METAR is composed of groups which
There are two types of automated weather stations used for the are always in the same relative position to one another. When
gathering of weather data for aviation. They are: a weather element or phenomenon does not occur, the group is
1. Th e Automated Weather Observation System (AWOS) omitted. The METAR code sequence is as follows: report name;
which con sists of a full suite of sensors that measure station identifier, date and time of observation; wind and gust
cloud base height, sky cover, visibility, temperature, information; variations in wind direction; prevailing visibility;
dew point, wind velocity, altimeter setting, precipita- runway visual range and variation in RVR; present weather; sky
tion occurrence (type, amount and intensity), and icing condition; obscured sky; temperature and dewpoint; altimeter
setting; recent weather; wind shear; remarks. The contents of
each of these groups is described in detail below.

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 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

The aviation weather reports describe the existing weather WIND & GUST INFORMATION
conditions at specific times and at specific stations. They do The 2 minute mean wind direction and speed are reported in
not give the complete weather picture. Between stations that a 5 digit grouping. Information on gust activity is preceded by
are a hundred miles apart, the weather can be drastically dif- the letter G and follows the wind direction and speed grouping.
ferent than that reported at either station. In addition, weather
conditions can change very quickly and be quite different from
the condition reported at a particular airport in the time it
takes you to fly there.
For the full weather picture, consult the reports over several
hours to determine the improving or deteriorating trends and
also consult the forecasts.

REPORT NAME
The code name METAR or SPEC! is given in the first line of text. Fig.6.55 Wind Direction
A METAR report is the regular hourly report. A SPEC! report is
issued when significant changes in weather conditions occur Wind direction is that from which the wind is blowing. It is
off the hour. always reported in a 3 digit grouping given in degrees true and
rounded off to the nearest 10 degrees. The third digit is there-
STATION IDENTIFIER fore always a zero. A wind blowing directly from the north is
Weather reporting stations are assigned four letter identifiers reported as 360. Wind speeds are reported in knots in a 2 digit
in both Canada and the United States. In the U.S., the first letter grouping.
of the identifier is K to denote a U.S. station. The three letters In the case of mean wind speeds of 3 knots or less and a vari-
that follow the first are an abbreviation of the airport name; for
able direction, the speed grouping is encoded as VRB.
example, "PIT" for Pittsburgh would appear as KPIT. In Canada
the first letter of the identifier is C to denote a Canadian station. Calm is encoded as OOOOOKT
The three letters following the C identify the station. The first Gust information is included if gust wind speeds exceed the
letter of the three letter group historically indicates the type of mean wind speed by 10 knots or more in the 10 minute period
weather reporting station. preceding the observation. The letter G indicates the existence
For Example: of gust conditions and the 2 or 3 digit group that follows the
G reports the peak gust. If the gust criteria are not met, the G
"Y" historically indicates a reporting sta- grouping is omitted.
tion co-located with an airport.
Wind units are reported as KMH, KT and MPS, the standard
"Z" historically is used only if the "Y" could cause !CAO abbreviations for kilometers per hour, knots and meters
a conflict with an identifier in use in the U.S.A. per second, respectively. In Canada and the U.S., wind speed is
"W" historically indicates a reporting sta- reported in knots.
tion not co-located with an airport. Therefore, a wind grouping 04010G25KT indicates a wind
"U" historically indicates a reporting sta- blowing from 040° true at 10 knots, gusting to 25 knots. A wind
tion co-located with a radio beacon. grouping 270VRB indicates a light and variable wind blowing
Thus, "CYOW" which is the identifier for Ottawa/MacDonald- from 270° true.
Cartier International Airport is so identified owing to it histori- VARIATIONS IN WIND DIRECTION
cally having been co-located with a weather reporting station. It A grouping composed of 3 digits, the letter V and 3 more digits
should be noted that "OW," as it is for all other major Canadian is used to report variations in wind direction. It is included only
airport identifiers - "VR" for Vancouver, "QB" for Quebec City, if, during the 10 minute period preceding the observation, the
"WG" for Winnipeg, "YC" for Calgary, etc. - is a designation that wind direction varies 60 degrees or more and the mean speed
is carried over from Canada's transcontinental railway station exceeds 3 knots. The two extreme directions are encoded in
Morse code assignment system. clockwise order.
DATE & TIME OF OBSERVATION Therefore, 060V130 indicates that the wind is varying from
A 6 digit grouping giving the date and the time of observation in 060° to 130°.
UTC (universal co-ordinated time) is included in all reports. The
official time of observation (on the hour) is used for all METAR PREVAILING VISIBILITY
reports that do not deviate from the official time by more than A grouping composed of no more than 3 digits and the letters
10 minutes. In SPEC! reports, the time is reported in hours and SM reports the prevailing visibility in statute miles and frac-
minutes and refers to the time at which the weather changes tions thereof. If the visibility in any one sector of the runway is
occurred that required the issue of the report. The word AUTO less than the prevailing visibility, that information is reported
follows the date and time grouping when the report is from an as remarks at the end of the METAR report.
automatic weather observation station (AWOS). A correction to In Canada and the U.S., visibility is reported in statute miles. In
a METAR or SPEC! is denoted by the letters CCA (for the first cor- other countries, it is reported in metres.
rection}, CCB (for the second correction), etc.
Therefore, 1/2SM indicates a prevailing visibility of 1/2 of a
Therefore, a date and time grouping 201200Z AUTO indicates statute mile.
a report taken on the 20th day of the month at 1200 UTC by an
automated weather station. A date and time grouping 170500Z RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE & VARIATIONS IN RVR
CCA indicates the first correction of a report taken on the 17th Runway visual range information is included whenever the
day of the month at 0500 UTC. prevailing visibility is 1 mile or less and/or the runway visual
range is 6,000 feet or less.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

The grouping is identified by the letter R which precedes a The descriptors DR (drifting) and BL (blowing) are used only in
2 digit group that designates the runway (e.g. 08). The let- combination with snow (SN), dust (DU) and sand (SA). Drifting
ters L, C or R (left, centre or right) are added if there are 2 or is used when the phenomenon is below 2 metres; 2 metres
more parallel runways. A slash followed by a 4 digit grouping or more is defined as blowing. If snow and blowing snow are
reports the visual range in hundreds of feet. The letters FT occurring together, both are reported but in separate groups
indicate that the units for RVR are feet. A slash followed by (for example SN BLSN)
the letter D, U or N indicates the trend in the RVR. A distinct
upward or downward change of 300 feet or more is encoded SH (shower) is used only in combination w ith one or more of
as U or D (upward or downward). An N indicates no distinct rain (RA), snow (SN), ice pellets (PL), snow pellets (GS) and hail
change has been observed. When it is not possible to observe (GR}. For example, SHPL indicates ice pellet showers; -SHRAGR
the tendency, the tendency indicator is omitted. indicates light showers composed of rain and hail.
Therefore, R29L/4000FT/U indicates a runway visual range for TS (thunderstorm) will be reported either alone or in combina-
runway 29 left of 4,000 feet. The trend indicates an upward, tion with one or more of the precipitation types. The end of a
improving change. thunderstorm is the time at which the last thunder is heard,
followed by a 15 minute period with no further thunder.
PRESENT WEATHER
The grouping representing present weather may consist of FZ (freezing) is used only in combination with fog (FG), drizzle
up to three groups. Each group may contain from two to nine (DZ) and rain (RA}.
characters. Weather phenomena. Different forms of precipitation are
Present weather comprises weather phenomena which may combined in one group, the dominant form being reported
be one or more forms of precipitation, obscuration or other first. The intensity qualifier represents the overall intensity of
phenomena. Weather phenomena are preceded by one or two the entire group, not just one component of the group.
qualifiers which describe the intensity of or proximity to the
Precipitation forms are reported as follows:
station of the phenomenon, the other of which describes the
phenomenon. Descriptor Weather Precipitation
Intensity is reported as (-) light, (no sign) moderate, or (+) DZ Drizzle
heavy. RA Rain
SN Snow
The proximity qualifier VC (for vicinity) is used in conjunction
SG Snow Grains
with the following phenomena:
PL Ice Pellets
Descriptor Weather Phenomena GR Hail
DS Duststorm GS Snow Pellets
SS Sandsto rm IC Ice crystals
FG Fog UP Unknown Precipitation (AUTO)
SH Shower
PO Dust or Sand Swirls Fig. 6.58 Weather Precipitation Descriptors
BLDU Blowing Dust
Obscuration. Obstructions to vision are reported whenever
BLSA Blowing Sand
the prevailing visibility is 6 miles or less. An obscuration
BLSN Blowing Snow
occurring simultaneously with one or more forms of precipi-
FC Tornado, Waterspout or Funnel Clouds
tation is reported in a separate group.
Fig.6.56 Present Weather Phenomena Descriptor Weather Obscuration
HZ Haze
VC is used when these phenomena are observed within 8 km
(5 s.m.) but are not at the station. VCFC (tornadoes in the vicin- FU Smoke
ity) shall be reported without regard to any distance restric- SA Sand
tion. When VC is associated with SH (showers) in a report, the OU Oust
type and intensity of precipitation is not specified. FG Fog (VSBY less than 5/ 8)
BR Mist (VSBY equal to or greater than 5/8)
Th e descriptor: no present weather group has more than one
VA Volcanic Ash
descriptor.
Descriptor Weather Description Fig. 6.59 Weather Obscurati on Descriptors
Ml Shallow
Other Phenomena are reported as follows:
BC Patches
DR Drifting Descriptor Weather Phenomena
BL Blowing PO Dust/ Sand Whirls
SH Shower(s) SS Sandstorm
TS Thunderstorm DS Duststorm
PR Partial SQ Squalls
FZ Freezing +FC Tornado/ Waterspout
FC Funnel Cloud
Fig.6. 57 Present We ather Descriptors
Fig.6.60 Weather Phenomena Descriptors
The descriptors MI (shallow), PR (partial) and BC (patches) are
used only in conjunction with fog (FG). For example, BCFG Th erefore, -RADZ BR indicates light rain and drizzle with mist,
indicates fog patches. visibility greater or equal to 5/8 statute miles. +BLSN indicates
heavy blowing snow.

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 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

SKY CONDITION TEMPERATURE & DEWPOINT

As seen in the section Clouds, sky condition for layers aloft The air temperature and the dewpoint are reported in 2 two
are reported in a group th at symbolizes layer coverage and digit groups separated by a slash (/). Th ey are rounded to the
the height of the layers above station elevation. Cloud amount nearest whole degree Celsius. Negative values are preceded
is encoded as follows: by the letter M.

Descriptor Sky Condition Therefore, 15/10 indicates an air temperature of 15°C and a
CLR Sky clear (AWOS Report) dewpoint temperature of 10°C.
SKC Sky clear; no cloud present MOS/ MlO indicates an air temperatu re of m inus 5°C and a
FEW Trace to 2 oktas (2/8 of the sky is covered) dewpoint temperature of minus 10°C.
3 to 4 oktas (3/8 to 4/ 8 of
SCT
the sky is covered) ALTIMETER SETTING
5 to less than 8 oktas (5/8 to less The altimeter setting is given in hundredths of inches using
BKN tha n 8/8 of the sky is covered)
fou r digits preceded by the letter A. (Internationally, th e
OVC 8 oktas (8/8 of the sky is covered)
altimeter setting is reported to the nearest hectopascal and is
preceded by the letter Q).
Fig. 6.61 Sky Condition Descriptors
Therefore, A2992 indicates an altimeter setting of 29.92 inches
In METAR reporting, the celestial dome is divided into 8 seg- of m ercury.
ments, each called an okta.
Q1013, in an international METAR report, indicates an altim-
There is no provision in METAR for reporting thin layers or eter setting of 1013 hectopascals.
partially obscured condition except for the design ation SKC. A
cloud ceiling is said to exist at the heigh t of the first layer for RECENT WEATHER
which the coverage symbol BKN or OVC is reported. The METAR report includes information on recent weather.
The group is preceded by the letters RE followed, without
Significant convective clouds, when observed , are identified
a space, by th e appropriate abbreviation for th e applicable
by adding th e letters CB (cumulonimbus) or TCU (towering
weather when the phenom ena were observed during the hou r
cumulus) to the cloud group without a space.
since the last routine report but not at the time of observation.
The height of the layer above station elevation is reported in The RE group may also be included in SPEC! reports.
increm ents of 100 feet to a h eight of 10,000 feet, thereafter in
Th e following m ay be reported as recent ph enomena: freezing
increments of 1,000 feet.
precipitation; moderate or heavy rain, drizzle or snow; mod-
Hei ht Reporting Hei ht Reporting erate or heavy ice pellets, hail or snow pellets; moderate or
g Format g Format
heavy blowing snow; sandstorm or du ststorm; thunderstorm ;
100 feet 001 5,000 feet 050 volcanic ash.
400 feet 004 10,000 feet 100
500 feet 005 12,000 feet 120
The same weather phenomenon will be reported in both the
1,000 feet
present weather and in the recent weather groups only if the
010 25,000 feet 250
phenomenon was of greater intensity du ring the period since
3,000 feet 030 30,000 feet 300
the last METAR report.
Fi g. 6.62 Height of Cloud Layer Designations Therefore, a moderate rainshower at the time of observation
with a heavy rainshower 20 minutes before the time of obser-
The term CAVOK is not used in Canada in METAR reports. vation would be coded SHRA in the present weath er grouping
Reports from other countries may use the term. When it and as RERA in the recent weather grouping.
is used, the term implies that the following conditions are
occurring: visibility of REBLSN indicates moderate blowing snow has occurred since
the last routine report.
10 kilometers or more; no cloud below 5,000 feet; no precipita-
tion, thunderstorm, sandstorm, duststorm, shallow fog or low WIND SHEAR
drifting dust, sand or snow. The term CAVOK is still used in The wind shear group, identified by the indicator WS, is used
Canada by ATC and is used in ATJS messages. to report low level w ind sh ear (within 1,600 feet AGL) on th e
Therefore, SCT 050 indicates scattered clouds at 5,000 feet. take-off and approach path. The runway designator RWY is
normally followe d by a 2 digit group to indicate the runway
BKN 030 BKNlOOindicates a broken sky condition at 3,000 feet number but the letters L, C or R may be included if there are
and at 10,000 feet. parallel runways.
SCT 030 SCT 040TCU indicates scattered clouds at 3,000 feet Therefore, WS RWY18 indicates that windshear was encoun-
and scattered towering cumulus at 4,000 feet. tered on runway 18.
FEW 004 BKN 080 indicates a few clouds at 400 feet and a WS RWY20R indicates th at windshear was encountered on
broken condition at 8,000 feet. runway 20 right.
OBSCURED SKY (VERTICAL VISIBILITY) WS ALL RWY indicates that windshear was encountered on
When the sky is obscured, a three digit group following the all runways.
letters VV is included in th e METAR report. VV is the group
identifier and the vertical visibility is reported in units of REMARKS
hundreds of feet. The inclusion of a vertical visibility in the The remarks grouping is identified by the indicator RMK
METAR report indicates an obscured sky condition. and includes information on cloud type a nd layer opacity (in
oktas), sea level pressure (SLP) in hectopascals and any other
Therefore, VVOlO indicates that the sky is obscured and verti- information significant to aviation, such as density altitude.
cal visibility is 1,000 feet.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

Therefore, RMK SC3 CIO SLP134 DENSITY ALTITUDE 2500 RMK SFSNS3 SLP134: Remarks (RMK means remarks; SFS
FT indicates 3/8 opacity of stratocumulus, 0 opacity of cirrus means 5 oktas of stratus fractus cloud; NS3 means 3 oktas
and sea level pressure of 1013.4 hPa, and a density altitude of of nimbostratus cloud; SLP134 means sea level pressure of
2,500 ft. 1013.4 hPa).
RMK ST8 ACSL OVR ROG NW SLP992 indicates 8/8 opacity of
stratus, mountain wave clouds (altocumulus standing lenticu- Weather Radar Network
lar) were reported over the ridge northwest of the station. Sea Specially designated weather surveillance radars are installed
level pressure of 999.2 hPa. at sites across Canada. Observations are made of precipitation
The following abbreviations are used for the various cloud areas and convection type storms. The computer-generated
types: composite reports are transmitted in graphic form and give a
visual representation of the radar report. They are transmit-
Descriptor Cloud Type ted on weather communication circuits and are also available
Ci cirrus on weather websites such as the NavCanada Aviation Weather
St stratus Web Site. Radar images are updated approximately every 10
Cs cirrostratus minutes for individual radars.
Sf stratus fractus
Weather radar imagery is broken down into two components:
Cc cirrocumulus
a precipitation intensity component and an echo tops com-
Sc stratocumulu s ponent. The precipitation component provides an indication
As altostratu s of precipitation intensity measured by rate of fall in mm/hr
Cu cumulu s or cm/hr, at a specific altitude. Two settings are used for the
Ac altocumulu s scale: one for rain with a scale of up to 300 mm/hr, and one for
Cf cumulu s fractu s snow w ith a rate of fa ll of up to 40 cm/ hr. The echo tops radar
Ace altocumulu s ca stellanus component provides an indication of the vertical extent of
Tcu towering cumulu s the precipitation area, though cloud tops could extend higher
Ns nimbostratu s than the precipitation area itself.
Cb cumulonimbu s
The radar presents a display of weather in a 150 nautical mile
radius. The rate of movement (velocity) of the precipitation
Fig.6.63 Cloud Type Designations
areas is determined by the doppler system and is accurate
The following example is that of a METAR weather report. for a 65 nautical mile {120 kilometer) radius. Radar does not
show turbulence. Turbulence is usually associated with heavy
METAR CYWG 1720002 30015G25KT 3/4SM R36/ 4000 FT/D
rainfall and can be presumed, therefore, to be present in any
-SN BLSN BKN008 OVC040 M05/M08 A2992 REF2RA WS
area showing heavy precipitation.
RWY36 RMK SFSNS3 SLP134
Radar returns are usually described by colour or level. The
Decoded the above reads:
colours normally range from blue or green (indicating weak
METAR: METAR report. returns), to red or magenta (which indicate very strong
CYWG: Code letters of reporting station (CYWG means returns). By way of example, a yellow return on the scale of
Winnipeg). reflectivity indicates moderate precipitation of approximately
6.4 mm per hour (35 dB2}. A red return on the scale of reflec-
1720002: Date and time of observation (17 means 17th day of
tivity indicates heavy precipitation of approximately 51 mm
the month; 20002 means 2000 UTC).
per hour (50 dB2}. A magenta return on the scale of reflectivity
30015G25KT: Wind and gust information (300 means that indicates extremely heavy precipitation of approximately 410
the wind is from 300° true; 15 means windspeed is 15 knots; mm per hour (65 dBZ).
G25KT means gusts to 25 knots have been reported).
Weather radar colour composite products integrate several
3/4SM: Prevailing visibility (3/4SM means 3/4 statute mile). individual radar images into a single product. This has the
R36/4000FT/D: Runway visual range (R36 means runway 36; advantage of reducing issues such as radar signal attenuation
/4000FT/D means visual range is 4,000 feet and is decreasing). and masking by virtue of having adjacent radar sites observe
precipitation areas from different directions.
-SN BLSN: Present weather {-SN means light snow; BLSN
means blowing snow). Pilots who are not experienced with interpreting weather
radar products should always consult weather briefers when
BKN008 OVC040: Sky condition (BKN008 means broken cloud using such products for flight planning.
cover at 800 feet; OVC040 means overcast at 4,000 feet).
M05/M08: Temperature and dewpoint (MOS means air tem- Satellite Imagery
perature of minus 5°C; M08 means dewpoint temperature of Satellite images are taken from either geostationary or polar
minus 8°C). orbiting weather satellites. Two of the most common types of
A2992: Altimeter setting {A2992 means altimeter setting of satellite imagery are visible and infrared, and both are avail-
29.92 inches of mercury). able from the NavCanada Aviation Weather Web Site.
REF2RA: Recent weather (REFZRA means freezing rain was Geostationary satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of
reported since the last scheduled report but is not present at approximately 36,000 km over the equator. Their position does
the time of this observation). not change relative to a point on the surface of the earth. Polar
orbiting satellites orbit the earth at an approximate altitude of
WS RWY36: Windshear {WS means windshear was reported
850 km, circling the earth 14 times per day.
on runway 36).

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

The complexities associated to interpreting satellite imagery Controllers and flight service personnel are also required to
is such that pilots should always consider consulting weather obtain PIREP during the climb-out and approach phases of
briefers when using satellite products for flight planning flight when less than VMC conditions exist.
purposes. PIREP should be passed directly to an FIC specialist via an
en route frequency, if airborne, or via a toll-free or collect
telephone call, after landing. In transmitting a PIREP, you
should include time of observation, type of aircraft, altitude,
position and meteorological conditions. PIREPs received by
flight service personnel will be immediately disseminated
on meteorological communications circuits and provided to
other ATS units.
It is good practice to m ake a habit of filing pilot reports on
w eather conditions you encounter when flying cross-country.
Report good weather as well as bad, especially if the condi-
tions are better than forecast and/or are improving. That
information m ay be very useful to a fellow pilot facing a
"GO"!"NO GO" decision back at h ome base.
Clear air turbulence (CAT) PIREP provide the best information
on this phenomenon and any pilot encountering CAT should
report it to the radio facility with which he/she is in contact.
Wind shear PIREP are also valuable, since strong wind shear
close to the ground is a hazard to aircraft during landing and
take-off. Since few instruments are available to detect and
Fig . 6.64 Weather Radar Map Showing Intensity & Height
measure this phenomenon, any pilot encountering it should
report it immediately. Pilots using inertial navigation systems
Pilot Reports (PIREP) (INS) should report the wind and altitude both above and
Observations of actual conditions taken by pilots during below the wind shear layer. Pilots without this equipment
flight, referred to as PIREPs, are also available on the com - should report loss or gain of airspeed and the altitude at
munication circuits. They are reports of any unusual weather which it was en countered and the general effect on the air-
conditions encountered, such as unpredicted thunderstorms, craft of the wind shear encounter.
tornadoes, h ail, severe icing or turbulence, mountain waves, Airframe icing sh ould also be reported. Since the accumula-
low ceilings or visibility. They are especially valuable as they tion of ice on an aeroplane can be hazardous, knowledge of the
provide up-to-date information that is not so promptly avail- existence of icing conditions will assist other pilots to avoid
able from forecasts or ground reporting stations. Th ey may them. Icing conditions are reported as to intensity (trace, light,
also be the only inform ation available for areas between moderate or severe) and as to type (rime or clear).
reporting stations, especially mountain and large water areas
Volcanic ash is potentially dangerous to aircraft and any
where weather commonly develops.
encounter with it should be reported immediately. Pilot
Pilots are urged to provide PIREPs to any FIC or ATS facilities reports on this phenomenon can provide valuable informa-
over normal en route n avaid and voice frequencies. Such tion on the spread of volcanic ash from an eruption. Volcanic
reporting should include cloud tops, upper cloud layers, cruis- ash can rise rapidly to altitudes above 60,000 feet and exist in
ing level wind velocities, and other meteorological informa- hazardous concentrations up to 1,000 nautical miles from the
tion which m ay be significant for the safety and comfort of sou rce. Volcanic ash is not detectable on radar.
others flying. The information can be used by ECCC meteo-
Weather reporting resulting from PIREPs may appear as
rologists to confirm or amend aviation weather forecasts.
shown in the example below.
PIREPs less than one hour old that contain information
For Example:
regarding conditions considered h azardous to other aircraft
are broadcast immediately to aircraft in the affected area and UACNlO CYXU 032133
will be included in subsequent scheduled weather broadcasts. YZ UA /OV YXU 090010 /TM 2120 I FL080 /TP PA31 /SK
PIREPs are also transmitted under the headings "UACNlO" for 020BKN040 llOOVC /TA -12 /WV 030045 /TB MOD BLO 040 /IC
normal PIREPs and "UACNOl" or "UUA'' for urgent PIREPs. LGT RIME 020-040 /RM NIL TURB CYYZ-CYHM
Controllers and flight service personnel are required to Decoded, the above reads:
solicit PIREP when any of the following weather conditions
are known to exist: UACNlO: (Message 'fype). Regular PIREP. Urgent PIREP are encod-
ed as UACNOl.
1. Ceilings below 2,000 feet
CYXU: (Issuing Office). London flight information centre (FIC).
2. Visibility less than 3 statute miles
032133: (Date/Time of Issue). PIREP was issued by the FIC on the
3. The presence of moderate or heavy precipitation 3rd day of the month, at 21332.
4. Turbulence, icing, thunderstorms YZ: (Flight Information Region - FIR). Toronto FIR. If the PIREP
5. Winds in excess of 50 knots extends into an adjacent FIR, both FIRs will be indicated.
6. When conditions differ substantially from those UA /OV YXU 090010: (Location). London VOR 090° radial, 10 NM.
forecast PIREP location will be reported with the reference to a NAVAID,
airport or geographic co-ordinates (latitude/longitude).

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

/TM 2120: (Time of PIREP). PI REP reported by pilot at 21202. Frequent (FRQ) coverage indicates an area of thunderstorms
/FL080: (Altitude). 8,000 ft ASL. Altitude may also be reported within which there is little or no separation between adjacent
as "DURD" (during descent), "DURC" (during climb), or "UNKN" thunderstorms and with a maximum spatial coverage greater
(unknown). than 50% of the area affected or forecast to be affected by the
phenomenon, at a fixed time or during the period of validity.
!TP PA31: (Aircraft Type). Piper Navajo (PA31).
The period of validity of a SIG MET is 4 h ours. It may be issued
/SK 020BKN040 1100VC: (Sky Cover). First layer of cloud based up to 4 hours prior to the commencement of the phenomenon.
at 2,000 ft with tops at 4,000 ft ASL. Second layer of cloud based In the case of SIGMETs for volcanic ash and tropical storms,
at 11,000 ft ASL. the validity period is for 6 hours, and they may be issued up
/TA -12: (Air Temperature). Oustide air temperature -12°C. to 12 hours before either phenomenon enters the affected
region.
/WV 030045: (Wind Velocity). Wind direction 030° true, wind
speed 45 kts. Wind direction reported by pilots in degrees mag- In the case of a SIGMET issued for an expected forecast phe-
netic will subsequently be converted to degrees true for inclu- nomenon, the beginning of the validity period will be the
sion in PIREP. time of the expected commencement of the phenomenon.
The location of the phenomenon is depicted as an area using
/TB MOD BLO 040: (Turbulence). Moderate turbulence below
coordinate points. The description always begins with the
4,000 ft ASL.
abbreviation for "within" (WI), and the area can be described
/IC LGT RIME 020-040: (Icing). Light rime icing (in cloud) between as a circle, a line or a polygon. Distances are in nautical miles,
2,000 ft ASL and 4,000 ft ASL. and direction is to one of the eight points of the compass (i.e.,
/RM NIL TURB CYYZ-CYHM: (Remarks). No turbulence encoun- N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW).
tered between Toronto and Hamilton.
In PIREP, cloud heights are always given as a height above sea AI RM ET
level (ASL). AIRMETs are airmen's meteorological information advisories
issued by a meteorological watch office (MWO) intended for
aircraft in flight. An AIRMET notifies pilots of potentially haz-
SIG MET ardous weather conditions that are occurring or are expected
SIGMETs are significant meteorological information adviso- to occur, and that are not described in the Graphic Area
ries issued by a meteorological watch office (MWO) to advise Forecast and do not require issuance of a SIGMET.
pilots of the occurrence, or expected occurrence, of specific
weather phenomena which may be hazardous to the safety of AIRMETs advise of the following phenomena:
aircraft operations. 1. Mean surface wind speed (SFC WSPD) above 30 knots
SIGMETs advise of the following phenomena: 2. Surface visibility (SFC VIS} and or cloud of less
1. Frequent thunderstorms (FRQ TS}, frequent thunder- than 3 statue miles, and/or broken cloud (BKN
storms with hail (FRQ TSGR), frequent thunderstorms CLO} or overcast cloud (OVC CLO} conditions
with hail and possible tornado/waterspout (FRQ TSGR below 1,000 feet AGL over a widespread area
POSS +FC), frequent thunderstorms with hail and 3. Thunderstorms (TS) and/or towering cumulus
tornado/waterspout (FRQ TSGR +FC), squall line (SQLN (TCU} that are either isolated (!SOL} or occa-
TS}, squall line with hail (SQLN TSGR}, squall line with sional (OCNL} or frequent (FRQ} and where
possible tornado/waterspout (SQLN TSGR POSS +FC}, there may be the presence of hail (GR}
squ all line with tornado/waterspout (SQNL TSGR +FC)
4. Moderate turbulence (MOD TURB) except
2. Severe turbulence (SEV TURB) for turbulence in convective clouds
3. Severe icing (SEV ICE) 5. Moderate icing (MOD ICE) except for
4. Severe icing due to freezing rain (SEV ICE (FZRA]} icing in convective clouds

5. Severe mountain wave (SEV MTW} 6. Moderate mountain wave (MOD MTW}

6. Low-level wind shear (L LVL WS) An isolated (!SOL) phenomenon consists of individual features
which affect, or are forecast to affect, an area with a maxi-
7. Heavy dust storm (HVY DS) mum spatial coverage of 25% or less of the area concerned, at
8. Heavy sandstorm (HVY SS) a fixed time or during the period of validity.
9. Radioactive cloud (RDOACT CLO) An occasional (OCNL} phenomenon consists of well separated
features which affect, or are forecast to affect, an area with
10. Volcanic ash (VA)
a maximum spatial coverage of 26% to 50% of the area con-
11. Tropical cyclone (TC) cerned, at a fixed time or during the period of validity.
Severe (SEV) turbulence (TURB) refers only to low-level associ- Frequent (FRQ) coverage indicates an area of towering cumu-
ated with strong surface winds, to rotor streaming, and/or to lus (TCU) with in which there is little or no separation between
turbulence whether in cloud or not in cloud near jet streams . adjacent clouds and with a maximum spatial coverage greater
Thunderstorms (TS) imply severe icing and turbulence; there- than 50% of the area affected, or forecast to be affected, by the
fore, separate SIGMET for these phenomena are not issued in phenomenon at a fixed time or during the period of validity.
connection with the convective clouds. An AIRMET will be issued for only one of the criteria described
SIGMET will only be issued for one of these criteria at any above at any time. If more than one criterion occurs, then
time. If more than one criterion occurs, then more than one more than one AIRMET will be issued.
SIGMET will be issued.

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 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

The period of validity of an AIRMET is 4 hours and it may be descriptions can be reported in RSC NOTAM, either per runway
issued up to 4 hours prior to the start of the validity period third or for the full runway length. If more than two runway
(i.e., the expected time of the occurrence of the phenomenon). surface descriptors are present on a runway third, the two most
In the case of an AIRMET issued for an expected forecast prevalent or severe conditions are reported.
event, the beginning of the validity period will be the time of Runways that are reported in thirds include a Runway Condition
the expected commencement of the forecast phenomenon. Code (RWYCC). This is a single-digit value that reports the slip-
Like SIGMETs, the location of the phenomenon is depicted periness of a runway third based on a standardized assessment
as an area using coordinate points. The description always matrix. Actual values reported may not correlate to what is seen
begins with "within" (WI), and the area can be described as in the matrix given that the RWYCC can be downgraded (or
a circle, a line or a polygon. Distances are in nautical miles, upgraded as circumstances warrant) by aerodrome operators
and direction is indicated to one of the eight points of the based on their observations. RWYCC values range from 0 to 6,
compass. with 0 representing the most slippery conditions and 6 repre-
senting a dry runway.
Runway Condition Reports If the percent coverage on a runway third is less than or equal to
The Pilot's Operating Handbooks for all aeroplanes specify 25%, the conditions are reported and a RWYCC of 6 is assigned.
performance data relating to landing distance, crosswind limi- If the percent coverage on a runway third exceeds 25%, the
tations, etc. These figures presuppose bare, dry runways. Any RWYCC is based on the runway surface description with the
contaminant, such as water, snow or ice will degrade braking higher coverage or the more slippery condition, as circum-
capability on landing, substantially increase the landing roll, and stances warrant. The final RWYCC is then confirmed, upgraded
make directional control difficult if a crosswind is also involved. or downgraded based on other information, including from CRFI
Where runway conditions can affect the performance of an measurements, braking action reports, and directional control
aircraft, it is important to have some source of information for observations.
runway conditions. While some aerodromes will report runways in thirds (and
Contaminated runways are also of concern to the aircraft that is include RWYCCs), others will not. At those aerodromes that
taking off. If the runway is wet or icy, traction will be reduced. include RWYCCs, this functionality may not be leveraged for all
The accelerate-stop distance or the required take-off distance of the aerodrome's runways. While all aerodromes use the RSC
could exceed the available runway length. Studies have shown NOTAM format, the reporting of runway conditions by runway
that the accelerate-stop distance is increased by approximately thirds or by full runway length is determined by aerodrome
15% on wet runways, 50% on snow, 75% on water deeper than operators who base their considerations on the types of aircraft
3 mm and 100% on ice covered runways. Take-off distance is using the aerodrome. In general, pilots can expect longer run-
increased 10% when 15 mm of loose snow or 8 mm of slush ways to be reported in thirds and shorter runways to be reported
covers the runway. by full runway length.
Runways in Canada, as well as some in the northern parts of the If an aerodrome has multiple runways, all runways are reported
United States are, on average, wet or contaminated one third of in a single RSC NOTAM. If multiple runways are reported, they
the time during the five coldest months of the year. Runway sur- are reported in the order of ascending pairs.
face condition (RSC) reports are, therefore, issued to advise pilots Runway surface condition descriptions are reported with the
of surface contamination. Included in an RSC report is informa- associated percentage of coverage and, when applicable, the
tion on the braking action that is derived from a decelerometer. associated depth in inches. The table below identifies RSC
A decelerometer is an instrument which measures the deceler- descriptors used in RSC NOTAM reports.
ating forces acting on the test vehicle (on which it is installed)
RSC Descriptors
when the brakes are applied. The resulting figures are compiled
Compacted Snow Ice Wet
in an index and are referred to, in Canada, as the Canadian
Dry Slippery When Wet Wet Ice
Runway Friction Index (CRFI).
Dry Snow Slush Wet Snow
When available, index readings are included as part of the Dry Snow on Top of Wet Snow on Top of
Slush on Top of Ice
runway surface condition report. These reports are transmit- Compacted Snow Compacted Snow
ted on the communication circuits as a special type of NOTAM Dry Snow on Top of Ice Standing Water Wet Snow on Top of Ice
known as an RSC NOTAM. (See NOTAM, in Chapter Radio Water on Top of
Frost
Compacted Snow
Communications.) They are available from air traffic services
(ATS), from flight information centres (FIC). and via NavCanada's Fig.6 .6 5 RSC Descriptors Used in RSC NOTAM
Collaborative Flight Planning Service (CFPS) tool.
All NOTAM follow an international !CAO format consisting
RSC NOTAM incorporate standardized safety information from
of a number of fields that are either compulsory or optional
the Global Reporting Format (GRF) developed by the International
depending on their relevance. The validity period of a NOTAM
Civil Aviation Organization (!CAO). The reports provide runway
is a maximum of either 8 hours or 24 hours depending on th e
surface information describing the runway condition. The decel-
reporting method and classification of the aerodrome (subject
erometer index describes braking action quantitatively.
to the published aerodrome operating hours).
The RSC NOTAM format can break up certain runways into
With reference to the RSC NOTAM example shown below,
thirds rather than report conditions as an average across a
Item A) of the NOTAM is the location indicator of the affected
runway's full length. Segmenting the runway in this way, where
aerodrome. Item B) of the NOTAM will indicate the beginning
applicable, offers enh anced situational awareness for pilots. If,
of the NOTAM duration period and Item C) will indicate th e
for example, the touchdown zone of a runway has ice, but the end of the NOTAM duration period. If there are significant
far end of the runway has slush, the RSC NOTAM advises pilots
changes a new NOTAM will be issued.
accordingly of these differing conditions over the full runway
length. It should be noted that a maximum of two surface

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

As multiple runways are reported in a single RSC NOTAM, it is A) CYKF B) 2102121450 C) 2102122250
possible that the NOTAM will be disseminated in multi-parts. E) RSC 03/ 21 60 PCT 1/4IN DRY SNOW. 70FT WIDTH .
Item E) of an RSC NOTAM contains three sections:
REMAINING WIDTH 1/4IN DRY SNOW ON TOP OF COMPACTED
1. RSC information SNOW. VALID FEB 12 1345 - FEB 12 2145.
2. CRFI information RSC 05 3/5/ 3 30 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW, 50 PCT 1/8IN SLUSH,
3. Remarks 40 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW. 175FT WIDTH. CHEMICALLY
TREATED AT HHMM. REMAINING WIDTH 1/41N DRY SNOW
Note that all runways at an aerodrome that have winter main- ON TOP OF COMPACTED SNOW. RWYCC DOWNGRADED,
tenance are reported in both the RSC and CRFI sections. RWY MARKINGS OBSCURED. VALID FEB 12 1445 - FEB 12
The RSC section of the RSC NOTAM contains the following 2245 .
information: RSC 23 3/ 5/ 3 40 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW, 50 PCT 1/8IN SLUSH,
1. RSC header, which includes the runway (RWY) identi- 30 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW. 175FT WIDTH. CHEMICALLY
fier: RWY in use designator, when reporting by thirds TREATED AT HHMM. REMAINING WIDTH 1/41N DRY SNOW
(e.g., RSC 33), or full RWY designator when reporting ON TOP OF COMPACTED SNOW. RWYCC DOWNGRADED,
by full runway length (e.g., RSC 07/25) RWY MARKINGS OBSCURED. VALID FEB 12 1445 - FEB 12
2245 .
2. Runway condition code (RWYCC) for each runway
third (only if reporting is by thirds) RSC 15 5/5/5 30 PCT 1/81N DRY SNOW, 30 PCT 1/81N DRY
SNOW, 30 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW. 190FT WIDTH . CHEMICALLY
3. Up to two runway surface descriptions, including per-
TREATED AT HHMM. REMAINING WIDTH 1/4IN DRY SNOW
cent coverage and, if applicable, the associated depth
ON TOP OF COMPACTED SNOW. VALID FEB 12 1245 - FEB 12
(per third if reporting by thirds, per runway if report-
2045.
ing by full runway length)
RSC 33 5/ 5/5 30 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW, 30 PCT 1/8IN DRY
4. Clea red runway width (if reduced)
SNOW, 30 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW. 190FT WIDTH. CHEMICALLY
5. Snow drifts, windrows, and/or snowbanks on the TREATED AT HHMM. REMAINING WIDTH 1/4IN DRY SNOW
runway (where applicable) ON TOP OF COMPACTED SNOW. VALID FEB 12 1245 - FEB 12
6. Other localized conditions (where appl icable) 2045.

7. Any treatments applied to the runway (where ADON NON-GRF/ TALPA INFO:
applicable) CRFI 03/ 21 -8C .30 OBS AT 2102121345.
CRFI 05 -8C .32/NR/.30 OBS AT 2102121445 .
8. Conditions for the remaining width of the runway CRFI 23 -8C .30/NR/.32 OBS AT 2102121445.
(where applicable) CRFI 15 -8C .39/.40/.40 OBS AT 2102121245.
9. Snowbanks adjacent to the runway (as applicable) CRFI 33 -8C .40/.40/. 39 OBS AT 2102121245.
10. RWY remarks including if the RWYCC was upgraded RMK: ALL TWY 1/8IN DRY SNOW, CHEMICALLY TREATED AT
or downgraded (where applicable) HHMM . TWY F, D BRAKING ACTION POOR.
11. The RSC validity time. RMK: ALL APN 1/81N DRY SNOW, CHEMICALLY TREATED AT
HHMM, BRAKING ACTION POOR.
The validity period of the RSC report is in the format MMM
DD HHMM - MMM DD HHMM. This is provided as multiple RMK: CLEARING/SWE EPING IN PROGRESS.
runways are presented in a single report w ith each runway The above is a n ew NOTAM issued, in this example, for the
potentially having a different validity period. Region of Waterloo International Airport (CYKF). The st a rt
Following the runway surface condition rep orts in an RSC time for the NOTAM is February 12, 2021at14:50 hrs UTC. It is
NOTAM is a section for CRFI readings. Like RWYCCs , some valid until February 12, 2021 at 22:50hrs UTC.
CRFI readings of runways will be reported in thirds and If Runway 03 is in use (reported by full runway length), ATS
others w ill report the average along the full length. However, phraseology for the above RSC NOTAM example is as follows:
it should be noted that CRFI reporting requirements are inde-
pendent and unrelated to runway surface condition reporting. ATS: Runway Surface Condition, Runway Zero-Three Two -
One, Six-Zero Percent One -Quarter Inch Dry Snow,
Note that the CRFI section will always appear in the RSC Seven-Zero Foot Width, Remaining Width One-
NOTAM regardless of whether an observation was taken or Quarter Inch Dry Snow on Top of Compacted Snow, at
not. In cases where a CRFI observation is not available , the One-Three-Four-Five.
t erm "NR" for "Not Reported" will be stated.
Friction Index Runway Zero -Three Two-One,
The CRFI index readings are on a scale from 0 (non-exis tent Temperature Minus Eight, Was Decimal Three-Zero at
braking) to 1 (excellent brakin g). Low numbers, such as 0.2, One-Three-Four-Five.
0. 3, represent low braking coefficients. Numbers such as 0.7
and 0.8 indicate braking coefficients expected on dry runways. If Runway 05 is in use (reported by thirds), ATS phraseology for
the above RSC NOTAM example is as follows:
Concluding the RSC NOTAM are three separate remarks sec-
tions for taxiway conditions, apron conditions and general ATS: Runway Surface Condition, Runway Zero-Five,
remarks. Condition Code Three-Five-Three, Three-Zero Percent
One-Eighth Inch Dry Snow, Five-Zero Percent One-
The following example is that of a complete RSC NOTAM. Eighth Inch Slush, Four-Zero Percent One-Eighth Inch
(S1017/20 NOTAMN Dry Snow, One-Seven-Five Foot Width, Chemically
Treated at One-Four-Two -Zero, Remaining Width
Q) CZZZ/QFAXX/IV/ NBO/A/000/999/4519N07543W005
One-Quarter Inch Dry Snow on Top of Compacted

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 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

Snow, Runway Condition Code Downgraded, Runway

Markings Obscured, at One-Four-Four-Five.
Friction Index Ru nway Zero-Five, Temperature Minus
Eight, Was Decimal Three-Two, Not Reported, Decimal
Three-Zero, at One-Four-Four Five.
The terminology used in an automatic terminal information
service (ATIS) message for RSC will be the same as the phrase-
ology seen above. In an ATIS message, the RSC information
will appear after stating the landing/departing runway.

6.14. 4 Aviation Weather Forecasts

A weather forecas t is a statem ent of anticipated conditions
expected at a particular place, over an area, or along a route
during a given period, based on available information. The
forecaster will usually state the degree of confidence with
which the forecast is made.
In planning a flight, the pilot must have reasonable knowledge
Fig.6.67 GFA Dom ain
of the following facts:
1. Whether the ceiling and visibility at destination (or at Produced four times daily at a half-hour prior to the beginning
alternate landing places) will be sufficiently good to of the forecast period, the GFA is issued at approximately 2330,
make a safe landing. If the flight is to be made by visual 0530, 1130 and 1730 UTC valid for 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800
con tact, the ceilings and visibilities mu st be VFR along UTC respectively. National coverage is ensured by dividin g
the entire route. the country in to seven distinct areas (called domains) each
of which has a corresponding GFA product . Fig.6.67 shows
2. Th e wind conditions at various flight levels to estimate the area coverage and designation of each of the seven GFA
the time and fuel required, and to choose a route and domains covering Canadian airspace.
altitude to fly that will give the most favourable winds.
Each GFA consists of two distinct types of charts: one chart
3. At what levels to expect icing conditions and how to depicts clouds and weather while the second chart depicts
avoid severe icing zones. icing, freezing level and turbulence for the same correspond-
ing time and area. Each pair of GFA charts shows the meteo-
4. Where thunderstorms, turbulence or hail may be
rological conditions for one of three different time periods: a
encountered to delay the start of the flight or land en
short-range forecast, a 6-hour forecast, and a 12-hour forecast.
route to avoid dangerous weather in the air.
There are, therefore, six charts issued for each GFA collection:
Since the weather is constantly ch an ging, the conditions three each for clouds and weather and three each for icing,
shown in a weather report may change during a flight and a freezing level and turbulence. The 12-hou r forecast chart also
forecast of the changes must be obtained before departure. includes a textual !FR outlook for a further 12-hour period.
AIRMET and SIGMET are used to amend the area forecast and
The following code identifies the various types of forecasts:
such amended versions are identified chronologically by the
Code Forecast Type correction code CCA, CCB, or CCC, etc., in the title box. Pilots
TAF Aerodrome Forecast can obtain the GFA from flight service stations designated
GFA Graphic Area Forecast to provide weather briefings or through access to the Nav
FD Wind s and Temperatures Aloft Forecast Canada website.
WA A!RMET Message GFA speeds are expressed in knots and heights in hundreds of
ws SIGMET Message feet ASL; for instance, 2 means 200 feet, 45 m eans 4,500 feet.
Heights above ground are indicated by the abbreviation AGL,
Fig.6.66 Forecast Codes ABV GRND, or CIG. Horizontal visibility is expressed in statute
miles and times are in universal co-ordinated time (UTC). A
Graphic Area Forecast (GFA) nautical mile scale bar appears in the corresponding legend
The graphic area forecast (GFA) is designed to be a more intui- box to facilitate determining distances on the chart. Symbols
tive product than its alphanumeric counterpart, thus making used in the GFA are consistent with those found on similar
it easier for pilots, weather briefers and dispatchers to use. m eteorological products and only standard abbreviations are
Consisting of a series of temporally adjusted weather charts, used.
each panel that makes up the GFA describes graphically the When the GFA is used for times between the chart valid
most probable meteorological conditions expected to occur periods, th ose using the charts must move the synoptic fea-
between the surface and FL240 over a given area at a speci- tures and interpolate their position for intermediate times.
fied time. Therefore, estimated positions should be used to determine
the future position of associated organized weather systems.
Each 5 kt of motion indicates a change in position of 30 n .m.
over 6 hours. The scale in the GFA legend can be used as a
tool to interpolate these advancing weather system positions.
Since each GFA panel is a snapshot of a specific future time,
they do not highlight temporal changes unless specifically

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

stated in the GFA. The existence of convective clouds, morn- of continuous precipitation while dashed lines enclose areas
ing fog and other daily weather phenomena often change over of intermittent showery precipitation.
the course of the day, if not over the course of a few hours. It
is important, then, for pilots to check the latest weather obser- ONT ARIO - OUF:&C

vations which may indicate if weather phenomena are moving CLOUDS ANO WEA THER
NUAGl:S E T T EMPS

faster or slower than expected. Verify if any special comments t..'~ ~ .,

1 20/01/20 10 IHIZ

VLO 20/01/2010 1800!

appear in the GFA; and check for any AIRMET that may have LEGEN0/L£GENOE

amended the GFA. To use the GFA effectively, it is always best

to consult a weather briefing specialist.
.~ ....
ELEMENTS OF A GFA CHART ~OMM,::T~::·O~:E~;-~I RES
• ~~S~•N ,0 lO $CT .•ll:S 20()
A GFA chart is divided into the following four parts: a title box,
a legend box, a comments box, and the weather information
section. The title box includes the chart name, issuing office
four-letter identifier, the date/ time of issue, the name of the
GFA region, the chart type and the valid date/period of the
chart. This title box is found in the upper right corner of the
GFA.
The legend box describes symbols which may be used in the
chart and includes a scale bar for determining distances on
the chart. Fig.6.68 GFA Clouds & Weather Chart
The comments box provides information that forecasters Isobars are only shown on the clouds and weather chart.
deem important; for example, formation or dissipation of fog, Surface winds, with a sustained speed of at least 20 knots, are
increasing or decreasing visibility, etc. It is used to describe indicated by wind barbs with an associated speed value. Wind
elements that are difficult to render pictorially or that would gusts are indicated by the letter "G".
otherwise clutter the chart. Standard phrases such as HGTS
ASL UNLESS NOTED and TCU, ACC AND CB IMPLY SIG TURBC The !FR outlook indicates main areas where !FR weather is
AND ICE. CB IMPLIES LLWS are also included in the comments expected, the cause for the !FR weather and any associated
box. The 12-hour !FR outlook is included in the comments box weather hazards.
of the 12-hour clouds and weather depiction chart.
WEATHER INFORMATION SECTION: ICING,
WEATHER INFORMATION SECTION: TURBULENCE & FREEZING LEVEL
CLOUDS & WEATHER The icing, turbulence and freezing level chart (Fig.6.69) depicts
The clouds and weather chart (Fig.6.68) provides a forecast forecasted areas of icing and turbulence as well as the expect-
of cloud layers and/or surface-based phenomena, visibility, ed freezing level for a specific time. The type, intensity, base
weather and obstructions to vision at the valid time of that and top is included for each icing and turbulence area . Surface
particular chart. In addition, the chart includes a forecast of synoptic features such as fronts and pressure centers are also
relevant synoptic features that are responsible for the depict- shown. This chart is used in conjunction with the associated
ed weather with an indication of their speed and direction of clouds and weather chart issued for the same valid period.
motion at the valid time. Isobars, are shown at 4 mb intervals. Icing is depicted whenever moderate or severe icing is forecast
When the speed of movement is forecast to be 5 knots or for the coverage area. Areas of light icing are described in the
more, the motion of synoptic features is shown by an arrow comments box and the bases and tops of each icing layer,
and a speed value. For speeds less than 5 knots, the letters QS measured in hundreds of feet MSL, as well as the type of icing
are used meaning "quasi-stationary". (RIME, MXD, or CLR) are indicated. Icing that is expected to
be present for only part of the forecast period covered by the
The bases and tops of organized areas of broken or overcast chart is shown with its expected time of occurrence.
cloud between the surface and FL240 are shown by enclosing
GF AC Nll C WAO
the area with a scalloped, cloud-like, border. When convective REGION
ON T ARK> - ~ecc
clouds are forecast, the tops are indicated even if they extend ICG TUftB&rZ L\IL

beyond 24,000 feet. Cirrus clouds are not depicted in the GFA. 1:,0';';:·· lO/OlflO l t lHIZ
VLO 20/01/ 20 10 1800!
In areas where organized clouds are not forecast and the vis- LEGE"IO/L EGENOC

ibility is expected to be greater than 6 statute miles, a scal-

loped border is not used. Significant cloud layers are based on
the amount at each level, not on the summation amount, and Q
- - t - - i- --1
60 1;oc1 !~OM.I
tl< . . . . . . . . ...... 0 .. 1

cloud types are stated if forecast to be present.

Surface-based layers are described in plain English. The
abbreviation OBSCD (obscured) is used to describe surface-
based layers. The vertical visibility into surface-based layers is
measured in hundreds of feet. Forecast visibility is measured
in statute miles and is indicated as P6SM when expected to
be greater than 6 statute miles. Forecast weather is included
immediately after the visibility. Obstructions to vision are
indicated only when visibility is forecast to be less than 6
statute miles, as in 2-4SM -RA BR. A solid line encloses areas
Fig.6.69 GFA Icing, Turbulence , Freezing Level Chart

© Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _...,..- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

Light, moderate and severe turbulence are depicted when Therefore, 35020G45KT indicates that the wind direction is
forecast for the coverage area with layer bases and tops indi- forecast to be from 350° true at 20 knots, gusting to 45 knots.
cated in hundreds of feet MSL. Turbulence due to gusty sur-
face winds, low level wind shear, lee waves, or low level jets LOW LEVEL WIND SHEAR
are shown with the indicating cause in abbreviations such as When strong, non-convective, low level wind shear is forecast
MECH, LLWS, LEE, WV, LLJ or CAT. to occur over the aerodrome, this optional group will be used.
The coded grouping begins with the letters WS followed by a
Freezing level contours are indicated on the chart by dashed 3 digit grouping indicating the height in hundreds of feet AGL
lines. The height of the freezing level is measured above MSL of the shear zone. A slash followed by a 5 digit group indicates
and the contour lines for the freezing level are at 2,500 foot the wind speed and direction of the shear zone.
intervals starting at the surface. The comments box is used to
explain modifications to the freezing level. Therefore, WS 015/20015KT indicates that wind shear is fore-
cast at 1,500 feet AGL over the aerodrome. The wind is from
200° true at 15 knots.
Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
An aerodrome forecast , known by the international meteo- PREVAILING VISIBILITY
rological code TAF, states in specific terms the expected The prevailing visibility is encoded as in a METAR report,
weather conditions that will affect landing and take-off at the except that visibility greater than 6 statute miles will be indi-
aerodrome. Wind, low level wind shear, prevailing visibility, cated by the code P6SM.
significant weather and sky condition are given for an area
Therefore, 3/4SM indicates that the visibility is forecast to be
within 5 nautical miles of the aerodrome. Aerodrome fore-
3/4 statute mile.
casts are issued only for those aerodromes for which routine
hourly and special reports are available. SIGNIFICANT FORECAST WEATHER
Aerodrome forecasts are transmitted on the Environment Significant forecast weather is encoded with the same codes
Canada telecommunications network and on the ADIS circuit as used for weather phenomena in METAR reports. Intensity
(automated data interchange system) as soon as possible but and proximity qualifiers, descriptors, precipitation and obscu-
not later than 20 minutes prior to their period of coverage. ration are included as required. The abbreviation NSW, for no
They are issued at least four times daily at 0440, 1040, 1640 significant weather, may be used.
and 2240 UTC. The normal validity period is 24 hours, begin- The codes TEMPO (for temporary fluctuation) or BECMG (for
ning at OSOOZ, 1100Z, 1700Z and 2300Z. A 30-hour TAF is issued becoming) are used to forecast the end of significant weather.
for designated !CAO destination and alternate aerodromes. An In this case, the code NSW (no significant weather) is included.
aerodrome forecast is valid from the time of issue until it is
The code TEMPO or BECMG is also used to forecast a signifi-
amended or until the next scheduled TAF is issued. When a
cant change in weather or visibility. In this case, all weather
new TAF is issued, it automatically cancels the previous one.
and visibility groups are repeated, including those which are
Aerodrome forecasts shall always contain, as a minimum, unchanged.
information about the following elements: wind, visibility,
If a different weather condition is not indicated after TEMPO
weather and cloud. They are transmitted in the following
or BECMG, then the previously given condition continues to
format:
apply.
REPORT NAME Therefore, -RA BR TEMPO RA BR indicates a forecast of light
The code name TAF may be followed by the letters AMO to rain and mist and a temporary fluctuation that will bring
indicate an amended or corrected forecast. moderate rain and mist.
LOCATION IDENTIFIER - DATE & TIME - PERIOD 3SM -oz BR BECMG lSM -oz BR indicates a forecast visibility
OF COVERAGE - AUTOMATIC STATION INDICATOR of 3 statute miles in light drizzle and mist, becoming visibility
The four letter !CAO station identifier (as in METAR) is fol- of 1 statute mile in light drizzle and mist.
lowed by the seven digit group that indicates the date and 24015KT 4SM BLSN BECMG 30015KT indicates a forecast wind
time of origin of the forecast. Following that is an eight digit from 240°T at 15 knots, visibility of 4 statute miles in blowing
group that indicates the period of coverage of the forecast. snow, becoming wind from 300°T at 15 knots (visibility of 4
This period is normally 24 hours, except in the case of amend- statute miles in blowing snow continues to apply).
ed TAFs. The word AUTO is included if the forecast is based
on observations from an automatic weather station (AWOS). SKY CONDITION
Sky condition is encoded as in a METAR report, using the
Therefore, CYUL 090440Z 0905/100 5 AUTO indicates an
symbols SKC, FEW, BKN, OVC or VV. Forecast cloud type is not
aerodrome forecast for Montreal issued on the 9th day of the
identified except in the case of CB layers. The letters CB then
month at 0440 UTC. It is valid from 0500 UTC on the 9th to
follow the coded height. The specific height of cirriform cloud
0500 UTC on the 10th. The forecast is based on observations
is given in TAF forecasts.
from an automatic weather station.
When TEMPO or BECMG is used to forecast that clouds and/
WIND or obscuration are no longer expected, SKC (sky clear) will be
The forecast wind is encoded as in a METAR report giving indicated.
direction in degrees true and speed in knots with an indica-
When TEMPO or BECMG is used to forecast a significant
tion of gust activity. The code VRB is used when the wind
change in sky condition, all layers will be repeated including
speed is 3 knots or less but may be used for higher speeds
those which are unchanged.
when it is impossible to forecast a single direction (as, for
example, when a thunderstorm passes). A calm wind is coded Therefore, SCT008 BKN015CB BKN250 indicates scattered
as OOOOOKT. cloud at 800 feet, broken cumulonimbus at 1,500 feet, broken
cloud at 25,000 feet.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

SCTlOO BECMG SKC indicates scattered cloud at 10,000 feet From 23002, the wind will be from 280° t rue at 15 knots, vis-
becoming sky clear. ibility greater than 6 st atute miles, broken sky cover at 3,000
feet, broken at 25,000 feet.
PROBABILITY & TIME OF OCCURRENCE
A temporary fluctuation between 23002 and 03002 will bring
In order to indicate the probability of changing conditions that
light rainshowers.
would constitute a hazard to aviation, the indicator PROB is
included with digits indicating the percentage of probability From 10002, the win d will be from 300° true at 15 knots, vis-
and the probable time period in UTC. ibility greater than 6 statute miles, sky clear.
Therefore, PROB 30 0920/0923 1/ 2SM +TSRAGR indicates a
30% probability between 2000 and 2300 UTC on the 9th day of Upper Level Wind & Temperature
the month of visibility of 1/ 2 statute mile and thunderstorms, Forecast (FD)
heavy rain and h ail.
An upper level w ind and temperature fore cast provides
FORECAST CHANGE & TIME an estimate of upper wind conditions and temperatures at
When a permanent change is forecast to occur rapidly, a part- selected levels. Wind direction is given in degrees true to the
period forecast comes into effect at the time of the change. nearest 10° and wind speeds in knots. Data for the production
It is indicated by the letters FM and it supersedes all prior of FDs is derived from a variety of atmospheric data sources
conditions. taken at 32 sites twice daily at 00002 and 12002. This data is
u sed to issue periodic forecasts during the 24 hour period. The
Therefore, 24010KT P6SM SKC FM 091640 27015KT P6SM SKC t ime of issue and th e validity period is indicated in the body
indicates that the w ind is forecast to be from 240° true at 10 of the forecast.
knots, visibility greater than 6 statute miles and sky clear.
After 1640 UTC on the 9th day of the month, the wind is fore - Some lower level groups are omitted. No win ds are forecast
cast to change to 270° true at 15 knots. Visibility will continue w ithin 1,500 feet of the station elevation and no temperatures
to be greater than 6 statute miles and the sky will be clear. are foreca st for the 3,000 foot level or for a level within 1,500
feet of the station elevation.
A tem porary fluctuation of some weather elem ent is indicated
by the code TEMPO and an eight digit group indicating the For Example :
time of the specified period of fluctuation. The changing con- FDCN01 CWAO 1715302
ditions are indicated.
BASED ON 12002
Th erefore, 09004KT 1 1/2SM BR VV004 TEMPO 0912/0915 DATA VALID 1718002 FOR USE 1500-21002
3/4SM BR VVOOl indicates a forecast wind from 090° true at 4
knots, visibility of 11/2 statute miles, mist (sky ob scured), ver- 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000
tical visibility of 400 feet. A temporary fluctuation is forecast YVR 2021 2425-07 2430-10 2434-18 2542-26
for between 1200 and 1500 UTC on the 9th day of the month, of YYF 2523 2432-04 2338-08 2342-13 2448-24
visibility of 3/4 statute mile, mist (sky obscured) and vertical YXC - 2431-02 2330-06 2344-11 2352-22
visibility of 100 feet. YYC - 2426-03 2435-06 2430-12 2342-22

A perman ent ch an ge in some of the forecasted weather ele- YQL - 2527-01 2437-05 2442-10 2450-21

ments is indicated by the code BECMG with a time indication.

Fi g. 6.70 Upper Winds & Temperature Fo recasts
Therefore, FM 12002 VRB02KT 2SM BR SKC BECMG 0913/0915
P6SM SCT020 indicates that from 1200 UTC the wind direc- Decoded, the above reads:
tion is forecast to be variable at 2 knots, visibility will be 2 Winds and temperature forecast, issued by the Montreal
statute miles in mist, sky will be clear. Between 1300 and 1500 Meteorological Centre at 15302 on the 17th day of the month.
UTC on the 9th day of the month, conditions are forecast to
becom e visibility greater than 6 statute miles with scattered Based on data fed into the computer at 12002. Forecast is valid
cloud at 2,000 feet. for 18002 on the 17th day of t h e month and for use for 3 hours
either side of 18002, i.e. from 15002 to 21002.
For Example:
Vancouver: (YVR): At 3,000 feet, wind from 200° at 21 knots. At
TAF CYOG 0116402 0117/0217 28015KT P6SM -SNRA FEW015 6,000 feet, wind from 240° at 25 knots and temperature -7°C. At
OVC040 TEMPO 0117/0123 2SM -SNRA BR OVC015 FM012300 9,000 feet, wind from 240° at 30 knots and temperature -10°C.
28015KT P6SM BKN030 BKN250 TEMPO 0123/0203 -SHRA At 12,000 feet , winds from 240° at 34 knots and temperature
FM021000 30015KT P6SM SKC. -18°C. At 18,000 feet, winds from 250° at 42 knots and tem-
Decoded, the above reads: perature -26°C.
Aerodrome forecast for Windsor issued on t h e 1st day of the For Example:
month at 16402 and valid from 17002 (on the 1st) to 17002 (on FDCNl KWBC 0817502
the 2nd).
DATA BASED ON 0812002
Wind 280° true at 15 knots, visibility greater than 6 statute
miles, light snow and r ain, few clouds at 1,500 feet, overcast VALID 0900002 FOR USE 18002-03002 TEMPS NEG ABV 24000
at 4,000 feet . 24000 30000 34000 39000
A temporary fluctu ation between 17002 and 23002 will bring YVR 2973-24 293040 283450 273763
visibility of 2 statute miles, light snow and rain, mist, overcast YYF 3031-24 314041 304551 304763
at 1,500 fe et. YQL 2955-28 306845 307455 791159

Fig . 6.71 Upper Winds & Temperature Forecast s

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ...........-- www.aviationpublishers.con

 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

Decoded, the example reads: pilot licence number. Indicate the type of aircraft, its registra-
Winds and temperature forecast, issu ed by the U.S. tion, the type of flight plan (VFR or !FR), your intended route,
Meteorological Service in Washington at 1750Z on the 8th day altitude, destination, departure time and time of return .
of the month. When filing VFR, advise if you are equipped and prepared for
!FR flight. This information helps the flight service or weather
Based on data fed into the computer at 1200Z on the 8th. The station personnel to select the information that is pertinent
forecast is valid for use from 1800Z on the 8th to 0300Z on the to your needs.
9th. Temperatures above 24,000 feet should be read as nega-
tive values. Tell the briefer to speak slowly as you are going to copy every-
thing he/she says. Special weather briefing forms are avail-
YQL: At 24,000 feet, the wind is from 290° at 55 knots and the able on which to notate this information so that it is available
temperature is -28°C. At 30,000 feet, wind from 300° at 68 to you later for reference.
knots and temperature -45°C. At 34,000 fe et, wind from 300°
at 74 knots and temperature -55°C. At 39,000 feet, wind from Your chance of totally understanding a weather briefing and
290° at 111 knots and temperature -59°C. coming away from it with a clear three dimensional picture of
what is happening in the skies over your area of the country
When the wind speed is greater than 100 knots (100 to 199 is greatly enhanced if you do some preparation before contact-
knots), 50 is added to the direction code and 100 is subtracted ing anyone in the weather service. Make a habit of watching
from the speed code. Therefore, in the YQL forecast for 39,000 the TV weather channels. Then check the weather informa-
feet, subtract 50 from 79 to determine that the wind direction tion in the local paper and on the Internet. By getting as much
is from 290° and add 100 to 11 to determine that the wind information as possible from the publicly available weather
speed is 111 knots. services, you will know quite a bit about the day's weather
If the windspeed is forecast to be 200 knots or more, the wind before you even approach the weather briefer.
speed is coded as 99 (199 knots). Thus, 7799 is decoded as the
wind from 270° at 199 knots or greater. Pilot Briefing Service (PBS)
The code 9900 is used to indicate light and variable winds or The pilot briefing service is a fully interpretive weather brief-
wind speeds of less than 5 knots. ing service which is available at all FIC. Access is also available
by calling 1-866-WX-BRIEF or via a local telephone number.
Winds aloft are given for a number of representative levels
Calls to 1-866-WX-BRIEF are routed to the FIC that serves th e
from 3,000 feet ASL to 53,000 feet ASL. Winds at heights not
area from which the call originates.
reported can be obtained by interpolation.
Weather briefers are authorized to provide an interpretation
For Example:
and adaptation of meteorological information to fit the chang-
What is the wind at Penticton (YYF) at 8,000 feet? ing weather situation and the special needs of the service
The wind at 6,000 feet is from 240° at 32 knots. user. They consult and advise on special weather problems
and, on request, will provide flight documentation for long
The wind at 9,000 feet is from 230° at 38 knots. range flights .
Hence, the wind is backing approximately 3° per 1,000 To tailor the briefing to a pilot's planned flight, the flight ser-
feet. At 8,000 fe et, it would be from approximately vice specialist requires information from the pilot as stated
233°. earlier in this section: i.e., type of flight (VFR or !FR), type of
The velocity of the wind is increasing 2 knots per aircraft, departure aerodrome, estimated time of departure,
1,000 feet. At 8,000 feet, it would be blowing at destination aerodrome, estimated time of arrival, planned
approximately 36 knots. cruising levels or altitudes, route to be flown, planned inter-
mediate stops, and alternate aerodromes. The flight service
The same kind of interpolation can be made for the
specialist will conclude the briefing by soliciting flight plan
temperature.
information from the pilot.

6.14.5 Weather Information Sources Weather from Air Traffic Service (ATS)
Information about prevailin g weather condition s an d fore- On initial contact with ATS, or as soon as practicable after-
casts of expected weath er developments is available in wards, all aerodromes with operational ATS w ill provide
Canada from Environment Canada, NavCanada, flight service the current wind and altimeter information to pilots unless
stations, flight information centres, and weather stations. In it is known that the pilot already has this information. ATS
the U.S., the same type of information is available from the procedures require that wind information be transmitted
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, airport with landing and take-off clearance only when the wind
flight service stations and city weather bureau offices. speed is 15 kt or greater. Wind velocity (direction and speed)
Trained weather experts will discuss your proposed flight data is typically updated every five seconds using a running
and will review with you the latest weather maps, aviation 2-minute average. Variations to the wind speed (gusts) and/
weather reports at your point of departure and destination or wind direction are based on wind data from the previous
and for points along your intended route, area and aerodrome 10 minutes.
forecasts, radar precipitation patterns, sigmet, PIREP, etc. If At aerodromes with an operational ATIS (see below), the full
you are not familiar w ith the format of th e coded reports, they details of the most recent METAR or SPEC! will be included
will explain them to you in plain language and will advise you in the recorded ATIS m essage. Occasionally, such as during
as regards the existing and anticipated weather conditions rapidly changing weather conditions, this information will
along your route. This service is known as a weather briefing. be provided directly by ATS. Where ATIS is not operational,
When requesting weather information either in person or by updated information about current weather elements from
telephone, always identify yourself as a pilot and give your METAR/ SPECI is available on request.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

providers such as Sirius XM offer solutions that bring real-

Weather from Automatic Terminal time weather information into the cockpit. These weather ser-
Information Service (ATIS) vices typically include, amongst other extensive information:
As described in the Chapter Aerodromes & Airspace as well weather radar, forecast winds, cloud and echo tops, METARs
as within the Chapter Radio, automatic terminal information and TAFs, graphical turbulence guidance, winds aloft, and
service (ATIS) is a continuous broadcast of recorded aeronau- freezing level. Pilots should note, however, that although the
tical information that is available at busier airports . Among information is delivered in real-time, there remains an inevi-
the information that these broadcasts provide to pilots is table delay in the time that it takes for the weather informa-
current weather information. This automatically broadcast, tion to reach the cockpit. Pilots should, thus, be aware that
and regularly updated weather information consists of wind weather information reaching the cockpit could be upwards
direction and velocity, visibility, obstructions to vision, sky of 10 minutes old, if not more.
condition, temperature, dew point, altimeter setting and, if
necessary, density altitude. Recorded observations may also CAVOK
include remarks regarding lightning and clouds of vertical In air-to-ground communications when transmitting meteo-
development. rological information to arriving aircraft, the term CAVOK
(kav-oh-kay) derived from the words "ceiling and visibility
Environment Canada OK", is used to indicate the weather condition in which there
is no cloud below 5,000 feet, or below the highest minimum
Bulletin Board Service sector altitude, whichever is higher, in which there is no
Environment Canada offers a package of aviation weather
cumulonimbus, no precipitation or thunderstorm activity, fog
products on their bulletin board service at their weather.gc.ca
or drifting snow and in which the visibility is 6 statute miles
website. The products provided by the site predict the evolu-
or more. The term is also used in ATIS messages. It is not used
tion of weather elements that can affect aircraft in flight,
in aviation weather reports or forecasts.
particularly with respect to turbulence and icing, as well as
hazards associated to volcanic ash suspended in the atmo-
sphere. The site also offers radar and satellite imagery, as well 6.14.6 11
Weather Sense"
as a link to the NavCanada Aviation Weather Web Site, (see The pilot gets information about the weather along his/her
section Internet below), which offers highly thorough weather intended route from the aviation weather reports, from the
reporting. area and aerodrome forecasts and from a study of the weather
map. One of the most important attributes that a good pilot
Internet possesses is the ability to use this information to form in his/
A number of websites on the Internet provide access to cur- h er own mind a three dimensional picture not only of the cur-
rent aviation weather information, including weather chart rent weather but also of how that weather may develop and
displays with graphics and text. Most are updated every hour change, deteriorate or improve during his/her flight .
or more frequently when significant weather conditions could A pilot needs to understand when and how a particular
affect aviation. Area and aerodrome forecasts, significant weather condition could develop to become hazardous and to
weather advisories and surface weather observations are plan ahead on alternative action. It is, therefore, always advis-
included. able to look at a weather map with a view to looking for weath-
Canada's air navigation system provider, NavCanada, carries er, wind circulation, ceilings and visibility not only along the
in-depth weather information through its Aviation Weather route but also to either side of the route to be flown in order
Web Site (AWWS) service available through its website at to know which way to turn in case the weather "closes in" at
www.flightplanning.navcanada.ca. The AWWS provides your terminal. Always have an "out" in case things turn bad.
access to the following: This is a skill acquired through knowledge and experience
1. Coded and plain language surface weather and one which is invaluable to adopting a true defensive atti-
observations (METAR and SPEC!) tude towards weather.

2. Aerodrome forecasts (TAF) Weather is constantly in a state of change. Weather systems

travel across the country, sometimes quite rapidly, sometimes
3. Pilot weather reports (PIREP) intensifying as they move. Local geographical conditions
4. Route specific alphanumeric information cause local peculiarities in the weather over a particular area
that can develop very suddenly.
5. Weather charts
6. Satellite and composite radar imagery Sometimes in a matter of minutes the weather at a particu-
lar landing strip may change from clear to below VFR. Often
7. Plotted wind and temperature charts aerodromes within a few miles of each other have drastically
8. NOTAM different conditions of visibility and ceiling.
9. Weather cameras Some weather conditions are invisible and therefore are
encountered without warning. Windshifts, severe vertical
10. Live runway visual range (RVR)
currents and turbulence are hazards that occur in clear air.
11. Supplemental and reference information
A defensive attitude towards weather is therefore an impor-
When flying in the U.S., the National Weather Service in the tant concept for a pilot to cultivate. It is founded in a thorough
U.S. offers thorough weather information through its website understanding of how, when and why weather phenomena
at www.nws.noaa.gov. develop and what sequence of events and combinations of
Private, non-governmental service providers are also a circumstances can change good weather into bad. It is
source for aviation weather information. Subscription-based strengthened by a resolve never to take off on a flight without

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Aviation Weather: Weather Information

obtaining a thorough weather briefing and to keep a constant

check on the weather by means of radio during a flight.
It is an ability to read weather signs, to recognize situations in
which, for example, turbulence may be present and to be pre-
pared to avoid or compensate for them. It is an ability to rec-
ognize little signs that give warning of a developing situation
that could affect the safe outcome of a flight, smoke trails, for
example, or ripples on water, etc., that indicate wind direction
and turbulence that might be encountered during landing. It
involves alertness in noticing and recognizing a deteriorating
weather situation, such as loss of visu al reference in worsen-
ing visibility and to turn back out of it before you get boxed in
with no room to m aneuver.
Above all, it involves the wisdom to cancel a planned flight
or to turn back when deteriorating conditions present a situa-
tion with which you cannot cope. It is knowing and respecting
your own limitations.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Aviation Weather: Weather Information

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ wwwaviationpublishers.com

Overview of Part 4
7 Air Navigation 8.4 Radio Communication Procedures . 239
8.4.1 Phraseology . 239
7.1 Latitude & Longitude 195 8.4.2 Priority of Communication .. 242
7.1.1 Geographical Co-ordinates . . 195 8.4.3 Good Radio Technique ........ . 242
7.1.2 Time & Longitude ... 196 8.4.4 Communication Checks . . ...... .......... .... . 243
7.1.3 Great Circles & Rhumb Lines .............. 197 8.4.5 Electronic Interferen ce to Navigation &
7.1.4 Headings & Bearings ............ 197 Communication Systems ....... 243
7.2 The Earth's Magnetism . 197 8.4.6 Radiotelephone Proced ures in Communication
7.2.1 Variation 198 with Ground Stations . 243
7.2.2 The Magnetic Compass . 199
7.2.3 Dry Vertical Card Compass ... ..... 202 9 Radio Navigation
7.2.4 Finding the Sun's True Bearing .202
9.1 VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR) .... 251
7.3 Units of Distance & Speed . 203 9.1.1 Victor Airways .. 252
7.3.1 Conversions . 203 9.1.2 Advantages of VOR Navigation . 252
7.4 Aeronautical Charts .... 203 9.1.3 Disadvantages of VOR Navigation 252
7.4.1 The Lambert Conformal Conic Projection ............. 204 9.1.4 The VOR Station ..................... 253
7.4.2 The Mercator Projection ............ 204 9.1.5 VOR Navigation Equipment . 253
7.4.3 Types of Aeronautical Charts .. ........... 205 9.1.6 VOR Receiver Checks ........... 254
7.4.4 Plotting Instruments 210 9.1.7 VOR Navigation . 254
7.4.5 Preparing the Chart for a Flight . 211 9.1.8 TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) 256
7.4.6 Ten Degree Drift Lines .. ............ 212 9.1.9 VORTAC ... 256
7.4.7 "Two-Point" Method of Flying a Visual Range .... 213 9.1.10 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) ................ .. 257
7.4.8 Return to Point of Departure . ......... 213 9.2 Radio Beacons ... .. 258
7.4.9 Groundspeed Check ........... 214 9.2.1 Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) 258
7.4.10 The "One-in-Sixty" Rule ........ 214 9.2.2 Fan Marker Beacons 258
7.4.11 The Pilot Navigator .. ........ 214 9.2.3 Marine Beacons 258
7.5 Navigation Problems ... ..... ........................... 214 9.3 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) ... 258
7.5.1 Navigation Terms ..................... 214 9.3.1 ADF Navigation Equipment ..... ................................ 259
7.5.2 The Composition of Velocities 215 9.3.2 ADF Navigation ............. .. 260
7.5.3 The Flight Computer: Wind Side . 216 9.3.3 ADF System Inaccuracies... . 262
7.5.4 Solving Problems with the Wind & Drift 9.3.4 Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) 263
Computer . . 216
7.5.5 The Flight Computer: Circular Slide Rule Side .. 218 9.4 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) . 263
7.5.6 Solving Problems with the Circular Slide Rule ... 218 9.5 Instrument Landing System (ILS) . 265
7.5.7 Solving Navigation Problems .220 9.5.1 !LS Categories . 266
7.5.8 Electronic Flight Calculator . .... ... ....... . 225 9.5.2 Localizer Approach 266
9.6 Area Navigation 266
8 Radio Communication 9.6.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) 266
8.1 Radio Theory & Principals ..... 227 9.6.2 Inertial Navigation System (INS) ............................. 267
8.1.1 Wavelength & Frequency ...... 227 9.6.3 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) ........ 267
8.1.2 Radio Bands 227 9.7 Radar & Surveillance Systems . 269
8.1.3 Single & Double Channel Communication 230 9.7.1 Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) . 270
8.1.4 Characteristics of Radio Signals 230 9.7.2 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) .. .. 271
8.1.5 Data Link Communications . 231 9.7.3 Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) ..... 273
8.2 Radio Communication Equipment . 231 9. 7.4 Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) .. 273
8.2.1 The VHF Transceiver .. . 232
8.2.2 The HF Transceiver . 232
8.2.3 Care of Aeroplane Radio 232
8.3 Radio Communication & Air Traffic Services
(ATS) ..... 233
8.3.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Services . 233
8.3.2 Flight Advisory Services... .. 235
8.3.3 NOTAM . 237
8.3 .4Information Supplements & Circulars 238

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 Air Navigation: Latitude & Longitude

49th Street and 11th Avenue, so the town of Riverton may be

7 Air Navigation located at the intersection of the 7Sth m eridian west and the
40th parallel north.

The earth on which we live is a ball, or sphere, technically an

oblate sph eroid. Not knowing any better, the human race has Prim e Meridian
for centuries lived on th e outside of the sphere, enduring heat - - - - - - - - Greenwich
and cold, clouds and rain, snow and sleet, fog, mist and mortal
uncertainty. In due course, cities of the future may be located
underground in a world of perfectly regulated con ditions of
h eat, light and fresh air. Or, they'll be found in orbit, and in
and amongst the stars. Meanwhile, we are here today and
gone tomorrow and must make the best of our cabbage-patch Equator
world, such as it is.
Man is a restless soul; travel and curiosity have always been
two of his most cultivated and persevering habits. To make
it possible to move about on this great terrestrial sph ere, he
must h ave some m aster plan to enable him to define position,
direction and distance. Fig. 7.1 Latitude & Longitude
There are several methods of navigation used by pilots to find
Meridians of longitude are semi great circles joining the true
th eir way from place to place on this earth of ours.
or geographic poles of the earth. Th ey are also called true
Pilotage is navigation by reference only to landmarks. meridians since they join the geographic poles, as opposed to
Dead reckoning is navigation by use of predetermined vectors magnetic meridians which join the magnetic poles.
of wind and true airspeed and precalculated heading, ground- Lon gitude is measure d from 0° to 180° east and west of th e
speed and estimated time of arrival. prime meridian which is the meridian which passes through
Radio navigation is navigation by use of radio aids, that is, Greenwich, England. The prime meridian is numbered 0°. The
navigation signals broadcast by radio stations on the ground meridian on the opposite side of the earth to the prime merid-
or from satellites. ian is the 180th and is called the international date line for
here the time changes a day.
Inertial navigation is navigation by self-contained airborne
gyroscopic equipment or electronic computers that provide a Longitude is measured in degrees ( 0 ), minutes ( ' ) and sec-
continuous display of position . onds ( " ). There are 60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds in
a minute.
Satellite navigation is navigation by use of positioning and
guidance systems using transmiters and receivers that pro- Parallels of latitude are circles on the earth's surface whose
vide pinpoint positioning accuracy via orbiting satellites. planes lie parallel to the equator. The equator is a great circle
on the surface of the earth lying equidistant from the poles.
Most pilots use these various methods of navigation in combi-
nation. The use of pilotage by itself is limited by visibility (you Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north or south of the
have to be able to see the landmarks) and by familiarity with equator, which is numbered 0°. Latitude is expressed in
the area over which the fligh t is being conducted. Therefore, degrees ( 0 ), minutes ( ' ) and seconds ( " ).
pilotage in combination with dead reckoning is a more effec-
tive method of navigation and is the subject of this chapter. 1.1.1 Geographical Co-Ordinates
Radio navigation and inertial navigation are discussed in a The location of cities, towns, airports, etc. may be designated
later chapter. by their geographical co-ordinates, th at is, the intersection of
Also in a later chapter is a description of GPS, and of how the the lines of latitude and longitude marking their position on
GPS system provides electronic navigation to pilots. Almost all a map.
aircraft today are equipped with some form of GPS navigation
device. These devices calculate location, and feed that infor- - so•
mation into multi-input navigational computers for autopilot, ~
CD
course information and display, and course tracking and record-
ing. Notwithstanding their now ubiquitous use, pilots should
"
have a fundamental knowledge of basic navigation to use in
combination with their chosen GPS cockpit navigation devices.

1.1 Latitude & Longitude

As a well-planned modern city is an orderly gridwork of inter-
secting streets and avenues, so ancient master minds have
divided the surface of our sphere into a geometrical pattern
of intersecting circles called the graticule. Those running
north and south are meridians of longitude. Those running
east and west are parallels of latitude. In exactly the same
way that Scud Runner's Cafe may be located at the corner of Fig. 7.2 Geographical Co-ordinates

From the Ground Up·· 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Latitude & Longitude

In Fig.7.2 , the co-ordinates of the airport at Matagami are universal time replaced Greenwich mean time (GMT) which
49°46'N, 77°48'W. In other words, the airport is located 49 was the universally accepted standard for the measurement
degrees, 46 minutes north of the equator and 77 degrees 48 of time until December 1985.)
minutes west of the prime meridian.
UTC is the local mean time for the prime meridian.
On a chart, the lines representing the meridians and parallels
The LMT of any place east of the prime meridian is ahead of
are numbered (in Fig.7.2, 78°00'W, 77°30'W and S0°N). Each UTC.
small mark along the lines represents one minute.
For Example: Cairo 1400 = UTC 12:00.
One position on the earth's surface is related to another by the
change of latitude (written Ch.Lat.) and the change of longi- The LMT of any place west of the prime meridian is behind
tude (Ch.Long.) between the two places. UTC.

If an aeroplane is to proceed from a place, Dunnville, to a For Example: UTC 1200 = Toronto 07:00.
place, Harrisburg, the Ch.Lat. is named north or south accord- If every place kept its own local mean time, confusion would
ing to whether Harrisburg is north or south of Dunnville. result. For this reason the world is divided into 24 time zones
Similarly, the Ch.Long. is named east or west, depending on (Fig.7.3). Each zone is 15° of longitude wide and keeps the time
whether Harrisburg is east or west of Dunnville. of the mid-meridian of the zone. The zones are numbered
For Example: from 1 to 12 east of the prime meridian (minus) and 1 to 12
west of the prime meridian (plus). If either the zone number or
Harrisburg Lat. 60°27'N. Long. 40°20'W.
the longitude of the mid-meridian of the zone is known , zone
Dunnville Lat. 45°30'N. Long. 15°30'£. time can readily be converted to UTC (Fig.7.3). It will be seen
Ch. Lat. 14°57'N. Ch . Long. 55°SO'W. that when it is noon at the prime meridian, it is midnight on
In the above example, Harrisburg is obviously north of the 180th meridian. Here the time changes a day. Travelling
Dunnville by 14°57' of latitude, hence its Ch.Lat. is 14°57'N. from east longitude to west longitude (i.e. from Tokyo to San
Harrisburg is west of Dunnville, but as Dunnville is east of Francisco), the time goes back a day (i.e. from Wednesday to
the prime meridian, the Ch .Long. in this case is the sum of Tuesday) . Travelling from west longitude to east longitude (i.e.
the longitude of the two places. Not that any community 15° San Francisco to Toyko), time goes forward a day (i.e. from
east of the prime meridian is likely to have a name such as Tuesday to Wednesday).
Dunnville, but the example is merely chosen to help you to
get the general idea.

1.i.2 Time &Longitude

•
Noon
1 200

The earth rotates about its own axis. It also revolves in an

elliptical orbit around the sun. As a result of these revolutions
of the earth, it appears to us as though the su n were revolving
arou nd th e earth instead.
The time between one apparent passage, or transit, of the sun
over a meridian and the next passage over that same merid-
ian is called an apparent solar day and varies throughout the 0 0
year. 0

"'.... "'
0
0

To provide a convenient method of measuring time, an

imaginary sun called the mean sun, is assumed to travel at
a uniform rate of speed throughout the year. The interval
between two successive transits of the mean sun is called a
mean solar day.
The mean solar day is divided into 24 equal hours. The mean
sun is assumed to travel once around the earth every mean
solar day, and th erefore travels through an angle of 360° of
0000
longitude in that time. Hence, mean time m ay be expressed
Midnight
in terms of longitude, and vice versa.
For Example: Fig. 7.3 Zone Time & Longitude

24 hrs. = 360° Long. 360° Long. = 24 hrs . Air traffic control and meteorological facilities in both Canada
1 hr. = 15° Long. 1° Long. = 4 min. and the United States operate on UTC, or Z time, not local
1 min. = 15' Long. 1' Long. = 4 sec. zone time. A pilot flying on a long cross-country flight would
1 sec. = 15" Long. 1" Long. = 1/ 15 sec. be wise to adjust his/ her personal wrist watch (or aeroplane
Time will va ry on different meridians on the earth at any clock) to UTC and refer to it when radioing position reports.
particula r instant from 0 hours to 24 hours. The mean time on Such a precaution will eliminate any chance of error in report-
any particular meridian is called its local mean time (LMT). ing time since it is often most difficult to determine exactly
when one zone (which, to add to the confusion, might be on
In order to have a universal standard time for reference at any local daylight saving time) ends and another begins. To be
point on the earth, a mean value, based upon measurements one hour in error when reporting to an air traffic control unit
of time in a number of places on the earth, has been estab- could have serious consequences.
lished and is known as co-ordinated universal time (UTC) .
UTC is also referred to as Z time (Zulu time). (Co-ordinated

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 Air Navigation: The Earth's Magnetism

When travelling westward into a new time zone, watches are be changed at frequent intervals to enable the aeroplane to
turned back one hour from the previous zone. When travelling maintain a great circle route.
eastward, w atches are advanced one hour each time a new A rhumb line is a curved line on the surface of the earth, cut-
time zone is reached. ting all the meridians it meets at the same angle (Fig.7.5). All
The relationship of UTC to stand ard zone time in North parallels of latitude are rhumb lines. The meridians and the
America is indicated below. Standard time is the result of syn- equator are also rhumb lines while also being great circles.
chronizing of clocks in different geographical locations within Any rhumb line that is not at the same time a parallel of lati-
a time zone, and of setting those times in terms of offsets tude, will spiral into the poles (Fig.7.5).
from UTC. Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing of
When two places are not situated on the equator, or on the
clocks from Spring until Fall which results in a change in the
same meridian, the distance measured along the rhumb lines
offsets from UTC during those seasons.
joining them will not be the shortest distance between them.
12:00 (noon) UTC equals: However, the direction of the rhumb line is constant. A rhumb
08:30 NST Newfoundland Standard Time (NST = UTC - 3.5 hours) line route offers to the navigator, therefore, the advantage of
09:30 NOT Newfoundland Daylight Time (NOT= UTC - 2.5 ho urs) following a constant heading.
08:00 AST Atlantic Standard Time (AST= UTC - 4 hours) N
09:00 ADT Atlantic Daylight Tim e (ADT = UTC - 3 hours)
07:00 EST Eastern Standard Time (EST= UTC - 5 hours)
08:00 EDT Ea stern Daylight Time (EDT= UTC - 4 hours)
06:00 CST Central Standard Tim e (CST= UTC - 6 hours)
07:00 CDT Cen t ral Dayligh t Time (CDT= UTC - 5 ho urs)
05:00 MST Mountain Standard Tim e (MST= UTC - 7 hours)
06:00 MDT Mountain Daylight Time (MDT= UTC - 6 ho urs)
04 :00 PST Pacific Standard Time (PST = UTC - 8 hours)
05:00 PDT Pacific Daylight Time (PDT= UTC - 7 hours)
Fig. 7.6 Headings (Left) & Bearings (Right)
Fig. 7.4 Time Zones

The above abbreviations are frequently contracted to "Z" (C o-ordinated

Universal Time), "A" (Atlantic Standard Time), "E" (Eastern Standard
1.i.4 Headings & Bearings
Time). etc. Direction is measured in degrees clockwise from north which
is 0° (or 360°). East is 90°, south is 180° and west is 270°.
1.1.3 Great Circles &Rhumb Lines The direction of any point on the surface of the earth from
an observer is known, if the angle at the observer between
A great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose plane
a meridian passing through the observer and a great circle
passes through the centre of the sphere and which, therefore,
joining the observer to the object is known. This angle is the
cuts the sphere into two equal parts (Fig.7.5). Only one great
circle may be drawn through two places on the surface of the azimuth or the bearing of the point. The angle is measured
sphere that are not diametrically opposite each other. The clockwise from the meridian through 360° (Fig. 7.6).
shortest distance between these two points (A and Bin Fig.7.5) The angle between the meridian over which an aeroplane is
is the shorter arc of the great circle joining them. flyin g and the line representing the direction in which the
aeroplane's nose is pointing (the fore and aft axis), measured
The equator is a great circle. The meridians are only semi
clockwise, is the aeroplane's true heading (Fig.7.6).
great circles since they do not completely encircle the earth
but run only half way around it from pole to pole. With the Since the meridians are imagin ary lines, the angle between
exception of the equator, the parallels of latitude are not great a m eridian and a particular heading or bearing cannot be
circles as their planes do not pass through the centre of the m easured directly. By the aid of a compass, however, the
earth. direction of the meridian may be determined and the angle
ascertained.

i. .
Centre of Earth
---- 1.2 The Earth's Magnetism
The earth is a magnet and like any other magnet has a north
and south magnetic pole. Lines of magnetic force, which are
generated by cu rrents of molten iron flowing around a solid
core deep within the earth, flow between these two poles
creating a magnetic field that surrounds the earth. A compass
Fig. 7.5 Great Circles (Left) & Rhumb Lines (Right)
needle will be influenced by the ea rth's magnetic field and
will lie parallel to one of the magnetic lines of force with its
Since a great circle route represents the shortest distance north seeking pole pointing to magnetic north. (This do es
between two points on the surface of the earth, its advantage not necessarily mean that it is pointing directly towards the
to the air navigator will be obvious. Most long-distance flights magnetic north pole.) The magnetic line in which the compass
are flown over great circle routes or modified great circle needle lies is called a magnetic meridian.
routes. By referring to Fig. 7.7, you will note that the earth's magnetic
A great circle, however, does not cross the meridians it lines of force are horizontal at the equator, but become gradu-
meets at the same angle. For this reason, the heading must ally vertical towards the poles. There are two forces acting

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Air Navigation: The Earth's Magnetism

on a compass needle. One, the horizontal H force, acting The isogonals are numbered east and west according to
horizontally, tends to hold the needle level (B). The other, the whether the compass variation is to the east or west of true
vertical Z force, acting vertically, tends to pull the seeking north.
end of the needle down (A and C). A freely suspended magnet
Isogonic lines are represented on aeronautical charts by
u nder the influence of a large directional (H) force and a small
dashed lines with the amount of variation indicated. In Fig.7.2,
vertical (Z) force would lie parallel to the earth's surface. This the 15°W isogonic line can be seen to pass near the Matagami
occurs near the m agnetic equator. As the magnet is moved Airport.
north or south from the equator, H force decreases and Z force
increases; the pole seeking end of the magnet would be pulled
down from the horizontal. The angle between the horizontal Agonic Lines
and the plane the magnet lies in under the influence of Z force In each hemisphere there will be places where the north pole
is called dip and from latitudes north or south of 45 degrees and north magnetic pole will be in transit, that is, where they
is quite large, increasing to near 90 degrees at the poles. Dip will lie in the same straight line. These places will, therefore,
must be corrected or compensated for in a compass during have no magnetic variation. Lines drawn through places of no
construction (see Magnetic Dip). variation are called agonic lines. Like the isogonic lines, they
twist and curve, due to the local attraction of magnetic bodies
in the earth.
The agonic line for the Western Hemisphere passes just to the
west of Thunder Bay, Ontario, and just to the west of Chicago,
Illinois. East of this line the variation is westerly and west of it
the variation is easterly.

Magnetic Pole /'

The Effect of Variation
If the magnetic pole lies west of the true pole from a given
point, the compass needle will point west of true north. Hence,
the magnetic meridian will lie west of the true meridian.

Fig. 7. 7 The Earth's Magnetism

Magnetic ~ ~ True
North Pole

/ ~
-, North Pole
-p::::
.
' •?\..""'-~

\ ·~·' "~
.
Lubber Line (True North)
I

1.2.1 Variation
The magnetic meridians do not coincide with the true merid-
i\lit
•·
ians because the north magnetic pole does not coincide with
the true, or geographic, pole. Averaged over thousands of
'''
~ ..\·•ri
-·
years, the position of the north magnetic pole will roughly cor- True •..;,,....~ Magnetic
respond with the position of the geographic pole, but, at any North Pole --., ~ South Pole
given time, the two poles can be very far apart. Most recently,
Variation West No Variation
the north magnetic pole was located at 81.3°N, 110.8°W, near
Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic, approximately 1,200 Fig. 7.8 Variation Effect
km south of the true north pole.
In this case, the variation is named west (Fig.7.8).
The angle between the true meridian and the magnetic
meridian in which the compass needle lies is called m agnetic Similarly, if the compass needle points east of true north, the
variation (also known as magnetic declination). magnetic m eridian will lie east of the true m eridian, and the
variation will be named east.
Since the magnetic north pole is not stationary but moving in
an erratic circle, the variation is not constant at any one place, Fig.7.9 is intended to represent a compass installed in an aero-
but changes slowly from year to year. This is called annual plane whose nose is pointed towards true north.
ch ange. Natural Resources Canada, about once per decade, The lubber line of a compass is always permanently fixed in
re-plots the position of the north magnetic pole and updates the fore and aft line of the aeroplane and therefore always
its charts, repositioning magnetic meridians and assigning indicates the direction in which the aeroplane is heading. The
corrected magnetic variation where necessary. compass card is always read against the lubber line.
The compass needle pivots and is free to point always towards
Isogonic Lines magnetic north, regardless of what direction the aeroplane
The direction of the earth's m agnetic field is measured, peri- m ay be h eading.
odically, over most of the earth's surface. The results of such
In Fig.7.8 (at right), there is no variation. The magnetic merid-
a survey are plotted on a chart. Lines are drawn on the chart ian, in which the compass needle lies, coincides with the true
joining places h aving the same variation and these lines are m eridian in which the lon gitudinal axis of the aeroplane lies.
called isogonic lines or isogonals. Isogonals are not straight
lines but bend and twist due to the influence on the magnetic Fig.7.9 (at left) illustrates westerly variation . The compass
field of local magnetic bodies below the earth 's surface. needle is defle cted 30° west of the true m eridian. The com-
pass card is always attach ed to the compass needle and,
therefore, when the compass needle is deflected towards the

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 Air Navigation: The Earth's Magnetism

west, it drags the whole compass card around with it. As a A compass is a reliable, self-contained instrument that
result, the reading at the lubber line is more than it should requires no external power source. It will continue to perform
be. Although the aeroplane is actually pointed towards true satisfactorily in a steady climb or glide, provided that neither
north, the compass reads 30°. is greater than 20°. In turns or rapid changes of speed, howev-
er, the compass will not give an accurate reading of direction.
To use the instrument properly, a pilot must understand how
a compass works and to what errors it is subject.

Variation 30° West Variation 40° East

Fig. 7.9 Variation Examples

Fig. 7.9 (at right) illustrates easterly variation. When the needle
is deflected east of the true meridian, the compass card is
rotated so that a smaller reading is opposite the lubber line.
Although the aeroplane is in fact pointed towards true north,
the compass reads 320°.
Fig . 7.10 Magnetic Compass
CONVERSION OF TRUE & MAGNETIC HEADINGS
It is necessary for a pilot to be able to convert true headings
and bearings to magnetic headings and bearings, and vice Construction of the Magnetic Compass
versa, rapidly in the air. The magnetic compass consists of north seeking magnets
(usually two) attached to a float to which is also attached a
compass card. This complete magnet system is mounted on
To convert Magnetic to True:
a pivot and is free to rotate. The whole assembly is mounted
Subtract . ...... . Westerly Variation
within the compass bowl.
Add . . . . ...... . Easterly Variation
To damp out oscillations of the magnetic system which may
be caused by turbulence, the bowl is filled with alcohol or
white kerosene. This liquid also helps to reduce the weight
To convert True to Magnetic:
of the compass card and the magnets that are carried by the
Subtract . . ..... . Easterly Variation
pivot. The liquid also helps to lubricate the pivot point. An
Add ...... . . . . .Westerly Variation expansion chamber is provided to allow for expansion of the
liquid due to temperature changes. The bowl and container
An easy way to remember how to apply variation is to remem- are of brass, which is non-magnetic.
ber the rhyme:
The compass card is usually graduated in 5° divisions (the
compass headings). The last 0 is omitted from the numbers,
Variation West, Magnetic Best which are shown as 3 for 30, 33 for 330, etc. The card is read
(Better than True) through a window on which is painted a white vertical line
Variation East, Magnetic Least (the lubber line).
(Less than True) As previously stated, the lubber line indicates the direction
the aeroplane is headed and should be exactly in line with, or
Example 1. To convert a magnetic bearing of 80° to a true bear- parallel to, the fore and aft (longitudinal) axis of the aeroplane.
ing when the variation is 13°W.
Since the headings are painted on the reciprocal side of the
Magnetic Bearing . . . . . .. 80° card, which the pilot sees looking forward, the card appears to
Variation. . . . . . .. . . . .. 13° W be going the wrong way when the aeroplane is turning.
Hence, True Bearing . . . . 67°
The magnetic compass is affected by anything metal that is
Example 2. To convert a true heading of 136° to a magnetic placed too near to it. Photographic exposure meters, screw-
heading when the variation is 8°E. drivers and other tools, headsets, manuals bound with steel
True Heading .. . ...... 136° covers can affect the compass and cause distorted readings.
Variation. . . . . . . . .. 8° E For example, in one reported incident, an exposure meter
Hence, Magnetic Heading . ..... 128° lying within four inches of the compass caused a 23° error;
in another incident, a pair of pliers lying six inches from the
compass caused a 10° error.
1.2.2 The Magnetic Compass
In some general aviation aeroplanes, the magnetic compass Compass Errors
is the only direction finding instrument installed in the aero-
plane. Even in aeroplanes that have more complicated direc- DEVIATION
tion finding devices, such as a heading indicator, these instru- When magnets mounted in simple direct reading compasses
ments must be set with reference to the magnetic compass. are installed in aeroplanes, they usually do not point directly
in the direction of magnetic north but, due to the influence of

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Air Navigation: The Earth's Magnetism

magnetic fields associated with the metal in the aeroplane's gas pumps, etc. There should be no metal objects in the vicin-
frame and engine, are deflected slightly to wh at is called ity of the compass or on th e person performing the swing.
compass north. Magnetic bearings, every 30°, are laid out on the base. The
The angle through which the compass needle is deflected aeroplane is lined up with each bearing and the compass
from the magnetic meridian is called deviation. h eading compared with each in turn. The method of correct-
ing deviation is detailed below. The compass should be swung
Deviation is named east if the north seeking end of the needle w ith the engine running and all radio and electrical equip-
is deflected to the east of m agnetic north. It is nam ed west if ment functioning.
the needle is deflected west of magnetic north .
Deviation can also be determined by the use of a landing/
If deviation causes the compass needle to be deflected west master compass. As the aircraft is lined up on the various
of the magnetic meridian, the compass card will be dragged compass headings, the readings of the aircraft compass are
around counterclockwise and the reading opposite the lubber compared to the readings of the landing compass to deter-
line will be m ore than it should be. mine deviation.
Similarly, if the compass needle is pulled over east of the mag- The simplest method of swinging the compass is as follows:
netic meridian, the compass card will be rotated clockwise
and the reading opposite the lubber line will be less than it 1. Place aeroplane on N. Take out deviation.
should be. 2. Place aeroplane on E. Take out deviation.
3. Place aeroplane on S. Take out half the deviation.
To convert Compass to Magnetic: 4. Place aeroplane on W. Take out h alf the deviation.
Subtract . . ...... Westerly Deviation
Add ........ . .. Easterly Deviation 5. Commencing with the corrected reading on W, place
the aeroplane successively on magnetic headings
every 30°; that is, W, 300°, 330°, N, 030°, 060°, E, 120°,
150°, S, 210°, 240°. Take compass readings on all 12
To convert Magnetic to Compass: points. Enter the readings on the deviation card
Subtract .... .. .. Easterly Deviation (Fig.7.11) which is then placed near the compass in
Add . . . . . . . . . . Westerly Deviation the aeroplane. Enter details in the Aircraft Log.
FOR N 030 060 E 120 150
An easy w ay to remember how to apply deviation is to remem- STEER 003 031 061 090 122 147
ber the rhyme: FOR s 210 240 w 300 330
STEER 179 209 241 270 298 334
Deviation West, Compass Best Fig. 7.11 Compass Deviation Chart
(Better than Magnetic)
The deviation card illustrated reads: "For N Steer 003". This
Deviation East, Compass Least
m ean s that on a heading of north magnetic, the compass has
(Less than Magnetic) a 3° deviation west {Deviation West, Compass Best). It is there-
fore necessary to steer 003° by the compass to make good a
Example 1. To convert a magnetic h eading of 270° to a com- magnetic heading of north. And so on for the other points of
pass heading when th e deviation is 3° East. the compass.
Magnetic Heading . . . . .. 270° Some types of retractable landing gear will be found to be
Deviation . . . .. 3° East magnetized to such an extent that they will cause consider-
Hence, Compass Heading ... 267° able deviation of the compass when retracted. In such cases,
Example 2. To convert a compass heading of 002° to a mag- the compass must be swun g in the air with the landing gear
netic heading when the deviation is 4° West. retracted.
Compass Heading. . . 002° This can be done by the following simple method:
Deviation . . .. ...... 4° West 1. Select a road or railroad on the map whose bearing is
Hence, Magnetic Heading ...... 358° as nearly as possible magnetic north and south and
Because a compass can be affected by anything m etal, it is another as nearly as possible magnetic east and west.
essential that pilots avoid placing metallic objects near the Smooth air is essential, preferably with no wind.
compass during flight. 2. Align the aeroplane heading on magnetic north
The effect of deviation is neutralized in aeroplanes as far as by sighting up the north-south road or railroad.
possible by a procedure called swinging the compass. The 3. Set the heading indicator.
compass is fitted with corrector magnets, which are perma-
nently installed and connected by gears. Th ey are located in 4. Hold the heading constant by the heading indi-
the top and bottom of the compass case and are adjusted by cator and correct the magnetic compass to
screws. As the compass is swung, the screws are adjusted to match the heading on the heading indicator.
eliminate deviation. It is rarely possible to eliminate all the 5. Repeat the process on east.
deviation. What remains after th e compass has been swung
The heading indicator can now be used to align the aeroplane
is tabulated on a compass deviation card to enable the pilot
on the other headings and make the necessary corrections
to make allowance for it. A typical compass deviation card is
by the same method as that detailed above for swinging the
illustrated in Fig.7.11. compass on the ground.
Th e compass is swung on a compass swinging base located
remote from any m agn etic influences, such as metal h angars,

© Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: The Earth's Magnetism

The heading indicator is subject to precession error. The aeroplane can cause no deflection of the system. If the magnet system is
should not be flown more than 5 minutes without realigning the tilted sideways through 90° (i.e. to the east or to the west), the
heading indicator on one of the roads selected. system will take up a position under the combined influence
of H and Z, parallel to the direction of the lines of force of th e
If a driftmeter is available, the compass may be swung in the
earth's magnetic field at the position. But if the system is now
air with prevailing wind conditions. This and other methods
turned in azimuth until its normal axis of rotation is paral-
which require the use of special navigation equipment are
beyond the scope of this pilot-navigator text but may be found lel to the meridian, H is no longer able to affect the magnet
in the many handbooks which deal more extensively with system, which will come entirely under the effect of Z, and
will take up a vertical position, north-seeking end downward s
navigation.
in the Northern Hemisphere and upwards in the southern.
If roads or railroads are scarce in the area, the airport run- Consequently, the north-seeking end of the magnet system
ways may be utilized. Airport runway bearings are numbered will rotate towards the inside of the turn in the Northern
to the nearest 10° magnetic and accurate bearings to the near- Hemisphere (centripetal force which acts through the pivot
est degree should be obtained. towards the centre of the turn) and towards the outside in the
The use of the omni range to establish magnetic headings for compass southern (centrifugal force which acts through the cen tre of
swinging is not recommended. The needle is not sufficiently sensitive gravity towards the outside of the turn). This is the magnetic
for this purpose, except when close in to the station. In addition, the factor responsible for northerly turning error.
VOR is subject to certain course errors.
Magnetic North Heading Magnetic South Heading
MAGNETIC DIP
The earth's lines of force are horizontal at the equator but
become vertical towards the poles. This causes the compass
to tend to dip in higher latitudes. (See Fig.7.7.)

Vertical for~e ~

cau s i n g d P··w (, \

.....-y
~
J.c":~~' of"""" displaced backwards
Northern Hemisphere turning error
Magnet l' preventing further dip Fig. 7.13 No rth erly Turni ng Erro r

Fig. 7.12 Magnetic Dip There is also a mechanical factor which has a slight effect on
the compass during turns. When the aeroplane commences
To compensate for dip, the magnet system is (1) balanced pen- a turn, the liquid in the compass bowl tends to turn with the
dulously on a pivot bearing with the centre of gravity of the bowl. This liquid swirl drags the magnet system with it and
system below or lower than the pivot point, or (2) the top part causes a rotation of the system towards the centre of the tu r n.
of the pivot is so constructed th at the centre of buoyancy of
the system is well above its centre of gravity, or (3) a combina- The error is most apparent on headings of north and south.
tion of both methods. As one end of the magnet system begins When making a turn from a heading of north, the compass
to dip below the horizon, the C.G. is moved out of line with may briefly give an indication of a turn in th e opposite direc-
the pivot so that the weight of the system counteracts Z Force tion but it then corrects itself to turn with the aeroplane. It
or, as one end of the magnet system tends to dip, the centre does, however, under register the turn (or lags). The compass
of buoyancy moves out of line with the pivot and C.G., coun- is said to be "sluggish" in the northerly quadrant. When
teracting Z Force. The resultant dip, in "normal" latitudes, is making a turn from south, it gives an indication of a turn in
about 2 or 3 degrees (Fig.7.12). Note the relative positions of the correct direction but at a much faster rate than is actu -
the pivot and centre of gravity and keep them in mind in the ally occurring. It over registers (or leads). In the southern
discussion of northerly turning error, acceleration and decel- quadrant, the compass is said to be "lively". The error is less
eration errors that follows. pronounced in turns from south than from north.
The effe ct of northerly turning error is greatest over the poles
NORTHERLY TURNING ERROR and gradually decreases towards the magnetic equator, where
When an aeroplane in flight executes a normal turn, it banks it is zero. The deflection of the compass is m aximum on north
and the wing on the inside is lowest. The plane of gyration and south headings and nil on east and west.
of the magnetic system of the compass tends to maintain a
position parallel to the transverse plane of the aeroplane due An understanding of the vagaries of the magnetic compass
to the fact that the centre of gravity of the m agnetic system is caused by northerly turning error h as been of invaluable
placed below the point at which the system pivots. As a result assistance to pilots who have experienced loss of gyros, or
of the turn, the forces acting on the magnet system undergo who are flying an aeroplane that is not equipped with gyros,
certain ch anges which have a m arked effect upon the direc- at a time when they have to fly by reference to instruments.
tion indicating properties of the compass and, under certain In fact, the method was first used by World War I pilots. The
conditions , large apparent deviations will be observed. m ethod is to est ablish a sou th heading. The compass on south
is very sensitive and leads any turn. Th erefore, if the compass
When an aeroplane is in straight-and-level flight, H, the indicates that the aeroplane is t u rning, control movements
horizontal component of the earth's total force, is exerting should be applied to return it to its original h eading. The tilt of
its m aximum influence while Z, the vertical component, is the compass card will indicate when one wing is down.
exerting a force in the vertical plane of th e m agnet system but
Accurate turns onto any heading are quite simple if use is
made of a heading indicator. However, if there is no headin g

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Air Navigation: The Earth's Magnetism

indicator and turns must be made from north or south head- The deflection of the compass will occur only while the aero-
ings by reference to the magnetic compass, the following plane is accelerating or decelerating. Immediately the aero -
simple rules may prove helpful: plane is again in equilibrium, the compass will return to its
normal magnetic h eading.
On turns from north, northerly turning error
causes the compass to lag. When reading the magnetic compass on
On turns from south, northerly turning error east or west headings, always make sure
causes the compass to lead. that the airspeed is kept constant.

The greatest effect will be experienced when the turn com- The effect of acceleration and deceleration compass error is
mences near to the north and south headings and will be less nil on north and south headings.
noticeable when the commencement of the turn is nearer to
east and west headings. 1.2.3 Dry Vertical Card Compass
The fact should be realized that, often in a turn, an aeroplane The dry vertical card compass looks like a heading indicator
may be subject to gust loads which will further aggravate the (directional gyro) but is in fact a compass. The display fea-
constant behaviour of a compass. Under certain conditions, an tures a miniature aeroplane that points to the headings on
aeroplane may be turning but the compass, being subject to a vertical card that rotates. All headings are simultaneously
outside forces, does not indicate a turn at all but maintains a displayed, so that alternate headings (180°, 90°, 45°, etc.)are
constant heading. When the aeroplane levels out for straight- easily determined.
and-level flight, the compass will spin rapidly to indicate the
The vertical card compass utilizes a sensing magnet which
new heading.
is not pendulous and which does not float in liquid. Instead
In an aeroplane with a turn and bank indicator, a pilot may it rotates in a fixed plane in relation to the compass housing.
make reasonably accurate turns to a particular heading by It is heavily damped and limited to only 20 degrees of pitch
ban king th e aeroplane into a standard rate 1 turn and allow- and roll. As a result, although the vertical card compass is
ing 1 second for every 3 degrees of the compass (i.e. 30 seconds still subject to lead and lag as a result of northerly t urning
to turn 90 degrees). error and to acceleration and deceleration error, the errors
are less noticeable than in the standard compass. The vertical
While reading the compass when holding north card compass is generally more stable and consistent in its
or south headings, always make sure the wings readings.
are level and the turn needle is centred.

ACCELERATION & DECELERATION ERRORS

When an aeroplane increases its speed, a force is set up in
the direction in which the aeroplane is moving. This is accel-
eration and will act through the pivot of the compass. The
magnet system, however, tends to lag behind due to inertia
acting through the centre of gravity. On east and west head-
ings, this causes a turning moment, tending to rotate the
magnet system and so causing deflection of the compass card.

Fig. 7.15 Dry Vertical Card Compass

Deceleration
The vertical card compass is more sensitive to magnetic and
electrical disturbances in the aeroplane and requires careful
swinging.

1.2.4 Finding the Sun's True Bearing

In a booklet called Finding The Sun's True Bearing, Transport
Canada h as published tables that give the sun's true bearing
for locations from 40 degrees north latitude to 85 degrees
north latitude, based on 10 day intervals throughout the year
Fig. 7.14 Acce leration Erro r and eight minute intervals throughout the day.
When the aeroplane decreases its speed, deceleration causes The u se of these tables eliminates the need for an astro com-
a similar effect but the deflection will be in the opposite pass and the somewhat cumbersome procedure for determin-
direction. ing position by this instrument. With the booklet, an accurate
clock, a heading indicator and, of course, the sun in the sky, it
On east and west headings, acceleration causes the compass
is relatively simple to keep an accurate check on true bearing.
to register a turn towards north.
By dead reckoning, it is necessary to determine the geographi-
On east and west headings, deceleration causes the compass
cal co-ordinates of the position on the earth over which the
to register a turn towards south.
aeroplane is flying. Let us suppose that the aeroplane is over a

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _...........- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

landmark whose co-ordinates are 55°15'N and 120°10'W. The Practically all circular slide rule computers have statute mile/
time is 1809 UTC and the date is June 9th. nautical mile conversion indexes printed on the outer scale.
The abbreviation, officially adopted for nautical m iles is
n.miles or n.m. or NM; for statute m iles, s.miles or s.m. or SM.

126.4 128.0 129.6 131.3 132.9

125.0 126.6 128.2 129.8 131.5
1.3 .1 Conversions
12 3.3 124.9 126.6 128.2 129.9
121.6 123.2 124.9 126.6 128 .2 Speed
FEB 9 119.9 121.5 123.2 124.9 126. 6 • To convert knots to mph, multiply knots by 1.15.
FEB 19 118.2 119.9 121.6 123.3 125.1 • To convert mph to knots, divide mph by 1.15.
MAR 1 116.6 118.3 120.1 121.8 123.6 • To convert kilometers per hour
115.1 116.8 118.6 120.4 12 2.2 to knots, multiply by 0.54.
113.6 115.3 11 7.1 118.9 120.8 • To convert kilometers per hour
112.0 113.9 115.7 117.5 119.4 to mph, multiply by 0.62.
110.5 112.3 114 .2 116.1 118.0
108.9 110.7 112.6 114.5 116.4
107.2 109.1 111.0 112 .9 114.8
Hours & Minutes
105.5 107.4 109.3 111.2 113.1
To convert minutes to hours, divide by 60 (60 min. = 1 hr.).
103.9 105.7 107.6 109.5 111.4
For Example: 30 min. = 30-;- 60 = 0.5 hrs.
Fig. 7.16 Sun's True Bearing (Portion)
To convert hours to minutes, multiply by 60.
Find the page in Finding The Sun's True Bearing for 55 degrees For Ex ample: 0.75 hrs. = 0.75 x 60 = 45 min.
north latitude.
Multiply the number of whole degrees of longitude by 4 (120 x Time in Flight
4 is 480) to obtain the correction in minutes for the local civil To find the time in flight, divide the distance by the
time (LCT). Convert this value to hours and minutes (480 m in- groundspeed.
utes is 8 hours 00 minutes). Since you are west of the prime
For Ex ample: Distance to fly= 120 n.m.
meridian, subtract this correction from the time in UTC (1809
Groundspeed = 80 knots
minus 0800) to determine the LCT 1009. Time to fly=
I I • 11•~•1 ' I 120 -c 80 = 1.5 hrs
DATE/HOURS 1000 1008 1016 1024
1.5 hrs x 60 = 90 min= 1 hr. 30 min.
APR 30 139.0 141.5 144. 0 146.6
MAY 10 137.7 140.2 142.8 145.5 Distance
MAY 20 136.2 138.8 141. 5 144.2 To find the distance flown in a given time, multiply ground-
MAY 30 134.7 137.3 140.0 142.8 speed by time.
JUN 9 133.3 136.0 138.7 141.5 For Example: Time flown = 1 hr. 45 min.
JUN 19 132.3 134.9 137.6 140.4 Groundspeed = 120 knots
JUN 29 131.7 134.4 137.0 139.8 Distance to fly = 120 x 1.75 = 210 n.m.
Fig. 7.17 Sample for 55 Degrees North Latitude
Groundspeed
On the 55 degree north latitude page, find on the tables To find the groundspeed, divide the distance flown by the
the date June 9th and the time LCT 1008 (closest to 1009). time.
According to the tables, the sun's true bearing for that time,
For Ex ample: Distance flown = 270 n.m .
date and latitude is 136 degrees.
Time flown = 3 hrs.
Turn the aeroplane so that it is facing directly into the sun. Set Groundspeed =
the heading indicator to 136 degrees. 270 -;- 3 = 90 knots.

1.3 Units of Distance 7.4 Aeronautical Charts

& Speed The earth is a sphere and therefore its surface cannot be rep-
resented accurately on a flat plane. The chart maker's problem
A statute m ile is a distance of 5,280 feet. can be readily appreciated by cutting a rubber ball in half and
A nautical m ile (6,080 feet) is the average length of one minute then attempting to flat ten out one of the halves in a flat plane.
of latitude. For all practical purposes, it may be taken as the Since the surface of a sphere cannot be accurately projected
length of one minute of arc along any great circle. onto a chart, a chart must show the portion of the earth's sur-
A kilometer is a distance of 1,000 meters. face it represents with some distortion.
A knot is a speed of one nautical mile per hour.
One nautical mile equals 1.15 statute miles.
A scale of nautical miles (based on the scale of the chart at
mid-latitude) is printed on all !CAO aeronautical charts .

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

 Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

Measure track
angle here

.. = 11 -!f--'-l-'lt<-
-t+ ,---+-\
\
Point of / I · 1 Point of
departure arrival

Fig. 7.20 Me as uring the Track

On the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection, the angles

between meridians and parallels will be the same on the
chart as they are on the ground. The term conformal refers to
this characteristic. Scale must be the same along both merid-
ians and parallels.
The properties of the Lambert Projection are:
Fig. 7.18 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 1. Meridians are curves or straight lines converging
towards the nearer pole. If they are curves, the cur-
vature is often so small as to be inappreciable. The
angle which one meridian makes with another on the
earth is called convergency. It varies with latitude. At
the equator, there is no convergency between merid-
ians. At the poles, the meridians converge at angles
equal to the change of longitude between them.
2. Parallels of latitude are curves which are con-
cave towards the nearer pole. On any but large
scale charts, the curvature is considerable.
3. The scale of distance is practically uniform
Fig. 7.19 Lambert Conformal Conic Development throughout the entire chart sheet, the maxi-
mum distortion being not more than 1/2of1%.
There are four basic elements in chart construction. These
4. A straight line drawn between any two points on
are:
the chart may be assumed, for all practical pur-
1. Areas. poses, to represent an arc of a great circle.
2. Shapes. Since a great circle does not cross every meridian at the same
3. Bearings. angle, a straight line on the charts will not have the same
bearing when measured on two or more different meridians.
4. Distances.
Hence a straight line, or great circle route, cannot be flown
According to the particular purpose of a chart, one or more without changing heading at regular intervals.
of these elements is preserved as nearly correct as possible,
To make good a given track, or straight line, on this type of
with consequent unavoidable distortion in the remaining
chart, it is necessary to change heading 2° for every 3° oflongi-
elements.
tude. Flying east, the 2° is added. Flying west, it is subtracted.
The mathematical bases on which charts are constructed are
For flights up to roughly 300 miles, the heading change
termed projections.
referred to above may be averaged by measuring the course or
There are two principal types of chart projections used in air track on the meridian nearest the centre (Fig.7.20).
navigation charts, the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
The VFR Navigation Charts (VNC Series) and the World
and the Transverse Mercator Projection.
Aeronautical Charts (WAC Series) are based on Lambert
Conformal Conic Projections.
1.4.1 The Lambert Conformal
Conic Projection 1.4.2 The Mercator Projection
The basic idea upon which the Lambert Conic Projection is The principle on which the Mercator Projection is based is that
developed is that of supposing a cone to be superimposed over of a cylinder which h as its point of tangency at the equator. Its
the surface of a sphere (Fig. 7.18). If the cone were opened and approximate form may be visualized by imagining a light at
unrolled, the meridians and parallels would appear as shown the centre of a globe that casts a shadow of the meridians and
in the illustration (Fig.7.19). parallels on a cylinder of infinite length enclosing it. As will be
seen in Fig.7.21, the shadows of the more northerly parallels
of latitude will be cast wider apart on the cylinder than they
actually are on the sphere.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited __,....- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

The VFR Terminal Area Charts (VTA Series) are based on

~'"''"' .
Transverse Mercator Projections.

7.4.3 Types of Aeronautical Charts

' Pole Equator ___. 1
North
VFR Navigation Charts (VNC Series)
VFR Navigation Charts (also called Sectionals) are designed
primarily for visual navigation and are most useful during
flight at lower altitudes and at slower speeds. Each chart
Fi g . 7.21 Mercator Projection & Development
covers a fairly extensive portion of land, reducing quite con-
siderably the number of charts required to cover the whole
The sh adows of the meridians on the cylinder w ill be straight continental land mass.
and parallel lines to infinity, whereas on the sph ere they The chart is printed on both sides, the northern half of the
converge to meet in a point at the poles. It is, in other words, area to be depicted on one side and th e southern half on the
as though the meridians were stretched apart at the poles to reverse. The title of the chart and other aeronautical informa-
the same distance they are apart at the equator. This causes tion is printed on two sides of a white border on one edge of
extreme exaggeration of longitude in northerly areas. the chart.
The principal characteristics of the Mercator Projection are: Each chart is identified by the name of a principal landmark
1. Meridians are straight and parallel lines. on the chart (e.g. Toronto, Winnipeg, Vancouver, Yellowknife,
Cambridge Bay).
2. Parallels of latitude are straight and parallel lines.
The scale of the ch art is 1:500,000 or about one inch to eight
3. A straight line drawn between any two points on the statute miles.
chart will represent a rhumb line.
VFR Navigation Ch arts are based on the Lambert Conformal
4. Owing to the method of projection, there is no constant Conic Projection and conform to the characteristics of that
scale of distance on a Mercator chart and areas are projection.
greatly exaggerated in high latitudes. To keep pace with rapidly changing facilities, the charts are
reprinted at regular intervals with updated information. The
publication date is always shown with the chart identification .

Equator World Aeronautical Charts (WAC Series)

Projection rotated
World Aeronautical Charts are designed also for visual naviga-
along any meridian, to tion and are most useful during flight at the higher altitudes
-........ minimize distortion in
f---+--1--1-_.-+--+---+---t - - specfic areas. In this and at greater speeds. Each chart depicts a sizeable portion of
. case, the South Pole. the country's geographical area. They are similar to sectional
charts; h owever, th ey are less detailed owing to their smaller
Fig. 7.22 Transverse Mercator Projection scale.

Mercator charts are, as a rule, graduated on the right and left In Canada and the Unites States, WACs have been discon-
hand sides for latitude, and at the top and bottom for longi- tinued. They remain available in other countries such as
tude. The divisions of the longitude scale are only to be used Australia where they are identifiable by a geographic name
for laying down and taking off the longitude of a place. The and corresponding four digit number.
longitude scale must never be used for measuring distance. WAC Charts are based on the Lambert Conformal Conic
Since 1 minute of latitude is always equal to one nautical Projection and conform to the characteristics of that projection.
mile, the latitude scale is used for m easuring distance. The The scale of the chart is 1:1,000,000 or about one inch to six-
Mercator Projection is relatively precise in depiction of dis-
teen statute miles.
tances in the equatorial regions. However, distortion, as h as
been stated, becomes more pronounced with distance from The chart is printed on both sides of the sheet, the northern
the equator. half of the area to be represented on one side and the southern
half on the reverse. The title of the chart and other aeronauti-
cal information is printed on two sides of a white side border
The Transverse Mercator Projection on one edge of the ch art.
To overcome distortion, the Mercator technique can be
applied by rotating the cylinder 90 degrees so that the point of
tangency is a meridian of longitude rather than the equator. VFR Terminal Area Charts (VTA Series)
In this case, the chart is accurate along the selected meridian. VFR Terminal Area Charts are large scale charts (1:250,000)
published for airports where there is a high volume of air traf-
Such a projection is called a Transverse Mercator Projection. fic and at which there is usually a mix of controlled airspace.
The Transverse Mercator Projection, because of its method Before entering such classified airspace, a VFR flight must
of production, is quite accurate in depicting scale, espe- contact the appropriate ATC unit and receive clearance to
cially on ch arts covering a relatively small geographical area. enter the area. VTA charts depict VFR call up points outside
Depending on the area to be depicted, any one of the 360 the area and VFR checkpoints within the area. Radio commu-
meridians of longitude can be selected as the point of tan- nication information and other information that is necessary
gency for the chart projection. for conducting flight through the area is given on the chart.

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

The edge of the area is marked by a solid blue line. The edge of Billy Bishop, Toronto/Lester B. Pearson, etc. The word "heli-
the control zone is marked by a dashed blue line. port" identifies a location that is for helicopter use only.
VFR Terminal Area Charts are based on the Transverse A sketch of the aerodrome, when provided, depicts the aero-
Mercator Projection and conform to the characteristics of that drome and its immediate surroundings as seen from the air.
projection. The sketch shows runway layouts, taxiways, locations of
A more detailed discussion of classified airspace is given in buildings and tower (if present), as well as trees, power lines,
the Chapter Aerodromes & Airspace. obstacles, etc. Known obstacles 300 feet AGL or higher, not
within the shadow of an adjacent higher obstacle, as well as
those lower than 300 fe et AGL that are considered significant
Enroute Charts to VFR flight conditions are shown on the sketch.
Enroute Charts provide information for radio navigation over
designated airways systems. Enroute Low Altitude Charts CANADA FLIGHT SUPPLEMENT I GPH 205

(LO) are intended for use up to, but not including, 18,000 feet. ONTARIO AER OO ROME/FACI L1TY DIRECTORY

Enroute High Altitude Charts (HI) are intended for use at ST. CATHARINES I NIAGARA DISTRICT ON CYSN
18,000 fe et and above. Terminal Area Charts depict aeronauti- REF N431130W791016 11"W UTC-5{4) ELEV 322
Elev 322' VTA A5000 L06 HIS
cal radio navigation information in congested areas at a larger CAP

scale and are intended for use from the surface up to, but not OPR Niagara District Aprt Comsn
905-684-7 44 7
including 18,000 feet ASL. 11 -24Zt Mon-Fri, 1230-2100Zt
Sat-Sun Oct 16-Apr 16, exc hols . OfT
2hrs PN. call out chg may be levied etc
Enroute charts do not portray any cities, towns, or topographi- opr Cert Ldg fees
cal features, but depict all radio navigation aids, including PF A-1,7 C-2,3,4,5,6

airways, beacons, reporting points, communication frequen- CUST AOE/15 888-226-7277 13-0SZ:t:

FLT PLN When FSS clsd pilots to open/close

cies, etc. VFR flt plan and obtain IFR cine fr
LondonrdoFlSEorbyphone. Tofilean ~--------~
Uncontrolled airspace is tinted a basic light green while con- IFR arr rpt etc Toronto Centre
888-217-124 1 if unable via rdo
trolled airspace (such as airways, control zones, terminal FIC London 866-WXBRIEF (Toll free wrthm Canada ) or 866-541-4104 (Toll free within
Canada & USA)
control areas, etc.) is shown in solid white. VH F facilities and WX METAR 12-02Zl Off LWIS
TAF 14-024.. issue limes: 14, 20Z
associated airways are overprinted in black (omnirange sta- SERVICES Svcs avbl 13-234 Off call out chg applies 905-684-3600
tions, victor airways, etc.) and LF/ MF data is shown in green. FUEL 100LL, JA-1
OIL Aeroshell W100, 15W50
s 1,2,3,4 ,5,6
The directions, or bearings, of all airways (magnetic), dis -
RWY DATA Rwy 06(064°)/24(244°) 5000x100 ASPH
tances between checkpoints , minimum enroute altitudes , Rwy 01(009°)/19(189") 2498x75 ASPH
Rwy 11(107°)129(287") 1988x75 ASPH
VOR change-over points, station identification letters, radio RWY CERT Rwy 06/24 AGN lllA
Rwy 01119 AGNI
frequencies, and other pertinent radio navigation information Rwy 11129 AGNI
TWY CERT Twy 0 AGN I
is clearly shown in bold, easy to read characters. RCR Opr CRFI Win maint 11-24Zt Mon-Fri, 1230·2 100Zt Sat-Sun Oct 16-Apr 16, exc
hols. Off 2hrs PN , call out chg may be levied etc opr. PLR
The scale is not constant, but varies to suit the requirements LIGHTING 06-AO(TE ME) P2 , 24-AO(TE ME) P2 Opr 1215-02Zt arr ARCAL- 123.25 type K

of each individual chart, or series of charts. COMM

RADIO 123.25 (V) 1215-02Zt (emerg only 905-688-8367)
RCO London rdo 126 7 (FtSE)
Each chart contains two separate chart sheets printed back ATIS 128.525 1215-024
to back. A table of chart symbols and a list of all radio com- MF rdo 123.25 1215-024 5NM 3300 ASL (CAR 602.98)
ATF tfc 123.25 02-1215Zt SNM 3300 ASL
munication facilities available within the area covered by the ARR Toronto Tml 133.4
DEP Toronto Tml 133.4
ch arts is printed on the front sheet. PAL 133.3

PRO For flt over Niagara Falls, see Niagara Falts VTPC. Glider activity vie of the aprt Sat,
Sun, hols Apr-Jun & Sep-Nov. Gliders non-std pattern
Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) NOI SE MITIGATION :
After tkof from Rwy 24, track on or N of the extended rwy centreline, no turns below
1000 ASL.
The Canada Flight Supplement {CFS) is a joint civil/military
CAUTION Hold position on Twy A is for both Rwy 01 and 06. Pilots intending to depart Rwy 06
publication published and producd by NavCanada. It contains must verify correct orientation on Rwy 06 prior to departure.
Hold position on Twy Bis for Rwy 06/24 and Rwy 29.
information on Canadian and North Atlantic aerodromes
which are in turn shown on !FR Enroute charts, VFR Terminal Fig. 7.23 CFS Example for Aerodrome at St. Catherines, Ontario
Area Charts and VFR Navigation Charts. This flight informa-
tion publication is designed to be used in conjunction with all Also included in the sketch is an obstacle clearance circle
Canadian charts and should be carried by any pilot departing (OCC). The OCC is a guide for pilots operating VFR within close
on a flight. It is revised and reissued every 56 days and is avail- proximity to aerodromes and should not be construed as pro-
able in English and bilingual versions. viding minimum descent altitudes. The single altitude associ-
ated with the OCC, determined by addin g 1,000 feet to the
The CFS is made up of six section s: (1) General, (2) Aerodrome/
highest obstruction (ASL) located within the same geographic
Facility Directory, (3) Planning, (4) Radio Navigation and
area that the circle describes (and rounded up to the next 100-
Communications, (5) Military Flight Data and Procedures and
foot increment), is shown. An obstacle may be a man-made
(6) Emergency.
structure or a topographic height feature.
The General section has information of a general nature:
The Control Zone radius (in nautical miles) is indicated on the
abbreviations, a cross reference of aerodrome names and
upper outer circumference of the OCC along with the class of
abandoned aerodromes, conversions tables, the phonetic
airspace designated for the Control Zone. The altitude (ASL)
alphabet, a legend of chart symbols and a comprehensive
up to which the Control Zone extends will also be shown. If
section explaining the annotations and codes used in the
the Control Zone is not of the standard cylindrical shape, the
Aerodrome and Facility Directory.
note "shape irregular" will be indicated on the lower outer
The Aerodrome/Facility Directory lists all aerodromes alpha- circumference of the OCC.
betically by the community in which they are located. For
example, Toronto/Buttonville, Toronto/Down sview, Toronto/

© Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

The centre of the OCC describes the centre of the aerodrome. pertinent information about special procedures, hazards,
The OCC is not applicable to heliports. available mooring, etc.
Information is given about the operator of the aerodrome and
CANADA WATER AERODROME SUPPLEMENT
the facilities available under the categories: Public Facilities Effective 0901Z 24 March 2022 to 09012 20 April 2023
AERODROME/FACILITY DIRECTORY 6251
(telephone, food, taxi, accommodation, car rental, etc. avail-
able in the terminal or near the aerodrome), Customs, Flight VANCOUVER INTL BC CAM9
Planning (FIC, weather, etc.), Services (fuel, oil, maintenance REF N49 10 37 W123 10 15 Ad) SW
services, etc.), Runway Data, Lighting, Communications (radio, 17°E (2013) UTC-8(7) Elev 00' VTA
A5004 T1
ATIS, ground, tower, mandatory frequency, aerodrome traffic QPR Vancouver Intl Aprt Authority
frequency, arrival and departure control, etc.), Navigation (!LS, 604-207-7022;
Seair Seaplanes 604-273-8900 or
NDB, Tacan, Vortac, DME, PAR, etc.), Procedu res (recomm end- 1-800-44 7-3245 Reg
ed routes, altitudes, special circuit procedures, etc.). PF B-1,2,3,6 C-4,5
CUST AOE/15 888-226-7277 Daylight hrs
The Plan ning section gives information on such subjects as only

flight plans, notifications and itineraries, position reports, FLT PLN

FIG Kamloops 866-WXBRIEF (Toll free
PIREPs, equipment prefixes an d suffixes, transponder codes, within Canada) or 866-541-4101 (Toll
free within Canada &USA)
classification of the airspace, weather minima, cruising alti- ACC !FR 604-586-4590/4591or
800-668-1333; IFR Ing flls PPR
tudes, flight restrictions, preferred !FR and RNAV routes. It etc 604-586-4592 (collect calls
accepted)
also contains the chart updating section.
SERVICES Fuel & beaching 604-273-8900 or 129.30 daylight hrs.
The Radio Navigation and Communications section lists per- FUEL
OIL
100ll, JA
All
tinent information about navigation aids, the mountain valley s 3,4,5

communication service, commercial broadcasting stations AJD DATA Fraser River 066°-246° Middle Arm 099°-279°. Tidal range 14 ·, shallow water close
to shores. Docks, ramp. Open water all year.
and volmet stations. COMM
RCO Pacific rdo 123.1 5 (FlSE)
The Military Flight Data and Procedures section lists informa- ATIS 124.6 restrictions are best on ATIS 1-877-517-2647

tion that is m ainly pertinent to military operations in Canada

CLNC DEL
TWR
121 .4 All dep acft etc cine del
118.7 (South) 119.55 (North) VFR 124.02 125.65 226.5 236.6 (E) (emerg
604-775-9531)
I
and the North Atlantic. TML 125.2

The Emergency section gives information on transponder NAV

NOB VR 266 (MZ) N49 10 22 W123 03 26
operation, unlawful interference, traffic control light signals, VOR/DME YVR 115.9 Ch 106 N49 04 38 W123 08 57 (37')

fuel dumping, search and rescue, emergency radar assistance,

communication failure procedures, military visual sign als, Fig. 7.24 Water Aerodrome at Vancouver, BC
interception signals for civil aircraft, and ESCAT.
The sections entitled Planning, Radio Navigation and
Communications and Emergency contain information exactly
Airport/Facility Directory similar that included in the same sections in the CFS.
In the United States, an Airport/Facility Directory is published
every 56 days by the National Aeronautical Ch arting Office. Basic Chart Information
Serving the same purpose in the U.S. as the Canada Flight All airway courses shown on aeronautical charts are in
Supplement does in Can ada, the Airport/Facility Directory degrees magnetic except when labeled "T" for degrees true.
contains the latest available information on U.S. airports, sea-
plane bases, heliports, communication data, navigation facili- As satellite electronic signals are not subject to magnetic vari-
ties, special procedures, and other valuable services. Seven of ations, aeronautical charts that are published exclusively for
these directories are published to cover the entire country and air navigation using only GPS and/or GNSS satellite frequen-
each of these seven directories covers its specific correspond- cies (see Data Link Communications), will have all courses
ing region consisting of several states. shown as true.
In the future, there may come a day when magnetic courses
Water Aerodrome Supplement shown on all aeronautical ch arts w ill be completely elimi-
Information about all water aerodromes that are shown nated w ith true courses becoming the exclusive norm. This
on Canadian aeronautical charts is contained in the Water is expected to occur when all air navigation is switched
Aerodrome Supplement. from ground-based radio navigation transmitters to satellite
navigation.
The format of this booklet is much like that of the CFS. An
introductory section contains explanatory information about
annotation and codes used in the Directory. Scale
The scale of the ch art is the relationship between a unit of
In the Aerodrome/Facility Directory, water aerodromes are distance (i.e. one inch) on the chart to the distance on the
listed alphabetically and a sketch of the water body on which earth that the unit represents. On most aeronautical charts,
the aerodrome is located is included. Also included is an the scale is expressed as a representative fraction. (Charts,
obstacle clearance circle similar to that included with aero- by definition, are special purpose maps containing essential
drome layouts in the CFS. The 4 letter alpha/numeric identi- geographic information for specific applications.)
fier, the geographical co-ordinates, m agnetic variation, time VFR Navigation Charts have a scale of 1:500,000, that is, one
conversion from UTC, elevation and a list of the aeron autical inch on the chart is equal to 500,000 inches on the ground (or
charts on which the aerodrome is depicted are given . Also approximately one inch to 8 statute m iles).
included is information about the operator of the aerodrome, World Aeronautical Charts (which are no longer published for
public facilities, flight planning services, services such as North America) h ave a scale of 1:1,000,000, that is, one inch
fuel, oil, radio and navaids and a final remarks section with on the chart is equ al to 1,000,000 inches on the ground (or
approximately one inch to 16 statute miles).

From the Ground Up· 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

On VFR Navigation Charts and VFR Terminal Area Charts,

KILOMETRES 101 AH ?§-1?0 I 201
the legend is called a hypsometric tint scale (see Fig.7.26). The
NA~~~~~~l~~L~;C:--,T_R-L=_(_'.'.B
'i~I_-j§
~],gt_-::_-::_-::_-::_-::_-::_"J_-::_Ll___________c~1C><Jo~lc_-'_'o".'._l-::_-::_-::_-::_-::_I_-::_=
colour coding ranges from green through shades of yellow to
SCALE 1:500,000 dark bronze to represent increasing elevations in thousand
foot (300 meter) increments.
Fig. 7.25 A Graduated Scale Line
On WAC Charts, a coloured pictorial scene gives terrain char-
VFR Terminal Area Charts have a scale of 1:250,000, that is, one acteristic tints. The colour coding ranges from green through
inch on the chart is equal to 250,000 inches on the ground (or sh ades of grey to yellow for the highest elevations.
approximately one inch to 4 statute miles).
All bodies of water including rivers and streams are coloured
A graduated scale line also gives scale information. On aero- blue.
nautical charts, three such scale lines are printed on the border
Where differences in elevation are considerable, a layer tinted
of the chart . One line represents kilometers, one statute miles
chart is very easily read, since the relief stands out as on a
and the other nautical miles. A scale line based on 1:500,000 is
model, but it is not possible to show minor variations of height
represented in Fig.7.25. A conversion scale for converting feet
and the impression may be that the ground within the tinted
to meters is also printed on the margin of aeronautical charts.
areas is level.

Latitude & Longitude CONTOURS

A graticule (grid-like pattern of meridians and parallels) is Contour lines are drawn on a chart joining points of equal
depicted on aeronautical charts. The meridians are graduated elevation above mean sea level. The height of a contour line
in minutes of latitude and the parallels in minutes of longi- (in feet or meters) is indicated on the chart by figures. The
tude. This makes it possible for latitude and longitude to be gradient (steepness) of a slope is indicated by the horizontal
measured on the chart. In addition, the subdivided meridians distance between the contour lines. The closer the contours,
provide a scale of nautical miles, since a minute of latitude the steeper the slope of a h ill or valley.
may be considered as a nautical mile.
On VFR Navigation Ch arts (VNC), the meridians of longitude
and the parallels of latitude represented on the chart are
numbered at the edge of the chart. Parallels and meridians
are also conveniently numbered within the body of the chart.
Meridians and parallels, at 30' intervals, are divided into 1
minute divisions. 200

On WAC Charts, each meridian of longitude and parallel of Fig. 7.27 A Hill Represented by Contour Lines
latitude printed on the body of the chart is marked off in min-
utes of latitude and longitude. The numbers of each parallel SPOT HEIGHTS
and meridian appear frequently on the graticule. Figures printed on a chart show the height above sea level at
On VFR Terminal Area Charts (VTA), latitude and longitude any particular point. Especially high elevations are marked by
are indicated on the edge of the chart but not throughout the a dot with the spot height beside the dot. The higher the eleva-
body of the chart. tion of the hill represented by a spot height, the larger in size
are the numerals indicating its elevation. The highest spot on
a particular chart is represented by the largest size of numer-
Relief als and the numeral is boxed with the layer tinting removed
The representation of relief, or ground elevation above sea within the box.
level, on aeronautical charts is of primary importance. On
charts used for air navigation, it is essential that height and The highest elevation on a particular chart is also indicated
position of the highest parts of hills and mountains should on the white border of the chart. On VFR Navigation Charts
be clearly shown and that sufficient detail should be given and VFR Terminal Area Ch arts, it is shown, together with
to make easy the recognition of prominent features. Relief is its geographical co-ordinates, at the top of the hypsometric
shown by contour lines, layer tinting and spot heights. tint legend (see Fig.7.26). On WAC Charts, the h igh est eleva-
tion with its geographical co-ordinates is printed as shown
LAYER TINTING in Fig.7.28.
The chart is coloured to represent different levels of elevation.
On the white border of every chart, an elevation legend is
printed to show what colours are used for different elevations.

Hypsometric tints & elevation information

Meters Feet
······4119 13186 ·· Highest terrain elevation ······················· -······································· ······•
···· 3600 12000

···· 1828

········· 1219

Fig. 7.26 Layer Tinting Legend s

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

Relief Portrayal
Elevations are in feet
Highest Terrain Elevation is 12972 located at 53' 07'N l 99'09'W

Fig. 7.28 Elevation Information

AERODROM ES
....,oarome~maybeo!lse1 lor clao•IVolP'esem<>hon
For!WtfW:HllnCIOlhol<data-lht!FliglllSupplemilf'!

WITH SERVICES OTHER AERODROMES

WITH HARD SURFACCD RUNWAYS

O L.and
OnfyuHblflrconw@ysar@sho>on
~.n ... Md!aWflMCMMac•I• ® """pon []] Hospital heliport

WITHOUT HARO SURFACED RUNWAYS ® Abandontod @ Statusunknown

~ WAIER
AERODROME DATA
NAME NAME(M) NAME(A)
371 L H5JAT22.2 371 [) 53M1223 371 s
OAYS60

M M"""latory f <"<l'-"'""Y
A.TIS """"""1.cfe<,_..ilf'llolrnM.onServ>ce A Ae<od•omelralfic r r_,cy

"'ID
l
El"""t""1'1Wt(ASL)
Runwayll\lhlong""a'lable
AACAL
8
U

S
PrlY&lelOdvrSO<ySlaroon(tJNICOMJU1·122.8U2·1230
Commonl••lt.cA0"'90ffF<~(tJSAJ
Shelleoo<1moorng..-ea
Fig. 7.30 Aerodrome at London, Ontario
IM) M~oiary aerodlome rotSlnctlod F>Pn . .-or..,_
H tlaldi;uttacedrunway ti.,1~ai.mon1a110<>

53 LonQKtlancM>gd,Slance"'"""dn•dsot'- (A) ~ft<ll'PR .... onlyby1~cau1honration

(Sl~Hi<lngltlt.>et>-"""5270and5.;16~ tr Ae<odrome&aoon
DAYS60 Day ...l()lng.._1ance NO SVFR foed """!l "l""Cttll VfR llighl i9 prollil><ted (USA)
Isogonic Lines
AIRSPACE INFORMATION
All!>e!UIOQla<em"!l'NlhC
Isogonic lines (lines joining places of equal magnetic varia-
C<l010olleda11spaoebek>wFLt80111t.a-i
T11•"9POnclerMo<leC1e.qulrOO•nl!llclan"B'nnd"C"a.irt.p.ace
cia11·e·con11QltOJ>11W11hceo1rog3000-ASl tion) are depicted by dashed lines. The degree of variation is
JAboveaero0rome....,~1oon2100-1

--~181 VHf\JtlFIWWllycetll••lone
Cl-'C·Of·0"1;on1rol:rone~•n6atedwth«1iong
3000-ASlCAtxwt-odrometlwatoon'700leel)
printed at regular intervals along the line.
oau·i::·oonuo1ron1
("'°'Od•omeconroltone c - ~l

Cltu'F"crSl)IC>alUHaiospace

- -
\IR840

- -
M.11aoy lrU'Onij flctje

VFAAouleSee.t.JPAIA2.13
CYA 118(AJ Allft1JC1e11a11oncii.4rve~otne,wisernd1C11ted

CANAOA. CYA · AO-<illOfy C'l'll · llesl:ricH<l

Communities, Roads & Railways
_...180 360 ~ !t0.,:i~.:=,:seo USA A·A.11<1 P·f'lotlotlrttd A·Atsmcttd

A Cont;Msory·onrtq<JMtrepOfllngpoints
• CYA155(P) W·W;unrng Yellow squares represent towns and small villages. Hamlets
Alisp11COJbcur.dlrly(Cl~Hn~>dical&dl (A)AerObBtic (f),,..cr¥.lln1Are11 lH)HarogGloc!ong
!M)M'rloryOpe<ahcns !P)PNlld'U'.eDrOil'P'l'lt;I
are represented by small circles. A city is depicted by a yellow
MOOEC Tr-penr:lerMcdeCreq1,.0rtd
(S)SoanngCf}Traonrng
O.Oun11Wyr:.r.tweenCOl'ltfOljfd•'ea5Wlll'l""'-rtn1llocu
Aoo<sore Z2001ce1AOltnc-daand1200~ AGL
~OA · ~'W,OoerltlocnArN(lJS.AI area outlined in black that corresponds to the actual shape
E7000 on US.A unlesf.Clherwrwonclct>!ed 10J01ee!11AGL "":"' Par.chute O.awng _:5.<"' Soanng
and size of the community.
A.INDllOnBl,PrOYIJlClllllndMUf'llCll)lllll'tw1<$aredtOM!<llOairc:r'll~un!nsOI~
~ HangiJl•Oon!I - . , , : - Vllra-'gnc
speafleclonl!'le1'.IPCln&Mlr'ld.'or 1he ,.,pplementle<Dypr.,..~mo$SJOnollhe
lppropnl!lpar1\llUl!'lewll!e1I
X "~"' llOUNDAfUEI GROUND TRANSPORTATION

DMded highway

Provincil.I, St.lie, Territorial Primary road

RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION
R11u:l<0'Na .. ga'.oonl10<•1oesnc1cP<1<lledDyN;wCIWi..:Sae<Depas1men1otN~toon~Oelenoe11ndCorrme'c ..
6ro.ocasi.>g S:1~ .... SuDfed IOOUage or Cllaf'9!! Wll,..,.,. NOIAM
IQF ,. I/HF OF UOF • UHF'OF VUOf • V!fF<\JHF'D"
~roeHtweor.,nledon~nort~..,._-- ....Cll:ecl _ J!: _ Trail or eut line
Q voA D OME 'fl VORTAC '\J TACNll (~(;-.co 0 ~~~•tion ~ ::.~:,::;,a00
Limit of the Territorial SH Slngkt tr d raHro.cl (with station)
RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION DATA BOXES
Comb1Md Vl !F/UHf 1nd LJ'IMf Outer limit of Fishing Zone - >CJt>o - Double track railroad (with yard)
TORONTO VHFUHF"""'ll'IO"Aocls KALI FAX N~ionAo:I&
112.15YYZ :=;,,,.=;;= 0'-4Eev1ilableonlrequency0<char'V'"4I 11S 1YHZ ::::~-::­
OMEC h~(v ) - TACAN modi "V" mlnl t>e u-1 DMEC~ 98 WATER FEATURES Raitway abandoned .............. -+-
24BHZ :....::....: ••

LF/MF Nav>ganonAids TACMand0"4Edl...-..l&M•~WllOllandatOno1o.nOerlned

1P·.,~tl•ndteil!MNO ... Nav~'ONO!aciltfy
<_ - - .....
~Tr ~W(Wher8roadCDsl
RELIEF
Vndllnn9oncllc:"1NncATSc:orrr>Un!CallOflOfllh1Slr9QUIN'IC'r.

Critical spot elevallon (in feet) _11386

AIR/G ROUND COMMUNICATION BOXES
Slana"'dGrouotr~
l'EAV'I' LINE SOXCS 1r.:i1c;111., FSS""tn
126.7,121S2•30 =:E.,~~~Som"~~';==::: ~'"'""'°'"' 101,1e
Othe<lrotQ........OOSavaolabl eareV>ownabove,het>o• Tl'loeew.lhOul!req.-.c.esanc>contro&mgFSSname""""81e
B.irrtdlrequenctoKieg 2•3-0)Wtnclavtlal>lfl ncFSSffeqUOlnC:. . avalatH Waterfalls, Rapids
In 1tw USA he:tvy- tx:ixn ino:IK:ale F~ Servlce Sla11DJ1~ wrlh ~ooionco xl07l
"''n<;1tordff~~s•.1222"""-'9"'""1'2•Jo12,s oombone<:I w~n Navll>d HSOC"91ed Wlll'I NMD•(I

!SScombwred !"SSr>OINSOCoaled
0-. 1267 Oema
Mountain pass
W>!t>N.WM'l
~12 2. S ~122.5
W'ltiNil•aod

cr:==JJ
DRCO . see CFS
LocQ
MISCELLANEOUS

fSSoprltdhrs
O/T setCFS Pl<Y11teAlr/Go.,..odStation
~shownwtienmoretnan75
Tunnel +--!-
OfT llff CFS · iridlcales Oll>e< coir.rnur.calion -YICM Swamp ot marsh

.-
"""kal molnffom?'.Allc11.toon
a..aolabltoum.OOFSSt-ou<'i SooCFSlordemol i
AIRF'ORIRAOIO(AAPTROO) Lookout tower
Comm1.uly Aenx1<om;,
RadloStal!On(CARSI

....
Building (unless otherwise label*I)
String bog
1E Chimney, sik), .,,..., tank etc (label)

,~
w~ .. other than water (label)
1749 Elev.Mionon1""1(A5ll LAND FEATURES
(1064) H91ghtinlM!(AGL)

..... Mine

Lighting Annota tions

AJ.1111etna1ine;iwhi1•andrtd.fcolourn011n<ficlotlKl, F·lix0<1Fl·lla1hlng
lto·M1ueilnl.,v;oi O-quockf!Mh"'Q,Oc·oca"lng,F1{3)·9<0W!le.shing.
0c(21·or~occlil.ng,SEC·MCb' MC·HCond.W·wl'llt R-otd B·blutr
G·grMn,Y·~OW,(31-~otbst..torlm.. _r(XI

38
The Maximum E\e.-6110n Figl.O't

~~~-~~::~:- ~.::=-level
(~EF)

...
MEFi-Klic.a•es1nr.~1 ..r1M1.........,..,1'1<4
ot>OWO in quaclrang ln
~~~~·~~~!~~=~-=.Sl:.~I~~~
only !htl ~lgtwsl obsm.doon;,, ohown Obslr>JC!IC<lll
_,.,. 1111ta.
1nlognled..,lesslat>el'td'Unlil1>'ed'

-- --
'llllllflfllloJ\l"\<'•\\I

Racetrack

Power transmisaion One

329 tetrt• {100 me:<n) QA rr... tqiftl known ot>&Wur::tion

.......l>On_ wt.ct- <11 IMgholr •20() ""91 ewer US 1-rr~ory

~ cabtaway, ski lift. COft\'9)'0f beft

Fig. 7.29 Aeronautical Information Legend Sand (depoettl, raSM<t bnehee) or simitar feature

Fig. 7.31 Topographical Symbols

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

Highways are indicated by red or brown lines, double lane The plotter is made of clear plastic so that details of the chart
highways by double lines. Railways are shown as black lines. can be seen through it.
With the straightedge, the pilot can draw a track from the
Aerodromes airport of departure to the plan ned destination.
Small aerodromes are shown by a circle as depicted in Fig.7.29. The direction of a track is determined by using the protractor
The code letter or symbol included in the circle indicates its portion of the plotter. It is numbered from 000° to 180° on the
status. outside scale and from 180° to 360° on the inside scale. The
Aerodromes with hard surface runways are depicted at their outside scale is used for easterly tracks and the inside scale
location on the chart by a diagram of the landing areas. for westerly tracks.
Aerodromes with services are shown as: To use the plotter, place the hole in the centre of the plotter
over an intersection of the track line and one of the longitude
• ~ (showing the actual runway layout) lines on the chart. A point somewhere near the midpoint of
•0 if hard surface the track is best ch osen to obtain greater accuracy.
• (> if non-paved Place a pencil point through the hole and rotate the plotter
Aerodromes w ithout services are shown as: until the top edge of the straightedge is aligned with the track
line.
• 0 for land
E
• ® for heliport 0
u
•® for hospital heliport
"""'~
N

• ® if abandoned ~"'
0
Airport information is also given in a box adjacent to the sche- - i;;'
matic depiction of the runway configuration (Fig. 7.30). ~ ~
: ;:l
- 0
: u
: 0
Class F Airspace I ___a__
I l
L---,1....._
I I I
L..
I I
J
I I I I l I
:=.c
0
"-
Areas that h ave been designated as Class F Airspace are
marked on aeronautical charts with information about them
Fig. 7.32 Navigation Plotter
printed on the chart. These include restricted and advisory
areas and altitude reservations. Read the direction of the track in degrees true where the
longitude line of the chart intersects th e scales. (Use the
Compass Rose outer scale for easterly tracks and the inner scale for westerly
A circle overprinted on a chart divided into 360°, from which tracks.)
directions may be measured, is called a compass rose. The For measuring tracks that are almost directly north and
centre of the compass rose is a transmitting navigational south, a latitude line may be used as a line of reference and
facility such as a VOR or a TACAN station. The compass rose the small scale at the centre of the protractor used to deter-
is oriented on the chart on magnetic north. mine direction.
It h as a diameter of approximately 30 nautical miles on VFR In using the straightedge to determine the distance from the
Navigation Charts (1:500,000). airport of departure to the destination, be sure to use the cor-
A m ore detailed study of radio n avigation facilities appears in rect side of the straightedge for the type of chart in use. The
the Chapter Radio Navigation. mileage scale on one side of the straightedge is 1: 500,000 for
VNC Charts and is marked off in both statute and nautical
miles. The reverse side of the straightedge h as a scale of 1:
Aeronautical Information 1,000,000 for WAC Ch arts and is also marked off in both stat-
The date of issue of a particular chart is always included with ute and nautical miles.
the information printed with the title for the chart. Always
use up-to-date charts in planning a cross-country flight.
' '= ....
Radio frequencies change, high rising obstructions are built
and airport facilities ch ange. It is essential to have the latest
~ .
31' a.:~ t
. o~~ ~
. ~
~

information in order to conduct a safe and efficient flight. ~

I/ ~
A legend of aeronautical information explaining the symbols
and data appearing on the chart is always printed somewhere
on the sheet . On VTA, VFR Navigation and WAC Charts,
I
/
--r-...·~ "'!\ I
E
(
'
0

--...
u
it appears on the white side border. This legend includes
information on Aerodromes, Radio Facilities and Airspace
Information, etc. (Fig.7.31). A legend of topographical symbols
-
.....
""
\
\

--
I

I
I ""' """'
N
~
"'0
~

used on aeronautical charts is shown in Fig. 7.31.

-
... "' I'-~ v
/
.-..
...-
-
7. 4.4 Plotting Instruments ... ........... ,.5Clll.OOI

::, ....
2'0 too llO I
aoa.o•
f70 1eo
-- -~ ~

110
The Navigation Plotter
Of great assistance to a pilot in plotting and planning flights Fig. 7.33 Protractor
is an instrument such as the navigation plotter. It combines a
protractor and a straightedge in one device which also incor-
porates a mileage scale for both 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000
charts.

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 Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

altitude that will clear any high ground at sufficient altitude

The Protractor to comply with regulations and safety considerations. Check
A navigation plotter, such as that described above, is not the for any high rising obstructions such as broadcast towers and
only instrument that can be used to plot tracks. A simple pro- plan to fly at an altitude well above them. Be sure that your
tractor and a ruler will serve the purpose just as well. track does not proceed through a restricted area. Do as much
A protractor, being square, can be used both for determin ing preparation in advance as possible. Once in the air, you are
direction and as a straightedge. The instrument has a com- kept busy flyin g th e aeroplane.
pass rose graduated in 360° marked around the outer edges.
It is transparent so that, wh en placed on a chart, the chart is
visible th rough it.
Place the protractor on the chart with the hole in the centre
lying on the track at a point where the north-south line on the
protractor lies along the meridian. If this is not convenient,
one of the parallel lines may be lined up parallel with the .....................................::\,....................
n earest meridian. The track is read off where it cuts the edge ~ :Fold back
of the protractor. i along this line

The Ruler ''

In addition to a protractor, a pilot will require a ruler to mea- '
sure distance. A mileage scale is printed on every aeronautical
chart and it is a simple matter to measure the distance from
the airport of departure to the destination and lay this dis-
tance off against the chart scale to determine the mileage. The
distance scales on !CAO charts in a given series are nearly,
but not exactly, constant and are also affected by humidity. A
ruler which is constructed mathematically to scale m ay not
exactly correspond to the chart sheet you are using. For prac-
tical air pilotage purposes, the difference is inappreciable. For
extreme accuracy, note the difference between the ruler and
the chart scale at the 100 mile mark and apply it. ...t hen in fou r accordian folds

7.4.5 Preparing the Chart for a Flight Fig. 7.34 Folding a Chart for Use in Flight

Chart reading, either on the ground or in the air, calls for a

clear understanding of the scale of the chart and a "sense" Folding a Chart
of that scale (in other words, a sense of proportion). It also A chart should be folded into a strip about eleven or twelve
requires an understanding of the direction of true or magnetic inches wide with the track lying somewhere about the centre
north and of the symbols used on th e chart. of the strip.
The direction of north should never be in doubt. Remember It should then be folded "accordion" fashion, so that succes-
that the right and left hand edges of the chart sheet are not sive portions of the track can be read by turning the folds over
always parallel to the meridians. one by one (Fig.7.34).
In preparing for a cross-country flight, draw a line on your If more than one ch art sheet is used, th e sheets should be
ch art from your point of departure to your destination. Using numbered and arran ged in the order in which they will be
a plotter, as described above, determine the direction of the required. This is important.
track in degrees true. Having determined th e direction , it is
then necessary to apply the magnetic variation to find the To Plot a Track between Points
direction of the track in degrees magnetic (see Magnetism).
The magnetic variation is generally clearly stated on aeronau-
on Different Charts
tical ch arts. On flights up to 300 m iles, the variation should North Chart
········
be averaged for the entire route. This is done by using the ···....
isogonic line which intersects the track (as nearly as possible)
~A ···..
····...
!L..... xD...
midway between the point of departure and the destination.
On longer flights, th e heading should be altered at regular . . .1 ...-.~
--\.
intervals to allow for accumulated changes in variation. . ......... ... ··.· . . ~e~.arate paper
Deviation w ill also have to be applied to determine the com- /
pass heading to fly to make good the desired track over the . D E- .:: . s~~th. Chart·:
ground. This information can be found on th e compass devia- ;......x........................x ........:,. .
tion card in the aeroplane. .·
XB
Now measure the track and divide it into equal intervals of
10 to 20 miles each. During the flight, these divisions will
help you to estimate you r groundspeed, quickly to m easure North Chart !
distance to landmarks and airports and to monitor fuel and
time en route. A_.'!<
Study the ch art in the vicinity of the track line for landmarks c .~:
that you will easily be able to identify during the flight.
Check the ground elevation along the route and select a flight Fi g. 7.35 Plotting a Track

From the Ground Up'' 30th Edit.ion

Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

1. Lay a separate piece of paper over the north chart so

that the side edge is aligned with A, one end of the 7.4.6 Ten Degree Drift Lines
required track (i.e. the point of departure or the destina- For the pilot who has carefully prepared his/ her charts and
tion). Mark A on the edge of the paper. On the bottom determined his/ her compass heading, following a track over
edge, mark D and E, two points common to both charts. the ground between the point of departure and the destina-
There is an overlap of about 3 miles between the north tion would be a simple matter except for one thing: the wind.
and south portions of the chart. The wind has a perverse h abit of blowing from the right or
from the left and displacing the aeroplane from its track. In
2. Position the paper on the common points of the south
chart. Using a ruler to connect A and B (the other end order to compensate for the wind, it is necessary to adjust
the heading of the aeroplane somewhat into wind in order to
of the required track), draw a line from B to C near the
edge of the chart, a common point on both charts. maintain the desired track. In effect, the aeroplane is flying
slightly sideways along the required track. This is known as
3. Locate point C on the north chart and draw a line con- crab.
necting C and A to complete the required track.

Landmarks
Water can be seen at great distance and offers the best land-
mark of all. During wet seasons, it must be remembered that
flood areas may easily be mistaken for lakes. Some rivers and
streams may be obscured by trees in summer and therefore
be hard to identify.
Heights of land can be seen for very great distances but are not
as numerous as other landmarks. Fig. 7.36 Ten Degrees of Drift Lines
Roads are good landmarks but it is sometimes difficult to
Before taking off, the conscientious pilot gets a thorough
distinguish main roads from unimportant ones since even
weather briefing and learns from the briefer the expected
secondary roads are paved. Double lane throughways are very
direction and speed of the wind that will be encountered. He/
noticeable and are especially good landmarks. The intersec-
she then calculates the heading to fly in order to make good
tion of two main roads is also a good landmark.
the required track. (How to do this is explained in Navigation
Railway lines do not show up as clearly as roads, but are less Problems later in this chapter.) Unfortunately, even that does
numerous and therefore serve as distinctive and useful land- not always solve the problems caused by the wind.
marks. Railway crossings or junctions are especially promi-
Because winds are often different than what they were fore-
nent and present distinctive patterns.
cast to be, pilots may find themselves off track a short time
Towns can usually be readily identified by shape, and particu- after starting off on the flight . Determining what heading to
larly by the pattern of roads or railway lines entering or leav- take up in order to get back on the required track and what
ing them. Smoke haze over larger cities makes them some- heading to fly once back on track in order to reach the destina-
times very difficult to recognize, particularly in dull weather tion is simplified if pilots have drawn 10 degree drift lines on
and when approaching them towards the sun. either side of the route they have laid out on the chart.
Golf courses and race tracks are both fairly good landmarks These lines , opening out from the departure point (or the
and are possible emergency landing grounds for aeroplanes point at which pilots set heading) and closing down to the
having reasonably low landing speeds. destination, enable a pilot to estimate track errors and to
determine what heading changes to make. Each of the lines
Flying by Chart Reading makes an angle of 10 degrees with the track line. If you have
Skill in chart reading does not begin and end in the ability to used a black pen to draw the track line, use a red pen (or some
pick out conspicuous landmarks and locate them on the chart. other colour) to draw the 10 degree drift lines so that, during
the flight, there is no chance of confusing the track with the
Further, and most emphatically, it does not consist of follow-
10 degree drift lines,
ing the winding paths of rivers and railways, in order to reach
your destination. When visibility is normal, a well-trained First of all, here are five terms that apply to these calculations:
pilot should be able to fly a direct route to the destination by 1. Required Track. The proposed path of
chart reading alone. the aeroplane over the ground.
Chart reading is a great deal more difficult at low altitudes 2. Track Made Good . The actual path of
than it is at higher ones, due to the relative nearness of the the aeroplane over the ground.
horizon and to the fact that pilots cannot see enough of the
3. Track Error. The angle between the required track
terrain at one glance to enable them to relate what they see
and the track made good, measured in degrees
to what is on their chart. When first practicing chart reading
either left or right of the required track.
and cross-country navigation, flights should be conducted, at
least, at 2 or 3 thousand feet above the ground. 4. Opening Angle. The angle between the
required track and the track made good.
When flying by chart reading, it is advisable to orient the
chart to the direction in which the aeroplane is proceeding 5. Closing Angle. The angle between the old
along its route, even though this may mean that the lettering required track and the new required track
on the chart is sideways or upside down. necessary to arrive at the destination.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: Aeronautical Charts

(Fig.7.37) and note that the track error is about 6 degrees and
that a h eading of 156 degrees (the original heading plus the
track error) would produce a track parallel to the required
track. You then fly visually to the positively identified land-
mark (D). On reach ing that point, you take up a h eading of 156
degrees which should keep you on the required track right to
your destination.

Opening & Closing Angles Method

Fi g. 7.37 Double Track Error Method & Visual Alteration Sometimes more than half the flight h as been completed
Method of Regaining the Required Track
before you are able to determine your exact position. Perhaps
The required track and the ten degree drift lines are drawn there have been no terrain features on which to make a fix. In
on a chart as shown in Fig.7.36. The airport at Emsd ale is the this case, you may choose to regain th e required track by th e
point of departure and the destination is Stanhope. Ten n au ti- visual alteration method or you m ay choose to fly directly to
cal mile intervals have been marked on the track line to assist th e destination using the openin g and closin g angles method.
in distance calculations. After flying for m ore than half the calculated flight time, you
Having taken off from the airport of departure and flown for are able to pinpoin t your position at C (Fig.7.38). Usin g the 10
about 10 or 15 miles, you note that the aeroplane is not on the degree drift lines , you find your opening angle (a) to be about 4
required track. You can change the heading either to return to degrees to the right of the required track. Th e closing angle (b)
the track or to fly directly to the destination on a new track. into the destination B appears to be about 8 degrees. In order
It is usually better, if you have not passed the h alfway point, to fly directly to B, add the opening angle and the closing angle
to return to the required track since this is the route that and adjust your heading by this amount to the left. Your new
has been studied and prepared on the chart . There are two heading would, therefore, be 073 degrees (085 degrees less 12
methods by which you can return to the required track: (1) the degrees).
double track error m ethod or (2) the visual alteration m ethod. The open ing and closing an gle meth od may be used at any
distance along the track. It is not limited to use only after th e
halfway point h as been passed.

7.4.7 Two-Point" Method of

11

a Opening angle
Flying a Visual Range
Fig. 7.38 Opening & Closing Angles Method When it is not possible to obtain a wind before departure or
time does not permit plotting it, a satisfactory method of deter-
m ining the heading to steer is that known as flying a visual
The Double Track Error Method range.
Fig.7.37 depicts the double track error method ofregaining the
required track. Two points are selected along the track about 5 or 10 miles
apart. The pilot, having gained the altitude it is intended to
The headin g necessary to fly the required track from point m aintain throughout the flight, flies a heading by map reading
A to the destination is calculated to be 150 degrees. About that w ill pass over these two points. The compass will then
15 n autical miles from point A, you accurately pinpoint your indicate the heading to steer for the balance of th e flight. Other
position at B and estimate, using the ten degree drift lines as points along the route may be selected subsequently and a
a guide, that the track error (or opening angle) of the track series of ranges flown. This method is particularly useful if it is
made good is about 6 degrees to the left of the required track. necessary to alter heading during a flight to a destination other
If you alter your heading by 6 degrees to the righ t and take up th an th at originally intended.
a heading of 156 degrees, you will be following a track that is
parallel to the required track. In order to regain the required
7.4.8 Return to Point of Departure
track, you n eed to double the track error; that is, you need to
alter your h eading by 12 degrees to th e right and take up a In order to return to the point of departure, a pilot needs to cal-
new heading of 162 degrees (original heading of 150 degrees culate the reciprocal of h is/ her outbound heading to determine
plus 12 degrees). You will regain the required track at C in the heading to take up for the homebound flight.
approximately the sam e period of tim e as it took to reach By reciprocal is m eant the reverse, or opposite, of a given direc-
position B from A. It is h elpful if there are som e terrain fea- tion such as a heading, course or bearing.
tures along the track line to confirm that the required track
has been regained. If there are none, you can assume that The reciprocal is found by adding or subtracting 180; adding if
you have reached the required track at the calculated time. the direction is 180 degrees or less, subtracting if it is greater
On regaining the track, you should subtract half of th e cor- than 180 degrees.
rection applied to the original heading (162 degrees less half For Example:
of 12 degrees) to establish th e proper heading (156 degrees) to
Track ... . ...... .. .... .... ... . . 187°
m aintain the required track and reach you r destin ation.
Reciprocal . . .. ...... . .. .. . 007°
However, determining the reciprocal of a heading is not so
The Visual Alteration Method simple. Since w ind drift allowance is the vital consideration
If you can positively identify a landmark th at is right on the
in determining the heading to make good a particular track
required track, you m ay choose to regain the track by the
and since the wind will h ave quite a different effect in making
visual alteration method. You establish your position at B
good a reciprocal track, it can readily be seen that adding or

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

subtracting 180 from the heading is not the method to calculate

the reciprocal heading. The approximate heading to steer to 1.4.10 The "One-in-Sixty" Rule
make good the reciprocal track may be calculated by the fol- A pilot on a cross-country flight, who has got off track, will be
lowing method: able to estimate the distance he/she is off track quite easily, but
Calculate the reciprocal of the heading out and double the wind it is very difficult to know how many degrees it is necessary to
correction angle the opposite way. alter heading by compass to correct the error.

If the wind correction angle out has been 5° to port, to double

it the opposite way, you add 10° (to starboard) to the reciprocal An error in the track of one degree
of the heading out to obtain the heading home. (Any correction will cause an error in position of about
applied to the right, or starboard, or clockwise, is added.) one mile in a distance of 60 miles.
If the wind correction angle out has been 5° to starboard, you
subtract 10° (to port) from the reciprocal of the heading out to Suppose an aeroplane is 2 miles off its track after travelling 30
obtain the heading home. (Any correction applied to the left, or miles. The error in the track will be roughly 4°. Therefore the
port, or counterclockwise, is subtracted.) correction to the compass heading will be 4° to correct the error.
This will put the aeroplane on a track parallel to the required
Sample Problem track but 2 miles from it. Suppose the aeroplane is 60 miles
You are flying a compass heading of 122°. You run into bad icing from its destination. An additional 2° correction to heading will
conditions and decide to turn for home. gradually close the track. Therefore a total correction of 6° will
bring the aeroplane in to its destination.
A glance at your flight plan tells you that your true heading is
117° and your track (true) is 122°.
7.4.11 The Pilot Navigator
The reciprocal of your heading is 297° (117° + 180° = 297° ).
Flying alone in the cockpit of an aeroplane, a pilot cannot really
You have been steering 5° to port of your track (to correct for a handle cumbersome plotting instruments. The basic prepara-
drift of 5° to starboard). tion for a flight, marking the route and studying it, must be done
To double the wind correction angle the opposite way, you in advance. However, not all contingencies can be foreseen and
would now steer 10° to starboard of 297°. it is often necessary to make calculations and estimates during
the flight.
The true heading for home would therefore be 297° + 10° = 307°.
The ability to make accurate estimates is a skill that is learned
Using the same variation you had on your heading out and the
with practice. During any flight, you should practice making
deviation applicable to the new heading, you can now easily
such estimates. Frequently select towns, lakes, airports, etc.,
determine the compass heading to steer for home.
that are off course, estimate the distance they are from the
aeroplane, what heading would be required to fly to them and
7.4.9 Groundspeed Check how long it would take to make the flight. A good knowledge
By noting the distance between checkpoints along your route of the principles of navigation will enable you with practice to
and keeping track of the time, the groundspeed may be found. make very accurate mental calculations en route.

Fig.7.39 shows a small section of a chart on which is shown a With good average visibility, favourable weather, and a good
portion of a flight track. At 10:24, the aeroplane passed over chart of the territory to be flown over, successful navigation
Kirkfield. At 10:43, it passed over Apsley. The distance from depends on little more than the ability to read a chart in general
Kirkfield to Apsley is 39 nautical miles and the time taken to terms.
fly the distance was 19 minutes. The groundspeed, therefore, With low visibility or over comparatively featureless country,
is 123 knots. Let us suppose that the destination is 82 nautical however, steering an accurate heading by compass becomes of
miles beyond Apsley. At a groundspeed of 123 knots, the flight primary importance. Accurate chart reading is essential; the
should take a further 40 minutes and the aeroplane can expect route and groundspeed must be checked frequently in order
to arrive at its destination at 11:23. that the exact position of the aeroplane may be checked at
frequent intervals.

1.s Navigation Problems

1.5.1 Navigation Terms
Wind is air in motion, especially a mass of air having a common
direction or motion. Wind moves horizontally. (A movement of
air vertically is called a current.)
Indicated airspeed is the aeroplane's speed as indicated by the
airspeed indicator.
Fig. 7.39 Groundspeed Check True airspeed is the speed of the aeroplane relative to the air. It
is calibrated airspeed corrected for the airspeed indicator error
due to density and temperature.
Groundspeed is the speed of the aeroplane relative to the
ground. An aeroplane is affected by wind. If there is no wind

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _......- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

at all, true airspeed and groundspeed will be the same. If, A velocity may be represented by a straight line. The direction
however, an aeroplane is flying in an air m ass that is moving may be shown by the direction of the line and the speed by the
in the same direction, the aeroplane w ill h ave a tailwind that length of the line to scale.
will help its progress over the ground, with the result that its
The straight line referred to above which represents the veloc-
groundspeed is in excess of the true airspeed. Conversely, a
ity of a body may also be referred to as a vector. A vector may be
headwind will impede the progress of the aeroplane over the
defined as a quantity having both m agnitude and direction. In
ground with the result that the groundspeed is slower than the aviation, vectors almost invariably represent speed and direc-
true airspeed. tion (or, in other words, velocity).
The heading of an aeroplane is the angle between the longi-
tudinal axis of the aeroplane at any moment and a meridian.
In other words, it is the direction the nose of the aeroplane is
..:-·~~~::. ''
pointing, measured from an imaginary line running north and
south. If the heading is measured from a true m eridian, it is i //
referred to as a true heading, if from a magnetic meridian, as a
m agnetic heading. If it is measured from the direction of a com-
pass needle, it is referred to as a compass heading. The angle is
measured clockwise through 360°.
••i • Resultant

.i: :'.. . . /
The track (intended) is the direction an aeroplane intends to
travel over the ground. The intended track may be represented
by a straight line drawn on a chart. Its direction is the angle ..
between this line and a meridian measured clockwise through v
360°. As in the case of headings, tracks are named true, mag-
Fi g. 7.40 Composition of Velocities
netic or compass with reference to the meridian from which
they are measured. A body may be subjected to two or m ore velocities at the
The track made good is the actual path travelled by the aero- same time and these may not act in the same straight line.
plane over the ground. Like the intended track, it may be For example, an aeroplane may be flying on a heading due
represented by a line drawn on a chart and (provided it is a north at 80 knots with a wind blowing from the west at 20
reasonably straight line) its direction measured from a true or knots. The aeroplane will have two velocities, one toward s
magnetic meridian or compass north. the north at 80 knots and the other towards the east at 20
Drift. A wind blowing from either the starboard or port side of knots.
an aeroplane will cause the aeroplane to drift away from its These two velocities are equivalent to a single velocity which
intended track. In order to m aintain the intended track, it is is called the resultant. The resultant, in this case, would rep -
necessary to turn the aeroplane slightly into wind to compen- resent the track and groundspeed of the aeroplane (Fig.7.40).
sate for the force acting laterally upon it. Drift (or drift angle) is
When the components act in the same straight line, the resul-
the angle between the heading being flown and the track made
tant is obtained by addition or subtraction. When the compo-
good over the ground. In other words, it is the angle at wh ich
nents act in oth er than the same straight line, the resultant
the pilot heads the aeroplane across the track to keep the wind
may be found by a triangle of velocities.
from blowing him/her off the track. It is expressed in degrees
either port or starboard.
The Triangle of Velocities
A true meridian is a m eridian on the surface of the earth joining
If a moving point possesses, simultaneously, velocities rep-
the true north and south poles. On practically all charts used for
resenting speed and direction, these may be represented by
air navigation purposes, the true meridians are shown.
two sides of a triangle (AB and BC in Fig.7.41). They are, then,
A magnetic m eridian is the direction in wh ich a compass equivalent to a resultant velocity represented by the third
needle will lie when influenced only by the earth's magnetic side (AC).
field. In actual practice, magnetic meridians are not shown on
charts but are found by adding or subtracting the variation at B[-~....
any particular place to or from the true meridian. (Variation is
indicated on charts by isogonic lines, which are lines joining all
places of equal variation.)
Compass north is the direction in which a particular compass
needle will lie when influenced by both the earth's magnetic
field and local magnetic influences (deviation) in the aero-
plane. The actual reading on a compass at any time is the angle
+
between compass north and the direction the aeroplane is
heading. . '

Azimuth means direction measured as an angle clockwise from ~/

a meridian. It is the same as a bearing. The azimuth, or bearing, A
may be true, magnetic or compass. Fig. 7.41 Triangle of Velocities

Arrowheads should always be used to show the direction of the

1.5.2 The Composition of Velocities components clearly. A single arrowhead represents the heading of the
The velocity of a body is the rate of change of position of a body aeroplane. Double arrowheads represent its track. Triple arrowheads
in a given direction; hence it involves both speed and direction. indicate the wind.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

The solution of navigational wind and drift problems is based or left and will be referred to as drift lines . At the top is a scale
on the principal of the triangle of velocities. graduated in degrees of drift to right or left, the wind correc-
The heading and true airspeed of an aeroplane can be rep- tion angle (WCA) scale. This may also be used as a variation
resented by one side of a triangle. The wind and windspeed, scale to apply magnetic variation, east or west. In the centre
drawn to the same scale, can be represented by another, and is an arrow referred to as the true index (on some computers,
the track and groundspeed by the third. it is called the true head).

A knowledge of any four of these is sufficient to complete the Any navigation problem which can be plotted can be solved
triangle, from which the remaining two may be determined. on the computer, including multiple drift, off-course, radius
of action, interception, etc. Basic problems of primary interest
In setting out a navigation problem involving a triangle of to the pilot-navigator only are dealt with in the text which
velocities, it is essential that all units of distance and speed follows.
be compatible. For example, all speed units must be in knots if
the distance measurements are in nautical miles. Conversion
tables for converting statute to nautical miles (or vice versa)
7.5.4 Solving Problems with the
appear on the final pages of this book. Wind & Drift Computer
7.5.3 The Flight Computer: Wind Side Headings, Speeds & Winds
Wind and drift problems may be solved on navigation com- In the sample problems that follow, the techniques required
puters in a fraction of the time it takes to plot them on paper. to find the heading to steer to make good a given track, and
All pilots should be able to use a navigation computer and this to find the groundspeed when the airspeed and the wind and
section is written with the assumption that students have a the windspeed are known , are explained. Plotting methodol-
computer available. ogy and computer (E6-B) techniques are described to arrive at
the solutions.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A Skylark Deluxe is to proceed from Niagara Falls to Toronto
Island airport. The intended track (true) is 332°. The true air-
speed of the aeroplane is 85 knots. The wind is 280° (true) at
25 knots. (Note that the direction of the wind is the direction
from which it blows.)
What is the heading to steer and what is the groundspeed?
2 B

·-....:..
~ .... :
\ 3190 •••• Heading and airspeed

··.. '\·.................
1. Variation Scale. 4. Drift Scale.
2. Speed Lines. 5. Drift Lines. Scale
3. Grommet. 6. Compass Rose. 1"=20N.M. .. c
Wind and windspeed
Fig. 7.42 Dead Reckoning Compute r: Wi nd Drift Side
Fig. 7.4 3
Such a navigation computer (for example, the popular E6-B) is
commonly known as a dead reckoning computer. One side of Solution by Plotting:
the computer is a circular slide rule. The other side is a wind
First draw a vertical line to represent a true meridian on your
drift computer (shown in Fig.7.42). The wind side of the com-
plotting paper and mark the scale you are using in one corner.
puter is used to solve the wind and drift problems that follow.
This applies to the solution of all wind and drift problems.
The instrument has a compass rose which can be rotated.
1. From A, draw A-B, 332° to represent the true track
The dial inside the compass rose is a transparent window on
(Fig.7.43).
which pencil marks can be made and erased. In the centre of
the window is a dot with a ring around it, the grommet, which 2. From A, draw A-Cat 280° to the meridian but down-
is a reference point used in plotting. Through the window can wind from A. The line A-C, therefore, is drawn at an
be seen a grid marked out in concentric arcs and radial lines. angle of 100° to the true meridian. Draw the line A-C
This is printed on a sliding plastic strip. The concentric arcs 25 n.m. to scale to represent the wind and windspeed.
represent speed in mph or knots and will be referred to as 3. With C as centre and radius 85 n.m. (the true air-
speed lines. The radial lines represent degrees of drift to right speed), describe an arc cutting A-Bat D. Join C-D.

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 Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

Therefore, in the triangle A-C-D, A-C represents the wind and

windspeed, C-D the heading and true airspeed and A-D the
track and groundspeed.
The heading to steer is the angle C-D makes with the merid-
ian, which is 319°. This heading will be correct whatever the
distance to be flown, so long as the wind and the airspeed of
the aircraft remain constant.
The heading to steer by compass is found by applying the
variation and deviation to the true heading.
The drift is the angle between the heading and the track. In
this case, it is 13° to starboard.
The length of the line A-D represents the groundspeed, which
is 67 knots
The time taken is found by dividing the total distance by the
groundspeed and multiplying by 60. Toronto Island is 39 n.m. Fig. 7.45
from Niagara Falls. The estimated elapsed time would there-
fore be: (39 .;. 67) x 60 = 35 minutes.
Solution by Computer:
1. Set the w ind direction (280°) on the com-
pass rose opposite the true index.
2. Move the slide so that any convenient whole number
shows under the grommet (centre of the disc).
3. Draw a line up from the grommet 25 units in
length to represent the wind speed and draw Fig. 7.46
an arrow at the end of the line (Fig. 7.44).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
4. Set the true track (332°) at the true index.
Suppose that it is desired to leave Niagara Falls and arrive at
5. Set the arrowhead of the wind line on Toronto Island airport at a specified time, in other words, to
the 85 knot speed line (the true air- make good a given groundspeed.
speed of the aeroplane) (Fig. 7.45).
The true track is 332°. The wind is 280° (true) at 25 knots. The
6. Read the groundspeed at the grommet - 67 knots. groundspeed required is 67 knots. What is the heading to steer
7. From the drift line passing through the arrow- and the true airspeed?
head of the wind line, read the wind correc- Solution by Plotting:
tion angle (angle between the heading and
1. Draw A-C (Fig.7.43) to represent
the track). The heading is 13° to the left of
the wind and windspeed.
track. The wind correction angle is 13° left.
2. Draw A-D to represent the track and groundspeed.
8. Read the true heading on the wind correction angle
(WCA) scale left at the 13° mark- 319° (Fig.7.46). 3. Join C and D. C-D is the heading to steer
(319°) and the true airspeed is 85 knots.
Solution by Computer:
1. Set the wind direction (280°) under the true index.
2. Draw a wind vector up from the grommet to
the proper length to represent 25 knots and
draw an arrow at the end of the line.
3. Rotate the compass rose until the true
track (332°) is set at the true index.
4. Move the slide until the grommet is on
the speed line representing 67 knots.
5. Read the drift at the arrowhead of
the wind vector line - 13° left.
6. Read the true heading on the WCA
Fig. 7.44 scale left at the 13° mark - 319°.
7. Read the true airspeed at the speed line
under the arrowhead - 85 knots.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
To find the wind and windspeed, knowing the heading and
true airspeed and the track and groundspeed.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

/,.
"~~7/

Track and groundspeed

Scale
1"=30N.M.
A
Fig. 7.47 Fig. 7.48 The Circular Slide Rule

A Nav Air Tutor is flying on a heading of 033° magnetic, at a The circular slide rule, illustrated in Fig.7.48, is logarithmic in
cruising speed of 95 knots. It is making good a track of 048° principle and can be used to solve any problem of multiplica-
magnetic and a groundspeed of 100 knots. What is the wind tion , division or proportion. From a navigational point of view,
and wind sp eed~ its value lies in the rapid solution of time, speed, distance and
Solution by Plotting: conversion problems.

1. From A draw A-B, 033°, 95 knots to scale, to rep - Note that the slide rule consists of three scales. The outer
resent the heading and true airspeed (Fig.7.47). scale is fixed to the computer. The two inner scales are printed
together on a disc that may be rotated to any position opposite
2. From A draw A-C, 048°, 100 knots to scale to the outer scale.
represent the track and grou ndspeed.
The outer scale represents miles, gallons, true airspeed and
3. Join B-C. corrected altitude. The inner scale represents time in minutes,
The angle B-C makes with the meridian (transferred) repre- calibrated airspeed and calibrated altitude. The third scale
sents the wind and windspeed - from 299° magnetic at 26 represents time in h ours and minutes.
knots. The figures on a slide rule m ay represent any proportion or
The direction of the wind is always from the h eading to the multiple of ten. 10 on the outer scale may therefore represent
track. 1, 10, or 100. 45 on the inner scale may represent 4.5, 45, or 450.
In the latter case, if 450 represented 450 minutes, the equiva-
Solution by Computer:
lent hours and minutes could be read directly on the third
1. Set the track (048° magnetic) opposite the true index. scale as 7 hrs. 30 m in.
2. Move the slide until the 100 knot speed line (represent-
ing the groundspeed) is u nder the grommet. 1.5.6 Solving Problems with the
3. Mark a cross at the intersection of the 95 knot speed line Circular Slide Rule
and the appropriate drift line.
4. Compare the heading and the track. If the heading is to Time, Speed & Distance
the left of the track, use the left drift lines. If the head- For time, speed and distance problems, the outer scale rep-
ing is to th e right of the track, use the right drift lines. resents m iles, the inner scale minutes and the third scale
In this case, the heading is 15° to the left of the track. hours and minutes. In such problems, there are three vari-
Therefore, mark a cross at the intersection of the 95 ables: time, distance and speed. Two must be known to solve
knot speed line and the 15° left drift line. a problem.
5. Rotate the compass rose until the cross is on the cen- To find the distance when the groundspeed (140 kts) and the
treline above the grommet. tim e (48 m ins) are known, set 140 on the outer scale opposite
60 (the black arrow) on the inner scale. Read the distance
6. Read the wind direction (299° magnetic) opposite the on the outer (miles) scale opposite 48 on the inner (minutes)
true index and the windspeed (26 knots) on the cen- scale. The distance is 112 n .m.
treline between the cross and the grommet .
To find the elapsed time wh en the groundspeed (146 kts) and
the distance (100 n.m.) are known, set 146 on the outer scale
7.5.5 The Flight Computer: opposite 60 (the black arrow) on the inner scale. Read the time
Circular Slide Rule Side on the inner (minutes) scale opposite 100 (10) on th e outer
(miles) scale. The elapsed time is 41 minutes.
Navigation calculations are much simplified by the use of
an E6-B computer. The wind drift side of the computer has To find the groundspeed when the distance (30 n .m.) and
already been discussed. The other side is a circular slide rule. the time (15.5 minutes) are known, set 30 on the outer scale

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 Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

opposite 15.5 on the inner scale. Read the groundspeed on the the pilot can correct for changes in atmospheric pressure but
outer (miles) scale opposite 60 (the black arrow) on the in ner can not correct for temperatu res varying from th at of standard
(minutes) scale. The groundspeed is 116 knots. atmosphere. In fact, the only time an altimeter correctly reg-
isters altitude is wh en the aircraft is sitting on the ground at
Fuel Consumption an airport for which the current altimeter setting has been set
To solve problems relating to fuel con sumption, the outer on the subscale of the altimeter that is calibrated absolutely
scale m ay be used to represent gallon s and th e inner scale to accurately. Whenever an aircraft is in flight, the altitude indi-
represent time. cation of an altim eter is in error.

To find endurance when the consumption in gallons per hour The amount of error depends on the degree to which the aver-
age temperature of the column of air between the aircraft
(16) and th e quantity of fuel (72 gallons) are known, set 16
on the outer scale opposite 60 (the black arrow) on the inner and the ground differs from the average temperature of the
scale. Opposite 72 on the outer scale, read the enduran ce on standard atmosphere of the same column of air.
the in ner scale. The answer is 270 minutes , or 4 hours and 30 To calculate true altitude using a computer, it is necessary to
m inutes. know th e pressure altitude. Alter the subscale on the sensitive
altimeter to read 29.92 and read the pressure altit ude. Set th e
To find fuel consumption when the amount of fuel consumed
pressu re altitude against the outside air temperature in th e
(12 gallons) in a given time (2 hr. 21 min.) is known, set 12 on
computer window m arked "For Altitude Computation s."
th e outer scale opposite 2 hr. 21 min. on the third scale. Read
the fuel consumption in gallons on the outer scale opposite Calculate the difference between the published altitude of
60 on the inner scale. Th e fuel consumption is 5.1 gallons per the airport for which you have set the current altimeter set-
hour. ting and the indicated altitude on the altim eter. Opposite that
figu re on the calibrated altitude scale (inner scale), read th e
Conversion true altit ude on the corrected altitude scale (outer scale).
To convert nautical to statute m iles, the nautical and statute For Example:
m ile indexes w ill be found on the outer scale (towards the Indicated altitude is 8,500 feet . Pressure altit ude is
left-hand side in Fig.7.48). Set any figure on the inner scale 9,000 fe et. The elevation of the airport for wh ich the
representing nautical miles opposite the nautical mile index altimeter setting is set on the altimeter is 2,600 feet.
and read the corresponding statute m iles on the in ner scale The outside air temperature at flight level is -25°C.
opposite the statute mile index. Or, to convert statute miles
to nautical miles, set the figure representin g st atu te miles 1. Set the pressure altitude of 9,000 feet against the OAT,
opposite the statute miles index and read the corresponding -25°C, in the altitude computations window.
nautical miles opposite the n autical mile index.
2. Th e temperature error occurs only in th e airspace
To convert imperial to U.S. gallons , m ark 10 (for 1) on the inner between ground level (at 2,600 feet) and the indicated
scale as th e imperial gallons index and 12 (for 1.2) as the U.S. altitude at flight level (at 8,500 feet), that is, in 5,900 feet
gallon s index. Set any figure on the outer scale (7.2 imp. gals. of airspace.
for example) opposite 10 on the inner scale. The figu re on the
outer scale that is opposite 12 will be th e corresponding U.S. 3. Opposite 5,900 feet (59) on the inner scale , read 5,450
gallon s. Answer: 8.65 U.S. gals. (54.5) on the ou ter scale.

To convert litres to U.S. gallons, m ark 10 (for 1) on the inner 4. Add the 2,600 feet previously deducted as being error-
scale as the litre index and 26.4 (for 0.264) as the U.S. gallons less to th e figure 5,450 to find the true altitude of 8,050
index. Set any figure on the outer scale (89 litres for exam ple) feet ASL (5,450 + 2,600) at fligh t level.
opposite 10 on the inner scale. The figure on the outer scale
th at is opposite 26.4 w ill be the corresponding U.S. gallons. In Airspeed Correction
this case, 23.5 U.S. gallons. The airspeed indicator is also subject to error as a result
To convert litres to imperial gallons , mark 10 (for 1) on the of temperature and the decreasing density of the air with
inner scale as the litre index and 22 (for 0.22) as the imperial altitude.
gallons index. Set any figure on the outer scale (75 litres for To find true airspeed, set the flight level air temperature
example) opposite 10 on the inner scale. The figure on the opposite the flight level pressure altitude in th e computer
outer scale that is opposite 22 will be the correspondin g impe- w indow marked "For Airspeed Computations". Pressure alti-
rial gallon s. In this case, 16.5 imperial gallons. tude is obtained by setting th e reading 29.92 on the subscale of
To convert Celsius to Fahren heit, this conversion cannot be the sensitive altimeter. Convert the indicated airspeed (!AS) to
worked on the slide rule. Practically all navigation comput- calibrated airspeed (CAS) using the airspeed correction table
ers, however, have a Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion table in your Pilot's Operating Handbook. Read th e true airspeed on
printed on them. For the computer illustrated in Fig.7.48, the the outer scale opposite th e figure representin g the calibrated
t able is printed on the reverse side. airspeed on the inner scale.
For Example:
Altitude Correction Pressure altitude is 16,000 feet. Temperature
The pressure altimeter used in aeroplanes is a relatively accu- is -10°C. A calibrated airspeed of 200 knots is
rate instrument. However, it is calibrated to indicate the true equivalent to a true airspeed of 260 knots.
altit ude in !CAO Standard Atmosphere conditions (i.e. per-
fectly dry air w ith a MSL pressu re of 29.92 inches of mercury
and a MSL temperature of 15°C and standard lapse rate). With
the subscale that is incorporated into the pressure altimeter,

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

Density Altitude @ La Crosse

The performance data published in the Pilot's Operating
Handbook is related to standard atmosphere (29.92 inches of
mercury at 15°C at sea level). Any increase in temperature or @ Lone Rock
altitude means a decrease in the aircraft's optimum perfor-
mance, since air density decreases with both altitude and
temperature. Knowing the density altitude at the airport from @ Rockford
which you are operating is therefore of special importance
in determining the required take-off and landing distances.
If both elevation and temperature are high, the available @ Chicago
runway may be insufficient for the performance capabilities
of your aeroplane.
-....-..... ....
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature.
To find density altitude, set the pressure altitude opposite Fig. 7.49 Fuel Hou rs Problem
the air temperature in the computer window marked "For
Airspeed Computations". Portage La Prairie is 42 n.m. from Winnipeg. The aeroplane
has covered this distance in 28 minutes. Its groundspeed
For Example:
therefore is 90 knots.
Pressure altitude is 6,000 feet. Temperature is
At a groundspeed of 90 knots, the flight from Winnipeg to
20°C. The density altitude, read in the little win-
Regina (288 nautical miles) will take 3 hours 11 minutes which
dow marked "Density Alt", is 8,000 feet .
is sufficient to reach Regina without drawing on the aero-
plane's 45 min. reserve.
1.s.7 Solving Navigation Problems
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Fuel Hours A pilot wishes to fly from Goshen, Indiana to Fargo, N.D., via
Many navigation problems are based on fuel hours combined Joliet, Illinois, along the airways. He/she wishes to know the
with the wind drift problems which we have already studied. farthest point attainable along the route before refuelling. A
The fundamental factors required for the solution of all fuel schematic diagram of the route is shown in Fig.7.49.
hour problems are: The aeroplane has a cruising speed (true) of 100 knots. Its fuel
1. The fuel consumption. capacity is 25 gallons and its consumption 5.5 gals/hr. The
wind is from the north at 30 knots.
2. The quantity of fuel available in the tanks.
Solution:
3. The groundspeed of the aeroplane.
The aeroplane's endurance, found by using the circular slide
The time the aeroplane can fly on its available fuel (less rule, is 272 minutes. Deduct 45 minutes for reserve and the
reserve) can be found from 1 and 2. safe endurance is 227 minutes.
The distance the aeroplane can fly in that time can be found The track from Goshen to Joliet is 270°T and the distance is
from 3. 107 nautical miles. By plotting or by wind drift computer, the
groundspeed on the leg to Joliet is found to be 95 knots. At this
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
groundspeed, the elapsed time to Joliet will be 68 minutes.
A pilot starts to fly from Winnipeg, Manitoba to Regina,
Safe fuel hours remaining are 159 minutes (227 min. less 68
Saskatchewan. The track is 277° true and the distance is 288
min.).
nautical miles. The plane has a cruising speed of 120 knots.
Fuel capacity is 45 gallons. Fuel consumption is 11 gallons The track from Joliet towards Fargo is approximately 316°T.
per hour. Unable to get a forecast wind, the pilot assumes no Using the same wind, by plotting or by wind drift computer,
w ind. At the end of 28 minutes, the aircraft is over Portage La the groundspeed on this leg will be found to be 77 knots. At
Prairie. With this wind, the pilot is anxious to know if there this groundspeed, in 154 minutes the plane will travel 198
is sufficient fuel to reach Regina without drawing on the 45 n.m. The airport safely ne arest this dista nce along the track is
min. reserve. La Crosse (197 n .m.).
Solution:
Fuel capacity is 45 gallons. Fuel consumption is 11 gal/hr.
Radius of Action (R/A)
The radius of action (R/A) is the maximum ground distance an
Using the circular slide rule, the fuel hours on board are cal-
aircraft can fly outwards from a datum point before returning
culated to be 246 minutes, or 4 hours 6 minutes. Deduct 45
to the same or another datum point under given conditions of
minutes for reserve, and the safe fuel hours available are 3
wind, true airspeed, fuel consumption and a given quantity
hours 21 minutes.
of fuel.
The fundamental questions in determining the time to turn
in order to reach its base at a given time are: when and where
shall the turn be made and what will be the course back.
The radius of action problem presented here deals with an
aircraft that will return to its point of departure. Radius of
action problems may also involve a return of the aircraft to a
second base.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

3. Read true heading out (083°) at th e 10°

Heading m ark on the WCA Scale Left.
&G!Shome
4. Read the groundspeed out (102 knots) at the grommet.
5. To determine th e true heading for the return flight,
rotate the compass rose until the reciprocal of the
true track outbound (273°) is opposite the true index.
Fig . 7.50 Radius of Action To find th e reciprocal of a true track, add or subtract
180 degrees. Therefore, the reciprocal of the true
SAMPLE PROBLEM track 093° is 273° (093 + 180). Note: on a reciprocal
The problem is to find the RIA along a track, 093 true. Wind heading, the drift will be opposite in direction.
from 020 T at 20 knots. Cruising speed 110 knots. Fuel endur- 6. Reposition the slide to place the arrow-
ance 5 hours (i.e., 4 hours 15 minutes plus reserve). head of the w ind vector line at the inter-
Solution by Plotting: section of the 110 knot speed line (the true
airspeed) and th e 10° right drift line.
1. From A (Fig.7.50) draw A-B 93° (to repre-
sent the track out) and extend it back to some 7. Read the grou ndspeed (114 knots) at the grommet.
point C (to represent the track home). 8. Read the true heading home (283°) at the
2. From A, draw A-0 at 020° to the meridian (the wind 10° mark on the WCA Scale Right.
line is always drawn downwind), 20 knots to scale.
3. With centre 0, and radius 110 knots (the
true airspeed) describe arcs cutting A-B
and A-C at E and F. Join 0-E and 0 -F.
A-E = Groundspeed Out= 102 kts.
A-F = Groundspeed Home= 114 kts.
Fig. 7.51
The safe fuel hours = 5 hours, less 45 m in . reserve, which is 4
hrs. 15 min., or 4.25 hrs. This completes the solution of groundspeed and true head-
ing, outbound and inbound. The remainder of the problem is
Formula for The Radius of Action solved on the circular slide rule part of the computer.
(RIA): F x [(Ox H) .;. (0 + H)} 9. Opposite the safe endurance time of the aeroplane
(4 hrs. 15 mins.) on the inner scale (A in Fig.7.51), set
Where the sum of the groundspeed out and the ground-
speed hom e (which is 216 knots) on the outer scale.
F = Safe fuel h ours.
O = Grou ndspeed out. 10. Opposite th e groundspeed hom e (114 knots)
H = Groundspeed home. on the outer scale, read the tim e until time-
to-turn in m inu tes on the inner scale (134
Th erefore, using the formula above:
mins. or 2 h rs. 14 mins.). See Bon Fig.7.51.
RIA= 4.25 x [(102 x 114) .;- (102 + 114))
Therefore on the outbound flight, you can fly for 2 hrs. and 14
= 4.25 x (11628 c- 216) = 229 n .m .
mins. before you must turn back.
The heading to steer out is 083°T (0-E) 11. To determine the distance flown in this time,
The heading to steer home is 283°T (0-F) place the groundspeed out (102 knots) on the
outer scale opposite the pointer on the inner scale.
Opposite the time (134 minutes) allowed for the
Formula for Time to Turn
outbound flight on the inner scale, read the dis-
R/A.;-0
tance on th e ou ter scale, 229 nautical miles.

Therefore, the time to t u rn is 229 c- 102, or 2.24 h rs. or 2 hr. 229 n autical miles is the radiu s of action .
14min .
Solution by Computer:
Point of No Return
On long flights over oceans, jungles, or featureless country
The solution of this type of problem, requiring the use of both such as the Arctic, there is a point somewhere along the track
sides of the computer, is broken down into two steps: beyond which, if trouble occurs, there is insufficient fuel
Wind-vector calculation, which computes th e true heading remaining to return to base and it is mandatory to go on. This
and groundspeed outbound and inbound; and is called the point of no return. If the trouble is due to weather
or some other cau se which doesn't impair the performance of
Radius-of-action calculation , which computes time to turn
the aeroplane, th is point is the time to t urn which was deter-
and the radius-of-action distance.
mined in the radius of action problem above.
1. Set up a wind triangle as in wind drift problem
1, using a wind velocity of 020° at 20 knots, true Critical Point
track of 093° and a true airspeed of 110 knots,
An aeroplane forced to turn back might be in difficulties
to determine heading and groundspeed.
(such as the loss of an engine in a multi-engine aeroplane)
2. The drift is 10° left. and be forced to fly at less than its normal cruising speed.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

In an emergency such as this, there is little time for calcula- Solution by Computer:
tion. The reduced airspeed of the aeroplane in distress should 1. Set up a wind triangle as in wind drift prob-
therefore be anticipated in advance. A good figure to assume lem 1, using the true airspeed of 250 knots.
is 60% of normal cruise speed. The critical point is a position
somewhere along the route between two air bases from which 2. Read the groundspeed of 236 knots at the grommet.
it is equally quick to fly to either base. Based on a reduced 3. Set up a wind triangle as in wind drift problem
airspeed, a predetermined critical point will enable a pilot in 1, using the reduced airspeed of 150 knots.
distress to instantly make up his/her mind whether it is advis- 4. The drift is 10° left.
able to turn back or to continue on.
5. Read the true heading out (085°) at the
10° mark on the WCA scale left.
6. Read the reduced groundspeed out
A-~~H~~-~--~-~--~~~~~p~........t>::;~~~:::;::::,,._!!,~ (135 knots) at the grommet.
j ·········· --···"~~:::~--~ --Q 7. To determine the inbound heading and ground-
Reduced AIS home W speed, rotate the compass rose to set the recipro-
Reduced AIS out Actual AIS out cal track (095° + 180° = 275°) at the true index.
Fig. 7.52 Cri t ical Point 8. Reposition the slide to place the arrow head of
the wind vector line at the intersection of the
SAMPLE PROBLEM 150 knot speed line and the 10° right drift line.
An aeroplane cruising at a true airspeed of 250 knots is flying 9. Read the reduced groundspeed home (159 knots)
from A to B along a track of 095° T, a distance of 1,800 n.m. The at the grommet. Read the true heading home
average wind over the route is estimated to be from 030° T at (285°) at the 10° mark on the WCA scale right.
30 knots. The reduced airspeed is assumed to be 60% of the
normal cruise speed, or 150 knots. On the circular slide rule side of the computer:

Solution by Plotting: 10. Place the reduced groundspeed home on the

outer scale opposite the reduced groundspeed
1. Draw A-B, the intended track, 095°, 1,800 out on the inner scale. See A on Fig.7.53.
n.m. to any convenient scale (Fig.7.52).
11. Search the slide rule for two numbers such that
2. From some point X draw XW, 030°, 30 knots (the their sum will equal the total distance between the
wind down-wind). For convenience, a much two points. One figure will be the distance from
larger scale can be used to plot this portion of the the base to the critical point, and the other will be
problem than that used to draw the line A-B. the distance from the critical point to the destina-
3. With centre Wand radius 150 n.m. (the tion . As to which figure is the one to choose as the
reduced airspeed), describe arcs cutting X-B critical point, visualize the effect of the wind.
and X-A at O and H. Join W-0 and W-H.W-0 In this case, we find that 973 on the outer scale cor responds
is the h eading to steer ou t, 085°T. with 827 on the inner scale, their sum equalling 1,800 nautical
miles which is the total distance. The wind is a tail wind for
W-H is the heading to steer home, 285°T.
the flight home and therefore the choice for the critical point
X-0 is the reduced groundspeed out, 135 kts. is 973 nautical miles. See Bon Fig.7.53.
X-H is the reduced groundspeed home, 159 kts. 12. The time to the critical point is found by divid-
4. Draw any line A-Y inclined to A-B and mark ing the distance found in Step 11 (out to the criti-
off A-C equal to X-H, and C-D equal to X-0. cal point) by the normal ground-speed out (found
in Step 2 to be 236 knots). On the computer, set the
5. Join D to B. Through C draw a line paral- pointer opposite 236 and read the time opposite
lel to D-B cutting A-Bat P. Pis the criti- 973. The answer is 247 mins, or 4 hrs. 7 mins.
cal point. It is 973 n.m. from A.
The critical point, therefore, is 973 nautical miles from base,
6. With centre Wand radius 250 knots and the time to turn is 4 hours and 7 minutes.
(the true airspeed), describe an arc cut-
ting A-B (produced) at Q. Join W-Q. W-Q is
Formula for the Critical Point:
the actual groundspeed out, 236 knots.
P = (D x H) -;- (0 + H)
The time to turn is the time to fly 973 n.m. at the actual
groundspeed out, i.e.: 973 -;- 236 =4.12 hr. (4 hr. 7 min.)
Therefore, P = (1,800 x 159) -;- (135 + 159) = 973 n.m.

B Formula for Time to Turn: P -;- G

Therefore, the time to turn is 973 -;- 236 = 4.12 hrs. (4 h r. 7 min.).
Where
P = the critical point.
D = the total distance to fly.
O = the reduced groundspeed out.
H = the reduced groundspeed home.
Fig . 7.53
G = the actual groundspeed out.

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 Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

Calculating the Climb or Descent

An aeroplane's airspeed is reduced during its climb and some-
times during a portion of its descent from cruising altitude. Its
groundspeed is similarly affected. In planning a cross-country
flight, the climb and descent vectors (that is , the portions of
the fligh t required for climb and letdown) should each be
calculated as separate time and distance problems, using the
average wind and average airspeed temperature correction
during the climb or letdown. The three separate segments of
the flight should then be added to find the total time (time
during climb + time at cruising altitude+ time during letdown Fig. 7.54
= total elapsed time). This may prove too time-consuming for
the average pilot-navigator. A general rule that you may find Solution:
helpful is: compute your flying time for the total distance Find the number of feet to descend (10,000 - 2,267 = 7,733) in
using your true airspeed and the wind at cruising altitude. hundreds on the outer scale. Set under it the rate of descent
Then add 1 minute per 1,000 ft. of cruising altitude above the in hundreds of feet on the hour scale (400 ft/min would be
elevation of the airport at point of take-off to allow for time 4.00 h ours) (see Fig.7.54 "A''). On the minutes scale, find the
lost in climb and letdown. For example: cruising altitude, 7,000 groundspeed in tens of miles (120 knots would be 12) and read
ft. less elevation of airport, 1,000 ft. = 6,000 ft. Add 1 min/1,000 the number of miles directly on the miles scale (38.5 miles)
ft. which is 6 minutes to your total time to allow for climb and (Fig.7.54 "B").
letdown.
The same setting can be used to determine what rate of
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 descent will bring the aeroplane to circuit height above the
An aeroplane is flying towards its home airport where the airport, if the pilot begins h is/her descent 38.5 miles out from
elevation is 1,267 feet MSL (above mean sea level). It is flying at the airport.
an altitude of 10,000 feet MSL, at a groundspeed of 165 knots.
The pilot wishes to descend at a rate of 400 feet per minute Calculating Climb Restriction Problems
and arrive over the airport at 1,000 feet above the ground, At some airports, especially in congested areas, ATC may
maintaining a constant groundspeed of 120 knots. How many issue a departure clearance requiring a minimum climb rate
minutes before the estimated time of arrival over the airport per nautical mile. You will have to decide quickly if you are
should the descent to be started? capable of this requirement. The following is a rapid method
Solution: for solving this problem.
The airport has a field elevation of 1,267 feet MSL. Therefore SAMPLE PROBLEM
1,000 feet above ground will be 1,267 + 1,000 = 2,267 feet above ATC has given a clearance ... "This departure requires a mini-
sea level. mum climb rate of 400 feet per mile until .. . . ."Your planned
The pilot's descent will be 10,000 - 2,267 = 7,733 feet. At a climb speed gives a 120 knot groundspeed. What climb rate in
rate of 400 feet/min., the time required to letdown will be feet per minute must you meet to comply with the clearance?
7,733-7400 = 19.3 minutes. Solution:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2 Set your climb groundspeed of 120 knots on the miles scale
After landing, the pilot referred to above decides to take off adjacent to 60 minutes on the minute scale. Find the given
again and climb to a cruising altitude of 9,000 feet MSL, at climb requirement of 400 feet per nautical mile on the min-
a rate of 300 feet/min. In the climb, h e/she m akes good a utes scale. On the miles scale read 800. You will be required to
groundspeed of 165 knots. How far, in nautical miles, will m aintain a climb rate of 800 feet per minute. If your aeroplane
he/she be from the airport when h e/she reach es cruising will do at least this considering its weight and the power avail-
altitude? able, then accept the clearance and go.
Solution: You must use nautical miles in computing this problem.
The airport has an elevation of 1,267 feet MSL. The climb to
cruising altitude will therefore be 9,000 - 1,267 = 7,733 feet. At Finding the Wind Velocity in the Air
a rate of 300 feet/min., this will take 7,733.;.300 = 25.7 minutes. Of all the various methods devised for finding the wind veloc-
At a groundspeed of 165 knots, he/she will travel 165.;.60 x 25.7 ity in the air, the only two which have any practical value from
= 70.6 nautical miles. a pilot-navigator's point of view is (1) the track and ground-
speed method and (2) the drift method, since one does not
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3 involve any deviation of the aeroplane from its track and th e
The E6-B computer can also be used for calculating descent. other is so easily accomplished when flying over areas where
Refer to the first problem above in which an aeroplane flying the track and groundspeed method cannot be used.
at 10,000 MSL is approaching an airport whose elevation is
1,267 MSL. Descending at approximately 400 ft/min and main- TRACK & GROUNDSPEED METHOD
taining a constant groundspeed of 120 knots , how m any miles An aeroplane on a navigation exercise passes checkpoint A at
out should the pilot begin his/her descent in order to arrive 10:10 and arrives at checkpoint B at 10:27. The cruising speed
over the airport at circuit height? is 120 knots. The aeroplane is flying on a heading of 120°T.
A line joining A and B on th e map represents the actual track
made good (107°T).

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Nav igation Problems

The distance between A and B is 36 nautical miles. Therefore, intersection of University Avenue and Dundas Street on the
the groundspeed is 127 knots. map and you have fixed your exact position.
Knowing the heading and airspeed (120°T - 120 knots) and Position lines are obtained by observing the bearing of two
the track and groundspeed (107°T - 127 knots), the wind or more objects and are plotted on a map or chart to fix the
velocity can now be found by plotting or computer as detailed position of the observer in the same way that the intersection
in wind drift problem 3. The answer: wind from 218° at 29 of University Avenue and Dundas Street was used to locate a
knots. position above.

DRIFT METHOD
A steady heading is flown at a constant airspeed and the drift
noted. The heading is then altered, if possible by not less than
50°, and the drift again noted. If time permits, the heading •lCQJJ• Beach Head
should again be altered, either at least another 50° in the same Light Ship

I
direction, or back 100°, and a third drift noted. ~ Doglsland
It will be seen that very little time is lost by use of this
method. If the heading alterations are made first to one side
of the track and then to the other and, provided that approxi-
" " Hn; • ' ' " ' " " " " Hn;
mately the same time intervals are flown on each leg of the
flight to that point, the aeroplane will be very close to the
original track when turned on to the original heading again.
• Fix 1015 Hrs
This third drift angle is not essential, but it is desirable as a / (Centre of "cocked hat")
check. The wind velocity can then be found by combining this
information on a mechanical computer or by plotting on the
map or chart.
D
B
I\ F

The Air Position

No pilot can ever become hopelessly lost if he/she knows his I Fig. 7.55 Fi x By " Cocked Hat ", Three Position Lines
her air position. The air position of an aeroplane at any time is
its imaginary position, assuming that there has been no wind SAMPLE PROBLEM
since it left the ground. It will be obvious then that, if the air A Twin Otter is patrolling out to sea off the Atlantic Coast.
position is known, the worst a pilot can be in error as regards The port of St. Hilda is sighted and is found to bear 018° T. If
ground position is a distance and direction equal to the speed the bearing of St. Hilda is 018° from the aeroplane, then the
and direction of the wind for the length of time he/she has direction of the aeroplane is the reciprocal (opposite) of 018°
been flying. or 198° from St. Hilda. A line is drawn on the chart from St.
Hilda 198° (A-Bin Fig.7.55). This is a position line somewhere
The air position is recorded by navigators on what is known on which it is known the aeroplane must be at a particular
as an air plot. This is the laying down on a map or chart of the time. A position line is identified by arrowheads at either end
heading and airspeed of the aeroplane during the entire time and the time at which it was obtained is clearly marked, in
it is in the air. this case 1015 hrs.
While it is not possible for the pilot-navigator to keep an air Suppose that, at the same time, the Beach Head light ship was
plot and fly the aeroplane at the same time, it is of the utmost found to bear 052°. A second position line (C-D) may be drawn
importance to keep a mental picture of air position. By jotting 232° from the light ship on the chart.
down in a log the exact time that each change in compass
heading is made (should the whereabouts become uncertain Where the two position lines intersect gives the position of
in poor visibility) he/she can run back over the log and con- the aeroplane at 1015 hrs. This is called a fix .
struct a rough diagram of the air position in his/ her mind. It will be seen that in Fig.7.55 a third position line (E-F) has
Thus, when some landmark does appear in view below, he/ been plotted from a bearing on Dog Island of 338° (reciprocal
she has a good general idea of the area on the map to search 158° ). The purpose of including this third position line in the
in order to identify it. figure is to show that where three or more position lines are
The keeping of a log does not require recording endless volumes of used, they may not always intersect at a common point. Note
figures on a comprehensive form. The Jew simple notations required that E-F does not pass through the intersection of A-B and C-D,
by the pilot-navigator, such as time of departure, heading flown, but forms a small triangle, or cocked hat. This is due to small
times over points along the route, groundspeeds calcu lated, etc., can errors in taking the bearings or in plotting. If the cocked hat is
be jotted down on the border of the map if a note book doesn't happen small, the fix is taken to be the dot shown in the centre of the
to be handy. triangle. If the cocked hat is excessively large, no reliance can
be placed on the fix.
POSITION LINES When plotting a fix by two or more position lines, the angle
Suppose you are standing on a street in Toronto down which between the position lines should not be less than 30° and
you can see the Legislature rising above the end of the avenue
preferably about 60°.
of trees . You consult your street guide and identify the street
as University Avenue. You know you are somewhere on Upon obtaining a fix and marking it on a chart, it is possible
University Avenue but you have no means of knowing exactly to calculate the latitude and longitude of the aeroplane at the
where. However, you note that you are standing at the cross- time the bearing was taken. This information is important in
ing of a street named Dundas Street. Now you locate the relaying position reports over water and uninhabited areas to
air traffic control authorities.

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 Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

There are many methods of obtaining position lines - by

transit, by direction finding radio, by observations of celestial
bodies, etc. It is of the utmost importance that the simple
methods detailed above, explaining their use in fixing the
position of an aeroplane, should be thoroughly understood by
the elementary student in order to enable the student later on
to tackle the more advanced problems he/she will encounter
in radio and celestial navigation.

1.5.B Electronic Flight Calculator

A wide selection of electronic flight calculators are available
on the market. They are very versatile and very popular and
may well be stated as having rendered wind drift comput-
ers and circular slide rules as mere back-up devices for air
navigation.
These calculators, similar to the one illustrated in Fig.7.56 , are
preprogrammed to solve navigational problems, such as true
heading, groundspeed, time en route, distance, wind drift,
fuel requirements, true airspeed, density altitude, rate of
climb and descent, conversions (n. miles to s. miles, C0 to F0 ,
etc.), weight and balance, etc., in a matter of seconds.
Flight calculators made by different manufacturers will each
operate slightly differently. Usually it is necessary first to
select a function key that corresponds with the problem to
be solved and then punch in the known information to solve
the problem.

~
0
ii;'
t
:l
0
u
80
..c
'"

Fig. 7.56 Electronic Flight Calculator

A careful reading of the instruction book that comes with

the flight calculator you have purchased and some practice
handling it will enable you to solve most of the navigation
problems with which you will be confronted.
Transport Canada officials have approved several of these
flight calculators for use in Canadian exams. A list can be
obtained by contacting the testing centre prior to taking the
examination. The manual on how to use the flight calculator
may not be taken into the examination .
Navigation questions may be solved, at the examination, by
plotting and formulae, by use of a flight computer and circular
slide rule or by use of an electronic flight calculator.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Air Navigation: Navigation Problems

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 Radio Communication: Radio Theory & Principals

8 Radio The relationship between wavelength and frequency is as fol-

lows: the wavelen gth in m eters is equ al to 300,000 divided by
the frequency in kilohertz.
Communication Conversely, the frequency in kilohertz is equal to 300,000
divided by the wavelength in meters.

Radio is the magic genie that creates invisible traffic arteries The speed of radio energy or light is 300,000,000 meters per second.
in the skies, whose voice reaches out to airmen in the overcast This figure is divided by 1,000 to equal 300,000, the figure used in
from the unseen world below - the guide to the weath er th at the formula above.
lies along the route, to the traffic pattern plan that must be Frequency Bank Limits
observed, to the vast amount of timely information that must Designation Frequency Wavelength (Meters)
be received to make flying as it is practiced today a safe and VLF VeryLow 0-30 Kilohertz 300,000 -10,000
practical undertaking. LF Low 30-300 10,000 -1,000
MF Medium 300-3,000 1,000-100
Radio has been perfected to the point where it h as come to be HF High 3,000-30,000 100-10
regarded in the present-day world of aviation as indispens- VHF Very High 30-300 Meg~~ertz 10-1
able. Wh ile the vast airway radio networks of Canada and the UHF Ultra High 300-3,000 100-lOcm
United States offer a rapid and reliable m ean s of communica- SHF Super High 3,000-30,000 10-lcm
EHF Extremely High 30,000-300,000 1-lmm
tion and air navigation, it sh ould never be taken for granted
that radio equipment is infallible. It can, and does, on occasion
Long wave mtra short wave
fail. Complete dependence on radio has provided the prelude ~
to all too many an aeroplane disaster. A pilot sh ould by all
means make full use of the radio equipment. He/she should Low Frequency Medium Frequency High rre'quency Very High Frequency
never, however, forget the simple traffic rules and signals that
apply when his/ her radio fails to function, nor cease to prac- Fig.8.2 Wavelength & Frequency
tice elementary navigation as a precaution against the time
when he/she may be caught with a dead radio. 8.1.2 Radio Bands
The airway radio communication facilities and radio naviga-

s.1 Radio Theory & tion aids operate in the LF (low frequency), MF (medium fre-
quency), HF (high frequency), VHF (very high frequency) and

Principles UHF (ultra high frequency) bands.

Low &Medium Frequency

8. u Wavelength & Frequency The non-directional beacons and marker beacons transmit
n avigation signals, and in some cases also voice transmis-
When a stone is dropped in water (Fig.8.1), waves are set up.
sions, on the LF/MF bands of 200 to 415 kHz and 510 to 535 kHz.
While the h eigh t, or strength, of th e waves grows weaker as
they travel away from the point where the stone hit the water, Commercial broadcast stations transmit in the medium wave
the length of the waves (W.L.) never varies. band on frequencies between 550 kHz and 1,750 kHz which is
therefore known as the "Broadcast Band". Broadcast stations,
W.L. W .L. as well as providing news and entertainm ent, can be used for
directional bearings or "homing" with automatic direction
finding equipment.

High Frequency
Fig.8.1 Wavelength Frequencies between 3,000 kHz and 30,000 kHz are known as
high frequencies.
A radio transmitter sets up waves in the air in the same way HF frequencies are allocated in 100 Hz steps so th at more than
that the stone sets up waves in water. The length of these 250,000 separate frequencies are available. Quite a number of
waves remains constant, but the strength, or amplitude, these frequencies h ave been given to aviation use.
decreases with distance from the transmitting station.
Because the range of HF signals is much greater than, for
The actual linear m easurem ent of the wave is known as the example, VHF signals, HF is an excellent air/ground commu-
wavelength and is referred to in meters. The period in which nication facility in the northern remote areas of Canada and
the wave vibrates (that is, rises and falls) between its crest and on long overwater flights.
trough, is called a cycle. The number of cycles per second of
time is called frequency. HF radio is especially valuable as a communications facil-
ity for long range use because of a special characteristic
Very low to high frequencies are expressed in kilohertz (kHz), of HF radio waves. They are reflected back to earth by the
that is, "thousands of cycles". For example, 3023.5 kHz stands ionosphere. (See below Characteristics of Radio Signals.) HF
for 3,023,500 h ertz. radio is therefore the only way to maintain constant contact
Very high frequencies (VHF) are expressed in megahertz at ranges of 2,500 miles or more and on transoceanic flights.
{MHz), that is, "millions of cycles". For example 100 MHz Pilots use it regularly to relay the position reports they give at
stands for 100,000,000 hertz. every 5 degrees of longitude change.
HF signals are, however, unpredictable. Since the height of
the ionosphere varies from day to night and is affected by

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Theory & Principals

sunspots, auroras, etc., the angle at which the signals are

reflected back to earth can be erratic.
Very High Frequency
The VHF band lying between 30 MHz and 300 MHz is the most
HF stations in the upper range of the HF band have a greater important from the pilot's point of view. Certain ranges of
reception distance during daylight hours, whereas stations frequencies within this band have been allocated exclusively
in the lower range of the band have a greater reception dis- for aviation use for communications and for navigation aids.
tance during the night. Therefore, pilots should remember the
rhyme (below) and select stations accordingly. The frequency range from 108.00 MHz through 117.95 MHz is
used for navigation aids, such as the VHF omninavigation sta-
tions (VOR), and the instrument landing systems (!LS). Voice
Sun Up, Frequency Up reception is also provided on these frequencies.
Sun Down, Frequency Down
The frequency range from 118.00 MHz through 136.000 MHz
is allocated to civilian aviation voice communications. Within
The frequency 5,680 kHz is the designated HF air/ground com- the last number of years, 40 new channels between 136.00 and
munication channel in use in the remote areas of Canada. It 136.975 MHz have been allocated to civilian aviation. These
is assigned to flight service stations in these northern regions latter channels are mostly used by air carriers for en route
to provide communication facilities for aeroplanes operating communications.
in the area. HF communication must be conducted on single
sideband. VHF FREQUENCY UTILIZATION PLAN
Time was when a pilot could travel anywhere in North
SINGLE SIDEBAND HF America with a few simple transmitting and receiving fre-
Single sideband (SSB) permits transmissions to be carried quencies, but today's multiplying traffic congestion has cre-
over considerable distances (several thousands of miles in ated vast and complex radio problems. To call a radio facility
some cases). It is more efficient for use in areas where regular
today, a pilot must be able to select the right radio frequency
navigation aids and communication stations are non-existent. - much like looking up the right number in a telephone direc-
SSB is a method of compressing speech, or other intelligence, tory. This information is available on aeronautical charts and
into a narrower band width. A fully amplitude modulated in the Canada Flight Supplement.
(AM) signal has two-thirds of its power in the carrier and only For ATC purposes throughout North America, channel alloca-
one-third in each of the sidebands. The sidebands carry the tion is based on 25 kHz spacing. (In central Europe, to solve
intelligence and the carrier serves only to demodulate the frequency congestion problems, there is a requirement for
signal at the receiver. By eliminating the carrier and emit- aircraft operators to communicate with ATC on more sophisti-
ting only one sideband, available power is used to greater cated radio transceivers having 8.333 kHz spacing.) Within the
advantage. To recover the intelligence, the carrier must be band of VHF frequencies used by aviation in North America,
re-inserted at the receiver. By this method, a gain of approxi- there are 720 individual frequencies that can be allocated
mately 9 db over AM is obtained, equivalent to increasing the
by utilizing 25 kHz spacing. (For Example: 119.000, 119.025,
transmitter power 8 times. 119.050, 119.075, 119.100, 119.125, etc.).
In addition to the increase in power and range, SSB com- A 720 channel transceiver with 25 kHz spacing capability is
munication conserves spectrum space. An SSB voice signal required in all aircraft operating in the high level airspace, in
requires Jess than 3 kHz of spectrum space, in contrast to the all aircraft operating under instrument flight rules (!FR) and
7 or 8 kHz taken up by an AM signal.
in all aircraft operating in the terminal airspace of the large,
AM Transmission SSB Transmission busy airports where frequency congestion is a problem.
Carrier Carrier and
LSB For the present time, aircraft can still operate VFR in many
supressed areas of the country with radio equipment capable of only
USB
50 kHz spacing but the time is fast approaching when the
.. ,.
demand for discreet frequencies will be such that equipment
with 760 channel capability will be universally required.
Frequency Frequency Operators of equipment with only 50 kHz spacing may find
Fig.8.3 Single Sideband their access to certain airspace restricted.
Equipment capable of only 50 kHz spacing can receive only 360
Either the upper sideband (USB) or the lower sideband (LSB) frequencies (For Example: 119.05, 119.10, 119.15, 119.20, etc.)
may be employed. In more complex systems, both sidebands, Owners of equipment with 360 channel capability need to be
with suppressed carrier, are used to convey two separate
careful not to be confused by the way in which a frequency
channels of intelligence. might be published . A 360 channel radio will receive 119.050
The benefits of SSB are greatest and most easily observed MHz and 119.100 MHz ifthe frequencies 119.05 MHz and 119.10
under poor propagating conditions. As a given transmission MHz are selected but it will not receive the intervening chan-
path deteriorates due to a combination of noise, severe selec- nels, 119.025 MHz and 119.075 MHz. Sometimes frequencies
tive fading and narrow band interference, the superiority of with 25 kilohertz spacing are published with only 2 digits to
SSB over AM is evident. the right of the decimal point (the following 0 or 5 is omitted).
HF/SSB frequencies in the range of 2,800 to 22,000 kHz (2 .8 to A 360 channel receiver will receive 119.05 MHz and 119.10 MHz
22 MHz) are allocated to aeronautical communication uses. An but will not receive 119.02 MHz or 119.07 MHz or 119.12 MHz.
S.S.B. high frequency receiver is needed to receive the single The following are some of the most common VHF frequencies
sideband signal. in use.

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 Radio Communication: Radio Theory & Principals

The universal VHF emergency frequency is 121.50 MHz.

Aircraft equipped with dual communication systems should Ultra High Frequency
monitor 121.50 MHz continuously while in the air. Frequency Purpose

The frequency 122.20 MHz is used in Canada by flight service 108.05 through 117.95 MHz Navigation aids.

stations for both transmitting and receiving. In the United ! LS localizers with si multane-
108.1 t hrough 111.9 MHz ous voice channel. operating on
States, the frequency 122.20 MHz or 122.30 MHz is used by FAA odd tenth decimal frequencies.
flight service stations to reply to private aircraft at controlled
110.1 MHz !LS ramp check.
airports and 123.60 MHz at uncontrolled airports.
112.1 - 117.95 MHz Omni ranges (VOR).
Pilots operating in uncontrolled airspace are advised to
114.8 and 115.7 MHz VOR ramp check.
remain continuously tuned to 126.70 MHz, to use this fre -
quency when transmitting position reports and for general 118.00 - 119.65 and 119.75
Ai r traffic cont rol. Two-way.
t hrough 121.40 MHz
pilot broadcasts.
Ai rcraft to air traffic con -
119.70 MHz
The frequency 122.90 MHz has been allocated for use by air- t rol. Below 12,000 ft.
craft engaged in various private aeronautical activities (pri- 121. 50 MHz Emergency. Air-to-ground .
vate multiple) which might include such things as parachute 121.6 MHz Search and rescue.
jumping, aerial crop spraying, formation flying, etc. and can
All ai rcraft and air t raffic control. Two-
be used both in ground to air and air-to-air transmissions. 121.6 - 121.95 MHz
way. Airport utility (ground control).
The frequency 123.400 MHz is allocated for the use of soar- 122.00, 122.20, 122.30
All aeroplanes to flight service stat ions
ing activities which include balloons, gliders, sailplanes, and 122.50 MHz

ultralights and h ang gliders for air-to-air and air-to -ground 122.10 MHz
All aeroplanes to community
aerodrome radio stations.
communications. It may be designated as the ATF at privately
operated aerodromes used primarily for these activities. 122.70, 122.80, 122.85 Private advisory stations. Two-way. Air-
and 123.20 MHz to-ground . Uncontrolled airports. UNICOM.
UNICOM. Private advisory stations tran smit and receive on a Private advisory. Private aerodromes.
range of frequencies between 122.700 and 123.500 MHz. The 122.75 MHz Air t o air in Southern Domestic
Ai rspace. General aviation.
most common frequency is 122.800 MHz. The word UNICOM
is an acronym standing for "universal communication". A Private multiple. The communication
services no rmally encompassed by
UNICOM facility is an air-to -ground communication facility 122.90 MHz these stations wo uld include forest
operated by a private agency to provide private advisory sta- fire figh ting, aerial spraying, aerial
advertising, pa rach ute jumping, etc.
tion (PAS) service at uncontrolled airports. The facility m ay
Private advisory stations.
provide limited airport advisory service (when it is the des- 122.95 and 123.00 MHz
Controlled airports.
ignated mandatory frequency) and other information relating
123.10 MHz World wide search and rescue.
to fuel and service available. An authorized approach UNICOM
(AAU) is also a privately owned air-to -ground communications 123.15 MHz Flight service stations.
facility. Its operators are trained to provide operational in for- Private advisory. Uncontrolled airports.
Air-to-ground. This frequency may also be
mation to pilots con ducting publish ed instrument approach- used for comm unication with ground sta-
es. Approach limits are based on a local altimeter setting. At 123.20 MHz
tions for t he purpose of passing weat he r
and other information to aircraft. Air-to-
controlled airports, the private advisory station is used by air to broadcast position and int ention at
aeronautical operators for company business. Aeronautical an aerodrome for whi ch there is no des-
ignated MF or ATF and no ground st atio n.
advisory stations in the U.S. transmit and receive on 122.80
MHz at airports where there is no control tower and on 123.00 Private advisory. Flight train-
123.30 and 123.50 MHz
ing . Flight test.
MHz at airports that are served by a control tower.
123.40 MHz Soaring activity.
Frequency Allocation. The following listing of the allocation of
123.45 MHz Air-to-air in Northern Domestic Airspace.
VHF channels to the various aeronautical facilities under the
Frequency Utilization Plan , is relatively complete. How ever, 123.60 through 126.65 MHz Ai r traffic control.
changes in the plan are m ade from tim e to time and are pub- 126.2 MHz Military air t raffic control. Two-way.
lished in Transport Canada Information Circulars. 126.70 MHz All civil ae ro planes for pilot broadcasts .
In the case of air navigation aids (such as omniranges, !LS 126.75 and 126.80 MHz
Air traffi c control communica-
localizers, etc.), the frequencies are those on which the navi- tions. Below 24,000 ft.

gation signals are transmitted and are also the frequencies 128.825 t hrough 132.025 MHz Aeroplanes to company stations.
on which stations with simultaneous voice facilities will reply 132.050 th rough 134.95 MHz Air traffi c cont rol. Above 24,000 ft.
to a call. 135.00 through 136.00 MHz Aerop lanes to company stations.
With the confusing number of VHF ch annels in use and the 135.85 through 135.95 MHz Flight inspection .
frequent changes that are continually taking place, it is advis- 135.9 MHz Military advisory.
able, when calling any airway communication station, control
tower or other facility, to state the frequency on which you are Fig.8 .4 Frequencies Table
calling. For example: Gore Bay Radio. This is Golf Foxtrot India
Bravo on 122.30. The UHF band includes the frequencies lying between 300
MHz and 3,000 MHz. These frequencies are mostly allocated
to special government use, except that distance m easuring
equipment (DME) and the glide slope portion of !LS operate on
frequencies in the UHF Band.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Theory & Principals

(see below) are not affected by attenuation. Their radio waves

s.i.3 Single &Double Channel do not bend.
Communication
The radio equipment installed in aeroplanes is capable of both Sky Waves
receiving and transmitting. In some cases, a transmission Sky waves travel up into the atmosphere and are reflected
from the aeroplane is carried on one frequency and recep- back to earth from the ionosphere. The behaviour of sky
tion from the ground station is carried on another. In some waves means that radio signals from the frequencies in the
cases, the same frequency is used for both transmitting and lower end of the radio spectrum (especially HF) can be heard
receiving. at distances much beyond the range where the ground waves
have become undetectable.
Single channel simplex means communicating in one direc-
tion at a time; transmitting and receiving on the same radio Between the point where the ground waves end and the
frequency. reflected waves strike the earth, there is a skip zone, where
very erratic signals or no signals at all are heard.
Double simplex means transmitting on one channel frequency
and receiving on another frequency, but not simultaneously. The skip characteristic of these signals accounts for the fact
that sometimes you may hear a station, then lose it and later
Double channel duplex means transmitting on one channel
hear it again as you fly farther away from the station.
frequency and receiving on another frequency simultaneously.
This signal received This signal not received
s.i.4 Characteristics of Radio Signals
Waves emitted from low, medium and high frequency trans-
mitting stations are of two types: ground waves and sky
waves.

Ground Waves Fig.8.6 Line -of-Sight Transmission

Ground waves follow the surface of the earth. The ground
waves, by nature, travel in a straight line. They do, however, The behaviour of the sky waves is responsible for one of the
because of the phenomenon called diffraction, bend around chief advantages of HF radio - that oflong range communica-
obstacles in their path. As the earth's surface is full of large tion. It is possible on HF to communicate with a station 1,000
and small obstacles, the repeated bending of the ground kilometers away but at the same time be unable to reach a
waves causes them to follow the earth's curvature. This bend- station 100 kilometers away.
ing is further enhanced by surface attenuation. As part of the Transmission capabilities of low, medium and high frequency
ground wave comes in contact with the surface, it loses some radio waves may vary by night and day. At night, the sky
of its energy to the surface and slows down. This slowing waves travel at a flatter angle, causing a skip zone of greater
down causes a downward tilt in the wave that also helps the extent, but a signal distance far greater than during the day.
wave to follow the earth's curvature. The waves continue until
Transmissions are also affected by such things as sunspot
they become undetectable due to surface attenuation.
activity or electromagnetic disturbances which can upset the
The degree to which attenuation affects the ground waves reflecting ability of the ionosphere. When this occurs, the
depends on the nature of the surface. The conductivity of the radio waves are not reflected back to earth and a fade out is
earth's surface varies greatly. A radio wave will, for example, experienced.
travel a greater distance over water than land. Conductivity is
Static is also a major problem in this frequency range.
very poor over sand and ice but fairly high over rich soil.

Very High Frequency Waves

Very high frequency radio waves have different properties
entirely from the ground and sky waves described above.
They do not bounce between the reflecting ionosphere and
earth, but continue straight out into space. This means that
they can only be received by an aeroplane on a line-of-sight
position in relation to the station. VHF waves do not follow
the curvature of the earth, nor bend around obstructions. For
this reason, the higher the altitude at which the aeroplane
is flying, the greater the distance at which it will be able to
Fig.8.5 Ground & Sky Waves
receive VHF signals (see Fig.8.5 and Fig.8.6).
Attenuation also depends on the frequency in use. The higher . Reception . Reception
the frequency, the greater the attenuation. Very low frequency Ht. Above Station Distance Ht. Above Station Distance

waves (VLF) are least affected by attenuation and bending 1,000 ft. 39 n.m . 10,000 ft. 122 n.m.
is due to diffraction. Ranges of several thousand miles are 3,000 ft. 69 n.m. 15,000 ft . 152 n.m.
common in VLF transmission. Attenuation has an increasing 5,000 ft . 87 n.m. 20,000 ft. 174 n.m.
effect on the ground waves of low and medium frequencies, Fig .8 .7 Table of VHF Reception Distance
slowing them down and decreasing the range of their signals.
High frequency is severely affected by attenuation so that Although line-of-sight transmission reduces the distance at
the HF ground waves have a range of only about 100 nautical which signals can be read at low altitude, this shortcoming
miles before they become undetectable. VHF and UHF waves

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication Equipment

is offset by the fact that stations below the horizon several provides to the cockpit weather graphics information derived
hundred kilometers apart can not interfere with one another. from ground based weather radars. This information is dis-
VHF offers virtual freedom from atmospheric and precipita- played on a cockpit control and display unit. Text weather
tion static. Conversation is much like talking over an ordinary products are also provided and displayed.
telephone.
In addition to quiet, reliable communication, VHF equip-
Satellite/VHF Data Link
ment is smaller and lighter than corresponding L/MF equip- Satellite communications (SATCOM) are used for communica-
ment and, consequently, less power is required for normal tions in the oceanic environment and remote areas. The rapid
communication. progress in satellite technology has h ad a major impact on
aviation communication, navigation and surveillance capa-
bilities. New technology has increased the performance of
Precipitation Static satellite transmitter and receiver systems. They have already
An aircraft flying in cloud or precipitation will accumulate been proven in widespread use by the shipping industry.
electrical charges as a result of frictional contact w ith the Geosynchronous satellites are also available for navigation
liquid and solid particles in the atmosphere. These charges use.
will accumulate until they are great enough to cause a dis-
charge into the su rrounding air. This discharge manifests Satellite communications have the advantage of virtual global
itself as static on the aircraft radio receiver. coverage, unlim ited ran ge, high reliability and good propa-
gation conditions. High quality communication is available
Precipitation static arises through contact with solid particles, regardless of location, weather or ionospheric effects. The
such as dust and sand, ice crystals, rain, snow crystals, wet satellite communication network is capable of providing a
snow and freez ing rain. It also arises through contact with an data link capability via VHF radio. Aircraft can patch into the
external electric field. Almost all clouds have electrical fields satellite system by means of a special antenna installed on
associated with them. The greater the turbulence in the cloud, the aircraft. A small antenna supports a data service, a larger
the stronger the external field is likely to be. Strong electrical one a voice service. Suitably equipped aircraft are also able to
fields are associated with the precipitation areas below clouds contact ATS on a satellite voice frequency. A unique telephone
and, of course, with thunderstorms. An aeroplane flying in number is assigned to this facility in each flight information
the vicinity of an external electrical field will accumulate a region. It may be used only by aircraft using the satellite net-
strong charge that will cause considerable precipitation static work and is to be used only for non-routine flight safety calls.
in radio reception.
Precise navigation service is also provided by the global navi-
Static due to external fields is most common in summer when gation satellite system (GNSS). A complete GNSS includes sat-
thunderstorms are most frequent. Static in the winter time ellites as well as ground based systems that are used to aug-
is most commonly attributed to ice crystals which occur at ment and monitor the satellites. There are three navigation
ordinary flight levels at this time of year. satellite systems: the Chinese BeiDou, the Russian GLONASS
and the American GPS. The American global positioning
s.i.s Data Link Communications system (GPS) operates with a minimum of 24 low orbiting
Data link extends the information superhighway to aviation, satellites that claims accu racies in the region of 100 meters in
expanding the exchange of information through digital com- three dimensions (latitude, longitude and altitude).
munications. The availability of information in the cockpit A satellite surveillance system is intended to compensate for
and the reliability and efficiency of communications between the lack of radar coverage over ocean and remote areas. It
pilots and airspace managers are greatly enhanced through implies some form of regular polling of an aeroplane's own
this space age telecommunication network. Data link com- navigation equipment (INS, Omega, VLF, etc.) so that ATC can
munication allows messages, requests and air traffic clear- monitor its position and ensure safe separation from other
ances to be displayed both to pilots and air traffic controllers aircraft.
in textual form, eliminating the reliance on copying voice Satellites are not totally new to aviation. The signals of emer-
transmissions. gency locator transmitters (ELTs) have for some time been
The data link communication infrastructure includes Mode S monitored by satellite and the ability of the system to accu-
secondary surveillance radar, communication satellites and rately locate downed aircraft h as been proven.
VHF links. Each of these links can be used to exch ange data
between aircraft and ground systems.
Mode S is a secondary surveillance radar system that provides s.2 Radio Communication
two -way data communications capability for air traffic, flight
information and surveillance services. In Mode S, each aero - Equipment
plane is addressed individually. It gives identification, altitude
and data. The opportunity to send data back and forth allows To be fully capable of two-way communication with ground
the controllers through their computer network to keep track stations or oth er airborne stations, the radio equipment
of the aircraft's position and route. (See also Transponder in installed in an aeroplane must consist of a transmitter, a
Chapter Radio Navigation.) receiver, an antenna, a microphone and a speaker or headset.
When the transmitter and receiver are combined in one con-
VHF data link is widely used for aircraft operations and for
trol unit, it is known as a transceiver.
limited flight information and air traffic services, such as
pre-departure clearance, ATIS information, taxi instructions, In transmitting, the spoken words of the pilot are picked up by
take-off and landing requests and clearances, altimeter infor- the microphone and relayed to the transmitter where they are
mation, runway assignment, etc. Graphical weather service converted to radio signals. The radio signals are carried by a

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication Equipment

wire to the antenna where they are broadcast in all directions Operation of the NAV portion of the VHF transceiver is
to be received by radio receivers in various radio ground and described in the Chapter Radio Navigation.
airborne stations.
In receiving, the antenna picks up a radio signal from a trans- 8.2.2 The HF Transceiver
mitting station, carries it by a wire to the aircraft receiver The HF transceiver illustrated in Fig.8.9 is typical of HF equip-
where it is converted to a voice signal and heard through the ment capable of full single sideband HF communication. It is
speaker or earphones. capable of frequency selection in 0.1 kHz steps in the band
Proper transmitting technique is to hold the microphone in from 2 MHz to 26.999 MHz (2,000 kHz to 26,999 kHz). It also
the palm of the hand with the thumb resting lightly on the has the ability to preset and store up to 24 channels. A single
"press-to-talk" switch. Hold the microphone within one or frequency synthesizer eliminates the need to change crystals
two inches of the lips and press the microphone button. Side when new channels are required (an inconvenience in old
tone permits you to hear the sound of your own voice in the model HF radios). Other operating frequencies may be select-
earphones and to monitor your transmission. ed, however, without disturbing the presets. All frequencies
are displayed in large gas discharge numerics.
Headsets usually come with a boom type of microphone
attached. The boom holds the microphone at exactly the right Selection of upper sideband, lower sideband or AM operating
distance from the lips. The microphone button is usually modes is available and can also be preset. Either single sim-
attached to the control wheel. plex or semi-duplex channels can be easily selected.
When finished speaking, you must release the button in order The system requires only a 10 foot wire antenna rather than
to receive. (The button automatically switches the set back to the long trailing antenna normally associated with the old
the receiver position .) type HF radio. Antenna tuning is accomplished automatically.
A squelch control helps to eliminate undesirable noise.
8.2.1 The VHF Transceiver -
KING HF
Most VHF communication equipment is incorporated in a unit
that also includes the VHF navigation equipment. Such a radio
unit is usually called a NAV/COM.
123'-15.5
- -FREQ·KHZ
.
--
use
2Y
CHAN NH·
• •
MOOE fAEO 'CHAN

In the radio illustrated in Fig.8.8, the communication equip-

ment occupies the left side of the unit and is marked COM. It
'Ull
O• 0
CLARlfltfl
Q
SOUHCM
°" 0
VOlU Mf
cg
has single channel simplex capability and 25 kHz spacing. It SIO
""
has crystal controlled tuning and an electronic display of the Fig.8.9 M/HF Transceiver
frequency selected.

s .2.3 Care of Aeroplane Radio

Proper operation and care of aeroplane avionics is an impor-
tant factor in maintaining its serviceability. Avionics is a term
used to describe the electronic navigation and communica-
tion equipment in an aeroplane. It also includes any instru-
Fig.8.8 VHF NAV/COM Equipment ments and flight control equipment associated with radio.
Heat is the enemy of avionics. On most modern aeroplanes,
Frequencies in the range from 118.000 to 135.975 MHz are
all the avionics equipment is stacked in a central position on
tuned by the two large knobs. As is the case in many VHF
the control panel. The heat generated by each individual radio
transceivers, the frequency selector does not display the third
in the stack combines with that generated by the others to
digit after the decimal.
produce temperatures that are beyond the tolerance of the
The O or 5 is automatically provided. The transceiver shown in equipment. A radio cooling kit that draws cool air from out-
Fig.8.8 is tuned to 118.00 MHz. The frequency 136.97 MHz is on side the aeroplane and pumps it around the radios should be
standby. The communication portion of this transceiver will installed. A radio may be expected to be warm but it should
receive 760 channels. not be uncomfortably hot to the touch.
Volume is controlled by the small knob on the bottom right. Good radio reception, free of interference and static, is depen-
The unit also includes a squelch control that eliminates unde- dent on proper bonding of all metal parts of the aeroplane
sirable noise. and on the use of static discharge wicks. The metal surfaces
To use the squelch control, turn the knob fully clockwise, of an aeroplane are an essential part of the aircraft electri-
then turn it back until the noise just ceases to be heard. Do cal ground system and for this reason it is important that all
not retard the squelch below this level at any time, as other- metal parts be connected together. If they are not, electrical
wise you may lose a weak signal which you desire to hear. In fields may be generated around isolated metal components
order to hear stations that are far off, it may be necessary to that not only may cause radio interference but may be con-
turn the squelch full on and put up with the noise to have the ducive to formation of a spark that could cause a fire. Static
advantage of long distance communication. discharge wicks are usually attached to the trailing edge of
the wing to discharge static electricity into the atmosphere.
Optimum operation of a 760 channel transceiver (i.e. strong Here are a few good practices to follow:
reception and transmission over the full range of the chan-
nels) requires installation of a blade type antenna, rather than 1. Turn off all radios when starting the engines of
the whip type antenna commonly used with VHF communica- the aeroplane. Large voltage transients are cre-
tion equipment with less channel capability. ated during the start procedure and it is wise
to protect radio equipment from these.

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication & Air Traffic Services (ATS)

2. Do not turn a radio on and off repeatedly. Once The ground controller operates on a special frequency allocat-
it is turned on, keep it on for the entire time ed for that purpose. At m ost airports, that frequency is 121.9
that it may be needed. Then turn it off. MHz, although other frequencies in the range 121.7 through
121.9 MHz are used if there is a possibility of interference with
3. Allow communication equipment to w arm up
for a minute or so before begin ning a trans- another ground controller at a nearby airport.
mission . This practice is especially impor- The ground control frequency in use at any particular airport
tant for the older tube type of equipment. is published in the Canad a Flight Supplement and in the
4. When an aeroplane is flown at high altitudes and the Airport/Facility Directory.
equipment is mounted outside th e heated areas, all Ground controllers will provide the pilot with precise taxi
radio units should be operated during the descent instructions and information about services and facilities.
in order to reduce m oisture condensation in the
boxes. This practice is especially recommended w ith Apron Advisory Service
radar units in which high voltages are generated. At very busy airports where there is a lot of ground traf-
5. Incorrect voltage affects the operation of fic in the vicinity of the terminal, apron advisory service is
radios and can shorten component life. For sometimes provided by ATS. This service normally provides
this reason , it is wise to monitor aeroplane gate assignment , push back instructions and advisories on
generator voltage on a periodic basis. other aircraft and vehicles on the apron. Aircraft entering
6. Be sure the aeroplane battery is maintained in good the apron will be advised by the ground controller to contact
condition . This is especially important with the new the apron controller for explicit instructions as to where to
solid state radios and aeroplane alternator systems. park or what gate to use. Aircraft leaving the apron should
contact the ground controller on the appropriate frequency
7. Wh en a problem does occur in the radio equip - to obtain taxi clearance before exiting the apron and entering
m ent, accurate description of the symptoms w ill th e maneuvering area. Apron advisory service operates on its
assist the service m an's diagnosis of the trouble. own assigned frequency.
8. Have the microphone tested at an avionics shop.
Carbon microphones age very quickly because the Clearance Delivery
carbon h as a tendency to dry up. Transistorized or Aeroplanes inten din g to depart a major airport on a VFR flight
dynamic microphones seldom deteriorate with age. plan may be required to call clearance delivery (if this facility
9. Keep antennas clean. Dirt build-up decreases is in operation) before starting to taxi. The clearance delivery
the efficiency of an antenna dramatically. controller will ask for the aircraft registration, type, destina-
tion and requested altit ude. Although the main duty of the
clearance delivery controller is to relay !FR clearances, with
s.3 Radio Communication respect to VFR traffic he/she perform s the clerical task of
prep aring th e flight progress strips that are given to the tower
& Air Traffic Services controller, thus allowin g the ground controller, wh o formerly
performed this job, to concentrate m ore fully on the job of

(ATS) directing the grou nd movement of aircraft .

The clearance delivery frequency in use at any particular air-
port is published in the Canada Flight Supplem ent and in the
s.3.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Services Airport/ Facility Directory.

Control Tower Terminal Arrival &Departure Control

Many airports have the service of a control tower to ensure Arrival control is provided to expedite th e flow of !FR flights
the efficient and safe movement of air traffic. Th e air traffic inbound within a terminal control area.
controllers in the tower are responsible for the control of all Depart ure control provides the same service for outbound !FR
traffic, taking off and landing, and for the control of all VFR flights.
traffic within the airspace su rrounding the airport.
The frequencies for arrival and departu re control for particu -
The radio frequency on which the tower operates can be lar airports are listed in the Canada Flight Supplement, in the
found on aeronautical charts in the aerodrome information, Can ada Air Pilot, and in the Airport/ Facility Directory for the
in the Canada Flight Supplement for Canada, and the Airport/ United States.
Facility Directory for the United States. As well as the primary
frequency on which the tower both transmits and receives, Most arrival and departure control units are equipped with
there are other frequencies on which the tower transmits and/ radar surveillance scopes, or scanning screens, which give
or receives. These frequencies are listed in the COMM section the controller the range and azimuth of every aeroplane in
of the information about a particular airport. the vicinity. Controllers are therefore able to issue any nec-
essary instructions for the maintenance of safe separation
and the avoidance of collision hazards. Th ese facilities are
Ground Control pu rely traffic control services and should not be confused
Most controlled airports also have ground control. The ground with a radar assisted approach (ASR and PAR), which provides
controller is responsible for the movement of all traffic on the instrument glide path landing guidance. They do, however,
ground at the airport, except aircraft landing and taking off. give position information and will furnish a lost pilot with the
distance and the magnetic heading to the airport. They will

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication & Air Traffic Services (ATS)

also furnish the wind speed, the runway in use and pertinent It is important that pilots respond only to those radar vec-
traffic information. tors directed to themselves. Following the radar instructions
Although arrival and departure control is principally in opera- issued to another aircraft creates a potentially hazardous
tion to handle !FR traffic, at some busy airports arriving and situation.
departing VFR traffic is also handled by this facility. In such a Ht. Above Ht. Above
Radar Range Radar Range
case, the pilot is instructed by an air traffic control unit or in Station Station
the ATIS information to contact arrival or departure control 1 ft . 1 n.m. 4,239 ft. 80 n.m.
on the assigned frequency. 17 ft. 5 n.m. 6,624 ft. 100 n.m.
66 ft . 10 n.m . 9,539 ft. 120 n.m.
Arriving VFR aeroplanes may contact arrival control on their
414 ft . 25 n.m. 14,904 ft. 150 n.m.
own initiative and request radar assistance if they wish to do
1,060 ft. 40 n.m. 26,496 ft. 200 n.m.
so. It is important to make the call at a reasonable distance
2,385 ft. 60 n.m. 41,400 ft. 250 n.m .
from the facility and state your position as accurately as pos-
sible to assist the controller in locating you on the radar scope. Fig.8.10 Radar Coverage Area
You may be asked to make some identifying turns or, if you
are transponder equipped, to operate the transponder on a RADAR NAVIGATION ASSISTANCE
specific code. Remain in communication with arrival control Radar navigation assistance is available from certain ATC
until advised to contact the tower. units. As long as the aircraft is operating within areas of radar
and communication coverage and can be radar identified, the
Radar identification and radar vectoring by ATC do not relieve ATC facility will provide assistance to navigation in the form
you, as pilot, of the responsibility of collision avoidance and
of position information, vectors or track and groundspeed
terrain and obstacle clearance. As a VFR flight, you are also
checks, information about traffic in proximity to the flight
responsible for maintaining VFR.
path of the aircraft and about weather phenomena such as
Departing VFR traffic may also contact departure control for thunderstorms.
radar assistance. The request should be made on initial con- VFR flights may be provided with the service at the request of
tact with ground control or clearance delivery and informa- the pilot, at the suggestion of the controller or in the interest
tion as to the direction of the flight should be given. The tower
of flight safety.
will advise when to contact departure control. Departure con-
trol takes over when the aircraft clears the runway on take-off While being vectored by the radar service, the pilot is respon-
and vectors it on radar until it is established on a course along sible for avoiding other traffic and for maintaining VFR. If
the appropriate navigation facility. the vector is leading the aircraft into !FR conditions, the pilot
should request a vector that will allow the flight to remain
Vectors are defined in the Chapter Air Navigation. In radar advisory VFR. The pilot is also respon sible for maintaining adequate
service, the term has acquired a new meaning and is used to clearance above the terrain and any obstacles. If the vector is
designate headings given to pilots to steer (for the purpose of avoiding
not providing adequate obstacle or terrain clearance, the pilot
other traffic or for detouring around thunderstorms). A radar traffic
must inform the controller and request a heading that will
controller giving steering instructions to an aircraft is said to be allow adequate clearance, or climb to a more suitable altitude,
vectoring the aircraft. or, if necessary, revert to navigation without radar assistance.
A pilot requesting radar assistance in an emergency
Radar Service situation should provide the following information to the ATC
The modernization and expansion of the radar system has
unit: the nature of the emergency and the type of assistance
greatly enhanced the smooth flow of air traffic and efficiency required, the position of the aircraft and the existing weather
and safety in traffic movements. By reducing the separation conditions, the type of aircraft, the altitude, whether the pilot
between aircraft, radar has substantially increased airspace has an !FR rating and whether the aircraft is !FR equipped.
utilization.
Radar vectoring is used when necessary for separation pur- Flight Information Service
poses or for noise abatement procedures, when requested by
Flight information service is provided by air traffic control
the pilot or when vectoring will offer advantages to the pilot units to provide pilots with information about hazardous
or controller. Vectoring instructions would take the form, For flight conditions. Such data would include information about
example: Turn Right Heading 030 for Vectors to Victor 300. conditions and hazards which was not available at the time
When requested by the pilot, VFR aircraft are provided with of take-off or which may have developed along the route of
information on observed radar targets that may be of con- flight.
cern to the pilot. In advising of the existence of other traffic,
Flight information service is provided whenever practicable to
the ATC unit uses the positions of the clock to indicate the any aircraft in communication with an air traffic control unit
whereabouts of these other aircraft. (For Example: Traffic at either prior to flight or when in flight.
3 O'Clock. Four Miles. Eastbound.) The type of aircraft and
altitude and the relative speed of the aircraft will be included VFR flights are provided with information concerning severe
if known. weather conditions along the proposed route of flight, chang-
es in serviceability of navigation aids, conditions of airports
Radar equipped ATC units can also provide information on the and associated facilities and other items considered pertinent
location and movement of areas of heavy precipitation and on to the safety of flight.
severe weather conditions.
Flight information messages are intended as information only.
If a specific action is suggested, the pilot is responsible for
making the final decision concerning the suggestion.

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication & Air Traffic Services (ATS)

s .3.2 Flight Advisory Services Flight Service Stations (FSS)

Flight service stations have been established at some aero-
Flight Information Centres (FIC) dromes across the country. They are staffed by FSS specialists
trained to provide an efficient flight safety service to pilots.
A network of five flight information centres (FIC} in Canada
provide pilots with enhanced access to higher quality flight The majority of FSS provide service 24 h ours a day to th e
information. These centres (located in Quebec City, London, airports where they are located and to any number of remote
Edmonton, Kamloops, and Whitehorse) centralize those flight communication outlets {RCOs) assigned to them.
information services that are not location dependent, such as Flight service st ation communications with aircraft are con-
en route advisory services, weather and preflight briefings, ducted on a standard set of frequencies, including the emer-
flight planning, and related services. gency channel 121.50 MHz, and the advisory channel 122.2
Through toll-free (1-866-WX-BRIEF or 1-866-GO-METEO} tele- MHz. Most stations have 122.1 MHz (receive only), and a
phone access, FIC provide 24-hour per day flight planning number of the more northerly stations have 5,680 kHz.
and weather briefing services across the country with flight During their hours of operation, the FSS provides pilots with
service specialists assigned to provide support for flight the ability to obtain and pass information, or to report emer-
operations. gencies should the need arise. In addition, the FSS relays posi-
Pilots can maintain contact with the FIC throughout the flight tion reports and ATC clearances in areas where aircraft are
and are able to close flight plans with their chosen FIC by beyond the communication range of ATC facilities.
radio when landed. Pilots may, therefore, conduct an entire Flight service stations, located at airports without control
flight by dealing with one FIC as opposed to several FSS along towers and at controlled airports when the control tower is
their route. not in operation, provide an airport advisory service {AAS)
The aviation weather briefing service {AWBS} is provided by to arriving and departing aircraft. A landing or take-off advi-
FIC. It is a fully interpretive preflight and en route weather sory may include wind direction and velocity, the favoured
briefing service provided by briefers who are trained to adapt runway, visibility, altimeter setting, pertinent NOTAM, air-
meteorological information to meet the needs of all aviation port conditions, such as snow on the runway, braking action,
users and to provide advice on special weather problems. The obstructions or any known hazards. The airport advisory
sites have a full range of weather products including satellite service does not exercise actual traffic control but will advise
and radar imagery. Flight service specialists also accept flight all aircraft in the area of known and observed traffic, both in
plan information during a briefing. the air and on the ground in a manner that will convey the
positions and intentions of conflicting traffic so that pilots
Flight information service en route {FISE}, available on the en
can organize themselves into a safe traffic flow. In report-
route frequency, provides pilots with information on weather
ing aircraft and ground traffic that may affect the aircraft's
reports, forecasts, SIGMET, AIRMET, PIREP, METAR, TAF,
safety, the word "traffic" is used to precede the phrase that
NOTAM, CRFI, altimeter settings and other operational infor-
summarizes the situation. If the FSS specialist is aware of a
mation pertinent to the en route phase of flight.
potential conflict, departing aircraft will be requested to hold
An FIC can provide, upon request from an aircraft, a relay short of the active runway until the conflicting aircraft or
of communication with ATC for !FR clearances and SVFR vehicle is off the runway.
authorizations. Also, en route aircraft may submit to an FIC
At some uncontrolled airports where there is no FSS, advi-
the following: PIREP, !FR and VFR position reports (including
sory service is provided through RCOs. This service is called
arrival and departure times), and revised flight plan or flight
remote aerodrome advisory service {RAAS} and consists of
itinerary information.
weather reports which include wind and altimeter settings,
Alerting service is provided for flights by FIC for which a the runway in use, field condition reports, NOTAM, PIREP and
VFR flight plan or flight itinerary has been filed. If the flight known aircraft and vehicle traffic. The RAAS is a remote ser-
plan is not closed within a specified period of time after the vice provided by an FSS not located at the airport. It must be
expected time of arrival, it is FIC personnel who will alert the remembered that the information about aircraft and vehicle
search and rescue centre, will make a communication search traffic that the FSS personnel are able to provide is only the
of area airports to determine if the aircraft has landed safely, information that they have received by radio or landline; it
and, if the aircraft is not located, will alert SAR to commence is not based on personal knowledge of what they can see
an air search. happening.
FIC personnel are responsible for the co-ordination and dis- The FSS specialists control vehicles op erating on the m aneu -
semination of NOTAM information, and CRFI information. A vering area of controlled airports when the control tower is
pilot may report to an FIC any hazards to the air navigation closed. This vehicle control service (VCS) is also provided at
system that may need NOTAM distribution. airports without a control tower. VCS is not available at air-
Emergency assistance service is provided by FIC to aid any ports served by RAAS and RCOs, although the FSS specialists
pilot when in an emergency, or potential emergency situation, will advise aircraft of the presence of vehicles on the maneu -
such as being lost, encountering bad weather conditions, or vering area about which they have knowledge.
experiencing aircraft-related emergencies or equipment fail- At uncontrolled airports where mandatory frequencies {MF}
ure. Emergency navigational assistance can be provided to a have been designated, the FSS operate this air/ground facility
pilot who is lost or experiencing VFR into IMC, by transferring and provide the airport advisory service and vehicle advi-
the pilot to ATC for ATS surveillance service. sory service to aircraft operating at the airport and in the air
within a designated distance from the airport.
Flight service specialists h ave available comprehensive and
current weather information that pilots can use to make

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication & Air Traffic Services (ATS)

decisions based on weather determinants. They also provide

other information on airways, status of navaids, communi-
Community Aerodrome
cation facilities, and airports, special regulations, NOTAM, Radio Stations (CARS)
CFRI reports and any other conditions a pilot may expect to Community aerodrome radio stations (CARS) provide air/
encounter en route. ground airport radio at certain airports. The service is pro-
The FSS responds to declared emergencies, such as being lost, vided by observer-communicators who are trained to conduct
encountering adverse weather, or experiencing aircraft-relat- aviation weather observations and to provide radio communi-
ed emergencies or equipment failure. Airports with on-site cations for arriving and departing aircraft.
FSS also provide homing assistance to aircraft in emergency CARS are located at uncontrolled aerodromes within manda-
or when requested by a pilot (see below). They accept flight tory frequency (MF) areas. Pilots must, therefore, communi-
plans for relay to ATC, and they broadcast flight safety infor- cate on the MF as per uncontrolled aerodrome procedures. At
mation such as unfavourable flight conditions and hazards aerodromes within controlled airspace served by CARS, pilots
along the route of flight to pilots concerned. FSS also provide must contact ATS via the RCO, the private advisory station
VFR alerting service. (PAS, see below), or by telephone to obtain special VFR autho-
Flight service stations are connected to ATC centres by direct rization or !FR clearances. Hours of operation for CARS are
phone lines in most cases, permitting quick access to centre listed in the Canad a Flight Supplemen t.
facilities for those aircraft requiring inflight instructions CARS provide emergency communication advising a desig-
when flight paths do not permit radio contact with ATC units. nated FIC as well as local authorities of any distress, urgency
The FSS provide a weather observing service to provide calls or ELT signals. They provide airport information for land-
weather information to AES for preparation of weather reports ing and departing aircraft: surface wind, altimeter setting,
and forecasts . FSS personnel make regular hourly reports but aircraft and vehicle traffic and aerodrome conditions.
also report any significant weather changes as they occur. CARS observer-communicators monitor, record and relay
FSS no longer broadcast weather on their navigation aid surface weather data for aviation purposes. They may request
frequencies on a scheduled basis. However, pilots, who are PIREPs from pilots to confirm the weather conditions that
proceeding into remote areas where public telephone is not they observe. They may also, if necessary, accept flight plans
available, may request that any FSS specified weather infor- or fligh t itineraries; however, pilots are encouraged to obtain
mation be broadcast over a voice-capable navigation aid at full pre-flight briefings and file their flight plan or itinerary
prearranged times. with the appropriate FIC.

The call sign of an FSS is RADIO. In communicating with a Observer-operators at CARS are only authorized to pro-
flight service station while en route, call, for example, Ottaw a vide NOTAMs and weather information for their own aero-
Radio or Saskatoon Radio. drome. Information for other areas and aerodromes should be
obtained by pilots from the appropriate FIC.
Remote Communication Outlets (RCO)
In order to provide extended communications capability, Private Advisory Stations (PAS)
remote transmitting and receiving facilities have been estab- Aeronautical operators may establish their own radio sta-
lished. These remote communication outlets (RCO) are oper- tions at controlled airports for use in connection with com-
ated from the nearest flight service station. Aircraft in the pany business, such as servicing of aircraft, etc. The private
general area of the RCO can therefore communicate directly advisory station does not relay information relative to ATC,
with an ATC centre which may be hundreds of kilometers weather reports, condition oflanding strips or other informa-
away. The RCO is connected by landlines with the FSS. Not all tion normally provided by ATC units.
of the FSS services are available through an RCO. It is primar-
ily used to provide information to en route traffic and will also UNICOM
accept position reports and relay ATC clearances. (RAAS) are Universal communications (UNICOM) is an air-to-ground
also provided (see above). communications facility operated by a private agency that
A dial up remote communications outlet (DRCO) is a standard provides private advisory station service to aircraft at uncon-
RCO which has a direct connection to an ATS unit through a trolled aerodromes .
commercial telephone line which pilots can access by a dial- Use of the information received from a UNICOM station is
up procedure. The pilot activates the system, via the aircraft entirely at the discretion of the pilot. UNICOM is employed
radio transmitter, by keying the microphone four times on at airports with low traffic volume and where, typically, no
the published DRCO frequency. The frequencies for each control tower is in operation.
DRCO are published in the Canada Flight Supplement. If the
Aircraft may call a UNICOM to make announcements of their
keying procedure is successful, the pilot will hear a dial tone,
location and intentions. In cases where the UNICOM station is
signalling pulses and a ringing signal. Once the communica-
not staffed, no acknowledgement may follow the call.
tion link is established, the DRCO equipment will broadcast a
pre-recorded voice message that confirms "Link Established".
The pilot must then initiate the radio conversation using stan- Automatic Terminal Information
dard radiotelephony phraseology (for example, Regina Radio. Service (ATIS)
This is Piper Golf Papa Tango Echo). If the keying procedure Non-control information relating to ceiling, visibility, wind,
is unsuccessful in establishing the communication link, the runway in use, NOTAM affecting the airport, etc. is continu-
aircraft may be out of radio range of the DRCO or the DRCO ously broadcast on the automatic terminal information ser-
may be in use by another aircraft. vice (ATIS). The information is recorded by tower personnel
and is broadcast on the voice facility of the VOT (VOR Omni test
Facility) or on a specially assigned VHF/UHF channel.

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication & Air Traffic Services (ATS)

Each recording is identified by a phonetic alphabet code letter, consist of a number of fields that are either mandatory or option-
beginning each day with "Alfa". As airport conditions, such as al depending on their applicability.
w ind, altim eter setting, etc., ch ange, a new tape is prepared. A NOTAM will be issued for multiple reasons, examples of
Each succeeding message is given a new identifyin g letter which are for circumstances such as: establishment, closure
(Bravo, Charlie, etc.) A typical ATIS message might be: or significant changes in operation of aerodromes or runways;
ATIS: Vancouver Internation al Airport. establishment, withdrawal or significant changes in the opera-
Information Bravo. Weather at 1400 Zulu. tion of aeronautical services and/or in the operational capability
Three Thousand Scattered, Measured of radio navigation services, visual aids, lighting systems, and
Ceiling Five Thousand Overcast. Visibility air/ground commu nication services; occurrence or correction of
Ten . Haze. Temperature One Five. Dew major defects or impediments in maneuvering areas; changes
Point Eight. Wind Two Five Zero (magnetic) to availability of fuel and/or oil at an aerodrome; presence of
at Ten (knots), Altimeter Two Niner h azards that affect air n avigation (including obstacles, mili-
Nin er Eight. Runway Two Six. Inform tary operations, rocket launches, fireworks, airshows, sporting
Vancouver ATC on Initial Contact th at even ts, public gatherings, etc.); an operationally significant
you have received Information Bravo. ch ange in volcanic activity and/or the extent of volcanic ash ; the
The ATIS broadcast may also include special information establishment of operations of hu manitarian relief missions, etc.
for air traffic using precision instrument approach facilities: In addition to the latter examples for which NOTAM are issued,
the type of instrument approach in use, information on the NOTAM can also be issued for any other operationally significant
landing runway and the take-off runway for both !FR and circumstances.
VFR traffic, information on parallel or simultaneous runway The format of a NOTAM consists of the following elements:
operations and stopping distance, any NOTAM affectin g the a NOTAM series letter and 4-digit number; a 4-digit location
airport, the serviceability of NAVAIDS and field conditions. indicator of either an aerodrom e or a flight information region ;
You sh ould listen to the ATIS broadcast before contactin g a start and end time displayed as a 10-digit date-time group
the tower or the terminal controller (when landing) or the expressed as YYMMDDHHMM (in UTC); an optional schedule
ground or clearance delivery controller (when taking off) and when the inform ation contained in the NOTAM occurs du ring
inform the controller on the initial contact that you have the more than one period within the overall period of the NOTAM;
ATIS information , repeating the code word which identifies NOTAM text wh ich is m andatory and contains the subject and
the m essage. The controller then does not h ave to issue this condition of the subject of the NOTAM using abbreviations,
information in his/ her message to you. indicators, identifiers, call signs, frequencies, nu mbers and plain
language; lower and upper vertical limits which are mandatory
During periods of rapidly ch an ging conditions which would if the NOTAM is a navigation warning. (Navigation warnings
create difficulties in keeping the ATIS message current, the include activation of advisory areas and restricted airspace, and
following message will be recorded and broadcast : activities related to SAR or blasting operations.)
ATIS: Because of rapidly changing weath er For example:
and airport conditions , contact
ATC for current inform ation. (N0914/22 NOTAMR N0901/22
A) CYXH B) 2206291415 C) 2206301900
The word CAVOK, as h as already been seen , is u sed in ATIS D) JUN 29 1415-2000, JUN 30 1000-1900
messages to denote a weather condition in which visibility E) RWY 09/27 CLSD)
is 6 statute miles (10 kilometers) or more, there are no clouds
below 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) and no precipitation , thunder- Decoded, the above reads:
storms, shallow fog or driftin g snow.
(N0914/22: NOTAM Series Letter(s) is, in his case, "N." The
The ATIS service is in operation at most of the major interna- NOTAM issuance number is 914 in the year 2022.
tional airports. Information on the frequency on which the
ATIS is broadcast is printed on aeronau tical ch arts and also in NOTAMR: NOTAMs are identified as "new" (NOTAMN), as
the Can ada Flight Supplem ent . "replacing" (NOTAMR), or as "cancelling" (NOTAMC). In the case
of a NOTAMR or NOTAMC, the NOTAM replaced or cancelled is
specified. (In this example, N0901/22 is bein g replaced.)
s.3.3NOTAM
A) CYXH: This is the location indicator of an affected aerodrome,
A NOTAM (derived from the expression "Notice to Airmen") (in this case, Medicine Hat, Alberta). Note that 4-letter location
is a notice th at contains information considered essential to indicators (aerodrom e or FIR) can be included in this field. If the
personnel undertaking flight operations. Inform ation contained aerodrome indicator contains a number (e.g. CTF5), the NOTAM
in a NOTAM relates to the establishment or condition of, or will show CXXX in A), and the aerodrome name will be noted in
any changes in, any aeronautical facility, service, procedure, or the E) section.
h azard that could put any flight operation at risk.
B) 2206291415: This is the start time of the NOTAM, shown as 10
A NOTAM is originated and issued promptly whenever the infor- digits, YYMMDDHHMM, and always shown in UTC. Therefore,
m ation to be distributed is of a temporary nature and of short in this example, the NOTAM was in effect on June 29, 2022 at
duration, or when operationally significant permanent ch anges 14:15h rs UTC.
or temporary changes of long duration are m ade at short notice.
NOTAMs are distributed to FIC, FSS, and to aircraft operators, C) 2206301900: This is the end time of the NOTAM, formatted
including by voice advisory using radio communications. They in the same way as shown above. An indication of "EST" means
can also be found on the NavCanada website. that the end tim e is estim ated. An indication of "PERM" means
that the information is permanent and aeronautical products
All Canadian NOTAMs are presented in a format prescribed (such as a navigation chart) will be amended in due time.
by the International Civil Aviation Organization (!CAO). They

From the Ground Up· 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication & Air Traffic Services (ATS)

D) June 29 1415-2000, June 30 1000-1900: This is an optional It is possible that the information contained within an AIP
line showing the schedule if the information occurs during SUP may first be addressed in a NOTAM. When the infor-
more than one time period in the NOTAM "in force" period. mation contained therein is of longer duration, it will be
The dash("-") indicates "to" in the NOTAM. transferred to an AIP SUP with the NOTAM thereafter being
E) RWY 09/27 CLSD: This is the NOTAM text, which is a cancelled. Consulting AIP SUPs is, therefore, considered
mandatory field that contains the subject and information critically important given that their contents may describe
for which the NOTAM is issued. It will use approve d abbrevia- important information that has exceeded the shorter dura-
tions and plain language. tion for which the same information would have been
issued initially as a NOTAM.
When required, two items may additionally be included in
NOTAMs. In certain cases, the AIP SUP may be complemented by a
NOTAM. For example, in the case of a major construction
For example: project at an airport, the AIP SUP may provide an overview
A) CZYZ B) 2206291415 C) 2206301900 of the project while describing accompanying on-going
E) ADVISORY AREA CYA534(S) KARS ACT hazards and conditions. Concurrently, a NOTAM may offer
SFC TO BLW 2500FT AMSL a more dynamic description of the airport facilities, such as
F) SFC G) 4500FT AMSL notification of runway lighting availability.
F) shows the lower vertical limit (in this example, the "sur- For example:
face"), and G) the upper vertical limit (in this example, 4,500 AIP Canada Supplement 10/23
ft) affected by the NOTAM, (for example , if an advisory or
restricted area is active, which are shown on navigation CONSTRUCTION AT MONTREAL/PIERRE ELLIOTT TRUDEAU
charts as CYA or CYR). These two items are compulsory if the INTL (CYUL)
NOTAM relates to a navigation warning. In G) UNL is used to 13 MARCH 2023 TO 23 JUNE 2023
indicate "unlimited" while AMSL indicates "above mean sea Runway 06L/24R Construction Work
level." All navigation warnings contain an FIR location indi-
cator in item A), regardless of the distance to an aerodrome. Montreal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau Intl (CYUL) will commence
When consulting NOTAM for your flight, always look for navi- the following construction work, starting 13 March 2023:
gation warnings under the appropriate FIR. • Runway pavement rehabilitation, including
NOTAM also contain a Qualifier line (also known as a "Q-line") concrete slab replacement between
intended for flight planning system users for parsing and future Taxiway B2 and Taxiway Bl
tailored briefings, that provides coded information about the • Rehabilitation of Ta xiway B2 and Bl
coordinates, the radius of the area of influence, vertical limits, • Construction of new high speed exit taxiway
subject and condition, etc. However, this is suppressed in Construction activities will run continuously for the entire
NOTAM viewed via the NavCanada website as it is intended duration of the work, with the following impacts on
for tailoring of briefings. When viewable in the NOTAM, the Q operations:
line will be shown immediately before the A) item, after the
NOTAM identifier information . • Runway 06L/ 24R closed via NOTAM for
the entire duration of the work

8.3.4 Information Supplements • Taxiway B2 North of Taxiway B closed via

NOTAM for the entire duration of the work
& Circulars •Taxiways Bl and B3 closed via NOTAM
In addition to NOTAM, Aeronautical Information Publication for the entire duration of the work
(AIP) Supplements and Aeronautical Information Circulars • Approach lights and runway edge lights for
(AI C) are two other means to inform pilots of temporary Runway 06L/24R will be disconnected
events, closures or outages that may affect a flight. Both • Low-visibility operations plan (LVOP) and CAT II
AIP Supplements and AIC can be found on the Nav Canada procedures will be unavailable
website .
for the duration of the work

AIP Supplement {AIP SUP) Aeronautical Information

The type of information provided by AIP SUP is similar to
what would be found in a NOTAM. AIP SUP are presented Circulars {AIC)
as documents in plain language, making use of graphics, An AIC, also presented as a plain language document, con-
colours and hyp erlinks as needed. They are typically issued tains information that doesn't qualify for inclusion in the
when the information that they provide is temporary but aeronautical publications and charts, nor does it qualify for
of extended duration, (for example, up to three months the issuance of a NOTAM. These circulars contain infor-
or more). AIP SUP can also be issued for circumstances of mation related to flight safety, air navigation, technical,
shorter duration when a need exists to better explain the administrative or legislative matters. For example, AIC may
reasons for their issuance with more text and illustrations. contain the following: a long-term forecast of any major
By use of illustrations, pilots may be better able to create change in legislation, regulations , procedures or facilities;
mental pictures of the AIP SUP's content, thereby improv- information of a purely explanatory or advisory nature
ing the safety of their flight. An example of an illustration liable to affect flight safety; information or notification of
issued within an AIP SUP may be that of a runway showing an explanatory or advisory nature concerning technical,
a temporarily reduced width accompanied by depictions of legislative or purely administrative matters .
the runway's temporary markings and lighting.

© Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

For example:
Ground Stations
Aeronautical Information Circular 33/22 Ground radio facilities are identified by their names.
CHANGE IN HOURS OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE In calling a particular facility, a pilot would use the name of
WINDSOR, ONTARIO (CYQG) the station followed by the facility he/she is contacting.
NAV CANADA, the country's provider of civil air navigation For Example:
services, conducted an assessment of the hours of operation
for the air traffic control {ATC) service provided at the Windsor Winnipeg Approach. This is ...
airport. Vancouver Centre. This is ...
Calgary Ground. This is ...
The assessment concluded that the hours of operation of the Cleveland Precision Radar. This is ..
Windsor control tower can be decreased, opening one half Ottawa Radio. This is .. .
hour later and closing one half hour earlier, each day. Quebec Tower. This is .. .
The revised hours of operation for the airport control tower Fort Frances UNICOM. This is ...
will be: 07:00 to 22:00 local time {1200Z to 0300Z during
Call Sign ATS Unit/Function
standard time and 1100Z to 0200Z during daylight savings
time). The overnight mandatory frequency (MF) hours will be Community Aerodrome Radio Station
revised to reflect the amended tower hours of operation. (CARS)/Wx Service & Information
Airport Radio Remote Communication Outlet (RCO)/
This change will take effect 23 February 2023, at 0901 Wx Servi ce & Information
Mandatory Freque ncy (MF)/ Wx Service & Information
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The appropriate aeronau-
tical publications will be amended. Arrival Termina l Contro l/Arri val Control
Centre Area Control Centre
Clearance Delivery Airpor t Control/Clearan ce Delivery
s.4 Radio Communication Departure Terminal Contro l/Departure Cont ro l
Ground Airport Control/Ground Control
Procedures Radio
Flight Information Ce ntre (FIC)/ Flight
Information Service Enrou te (FISE)
Flight Service Stati on (FSS)/ Aerodrome
Correct procedure on the part of operators of radiotelephone Radio
Advisory Service (AAS)
equipment is necessary for the efficient exchange of com- Terminal Termin al Control/Te rminal Control
munications and is particularly important where lives and Tower Airport Contro l/Tower Control
property are at stake. It is also essential for a fair sharing of Unicom or Aerodrome Traffi c
Unicom
"On the Air" time in the crowded radio spectrum. Frequen cy/ Airport Advi sory

Radiotelephone equipment installed in any civil aircraft may Fig .8 .11 Ground Station Phraseology
be operated only by persons holding an appropriate radio oper-
ator's licence, Restricted Operator Certificate-Aeronautical Pronunciation of Numbers
(ROC-A). A reciprocal agreement between Canada and the Numbers are pronounced as follows:
U.S.A. permits citizens of either country to operate radio
equipment installed in aircraft registered in either country if Number Pronunciation

the operator holds a valid Canadian or U.S. pilot's licence and 0 ZEE-RO
1 WUN
a valid Canadian or U.S. radio operator's licence. 2 TOO
The use of French is authorized in aircraft communication in 3 TREE
4 FOW-er
or over the province of Quebec and at the Macdonald-Cartier
5 FIFE
International Airport in Ottawa. Information on the bilingual 6 SIX
services that are available at specific Quebec airports and at 7 SEV-en
Ottawa can be found in the COMM section of the airport list- 8 AIT
ings in the Canada Flight Supplement. ATIS is usually given 9 NIN-e r
Thousand TOU -SAND
in English on one frequency and in French on another. Other
Decimal DAY-SEE-MAL
ATS services, such as tower, ground, arrival and departure,
are bilingual. English shall be used elsewhere in Canada. Fig .8.12 Numbers Phraseology
For safety and operational efficiency, once the language has
When referring to numbers, except whole thousands, each
been determined, that language shall be used throughout the
digit is stated separately.
course of that communication. Pilots should make themselves
thoroughly familiar with aeronautical phraseology in the lan- For Example:
guage of their choice. Ten is spoken One Zero.
Nineteen is spoken One Niner.
s.4.1 Phraseology Eight hundred is spoken Eight Zero Zero.
Eleven thousand is spoken One One Thousand.
Standard phraseology is recommended in the interest of clar-
ity and brevity. It is not compulsory for a pilot to use these Wind speed and cloud base numbers may be expressed in
standard phrases. If you wish to communicate with a radio group form.
facility in your own words, by all means do so. However, use of For Example:
the standard phrases does provide a uniformity in transmis-
sion; it makes your transmissions more readily understood by Wind 1\vo Seven Zero at Ten.
the ground station operators and enables you to understand Three Thousand Four Hundred Broken.
more easily transmissions to you.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

A flight responding to a medical emergency for the trans-

Phonetic Alphabet p ort of patients, organ donors, organs or other u rgently
To avoid confusion due to the similarity in sound of some let- needed medical m aterial or services is calle d a medi-
ters of the alphabet (such as B and C), a phonetic alphabet h as cal evacuation flight (MEDEVAC). The word MEDEVAC is
been devised. It should be used for single letters or to spell out inclu ded after the four characters of the registration and
groups of letters as much as possible. is ret ained as part of the call sign even if the call sign is
Letter Associated Word abbreviated to three letters.
A Alfa For Example:
8 Bravo "BRAH-voe"
Whiskey Zulu India Medevac.
c Charlie
0 Delta
E Echo
Expressing Time
F Foxtrot The 24 h our system is u sed in ex p ressin g time. It is
G Golf expressed by four figures, the first two den oting the hour
H Hotel past m idnigh t and th e last two the minutes past the hour.
I India For Example:
J Juliet "Jool-ee-YET"
12-Hour System Expressed in 24-Hour System
K Kilo "KEE-loe"
12:00 midnight 0000
L Lima "LEE-mah"
12:30 a.m. 0030
M Mike
2:15 a.m. 0215
N November
5:45 a.m. 0545
0 Oscar
p 12:00 noon 1200
Papa "POP-ah"
3:30 p.m. 1530
Q Quebec "KAY-BECK"
10:50 p.m . 2250
R Romeo
s Sierra
T Tango Fig . 8.14 24-Hour Time System
u Uniform
The day begins at OOOOZ and ends at 23592. 24002 is not used in
v Victor
flight operations.
w Whiskey
x X-Ray Normally co-ordinated universal time (UTC) is used. In fact,
y Yankee all air traffic control fac ilities in North America operate on
z Zulu UTC. The letter Z a fter the hour indicates UTC.
Fig .8.13 Phonetic Alphabet Wh ere operations are conducted solely within one time
zone, standard zone time may be used, if care is taken to
in dicate clearly the time zone. Daylight Savin g Time is
Aircraft Call Signs n ot u sed. Standard time zones are indicated by letters as
In radio com m u nications, th e call letters of your aeroplane follows:
must be expressed in phonetics at all times. On initial con-
tact, you must give the manufacturer 's name or the type of Time Zone Code Letter
aeroplane, followed by the four letters of the registration. The Newfoundland N
words helicopter, glider or ultralight are acceptable substi- Atlantic A
t utes for the type of aircraft. Eastern
For Example: Central
Mountain M
Piper Tomahawk Golf Mike Oscar Tango
Pacific
or y
Yuko n
Ultralight India Bravo Ch arlie Hotel.
In subsequent communications, the call letters m ay be abbre - Fig.8 .1 5 Time Zone Code Lettering
viated to the last three letters of the registration if the abbre-
viation is initiated by the ATC controller or FSS operator.
For Example: 2:15 p.m. EST is expressed 1415E.
Piper Tomahawk Golf Mike Oscar Tango 9:00 a .m. PST is expressed 0900P.
becomes Mike Oscar Tango. 11:45 p .m. UTC is expressed 23452.
In the case of foreign aircraft, on initial contact, the manufac- In air traffic control procedure, the hour is often omitted
turer's name or type of aircraft and the full aircraft registra- and the time referred to in minutes past the h our only.
tion must be given. The registration may be abbreviated, in For Example:
subsequent communications , to th e last three ch aracters, if
the abbreviation is in itiated by ATC. 10:25 would be referred to as 25 and spoken Two Five.

For Example: However, if the hour is inclu ded in the t ime, it is spoken in
four digits.
Cessna 172 N8723T becomes
Two Th ree Tango.

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

For Example: Aircraft: Vancouver Radio - This is Beechcraft

8:45 a.m. is spoken Zero Eight Four Five. Foxtrot Delta Lima Tango - On One Two
12:30 a.m. is spoken Zero Zero Three Zero. Two Decimal Two - Over.
12:45 p.m. is spoken One Two Four Five. The ground station will reply on the navigational aid
frequency.
Airways & Air Routes Aircraft: Ottawa Radio - This is Piper Foxtrot
The phonetic alphabet is used in referring to airways and Alfa Golf Lima - On One Two Two
air routes. Decimal Two - Reply on One Two
For Example: Six Decimal Seven - Over.

Airway V52 is spoken Victor Five Two. The ground station will reply on 126.7 MHz.
Airway Gl (Green 1) is spoken Golf One. Aircraft: Montreal Radio - This is Cessna
Airway A2 (Amber 2) is spoken Alfa Two. Golf Bravo Romeo Yankee - On One
Airway R3 (Red 3) is spoken Romeo Three. Two Six Decimal Seven - Over.
Airway B4 (Blue 4) is spoken Bravo Four. The ground station will reply on 126.7 MHz.
Airway ]500 (High Level 500) - Juliet Five Hundred.
Air Route GRl (Green Route 1) - Golf Romeo One. Transponder codes are given in numbers preceded by the
Air Route AR2 (Amber Route 2) - Alfa Romeo Two. word SQUAWK.
Air Route RR3 (Red Route 3) - Romeo Romeo Three. For Example:
Air Route BR4 (Blue Route 4) - Bravo Romeo Four.
Code 1200 is spoken Squawk One Two Zero Zero.

Flight Altitudes & Headings Runway Visual Range (RVR)

Flight altitudes are always given in thousands and hun-
Runway visual range information is provided by ATC, arriv-
dreds of feet above sea level.
al control, PAR, control towers and flight service stations .
For Example:
For Example:
One Thousand. (1,000 feet ASL)
RVR Runway Two Five,
Two Thousand Five Hundred. (2,500 feet ASL)
Three Thousand Six Hundred Feet.
One Zero Thousand. (10,000 feet ASL)
One Six Thousand. (16,000 feet ASL) RVR Runway One Niner, Variable from One
Flight Level Two Four Zero. (FL 240) Thousand Feet to Two Thousand Feet.
Aircraft headings are given in groups of three digits, in
degrees magnetic (if operating in the Southern Domestic The Morse International Code
Airspace) or in degrees true (if operating in the Northern It is not necessary for a pilot to know Morse code in order to
Domestic Airspace). use aeronautical radio facilities. However, the identifiers of
For Example: VOR stations, !LS localizers and non directional beacons are
broadcast in Morse code and it is therefore advantageous to
060 is spoken Heading Zero Six Zero.
have some knowledge of the code.
275 is spoken Heading Two Seven Five.
Aerodrome elevations are expressed in feet. A
B T
For Example:
u
Field Elevation Six Seven Five. D v
w
Radio Frequencies x
Radio frequencies containing a decimal point are expressed G y
with the decimal point in the appropriate place in the H z
sequence:
For Example:
121.5 MHz is spoken as K

One Two One Decimal Five Megahertz. 4

M
It is necessary that pilots on the initial call state the fre-
N 6
quency on which they are transmitting. This procedure is
required in order to provide the ground station communica- 0
tors, who guard many frequencies, with a positive indica- B
tion of the correct transmitter to be selected for answering Q 9
the call. R 0

The ground station will normally reply on the frequency

Fig.8.16 The Morse International Code
on which the call is received. Calls received on 122.2 MHz
will be answered on the navigational aid frequency. Pilots
requiring an exception to this procedure should state the
frequency on which the reply is expected.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

Phrase Meaning
Standard Phrases
To taxi while in ground effect: generally less than
The following phrases and words in the left column and twen ty knots airspeed, altitude less than twenty-
their corresponding meanings in the right column should Hover taxi five feet AGL unless higher required for operational
reasons (e.g.. to reduce ground effect turbulence
be used whenever applicable. or provide clearance for cargo slingloads)
Phrase Meaning Helipad Designated area in which helicopters
may take off and land
Let me know you have received and
Acknowledge An external load suspended on a line from the helicopter.
understood t his message.
A length may be specified . Expect helicopter to operate
Affirmative Yes. long line
as wi th external load, but also with the extra altitude
Approved Permission granted. required to accommodate the length of the line

Break Separation between portions of the message. Wake turbulence caused by the movement
Rotor downwash
of the rotors while hovering
Break Break Separation between messages for two different aircraft.
Check Examine a system or procedure. Fig .8.18 Helicopter Phraseology Meanings
Confirm Verify (clearance, instruction, action, information) given.
Contact Establish communication with .. 8.4.2 Priority of Communication
Correct True or accurate.
An error was made in transmission,
In general, the following priorities are applied to radio com-
Correction munications by flight service stations.
the correction will follow.
Disregard Ignore. 1. Emergency communications (Distress and Urgency).
Do you read me?
I have called you more than once. If you
are receiving me, please reply. 2. Flight safety communications (ATC clearances, airport
Expedite Comply with instruction as soon as possible. advisories, position reports, airfile flight plans, etc.).
Go ahead Proceed with your message.
3. Scheduled broadcasts.
How do you
Can you hear my transmission clearly'
read? 4. Unscheduled broadcasts.
I do not I do not understand, please rephrase
understand your last transmission. 5. Other air-ground communications.
I say again I repeat for clarity or emphasis. NOTAM, SIGMET or PIREP messages are generally handled as
Immediately Immediate action as requi red for safety reasons. priority item 4.
Monitor Listen to (frequency) without checking in.

Negative
No, or Permission not granted, or
Not correct, or Not ca pable.
8.4.3 Good Radio Technique
Over End of transmission, require response. Optimum use of aircraft radio communication facilities
Read Back Repeat all, or specified part of message back. depends on the good technique of the operator.
A change has been made to your last clearance
Recleared and this new clearance supersedes your It is good procedure to listen briefly on the channel to be
previous clearance or part thereof used before transmitting to ensure that you will not inter-
Roger I have received your transmission (generally rupt or cause harmful interference to stations already in
used by ATC rather than pilots).
communication.
Say again Repeat all, or specified part of last transmission.
Speak slower Reduce rate of speech. Plan the content of your message before transmitting so that
Wait and monitor frequency, caller your call will be brief and clear. Use standard phraseology
Stand by whenever practical. Use a normal conversational tone and
will re-establish contact.
Unable Cannot comply with instruction, or clearance, or request. volume of speech, and avoid general conversation. Only
Witco I understand the message and will comply. operation al transmissions should be made.
Without delay Follow instructions expeditiously, specifically and safely. Radio contact consists usually of four parts: the call-up, the
Communication difficult: please say every word or group reply, the message and the acknowledgement .
Word twice of words twice. Communication difficult: therefore,
I will repeat every word/group of words twice.
Aircraft: Tower - This is Piper Cherokee
Fig .8.17 Standard Phraseology Meanings Golf Alfa Victor Yankee - Over.

The following phrases and words are applicable to the stan- Tower: Golf Alfa Victor Yankee - (This
dard operation of helicopters. is) Buttonville Tower.

'
Aircraft: Buttonville Tower - Golf Alfa Victor Yankee
Phrase Meaning
- One Five West - Two thousand five
To taxi while airborne: generally above twenty
Air taxi knots airspeed, altitude at pilot's disc retion, hundred feet - VFR - Landing Instructions.
generally below one hundred feet AGL
Tower: Alfa Victor Yankee - Buttonville Tower
The condition of fligh t during which the
Autorotation main rotor is driven only by aerodynamic - Runway One Five - Wind One Th ree
forces with no power from the engine Zero at Ten - Altimeter Two Niner
Helicopters are capable of suspending material Niner Two - Cleared to the Circuit.
under the helicopter during flight. When
External load
operati ng with a load, a helicopter may fly Aircraft: Alfa Victor Yankee.
slower and avoid overflying built up areas
Ground taxi For wheel-equipped helicopters: to taxi on t he ground "This is" and "Over" may be omitted.
To hold short of a designated location in current 1. Pronounce words clearly. Do not slur
Hold state (i .e., on ground, in hover) or position
sounds or run words together.
To hold a position while airborne: done in ground
Hover effect, further movement requires ATC instruction 2. Speak at a moderate rate, nei-
ther too fast nor too slow.

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

3. Keep the pitch of the voice constant. High pitched

voices transm it better than low pitch ed voices. 8.4.5 Electronic Interference
4. Do not shout into the microphone. to Navigation &
5. Position the m icrophone correct- Communication Systems
ly - about 1 inch from the lips. Portable electronic devices produce radiation which may
6. Know wh at you are going to say before cause interference to aircraft navigation and communication
st arting the communication. "Um s"and sys tem s. Th ese system s are most vulnerable to this type of
"ahs" take up valuable air time. disruptive interference during the approach, landing and
take-off phases of flight. During these stages, th e aircraft is at
7. Acknowledge receipt of all ATC messages including
low altitude and m ay also be subj ec t to disruptive interference
frequency changes directed to and received by you.
from ground based sources, the combined effect of which may
The acknowledgement should take the form of a
cause unreliable indication s by !LS, VOR and ADF equipment.
transmission of the aircraft call sign or a read back of
the clearance or other appropriate message with the Citizen band (CB) radios, cellular telephones and transmitters
call sign. Clicking your microphone button as a form that remotely control devices, such as toys, which intention-
of acknowledgement is not proper radio pro cedure. ally radiate radio fre quency signals are prohibited on board
aircraft.
8. Profanity or offensive language is not permitted.
Audio or video recorders, audio or video playback devices,
9. Do not request transportation, accommodation or
electronic entertainment devices, laptop computers, h and-
other personal services from airways communica-
held calculators, FM radio receivers, TV receivers and elec-
tion stations. They will not accept such messages.
tronic shavers may not be used during the critical phases
The important thing is to prevent m isunderstandings. Let of take- off, climb, approach and landing. They m ay be u sed
the controller know who you are (on every transmission) and during the cruise phase of fli ght if they have been demon-
what you are doing. Repeat his/her message if necessary to strated to be acceptable. Hand-held electronic calculators, for
avoid error. example, h ave been foun d to cause interference to ADF equip-
Simple misunderstanding is one of the greatest problems ment in the 200 to 450 kHz frequency range if the calculator
in pilot/controller communication. In many cases , the pilot is positioned within 5 feet of the loop or sense anten na. In a
or the controller think they hear what they expect to he ar. small general aviation aeroplane, it is probably wise to avoid
The practice of reading back to the controller any clearance using such equipment even during cruise if ADF, VOR and
received helps to avoid this kind of misunders tanding. The DME systems are being u sed to provide navigational direction.
use of standard phraseology also helps to avoid misunder-
standings and interjects professionalism into transmissions. 8.4.6 Radiotelephone Procedures
If you are given a clearance that you do not understand or
that does not make sense, ask for a clarification. Never "roger"
in Communication with
anything that you do not fu lly understand. Ground Stations
In the follow ing examples of communications between air-
8.4.4 Communication Checks craft and various ground stations, the initial call-up and reply
Aircraft operators may sometimes wish to check the service- have been omitted in order to conserve space.
ability of their communication equipment. Such a check may
be made while the aircraft is airborne (signal check), while Call-Up &Taxi Authorization
the aircraft is about to depart (preflight ch eck), or by grou nd Permission to taxi should be requested on the ground control
maintenance personnel (maintenance check). frequency that is published in the Canada Flight Supplement.
If no fligh t plan has been filed, you should inform the control-
The readability scale employed for communications checks
ler of the n ature of your flight (e.g. local VFR). Do not leave
has the following meaning: 1. Unreadable; 2. Readable now
the apron until authorized by the controller to do so. Ground
and then; 3. Readable with difficulty; 4. Readable; 5. Perfectly
readable. The strength scale has the follow ing meaning: 1. control will reply, authorizing you to proceed to the runway in
Bad; 2. Poor; 3. Fair; 4. Good; 5. Excellent. use and will give you the surface wind, the altimeter setting
and the time.
Aircraft: Churchill Radio - This is Piper Foxtrot
Rom eo Yan kee Tango - Sign al Check At a number of m aj or airports where clearance delivery is in
on Five Six Eight Zero - Over. operation , VFR flights are required to contact this controller
before starting to taxi and before contacting the apron and/or
Tower: Piper Romeo Yan kee Tango - This ground controller.
is Churchill Radio - Sign al Ch eck
Transponders should be adjusted to "st andby" while taxi-
Reading You Strength Five - Over.
ing and switched to "on" or "ALT" only immediately before
Radio checks, when required, should whenever possible be take- off.
requested on fre quencies other than ATC frequencies since
frequency congestion is a problem. Normally th e establish- Radio checks may be requested on the ground control
frequ ency.
m ent of two-way contact is sufficient proof that radios are
serviceable. Aircraft: Norwood Ground Control - This is Cessna
Foxtrot Mike Kilo Alfa - Preflight Check -
One Two One Decimal Niner (1) - Over.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

Ground: Cessna Foxtrot Mike Kilo Alfa - receiving authorization to taxi on the runway to take-off posi-
This is Norwood Ground Control tion. If no taxi holding position is established, you should hold
- Radio Checks Strength Five. at sufficient distance from the edge of the active runway so as
Aircraft: Norwood Ground Control - Cessna Foxtrot not to create a hazard to arriving or departing traffic (200 feet
Mike Kilo Alfa on West Ramp - VFR to is the recommended distance).
Forestville - Taxi Instructions - Over. You may be instructed to "line up" or "line up and wait." This
Ground: Mike Kilo Alfa (2) - Taxi to Runway m ay occur when the ATC unit is busy with other arriving or
Two Seven (3) - Wind Two Seven Zero departing aircraft, or for wake turbulence separation. "Line
at One Zero (4) - Altimeter Two Niner up" and "line up and wait " are not take-off clearances.
Seven Five (5) - Time Zero Five (6).
(1) Meaning you expect a preflight check on 121.9 MHz.
Flight Plan Filing via Radio
If you h ave not previously filed a flight plan, you may file one
(2) After communication has been established, the aircraft registration giving the information over the radio. However, filing a flight
may be abbreviated to the last three letters, phonetically expressed. plan by radio is only permissible when it is impossible to file
(3) Runway 27 lies approximately 270° magnetic. Your compass or one in person by telephone, or by Internet. A long transmis-
heading indicator should therefore read 270° when you line up for sion such as the filing of a flight plan aggravates the con-
take-off gestion of the air-ground communication channels and ties
up controllers whose job is to expedite th e safe and orderly
(4) The wind is west at 10 kts. Winds given by control towers are
movement of traffic.
magnetic whereas those given by meteorological stations are true.
If you must make a change to your flight plan regarding its
(5) Set the barometric scale on your altimeter to 29.75.
route, duration or destination, direct the ch ange to the appro-
(6) Set your clock to 05 minutes past the hour. priate ATS unit as soon as possible.
With the increasing traffic around all airports, frequency con- Aircraft: Summit Tower - This is Cessna Foxtrot
gestion is becoming a problem and brevity in your transmis- Papa Tango Victor - Here is my Flight
sions is therefore desirable. Plan - Cessna 172/ SD/C - Airspeed One
At many major airports, information about ceiling, visibil- Two Five Knots - Departing Summit -
ity, runway in use, etc. is given over the automatic terminal Eight Thousand Five Hundred VFR (1) via
information service. Listen to this information and when first Victor Seven - Destination Huntington
calling ground control, state that you have the information - Departing at One Three - Elapsed Time
broadcast on ATIS. Be sure to specify the phonetic identifier One Hour Plus Four Minutes - Fuel on
of the ATIS message (i.e. ATIS Information Bravo). Board Three Hours Plus Ten Minutes -
Garrett ELT- Standard VHF, ADF, DME
At an airport where there is no ATIS, listen on the ground and Transponder Equipped - Two Persons
control frequency to the controller talking to other aeroplanes on Board - Pilot Ayer Worthy, 123 A
and t ake note of the "numbers". When making your first con- Street, Anytown, Ontario - Amphibian -
tact, inform the controller: Aircraft Blue with White Trim - Arrival
Aircraft: Norwood Ground Control - Cessna Foxtrot Report will be filed at Huntington FSS
Mike Kilo Alfa w ith the Numbers - etc. etc. - Pilot Licence YZP 123456 - Over.
The controller then does not h ave to take up valuable air time Tower: Papa Tango Victor - I have your Flight Plan.
repeating information that you already know. Aircraft: Roger Papa Tango Victor.
If auth orized to taxi to the runway in use, no further autho- (1) VFR, Visual Flight Rules, do not require any stated altitude.
rization is required to cross any inactive runway en route. However, air traffic control strongly recommends that you state your
However, at no time, may a taxiing aircraft taxi on or across altitude and route. "Eight thousand five hundred" means 8,500 feet
an active runway unless authorized to do so. If for any reason, altitude. "Victor seven" means that you will fly via VOR Airway V7.
the airport ground controller requires that you request fur-
ther authorization before crossing or entering any runway
en route, this requirement will be reflected in the taxi
Take-Off Clearance
authorization. When you have run up your engine(s) and made your cockpit
check, if you have not already done so, change to tower fre-
To emphasize the protection of active runways and to prevent quency and request a clearance for take-off:
runway incursions, ATC will request a readback of a "Hold/
Hold Short" of a runway or taxiway instruction. Examples of Aircraft: Moncton Tower - Cirrus Foxtrot
h old points that should be readback are: November November Charlie - Ready
for Take-off on Runway Two Niner.
Tower: Hold or Hold on Runway . ... or on Taxiway
. Hold East (or North, etc.) of Runway Tower: Cirrus November November Ch arlie -
. . . . Hold Short of Runway . Cleared for Take-off on Runway Two Niner.
. or of Taxiway . Aircraft: Roger November November Charlie.
With the increased simultaneous u se of m ore than one Having received and acknowledged take -off clearance, you
runway, instructions to enter, cross, backtrack or line up on should take off without delay. If, for some reason, you are
any runway should be acknowledged by a readback. unable to do so, inform the tower immediately.
Auth orization to taxi "to" the runway in use is not authoriza- When you receive your take-off clearance, it is good practice
tion to taxi "on" the assigned runway. You must hold short to repeat the runway number in your read back. This helps to
of the runway in the designated t axi holding position until verify that you are using the correct runway.

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

Special Clearance Words and Phrases Shorthand Words and Phrases Shorthand

Should you wish to execute some special maneuver, such as ABOVE ABV AND &
ADVISE ADV APPROACH AP
a right-hand turn after taking off, the following phraseology AFTER (PASSING) < FINAL F
would be appropriate: AIRPORT A LOW FREQUENCY RANGE R
ALTERNATE INSTRUCTIONS ( ) OMNI 0
Aircraft: Bonanza Golf Alfa Tango Hotel - Ready ALTITUDE 6,000-17,000 60-170 PRECISION PAR
for Take-off on Ru nway Zero Four - STRAIGHT·IN SI FOR FURTHER CLEARANCE FFC
Request Right Turn Out - Over. SURVEILLANCE ASR FOR FURTHER HEADINGS FFH
APPROACH CONTROL APC HEADING HOG
Tower: Bonanza Alfa Tango Hotel - Right AT (USUALLY OMITIED) @ HOLD (DIRECTION) H-W
Turn Approved - Cleared for Take- (ATC) ADVISES CA INTERSECTION XN

off on Runway Zero Four.

(ATC) CLEARS OR CLEARED c (ILS) LOCALIZER L
(ATC) REQUESTS CR OMNI (RANGES) 0
Aircraft: Roger Alfa Tango Hotel. BEARING BEAR OUTER COMPASS LOCATOR LOM
BEFORE > OUTER MARKER OM
After take -off, remain tuned to the tower frequency. The BELOW BLO RADAR VECTOR RV
BOUND B RADIAL RAD
tower will usu ally call you after take-off, give you any neces-
EASTBOUND, etc. EB RANGE (LFIMF) R
sary traffic information and your time off. You should remain OUTBOUND OB REMAIN WELL TO LEFT SIDE LS
tuned to the tower frequency while in the control zone. INBOUND IB REMAIN WELL TO RIGHT SIDE RS
(Aeroplanes doing local flying must rema in tuned to the tower CLIMB (TO) t REPORT DEPARTING RD
CONTACT CT REPORT LEAVING AL
frequency at all times.) You do not need permission to change COURSE GAS REPORT ON COURSE R-CRS
from the tower frequency once you are clear of the control CROSS x REPORT OVER RO
zone. To make such a request would ne edlessly increase fre- CROSS CIVIL AIRWAYS f REPORT PASSING RP
CRUISE REPORT REA CHING RR
quency congestion. Once outside the control zone, you should
DELAY INDEFINITE DLI REPORT STARTING
monitor 126.7 MHz. DEPART DEP PROCEDURE TURN RSPT
DESCEND (TO) 4 REQUEST ALTITUDE
DIRECT DR CHANGES EN ROUTE RACE
VFR Position Reports EACH ea REVERSE COURSE RC
An aeroplane flying VFR is not required to report its position EXPECT APPROACH RUNWAY RY
CLEARANCE EAC STANDBY STBY
to intermediate stations en route. However, it is a good idea to T-N
EXPECT FURTHER TAKEOFF (DIRECTION)
do so and there is a special sequence to foll ow in m aking this CLEARANCE EFG TOWER z
rep ort. After calling the FIC and receiving their acknowle dge- FAN MARKER FM TRACK TR
TUAN LEFT LT
m ent of your call, you should state your wish to give a report
TUAN RIGHT AT
on your position. The sequence of this rep ort is as follows: UNTIL FURTHER ADVISED UFA
VICTOR v
Position Reporting Sequence
Identification 4 Altitude Fig.8 .20 Shorthand Symbol s
Position VFR Flight Plan
Time over 6 Destination For Example:
- - - --'
C FTOM BLT/VS 15 MS/ UXB
Fig. 8.19 Position Reporting Sequence
Means:
Aircraft: Ottawa Radio - This is Cessna Golf Delta ATC clears Foxtrot Tango Oscar Mike to Bolton via
Delta India - VFR Position Report - Over. Victor 5. Climb to 5,000 feet immediately and main-
Station: Delta Delta India - This is tain 5,000 until reaching Uxbridge reporting point.
Ottawa Radio - Go Ahead. You h ave fil ed a flight plan from Yarmouth, Nova Scotia for a
Aircraft: Ottawa Radio - Delta Delta India flight to St. Johns, (Torbay) Nfld., in Class B airspace, at 13,000
- By Ottawa at Five Eight - Six feet via Victor ai rway 312. Compulsory reporting points along
Thousand Five Hundred - VFR Flight the way are: Halifax, Copper Lake, Sydney and Atlantic. Your
Plan - Destination Muskoka. aeroplane is fitted with a VHF tra ns ceiver and an omnirange
receiver. (Maximum line- of-sight reception distance at 13,000
feet is 140 n .m., so some of the latter portion of your flight
En Route Reports (Class B Airspace) will be by D/ R navigation). You have taken off at 1915Z and
VFR flights are subject to ATC control when flying in Class are climbing to your intended altitude. You contact Yarmouth
B airsp ace. Aeroplanes flyi ng VFR in Class B airspace must radio fo r a clearance (from Moncton Centre) to enter the Class
obtain ai r traffic clearances and file en route position reports B airspace.
at all compulsory reporting points , or other reporting points
which may be specified by ATC. All clearance reports you make are to the air traffic control centre
(ATC) but may be made through a communications facility such
It is a good idea to keep a pencil and paper handy to copy as a tower, flight service station or omnirange station, etc. The
down the clearances. Pilots in Class B airspace sh all read communications faci lity relays your message to ATC and issues the
back the text of an ATC clearance when requested to do so clearance to you. (When you report to a remote communication outlet
by an ATC unit. (In fac t , any VFR flight may be asked to read (RCO), however, you are in effect in direct communication with the
back the text of an ATC clearance.) The shorthand symbols centre by remote control).
in Fig.8 .20 used by ATC controllers may prove useful to you .
Aircraft: Yarmouth Radio - This is Twin
Comanche Golf Kilo Tango Mike -
One Two Two Decimal Two (listening
on Omni Frequency) - Over.

From the Ground Up • 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

Station: Golf Kilo Tango Mike - This is If a station does not answer you after two or more calls have
Yarmouth Radio - Go Ahead. been m ade, you may issue a general call, requesting any sta-
Aircraft: Golf Kilo Tango Mike at One One Thousand tion hearing you to contact the station you are calling.
Five Hundred - Two Zero Miles East on For Example:
Victor Three One Two (1) - Requesting Aircraft: Any Station receiving me - Any Station
One Three Thousand Controlled VFR to receiving me - This is Golf Kilo Tango
Torbay via Victor Three One Two - Over. Mike - Advise Sydney Radio I am
Station: ATC Clears Kilo Tango Mike to calling on One Two Six Decimal Seven
Torbay via Victor Three One Two - - Listening on One One Four Decimal
Climb to and Maintain One Three Niner - Kilo Tango Mike Out.
Thousand VFR - Report Reaching When contact with the station has been established,
One Three Thousand - Over.
Aircraft: Over Copper Lake at Four Zero - One Three
Aircraft: (Repeats clearance back) Kilo Tango Thousand - VFR - Estimating Sydney at
Mike is cleared to Torbay via Victor Two One One Five - Atlantic - Over.
Three One Two - Climb to and Maintain
One Three Th ousand VFR - Report Station: Check you over Copper Lake at Four Zero -
Reaching One Three Thousand - Over. One Three Thousand - VFR - Estimating
Sydney at Two One One Five - Atlantic -
Station: Roger Yarmouth Radio Out. Sydney Altimeter Two Niner Seven Five (and
You report on reaching 13,000 feet as instructed. any other information considered necessary,
such as the weather ahead, etc.) - Over.
Aircraft: Yarmouth Radio - This is Golf
Kilo Tango Mike at One Three Aircraft: Roger Kilo Tango Mike.
Thousand at Two Two (2) - Over. You arrive over Sydney at 2115Z and decide to request permis-
Station: Kilo Tango Mike - This is Yarmouth sion to descend below Class B airspace. You have contacted
Radio - Check you at One Three the station and he/she has acknowledged your call.
Thousand at Two Two - Over. Aircraft: By Sydney at One Five - One Three
Aircraft: Kilo Tango Mike. Thousand - VFR - Estimating
(1) Meaning the 050 radial of the Yarmouth omni range which provides Atlantic at Two One Five Two -
Requesting Descent Below One Two
the outbound track for Victor Airway 312.
Thousand Five Hundred - Over.
(2) Meaning 22 minutes past the hour, i.e. 1922 Z.
On account of traffic, or for some other reason, your request
When you arrive over the Halifax omnirange (your first cannot be immediately approved.
reporting point), you check the time, calculate your ground-
speed and your estimated time of arrival over the next report- Station: Golf Kilo Tango Mike Maintain One
in g point. You h ave contacted Halifax radio and the station Three Thousand - Report Atlantic
for Further Clearance - Call Five
has acknowledged your call.
Minutes West of Atlantic - Over.
Aircraft: Golf Kilo Tango Mike over Halifax at
One Five - One Three Thousand - VFR Aircraft: (Reads back clearance) Golf Kilo Tango
- Estimating Copper Lake (3) at Two Mike Maintaining One Three Thousand
Zero Four Zero - Sydney (4) - Over. - Will Call Five Miles West of Atlantic
on One Two Six Decimal Seven - Over.
(3) Your next reporting point.
Station: Negative Five Miles - Call Five
(4) The next succeeding reporting point. Minutes West of Atlantic - Over.
Station: Check you over Halifax at One Five - One Aircraft: Negative Five Miles - Call Five
Three Thousand - VFR - Estimating Minutes West of Atlantic - Over.
Copper Lake at Four Zero - Over.
Station: That is Correct - Sydney Radio Out.
Aircraft: Golf Kilo Tango Mike.
You arrive five minutes west of Atlantic reporting point at
You tune in the Charlottetown VOR on 114.9 MHz and select 21472 and h ave established contact with Sydney Radio:
162° on your omni bearing selector. This is the 162° radial
Aircraft: Golf Kilo Tango Mike Five Minutes
of the Charlottetown omnirange. Where it intersects Victor
airway 312 is the Copper Lake reporting point. When your West of Atlantic at Four Seven -
needle centres, you are over Copper Lake. Requesting Further Clearance - Over.

Aircraft: Sydney Radio - This is Twin Comanche Station: ATC Clears Kilo Tango Mike to Descend
Golf Kilo Tango Mike - One Two Immediately - Report Leaving One
Six Decimal Seven - Over. Two Thousand Five Hundred - Traffic
is Westbound Aero Commander
If the station does not reply immediately, Maintaining Eight Thousand Estimating
Aircraft: Sydney Radio - This is Twin Comanch e Atlantic at Five Six (5) - Over.
Golf Kilo Tango Mike - One Two Six Aircraft: (Reads back clearance) Kilo Tango Mike
Decimal Seven - Do you read} - Listening is Cleared to descend immediately -
on One One Four Decimal Niner - Over. Report Leaving One Two Thousand Five
Hundred - Check the Traffic as Westbound

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

Aero Commander at Eight Thousand - Tower: Beech Sierra Tango Bravo - Cleared to Enter
Estimating Atlantic at Five Six - Over. Traffic Circuit (1) - Runway Three Two (2) -
Wind Two Seven Zero Degrees at One Five
Station: Roger Sydney Radio.
- Altimeter Two Niner Seven Zero - Over.
(5) Meaning there is an Aero Commander at 8,000 ft. which will be
over Atlantic at 21562. Aircraft: Roger Sierra Tango Bravo.

You report as you pass through the 12,500 foot level on your (1) Should the traffic be right-handed instead of the conventional
descent and decide to check the weather at your destination: left- hand circuit, this will be indicated as follows: Cleared to the Right
Traffic Circuit.
Aircraft: Leaving One Two Thousand Five Hundred
(2) Should the field have parallel runways, the appropriate runway
at Five Zero - Requesting the Latest
will be designated as follows: Runway Three Tu.lo Left.
Torbay Weather and Altimeter.
Station: Check you leaving One Two Thousand Once established in the traffic circuit, you should advise the
Five Hundred at Five Zero - Here is the tower who will reply with further information.
Latest Torbay Weather - One Thousand Aircraft: London Tower - Golf Sierra
Scattered ... etc. etc. - Altimeter Tango Bravo is Downwind.
Two Niner Zero Three - Over. Sierra Tango Bravo - You are Number Two
Tower:
Aircraft: Weather Received - Kilo Tango Mike Over. (3) - Follow Piper Warrior on Base Leg.
Aircraft: Sierra Tango Bravo.
En Route Radar Surveillance (3) This means that you are second in line to land and that there is one
When operating in areas where radar coverage exists, VFR
aircraft ahead of you.
aircraft that are transponder equipped may request radar
traffic information. ATC w ill provide this information, work-
load permitting. Final Approach
When you are on the base leg and about to turn in on final
Aircraft: Calgary Advisory - Cessna Foxtrot Bravo approach, request landing clearance. Normally, the tower
Charlie Delta - Two Zero Northwest at
controller will initiate landing clearance without the need for
Nine Thousand Five Hundred - VFR - you to request it. Iflanding clearance is not received, you must
Squawking One Two Zero Zero - En route
pull up and make anoth er circuit.
to Edmonton - Request Radar Surveillance.
Aircraft: Winnipeg Tower - This is Mooney
Foxtrot Echo Lima Sierra - Landing
Arrival Reporting Clearance Runway Two Five - Over.
When you are approximately 15 nautical miles from your des-
tination but before entering the controlled airspace, call the Tower: Echo Lima Sierra - Cleared to
tower on the published frequency. When the tower replies, Land on Runway Two Five.
give your altitude, and position in miles and direction from Aircraft: Echo Lima Sierra.
the airport. The tower w ill reply, giving you the runway to use,
or
wind direction and velocity, traffic, and any other information
or instructions considered necessary. Tower: Mooney Foxtrot Echo Lima Sierra -
Widen your Approach - Cessna 310
If the airport h as ATIS and you have listened to and noted the
Just Landing - You are Number Two.
information, inform the tower on your initial contact that you
have the ATIS information. Or, if you have listened to com- Aircraft: Wilco Foxtrot Echo Lima Sierra.
munications between the tower and other aeroplanes and Tower: (When runway is clear) Echo Lima Sierra
have noted the pertinent information about runway, wind, - Cleared to Land on Runway Two Five.
altimeter setting, etc., tell the controller that you have the
"numbers". Aircraft: Echo Lima Sierra.

Always check the Canada Flight Supplement for special proce- If preceeding traffic has not cleared the runway, the tower
dures relating to a particular airport. If th e airspace surround- may instruct you to pull up and make another circuit, even
ing a control zone h as been designated as classified airspace, though landing clearance h ad been given .
it is required that you contact the appropriate air traffic con- Tower: Echo Lima Sierra - Pull Up and Go
trol facility to secure a clearance before entering the airspace. Around - Traffic Still on Runway.
The controller will give you instructions on h ow to join the
Aircraft: Echo Lima Sierra - Pullin g
circuit and will tell you when to switch to the tower frequency.
Up to Go Around Again.
Aircraft: London Tower - This is Beech
At some high density airports, aeroplanes are simultaneously
Golf Sierra Tango Bravo.
cleared to land on intersecting runways. In this situation, the
Tower: Beech Golf Sierra Tango Bravo - This tower may advise:
is London Tower - Go Ahead.
Tower: Yankee Sierra Uniform - You are
Aircraft: Beech Golf Sierra Tango Bravo - One Cleared to Land on Runway Three
Five Miles Northwest - At Three Three - Hold Short of Runway Two Four
Thousand - VFR - Landing London - Right Which Has Landing Traffic.
Request Landing Instruction s - Over.
Aircraft: (Reads back clearance) Yankee
Sierra Uniform - Cleared to Land

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

on Runway Three Three - Hold Tower: Foxtrot Yankee Uniform Delta

Short of Runway Two Four Right. - On at One Five - Taxi to the
In accepting this landing clearance, you, as pilot, must ensure Terminal via Taxiway Alfa.
that your approach and landing are such that you will be able Aircraft: Foxtrot Yankee Uniform Delta.
to stop before you reach the intersecting runway. At certain designated airports, ground control has been estab-
A landing aircraft may be "Cleared for the Option" which gives lished to handle traffic on the ground and thus relieve traffic
the pilot the option of making a touch-and-go, low approach, congestion on the tower frequencies. Ground control operates
missed approach, stop-and-go or a full stop landing. This pro- on specially designated frequencies, published in the Canada
cedure will be used only during light traffic conditions. Flight Supplement.
Aircraft: Halifax Tower - This is Cessna Golf In-bound aeroplanes, after landing and clearing the runway,
India Tango Juliet - Downwind Runway should tune in the appropriate ground control frequency for
Three Four - Request The Option. taxi instructions and further communication with the tower.
Tower: India Tango Juliet - Cleared for the Option. Aircraft: Richmond Ground - This is Aero
Aircraft: India Tango Juliet. Commander Golf Romeo Delta Tango
- Taxi Instructions - Over.

Straight-In Approach If you must backtrack on the runway to get to a taxiway in

A pilot, after first reporting some distance from the field, may order to exit, or cross, a runway during taxi, you will require
request a straight-in approach without entering the traffic a clearance to do so.
circuit, if the traffic permits.
Aircraft: Regina Tower - This is Beaver Foxtrot
Arrival Reporting
Hotel India Oscar - Approaching Runway Arrival reports are required to close flight plans. They may
Three Zero on a Heading Three Zero be directed to ATC, FSS or FIC. They may also be provided via
Zero Degrees Magnetic - Requesting telephone or through the Collaborative Flight Planning System
a Straight In Approach - Over. (CFPS) .

Tower: Foxtrot Hotel India Oscar - Ensure that you establish initial contact prior to giving your
Cleared Straight In. arrival report.

Aircraft: Foxtrot Hotel India Oscar. Aircraft: Edmonton Radio - This is Bonanza
Foxtrot Foxtrot Yankee Echo - to close
VFR flight plan from Medicine Hat
Touch-and-Go Landings Charlie Yankee Xray Hotel to Red Deer
Aeroplanes practising landings, who wish to touch down and Charlie Yankee Quebec Foxtrot - Arrive
take off immediately, may be given a touch-and-go clearance. Charlie Yankee Quebec Foxtrot June two-
This should be requested by the pilot when turning off the niner, time one-three-zero-fife Zulu.
base leg on to the final approach.
Aircraft: Saint Stevens Tower - Whiskey Mandatory Frequency (MF) &
Whiskey Delta (1) - Requesting a
Touch-and-Go Landing- Over.
Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF)
If you are intending to land at an uncontrolled airport for
Tower: Whiskey Whiskey Delta - which a mandatory frequency has been designated, you
Cleared Touch-and-Go. should call the air- ground facility (FSS, CARS or RCO) on the
If it is not possible to approve the touch-and-go landing published MF five minutes prior to entering the specified area
because of other traffic, the tower will reply: associated with that airport.
Tower: Whiskey Whiskey Delta - Aircraft: Timmins Radio - This is Piper Lance
Negative Touch-and-Go. Golf Echo Echo Whiskey - Five Miles
South at Three Thousand Five Hundred
(1) Since this would not be the initial communication, the call letters
- VFR - Landing Timmins at One
have been shortened to the last three of the four letter registration of
Six Four Five - Request Weather
the aeroplane.
and Traffic Advisory - Over.

Taxi Clearance Station: Echo Echo Whiskey - Timmins

Radio - Weather is ... - Runway in
After landing, taxi straight ahead and clear the runway as
Use is Zero Three - Traffic is .
quickly as possible at the first available taxiway or turn-off
point. After leaving the runway, continue taxiing to a point at Having joined the traffic circuit, you report.
least 200 feet from the runway, or across the holding position Aircraft: Timmins Radio - Echo Echo Whiskey
marker before coming to a stop. is Downwind for Runway Zero Three.
Your time of landing will be given by the tower only if request- Once established on the final approach, you report again.
ed. When you are clear of the runway, taxi instructions will
be given. Aircraft: Timmins Radio - Echo Echo Whiskey
is on Final for Runway Zero Three.
Aircraft: Foxtrot Yankee Uniform Delta -
Taxi Instructions - Over Always prefix your transmission with the name of the airport,
radio, FSS, FIC, etc. that you are calling so that there is no

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 Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

doubt about your intentions or the airport at which you are Beach - Five Thousand Five Hundred Feet -
intending to land. Flying through the area to Campbell River.
At other uncontrolled airports that are considered to be rela- You must also report when you are clear of the MF area.
tively active, aerodrome traffic frequencies have been desig- Aircraft: Qualicum Beach Radio - Quebec
nated instead of MFs. The ATF is usually the frequency of the Hotel Papa is clear of the area.
ground station where one exists or 123.2 MHz if there is no
ground station. There are no regulatory requirements with regards to the
reporting of intentions at an ATF facility. An ATF is designated
If there is an ATF and a ground station, you should call the for active uncontrolled aerodromes that do not meet the crite-
facility on the published ATF immediately prior to entering ria for the establishment of an MF. Nevertheless, in the inter-
the specified area and follow the same procedures in your est of safety, all aircraft in the area that are capable of radio
transmissions as outlined for an airport with an MF. communications should treat the area as if there were an MF.
At an uncontrolled airport for which neither a mandatory All radio-equipped aircraft are required to maintain a listen-
frequency nor an aerodrome traffic frequency has been des- ing watch on the appropriate frequency
ignated, or during the hours when the ground station is not in
operation, you should broadcast your reports blind on 123.2 Distress Call
MHz (or on the frequency of the inoperative ground station). The first transmission of a distress call should be made on
Aircraft: Hinton Traffic - Piper Warrior Golf the air-ground frequency that is in use at the time. If you are
Hotel Alfa Bravo - Five Miles South unable to establish communication on that frequency, the
- Landing Runway Zero Two. distress call and message should be repeated on the general
When established in the traffic circuit, you report. distress frequency (121 .50 MHz or 3023.5 kHz) or on any other
frequency that is available, in the effort to establish as quickly
Aircraft: Hinton Traffic - Golf Hotel Alfa Bravo as possible communication with another station. However,
is Downwind for Runway Zero Two. before changing frequencies , you should transmit a message
After turning onto the final approach, you report again. indicating the frequency to which you intend to change.
Aircraft: Hinton Traffic - Hotel Alfa Bravo is The distress message should be repeated at intervals until an
on Final for Runway Zero Two answer is received, allowing sufficient time between trans-
missions for a receiving station to reply.
After landing at an aerodrome for which an MF is active,
report that you are clear of the landing surface. The distress call format is the word mayday repeated three
times, followed by your aircraft identification three times. If
For start-up, taxi and take-off at an aerodrome for which an
time permits, your message should give your estimated posi-
MF is active, before entering the maneuvering area, you must
tion, altitude, the type of aircraft, the nature of the emergency
report your intentions. Ensure that you make initial contact
and your intended action (such as crash landing in timber,
first , and listen to the ATIS if it is available.
forced landing on water, etc.). Following the transmission of
Before moving onto the take-off surface, inform the air- your message, hold the button on your microphone pressed
ground facility. Express your departure procedure before your down for 20 seconds to enable D/F bearings to be taken on you:
take-off.
Aircraft: Mayday - Mayday - Mayday - Foxtrot
Aircraft: Gatineau Radio - Foxtrot Alfa Uniform Oscar November Romeo - Foxtrot Oscar
backtracking runway two-seven. November Romeo - Foxtrot Oscar
Station: Foxtrot Alfa Uniform, Roger. November Romeo - Five Zero Miles
South of Grand Falls at One Seven Two
Aircraft: Gatineau Radio, Foxtrot Alfa Uniform Five Eastern - Four Thousand - Cessna
taking off runway two-seven, climb runway 185 - Icing - Will Attempt Crash
heading to circuit altitude, right turn out, Landing on Ice - (Keep microphone
northbound one-two thousand feet. button depressed 20 seconds) Foxtrot
You must report when airborne. Oscar November Romeo - Over.
Aircraft: Gatineau Radio - Foxtrot Alfa Uniform Station: Foxtrot Oscar November Romeo - Foxtrot
airborne runway two-seven. Oscar November Romeo - Foxtrot Oscar
November Romeo - This is Gander
You must report when departing the circuit.
Radio - Gander Radio - Gander Radio
Aircraft: Gatineau Radio - Foxtrot Alfa Uniform - Roger Mayday - Gander Radio Out.
clear of the circuit, northbound.
The distress signal has priority over all other transmissions
Station: Foxtrot Alfa Uniform, Roger. and must be sent only on the authority of the person in com-
When flying through an MF area without the intention of mand of the aircraft. It indicates that the aircraft sending
landing or of doing circuits, you must report at least five min- the signal is threatened by grave and imminent danger and
utes prior to entering the area. Begin with an initial call. requires immediate assistance. Any person who knowingly
transmits a fraudulent distress signal is guilty of an offense
Aircraft: Qualicum Beach Radio - This is
and liable to imprisonment or fine.
Bonanza Golf Quebec Hotel Papa.
All stations hearing a distress call must cease any transmis-
Station: Bonanza Golf Quebec Hotel Papa,
sion of their own so as not to interfere with the MAYDAY
Qualicum Beach Radio.
message. Any aircraft that hears a distress call that has not
Aircraft: Qualicum Beach Radio - Golf Quebec Hotel been immediately acknowledged should make every effort to
Papa twenty miles southwest of Qualicum attract the attention of a station that is in a position to render

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Radio Communication: Radio Communication Procedures

assistance. In relaying a distress call, always follow it with maintain its minimum fuel reserve. Similar to a pan pan call,
"from " and the call letters of your aircraft. if a pilot notifies ATC of h aving minimum fuel, it is not an
emergency.
If and when the aircraft is no longer in distress, a message
must be made on the same frequency (or frequenc ies) as the Aircraft: Val d'Or Radio - This is Kodiac
MAYDAY message was sent, cancelling the state of distress. One-Zero-Zero Golf Delta Kilo
November- minimum fuel.
Aircraft: Mayday All Stations - All Stations - All
Stations - This is Foxtrot Oscar November
Romeo - Foxtrot Oscar November Romeo Safety Call
- Foxtrot Oscar November Romeo - At One The safety signal is the word security repeated three times.
Seven Four Zero Eastern - Foxtrot Oscar The use of this signal indicates that a station is about to trans-
November Romeo Distress Traffic Ended - mit a message concerning the safety of navigation or impor-
Ice Cleared - Returning Grand Falls - Out. tant meteorological warnings to aircraft in flight.
A fuel emergency should be declared when the aircraft must The safety signal has priority over all other communications
land at the nearest aerodrom e with less than minimum fuel. except distress and urgency.
Aircraft: Mayday - Mayday - Mayday - Fuel
- Dawson City Radio- Cessna One-
Eight-Two Golf Alfa Bravo Uniform

Urgency Call
Urgency signals are preceded by the word pan pan repeated
three times. They are given priority over all other communi-
cations except distress calls.
Th e urgency signal indicates that the station calling has an
urgent message concerning the safety of a ship, or aircraft or
of some person on board or within sight.
The urgency message should be addressed to a specific station
and should be transmitted only on the authority of the pilot in
command of the aircraft.
Aircraft: Pan Pan - Pan Pan - Pan Pan - Cleveland
Tower - This is De Havilland Foxtrot
Golf Foxtrot Echo - Advise Stinson
Four Nine One November that his/her
Undercarriage is Damaged - Over.
Stations which hear the urgency signal should continue to
listen for 3 minutes and then, if no further urgency message
is heard, may continue normal operations.
Urgency messages may also be directed to all stations.
Station: Pan Pan - Pan Pan - Pan Pan - All
Stations, All Station s, All Stations - This
is Ottawa Radio, Ottawa Radio, Ottawa
Radio - Emergency Descent at Ottawa
Airport - Ottawa Tower Instructs All
Aircraft Below Six Thousand Feet Within
Range of One Zero Miles of Ottawa VOR
Leave East and South Sectors Immediately
- This is Ottawa Radio - Out.
Urgency messages to all stations must be cancelled when
the situation necessitating the message has been resolved or
ended.
An urgency message may also be used by an aircraft experi-
encing difficulties that compel it to land but where immediate
assistance is not required.
Aircraft: Pan Pan - Pan Pan - Pan Pan -
Th is is Piper Golf Delta Bravo Kilo -
Experiencing Partial Engine Failure - Will
Land - Assistance Not Required.
A minimum fuel call alerts ATC that your aircraft does not
have enough fuel to divert to another aerodrome, or to enter
a holding pattern or to perform an extended downwind. The
aeroplane must land at the intended destination in order to

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 Radio Navigation: VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR)

9 Radio Navigation
The use of radio in cross-country flying has m ade naviga-
tion a relatively simple procedure. The VHF omnidirectional
range (VOR) navigation system has made flight between VOR
stations as easy as following a highway. Distance measuring
equipment (DME) relieves the pilot of the time consuming
chores of plotting, measuring and computing to determine
groundspeed and distance from destin ation information.
NDBs are beacons on which pilots can hom e or from which
they can obtain a fix, if the aeroplane is equipped with auto-
matic direction finding (ADF) equipment. Area navigation sys-
tem s (such as INS and the satellite based GPS system) guide
the aeroplane to its destination effortlessly.
However, radio navigation aids should be considered a valu-
able aid, but not a substitute for, dead reckoning. Never
neglect your compass. Keep an aeronautical chart h andy and Fig.9.1 VHF Omni range
regularly check your position on it. Radios can, and do, fail
Now if we had a stopwatch, we could determine our direction
and your insurance against becoming hopelessly lost is your
from the beacon. When we see the flash of the green light, we
conscientiousness in practising basic pilotage.
would start the watch. When the rotating beam sweeps past
us , we would stop it. Th e number of seconds shown on the
watch multiplied by 36 would be our m agnetic bearing from
9.1 VHF Omnirange the beacon.

Navigation Example: The tim e between the flash of green light and the
sweep of the rotating beam past us is four seconds. 4 x 36

System (VOR) = 144. Then our bearing from the beacon is 144° magnetic
(Fig.9.2).
The most widely used means of radio navigation is the very
high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR), a ground-based,
short-range navaid. Strategically placed throughout Canada
and the Un ited States are hundreds of VOR ground stations
that transmit signals th at, with the proper airborne receiv-
ing equipment, can be used for navigation purposes. It is the
basis of the VHF airways system and is also used for VOR non-
precision instrument approaches.
The omnirange system functions in the static free VHF fre-
quency band between 112.0 and 117.95 MHz. Each station
operates on its own assigned frequency.
The omnirange station puts out two signals. One of these
signals is non-directional. It has a constant phase throughout
its 360° of azimuth. It is transmitted at a rate of 30 times a Fi g. 9.2 Principles of the Omnirange
second. It is called the reference phase.
This is exactly what the omnirange equipment does for a pilot,
The other signal rotates at a rate of 30 times per second. It is
except that the timing between the reference and variable
called the variable phase.
signals is done electronically, and the bearing obtained is any
The reference signal is timed to transmit at the instant the one of the infinite number of beams which radiate out like the
variable signal passes magnetic north. In all other directions, spokes of a wheel from the omnirange station and which are
the variable signal will occur sometime later than the refer- referred to as radials.
ence signal.
Although, in theory, there are an infinite number of radials,
The principle of the omnirange is based on the phase dif- only 360 are, in practice, usable. These radials are designated
ference between the two transmitted signals (Fig.9.1). By by numbers. Each radial is given a number which indicates
measuring the time it takes the rotating signal to sweep from its magnetic bearing from the station. For Example: the radial
north to where it reaches th e receivin g equipment in the aero- 45 would be the radial you would follow if you wished to fly
plane, it is possible to determine the bearing of the aeroplane a magnetic track northeast away from the station. The radial
from the station. is located 45° clockwise from the 0° radial which is always
To simply illustrate th is principle, let us use the case of an air- aligned with magnetic north.
port rotating beacon. The beam of light is rotating clockwise There are, of course, omni bearings towards a station as well
at, let us say, six rpm. This is one complete revolution every as away from it. If you were following the 45 radial to the sta-
10 seconds, or 36 degrees of azimuth per second. Suppose the tion, you would be in a position southwest of the station. The
green airport identification light was timed to flash each time 45 radial TO is a reciprocal of the 45 radial FROM.
the beam swept past magnetic north.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR)

Omni bearings are called radials regardless of whether they

are to or from the station. However, some authorities refer to
omni bearings as courses. Other authorities like to consider
the radial as the magnetic bearing away from the station, and
the course as the magnetic bearing towards the station. "45
FROM" would, therefore, be a radial away from the station,
and "225 TO" would be a course towards the station.
A VOR station is depicted on aeronautical charts by a station
azimuth (or compass rose) superimposed over the site of the
VOR transmitting station, which is represented by a six sided
symbol. Fig.9.3 illustrates the azimuth for the Wainwright
VOR station. The azimuth is marked off in increments of 5°.
The 0° radial is aligned with magnetic north.
Fig. 9.4 Victor Airway (Controlled Airspace)
The name of the VOR is given in the information box along
with the three letter identifier and the associated morse code Note that the magnetic bearings of the airway illustrated in Fig.9.4
identification. The frequenc y of the station is given in mega- are exact reciprocals: i.e. 228° and 048°. On some airways, these
hertz. The frequency for Wainwright is 114.5 MHz. opposite bearings may not be exact reciprocals, due to differences in
Several radials are drawn in (274°, 25 4°, 034° and 087°). These magnetic variation. For example, a certain Victor airway may be 077°
radials are used to provide a flight path between two VOR sta- eastbound but be 261° westbound. When flying Victor airways, you
tions. Such a specially designated flight path is called a Victor fly the omni radial which lies down the centre of the airway.
airway. The 274° radial is also Victor airway 350 (V350).
9.i.2 Advantages of VOR Navigation
The omnirange system provides a multiple number of courses
towards and away from each station in the system. These
courses are like invisible highways crisscrossing the con-
tinent on which the pilot can navigate to or away from any
location.
The omniranges may also be us ed to determine a fix . A pilot
is able to establish a position by rapidly tuning two omni
stations and reading off their bearings . These will give two
position lines. When the latter are drawn on a map, the point
where they intersect will be the fix.
Because the omni is position sensitive, rather than heading
sensitive, a pilot can fly a straight line and not worry about
compass corrections, variation or deviation. Wind drift is also
compensated for automatically. As a result, the aeroplane can
be accurately kept on course.
The omni instruments in the aeroplane are designed to show
Fig . 9.3 How an Omnirange is Shown on a Chart
the bearing or direction of the aeroplane from the omni sta-
tion, regardless of the direction the nose of the aeroplane may
be pointing (see Fig.9.5). In other words, the omni bearing is a
9.1.1 Victor Airways magnetic bearing between the aeroplane itself and the omni
Networks of VHF airways which make use of omnirange station. When you fly towards or away from an omni, you do
facilities crisscross the whole of the United States and most of so by maintaining a line of constant bearing. Obviously, to
Canada. These airways are referred to as Victor (or VOR) air- do this, you must keep kicking the nose around into wind to
ways. They are flown by reference to the omni stations, which prevent the wind from drifting you off the bearing line you are
are located approximately 100 miles apart along the airways. endeavouring to maintain. In doing so, you are automatically
The Victor airways are numbered like highways. correcting for wind drift with no effort or calculation of any
kind on your part.
They are approximately 8 nautical miles wide. They are
depicted on aeronautical charts by shaded lines the outer edge The accuracy of the course alignment of the omnirange is
of which denotes the outer limits of the airway. within plus or minus 3 degrees. Very precise navigation is
therefore possible.
Under conditions of low visibility, it is extremely important
to fly close to the centreline of the airway, particularly in the The VOR frequencies are fre e of static and interference and
vicinity of terminal areas. An adjacent Victor airway may lie therefore give reliable indications . Reception is dependent,
as close as 15° to the one you are using and traffic on that however, on distance from the station and altitude, (see
airway may be operating at the same altitude you are. Fig.9.4 below).
shows how a Victor airway appears on an aeronautical chart.
9.1.3 Disadvantages of VOR Navigation
The VOR signals, transmitted on VHF freque ncies, are restrict-
ed to line-of-sight reception.

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 Radio Navigation: VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR)

The curvature of the earth, therefore, has a pronounced effect signal, take that as indication that the facility may be unreli-
on the distance at which a VOR signal can be received. At dis- able even though the VOR signal is being transmitted.
t ances of about 50 nautical miles from the station, the signal All North American VOR stations operate continuously. Most
will be received at an altitude of 1,500 feet AGL. The farther are equipped w ith an air-ground communications facility
from the station that the aeroplane is, the higher it must be to which allows pilots to contact flight service stations. The pilot
receive the signal. (See Fig.8.7.) transmits on 122.2 MHz or 126.7 MHz and receives on the VOR
frequency. At selected VORs, taped broadcasts such as the
transcribed weather broadcast (TWB) or automatic terminal
information service (ATIS) are transmitted.

9.1.5 VOR Navigation Equipment

To use the omninavigation facilities , the aeroplane m ust
be equipped with a VHF receiver, a VOR indicator and an
Fig. 9.5 Omnirange Bearing. The Bearing of the
antenna.
Station from the Aeroplane is 90 Degrees

At very high altitudes, it is possible to receive incorrect indica- The Antenna

tions because of interference between two stations transmit- The VOR signals are received by the antenna which is nor-
ting on the same frequency. Usually, the same frequency is mally located on the top of the fuselage or at the tail cone
assigned only to stations that are many hundreds of miles area, where it is free of interference from other electrical
apart. However, on occasion, the areas may overlap and cause equipment. There are 3 types of antennas used with VOR
erroneous omni readings. equipment - the V-shaped, flexible steel antenna sometimes
The omnirange signals are also affected by topographical called a cat's whisker whip, the blade antenna or the towel bar
features in the immediate vicinity of the omni station, such antenna. The latter two types give somewhat better perfor-
as fences, power lines, buildings , etc. This is called site effect m ance and are required if the VOR is being used in combina-
error and causes erroneous readings and sometimes complete tion with RNAV.
blanking out of the signal.
In the close vicinity of mountains, the signals are sometimes The Receiver
reflected or completely masked out in the shadow of the The omnirange receiver is usually incorporated in a unit that
mountain. This is known as terrain effect error. has both a transceiver for transmitting and receiving on the
communication channels and a receiver for receiving the
Errors are also occasioned by failure of parts of a particular
navigation channels.
receiver (receiver error) or by faults in the structure or equip-
ment installed at a particular omnirange station (grou nd sta- The VHF NAV/COM unit illustrated in Fig.9.6 is a typical
tion error). m odern piece of radio equipment. The COM side of the unit
h as already been discussed in the Chapter Radio.
The vagaries of the VOR system are not of great magn itude.
The NAV side of th e unit is capable of receiving 200 channels
Site and terrain errors are experienced for short periods
in the frequency range from 108.00 MHz to 117.95 MHz with
and tend to average out before the aeroplane can respond.
50 kHz spacing.
Receiver error can be eliminated by careful selection and
proper m aintenance of good reliable equipment. Ground sta- The NAVreceiver in Fig.9.6 is tuned to 109.30 MHz. This partic-
tion error, the most serious of those enumerated above, is ular unit allows the pilot to preselect a second VOR frequency
seldom in excess of 2 degrees and in no case greater than plus (116.40 MHz) in the standby position.
or minus 3 degrees of error in displacement.
These vagaries of the omnirange appear in the form of minor
irregularities such as course roughness, occasional brief flag
alarm activity, course deflections and limited distance range.
Over unfamiliar routes, be on the alert for these abnormalities.

Fig. 9.6 VHF NAV/ COM Radio Equipment

9.1.4 The VOR Station
Each VOR station transmits on an assigned VHF frequency. The NAV receiver also functions as a receiver for the glide path
As well as the omni signal, the station transmits a morse and runway localizer of the instrument landing system. !LS
code three letter identification. For Example: Toronto YYZ localizers operate on odd tenth decimals (i.e. 108.10, 108.30,
-·-- /-•- - / - -•• 108.50, etc.) in the VHF frequency range from 108.10 to 111.90
MHz. When the set is tuned to an !LS frequency, the corre-
Some omni stations are identified by a recorded voice identi- sponding glide path frequency (which transmits in the UHF
fication, followed by three letters in code, e.g.: "Indianapolis band) is tuned in automatically.
VOR" (voice) ••/-•/-•• (IND in code). If the omnirange station
is unattended and does not provide an air-ground commu -
nication facility, the word "unattended" will be included. For The VOR Indicator
Example: "Cooksville Unattended VOR". The VOR indicator combines three functions in one unit: a
bearing (or course) selector, a course deviation indicator and
Always listen for the identification signal to be sure you have a TO/FROM indicator.
the right station. During periods of maintenance, the coded
identification is not broadcast. If you cannot hear the audio The VOR indicator illustrated in Fig.9.7 incorporates these
three functions. It also incorporates th e cross-pointer that is

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR)

necessary to give a visual indication of the aeroplane's posi- this, there is no guarantee that the error is uniform through
tion when the NAV receiver is tuned to an !LS localizer. 360 degrees.
VOR checkpoints are established at some airports on the
maneuvering area where there is a sufficiently strong VOR
signal to facilitate a check of VOR equipment. A sign at the
checkpoint indicates the radial and the distance from the VOR
transmitter. The radial indicated on the aircraft VOR indica-
tor should be within 4° of the posted radial. The distance
measurement is a check for DME equipment (see Distance
Measuring Equipment, below).
The airports with VOT facilities are listed in the Canada Flight
Supplement.
Bearing Selector
Where there are no special omnitest facilities, you may test
your equipment for accuracy by the following m eth od. Tune
Fig . 9. 7 Omni/I LS Indicator in the frequency of the nearest omni station and centre the
needle. Then rotate the dial 180° and centre the needle again.
The omni bearing (or course) selector (OBS} has an azimuth The reciprocal of reading should be within 4 degrees of the
dial graduated in 360 degrees and numbered every 30° from original reading for permissable tolerance.
O to 33. The numbers represent omni bearings (courses or
An alternate method of checking a VOR receiver while in flight
radials). In Fig.9.7, a bearing (course or radial) of 000° (N) has
is to select a VOR radial that lies along the centerline of a VOR
been selected. The reciprocal bearing or course of 180° (S} is
airway. Select a prominent ground checkpoint on this radial
indicated at the tail end of the arrow. about 20 miles from the VOR station. When directly over the
The TO/FROM indicator is located on the right side of the ground checkpoint at reasonably low altitude, note the VOR
instrument above and below the horizontal bar. Since the bearing indicated by the receiver. A variation of 6° between
magnetic bearing of an omnirange radial can be ambiguous, the indicated bearing and the published radial is the maxi-
the sense indicator is used to indicate whether the aeroplane mum permissible.
is on a bearing towards or away from the omnirange station. In an aircraft equipped with dual VOR systems, one VOR
If the indicator shows TO, the bearing is towards the station receiver can be checked against the other when both are
from the aeroplane. If the indicator shows FROM, the bearin g tuned to the same VOR facility.
is away from the station towards the aeroplane.
The course deviation indicator (CD!) is a vertical needle that 9.1.7 VOR Navigation
moves to the right or left of the row of vertical dots to indicate To use the VOR navigation system, you must first tune in the
whether the aeroplane is to the right or left of the course or proper station on the VOR receiver. The frequency of a partic-
radial which the pilot h as set up on the bearing selector. The ular VOR station is published in the information box for that
course deviation indicator is often simply called the left/right station on the aeronautical chart. Always listen for the identi-
needle or the track bar indicator (TB). fication signal to be sure the proper station has been selected.
When the NAV receiver is tuned to an !LS localizer, the vertical To select a radial, rotate the bearing selector. As you do so, the
needle indicates deviation from the selected localizer course. course deviation indicator (CD!} will begin to move towards
The horizontal needle indicates deviation above or below the the vertical row of dots. When the needle becomes centred,
glide path. The !LS landing system is more fully discussed the reading on the bearing selector is the radial transmit-
later in this Chapter. ted by the omni station on which the aeroplane is located.
Regardless of the heading of the aeroplane, it is somewhere on
9.i.6 VOR Receiver Checks the radial indicated by the bearing selector.
VHF equipment should be tested periodically to determine its The CD! needle, when centred, indicates that the aeroplane is
accuracy. Low power VHF (VOT} omnitest transmitters have located on the selected radial but it does not indicate on which
been installed at various locations throughout Canada and the side of the station the aeroplane is located. The TO/FROM indi-
United States and provide a means of checking a VOR receiver cator resolves this ambiguity.
while the aeroplane is on the ground. These transmitters radi-
ate a signal such that an aeroplane will receive an indication The To/From Indicator
as if it were positioned on the magnetic north (000°} radial
Fig.9.8 illustrates the sectors in which either a TO or a FROM
from the VOR facility. With the needle centered, the omni
signal is received wh en the bearing selector is indicating an
bearing selector should read 000° with the indicator in the
omnirange radial. For the illustration on the left, the 160°
FROM position or 180° with the indicator in the TO position.
radial of a particular omni station has been selected on the
The bearing accuracy of the transmitted signal is maintained
bearing selector. In the illustration on the right, the 45° radial
within a tolerance of 1°. An apparent error greater than 4° in
has been selected.
the aeroplane VOR receiver is beyond acceptable tolerance.
The equipment should be repaired or replaced. An apparent If the aeroplane is anywhere within the unsh aded segment,
error of less than 4° is acceptable. Do not try, however, to regardless of the direction the aeroplane may be heading, the
make an allowance for the error and apply a correction factor TO/ FROM indicator will read FROM the station. If the aero-
when selecting a VOR radial. A makeshift practice such as this plane is anywhere within the shaded portion, the TO/ FROM
would only complicate VOR navigation procedures. Besides indicator will read TO the station, even though the aeroplane
may actually be heading in a direction away from the station.

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 Radio Navigation: VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR)

If the aeroplane h appen s to be in a position exactly 90° to

the selected radial, the opposing signals th at actuate the TO
To Fly a Radial Inbound To
and FROM indicator cancel each other and produce an OFF an Omnirange Station
situation. Suppose you wish to plan a flight from some place on the map
to another place where an omnirange is located. Measure the
c.O N magnetic track on the map from the place where you are now
...'!:······~·--····... to the omnirange to which you wish to fly. (The magnetic
: .. -l
:' 0 compass rose printed around the omni station on the map is
w~ for your convenience in measuring.) The magnetic track you
t') ~ . ii>!: have just measured is the radial you need to fly to reach the
"'0 .·.. station. First of all, tune and identify the station, and then
·········5--~~~ 1. Set the bearing selector to the
radial you obtained above.
Fig. 9.8 Omni range TO/FROM Bearings
2. Head the aeroplane in a direction calcu-
In Fig.9.9, the bearing selector in each aeroplane h as been set lated to make good th e intended radial.
to 0°. Aeroplanes A, B and H would show TO. Aeroplanes D, E 3. Observe the TO/ FROM indicator. It should indicate TO.
and F would show FROM. Aeroplanes C and G would show OFF.
4. The CD! will now point towards the direc-
When the aeroplane passes over the omni station , the TO/ tion the aeroplane must be steered to reach the
FROM indicator will change from TO to FROM or vice versa to selected radial. Steer into the needle until the
show station passage. vertical needle is centred. Then alter course
as necessary to keep the needle centred.

••• __ ..0 ------

~ .---------------------------------------Omnirange
# ............ .. .. ..
...•.. --------~~~~cted Radial
Fig. 9.10 Flying a Radial Towards an Omnirange

This procedure is known as intercepting the radial and the

B
heading which was flown in order to make the interception
is known as the intercept heading. The angle of interception
Fig.9.9 TO/FROM Indicator Samples
is the angle the intercept heading makes with th e selected
radial. If you choose to intercept the radial at a large angle of
The Course Deviation Indicator interception (i.e. near 90°), you will reach the radial quickly
The course deviation indicator w ill remain centred as long as but, u nless you turn quickly, you may easily overshoot it.
the aeroplane is actually on the radial indicated on the bear- Selecting a shallower angle of interception (somewhere near
ing selector. If the aeroplane is off course to the right of the 45° or less) will bring you to the selected radial not quite so
radial, the CD! will swing to the left of centre. If the aeroplane quickly, but will allow you to make a smoother turn onto it.
is off course to the left of the radial, the CD! will swing to the Of course, if you are quite close to the station, a shallow angle
right of centre. In other words, the CD! points in the direc- of interception may lead the aeroplane past the station before
tion in which the radial lies. To centre the needle, fly into the the interception can occur. You will have to take the factor of
radial, th at is, steer into the needle. When the needle centres, distance from the station into consideration when selecting
the aeroplane is back on cou rse. the angle of interception.

This is normal needle sensing and applies when the aero- How rapidly you are approaching the selected radial is indi-
plane is headed in th e same direction as th e radial selected. cated by the movement of the CD!. If it moves quickly from
For example, if the selected radial is 90° and the aeroplane is the side of the case towards the centre, a high rate of inter-
headed in an easterly direction, normal needle sensing will ception is indicated. Rate of interception is determined by
apply. groundspeed, angle of interception, distance from the station
and whether you are flying towards or away from the station.
If, however, the 90° radial has been selected, but the aeroplane
is headed in a westerly direction, then reverse needle sensing In order to effect a smooth transition from the intercept head·
will occur. To centre the needle, in this situation, it is neces- ing to the inbound radial, maintain the intercept heading until
sary to fly away from the needle. the CD! needle begins to move. As it nears the centre, begin
to turn gradually onto the desired inbound heading. With
The easiest method of using the VOR system is to select a practice, you w ill be able to achieve th e desired heading for
radial th at is in the same general direction as the heading of the inbou nd radial just as the needle centres.
the aeroplane and u se normal needle sensing.
When you pass over the station, the sen se indicator w ill
The CD!, as well as th e TO/FROM indicator, gives an in dication change from TO to FROM. This positively identifies your pas-
of station passage. As the aeroplane passes over the station, sage over the st ation. Suppose you should wish to return to
the needle swings to one side and then return s to its original the station. Execute a 180° turn. Be sure to turn the course
position. selector 180°. If you do not do this, you will be flying a course

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR)

towards a station on a FROM indication. The sensing of the It is possible to determine groundspeed and to make time and
needle will be reversed, and instead of turning towards the distance calculations by taking, over a period of time, several
needle, you will have to turn away from it to centre it. fixes from the same two omni stations.
So far we have laid much emphasis on the need of doing no
more than simply "flying the needle". Now let us offer a word
of caution. Flying the n eedle can be overdone' Always rem em-
ber th at you r omni equipment tells you where you are rather
th an how to get th ere. To get there, you must h ead the aero-
plane in the right direction . Do not become "needle conscious"
to the extent of neglecting your "heading consciousness".
Having intercepted the radial you intend to fly, always turn
first to the heading of the radial. Probably after a short time,
you will notice some drifting off course, since there is usually
a crosswind component. To select a heading that will keep
you on the radial, you must make a series of corrections to
compensate fo r the wind drift. Suppose that you are track-
in g on the radial 030° inbound to station A. You note that on
a heading of 030° you h ave drifted off course to the left. You,
therefore , select a heading of 050° (an intercept angle of 20°)
to intercept the radial and get back on course. Having inter-
cepted the radial again , divide the intercept angle by 2 and
take up a heading of 040°. You note that you are now drifting
slightly off the radial to the right and therefore deduce that
the correct heading to fly to stay on track is one somewhere
between 030° which allows you to drift left of track and 040°
which allows you to drift right of track. Intercept the radial
again and fly a heading of approximately 035° which should Fig . 9.11 Fix by Omnirange Bearings
allow you to remain on track directly to the station. This
procedure of intercepting a radial and making correc tions to
remain on track is called bracketing.
Dual Omni Installations
Many aeroplanes are equipped with two complete NAV/COM
In this way, you use th e needle as a guide to correct the head- units. As well as providing the dependability facto r that, if
ing, rather than as a primary flight instrument, and you will one radio fails, the second is available for both navigation and
avoid swinging wildly back and forth across the intended communication purposes, the two NAV units allow th e pilot to
radial, trying to get the needle to stay in the centre. select and fly one radial to or from an omni station and, at the
Remember that the omni bearing and aeroplane heading will same time, continuously take bearings on another off track
never be very far out of agreement, the difference being the station to determine position (i.e. to obtain fixes).
wind correction angle. So centre the needle by making gentle
corrections to your heading rather th an concentrating on the g.i.s TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation)
needle itself and you will find that flyin g the omni is the easi-
TACAN operates in the UHF 960 to 1,215 MHz band. Although
est thing you ever tried to do.
it is primarily a military system, civil aeroplanes possessing
the appropriate equipment m ay use it as a navigational aid.
To Fly a Radial Outbound From It combines the functio ns of the civil VOR (omnirange) and
an Omnirange Station DME (distance measuring equipment) and therefore indicates
The procedure is exactly the same as that described above, to the pilot the azimuth, or direction, of the station to which
except that the aeroplane is headed in a direction calculated the equipment is tuned and also its slant distance in nautical
to make good the radial away from the station, and the sense miles. Its use requires special TACAN equipment installed in
indicator will read FROM. the aeroplane.
An aeroplane equipped with distance measuring equipment
To Obtain a Fix by Omnirange Bearings (DME) can interrogate a TACAN for distance information but
In the same way that we were able to fix the position of an any apparent radial information obtained through a coupled
aeropl ane by position lines obtained by compass bearings (See VOR receiver is invalid and should be considered a false signal.
Position Lines in Ch apter Air Navigation), we can also obtain a
fi x by bearings taken on two or more omni stations. 9.1.9 VORTAC
The pilot of the aeroplane in Fig.9.11 is flying along a track, In the past, TACAN was a separate navigation system provid-
A-B. He wants to check his position. He tunes in omni station ing azimuth and distance guidance to military aeroplanes.
Y and rotates the bearing, or course, selector until the course VOR/DME was a system designed to provide similar informa-
deviation indicator is centred. As will be seen, the bearing tion to civil aeroplanes. It was found to be practical to combine
selector will read 273° (FROM). He now tunes in omni station them into a unified system by installing TACAN fac ilities at
X and obtains a reading on the bearing selector of 185° (FROM) . existing VOR stations, thereby bringing all air traffi c, both
By drawing on the map the two position lines, 273° and 185° military and civil, under one common control usin g coinci-
from the omni stations, the point where they intersect will be dental facilities operating from the same geographical loca-
the position at the time the bearings were taken . tions. The collocated facilities are called VORTAC's.

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 Radio Navigation: VHF Omnirange Navigation System (VOR)

models of HSI incorporate a slaved compass system. A flux

...
... .._ ~
-·-'
detector is mounted somewhere in the aeroplane where the

Distanc~\ ':·:····
magnetic influences are least (usually in a wing tip). It senses
.•.•. ..--~·Distance & Bearing any movement of the aeroplane with reference to magnetic
Bearing --4p. .._ "··, ... TACAN Antenna
north and automatically corrects any precession errors in the
•. HSI.
VOR Antennas
Course Arrow Course Deviation Bar

Fig. 9.12 VORTAC Station , Showing Facilities Available

for Use with Various Types of Airborne Equipment Glidescope
Indicator
VORTAC, therefore, gives the pilot the azimuth, or direction,
to or from the station to which he/she is tuned on VHF and
both the direction and distance on UHF.
Azimuth Card
A pilot with an omnirange receiver can tune in a VORTAC sta-
tion for directional guidance.
A pilot with DME equipment can interrogate the VORTAC sta-
Station Indicator
tion for distance information. {DME is discussed more fully
later in this Chapter.) Fig.9.14 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
A pilot with TACAN airborne equipment can get both azimuth,
The azimuth card is controlled by the HSI's gyro system. It
and distance from the VORTAC facility.
operates in exactly the same way as a standard heading indi-
cator, moving as the aeroplane changes heading, so that the
heading of the aeroplane is always at the 12 o'clock position
under the lubber line. In Fig.9.14, the heading of the aeroplane
is about 285°. The nav display superimposed over the azimuth
card moves with it, thus constantly showing the relationship
between the current heading and the selected VOR radial. As
a result, the HSI gives rather the same type of display as does
an ADF. The arrow always points directly at the VOR station
and indicates the approximate heading to take up to fly there.
The azimuth card knob (the outer portion of the knob at the
lower right) is used to set the gyroscopically controlled azi-
muth card and to correct for precession. In a slaved system,
the knob is used to set the system prior to take-off.
The heading bug can be set manually by the pilot (using the
Fig.9.13 A VORTAC Station
knob at the lower left of the instrument) as a reminder of the
heading he/she wants to maintain or of the next heading to
VORTAC stations are depicted on aeronautical charts in the be flown. When the HSI system is coupled with an autopilot,
same manner as are VOR stations, except that the symbol the heading bug controls the heading mode of the autopilot.
sited at the location of the VORTAC transmitter is a three Pulling out the knob that controls the heading bug will cage
sided figure as shown in Fig.9.13. The TACAN channel, as well the gyro.
as the VHF frequency, is printed in the information box. The course set knob (the inner portion of the knob at the lower
right) controls the position of the course arrow. The pilot
g.uo Horizontal Situation sets this arrow manually to the desired radial of the VOR to
Indicator (HSI) which the omni receiver is tuned. In Fig.9.14, the 240° radial
has been selected. As the azimuth card rotates, the course
The horizontal situation indicator {HSI), also known as the arrow moves with the card to always indicate the difference
navigation situation display (NSD) or the pictorial navigation between the aeroplane's heading and the selected course. The
indicator (PNI), is an instrument that combines the display of arrow consists of two parts . The front and tail end identify the
a heading indicator (or directional gyro) with the display of selected radial. The centre portion of the course arrow acts as
the omni indicator. It was developed to make the pilot's job a course deviation indicator (CD!). By moving to either side of
simpler, eliminating the need to compare the displays of sev- the course arrow, it indicates right or left deviation from the
eral instruments, to mentally calculate heading changes and selected radial, just as the left/right needle of a standard omni
to continuously scan and cross check. The instrument enables indicator does. As with standard omni displays, fly into the
the pilot to visualize the aeroplane's position with reference to needle to intercept the selected radial. The dots indicate the
the selected radial by giving current heading, selected course, number of degrees the aeroplane is displaced from the radial.
course deviation, station position and, when on an instrument In VOR use, each dot represents 5 degrees. In Fig.9.14, the CD!
approach, position relative to the glideslope and localizer. indicates that the aeroplane is off course 5 degrees to the left
The compass system of the HSI may be a simple gyroscopic of the radial and must alter course to the right to intercept the
heading indicator which must be set to correspond to the mag- 240° radial. When the course deviation indicator and the two
netic compass prior to take-off and must be adjusted during parts of the course arrow are all lined up, the aeroplane is on
flight to correct for precession. The somewhat more expensive the selected radial.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Radio Beacons

The station indicator consists of two white arrows aligned keyed in morse code. {For Example: Flin Flon NDB transmits
w ith the course arrow. They perform the same function as FO.) Voice transmissions are made from some NDB's.
the TO/FROM indicator of a standard omni display. When the
arrow points to the head of the course arrow (as in Fig.9.14}, it
indicates that the selected radial is TO the station. When the
arrow points to the tail of the course arrow, it indicates that
the selected radial is FROM the station. On station passage,
the arrow moves from the TO to the FROM position, or vice
versa. When the selected radial is 90 degrees to the heading
of the aeroplane, the white arrows will retract and not be vis-
ible. (Conventional TO/FROM indicators would show OFF in
this condition.)
In the centre of the instrument, a fixed aircraft symbol shows
the position and heading of the aeroplane with reference to
the other indications of the instrument. Convenient 45 degree
tic marks are painted on the outer edge of the display to help
the pilot visualize procedure turns and reciprocals.
A glideslope indicator is also incorporated into the left side of
Fig.9.15 Non - Di recti onal Beacon
the HSI. It consists of an arrowhead that moves up and down,
showing the vertical position of the aeroplane with reference NDB's are sh own on aeronautical charts by shaded circles.
to the glideslope. The aeroplane must fly into the arrow to Fig.9.15 shows the NDB at Red Deer in Alberta. The name of
intercept the glideslope. In Fig.9.14, the aeroplane is below the NDB, its two letter identification in letters and in morse
the glideslope and must fly up to intercept it. When adequate code and the LF frequency on which it transmits are all given
glideslope signals are not being received, the indicator and in the information box adjacent to the facility on the map.
scale are covered by a shutter, or OFF flag.
The HSI may be coupled with an area navigation system. 9.2.2 Fan Marker Beacons
When steering commands are generated by this system, the
Fan marker beacons are installed to provide guidance on
words RNAV appear in the lower right of the HSI display (see
Area Navigation in this Chapter). instrument approaches to som e airports in m ountain valleys.
Fan markers broadcast a signal that is elliptical in shape and
The HSI also incorporates a red h eading flag that appears
has its major dimension at right angles to the localizer course.
in the middle of the instrument to indicate loss of electri-
They are located on localizer facility courses to identify a
cal power or failure of the azimuth card to track the gyro or
designated position along the course. Fan markers are coded
slaved system. A nav warning sign appears at the lower right
and emit an audible high pitched tone. They activate the white
of the display whenever the navigation signal from the tuned
light on the m arker beacon receiver in the aircraft.
VOR is not being received or is too weak for reliable navigation.

9.2.3 Marine Beacons

9.2 Radio Beacons Marine radio beacons transmit in the low and medium fre -
quency bands a signal consisting of several letters in code.
As additional aids to navigation, several types of radio bea- Some marine radio beacons operate continuously during the
cons are in use along the airways. navigation season and can be used by aircraft for navigational
purposes. Only selected marine radio beacons are shown on
9.2.1 Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) en route aeronautical charts.

Low powered non-directional beacons operate mostly in the

190-415 and 510-535 kHz band. They are installed at certain
locations near airports to assist with instrument approach 9.3 Automatic Direction
and holding pattern procedures.
Non-directional beacons may be installed on the localizer of
Finder (ADF)
the !LS. They operate, however, independently of the !LS on The automatic direction finder is a very useful aid to aerial
a continuous basis. They are installed at these locations to n avigation. It can be used for homing to or finding direction
en able an aeroplane to home to the localizer and to track the from any station that broadcasts in the low and m edium fre -
approach course by means of ADF. For this reason, they are quency radio bands.
sometimes called compass locators. These NDB's transmit
their identifier such that the NDB on the front course trans- Aviation installations that operate in the low frequency band
mits the first letter of the two letter localizer identification include non-directional beacons and NDB's co-located with
and the NDB on the back course transmits the second. (For !LS localizers. The ADF is also able to receive commercial AM
Example: at Ottawa, the front course NDB would transmit 0 broadcasting stations and h om e on them.
and the back course NDB would transmit W.} An L/MF aviation radio installation (NDB, etc.) is readily rec-
NDB's of higher power are also in use as en route facilities. ognizable by the morse code identifier that is broadcast con-
Th ey form the basis for the LF/ MF airways/air routes system. tinuously. In the case of a commercial broadcasting station, it
ADF equipment is required in the aircraft to use these naviga- is sometimes necessary to listen for some time for a station
tional facilities. They transmit a two-letter station identifier announcem ent before positive identification can be made.

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 Radio Navigation: Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

However, modern digital tuned receivers do make it easier to the hom ing capability of the ADF. The audio feature of th e
tune a station precisely. REC position is ret ained but usually the pilot t u rns down the
The great advantage of ADF is that of range. Not being depen- volum e once the station has been positively identified
dent on line-of-sight as is the VHF omnidirectional range The EXR position is a feature of the particular ADF shown
(VOR) system, an ADF receiver is able to pick up station s at in Fig.9.16. It provides extended ran ge selection, permitting
considerable distances. strong reception of stations at great distance.
Th e BFO (beat frequency oscillator) selection provides an aural
9.3.1 ADF Navigation Equipment aid to tuning. It should be used only in tu n ing unmodulated
The ADF system consists of an ADF receiver, a loop antenna, a sign als , such as those broadcast by stations in some foreign
sense antenna and a bearing indicator. countries. It is not designed to be used w ith the modulated
signal that is transmitted by commercial broadcast stations
and aeronautical LF stations in Canada and the United States.
Antennas The BFO function allows the u nderlying morse code identifier
1\vo antennas are required for ADF operation. One of th ese, to be heard through the audio tone of the unmodulated signal.
known as the sense an tenna, is a non-directional antenna After the station is tuned and identified , the function selector
that has the capability of providing direction al information. switch should be repositioned at ADF.
The oth er antenna is a loop anten na which senses m agnetic
bearing from the aeroplane to the station. The Bearing Indicator
Back in the early days wh en ADF equipment was first intro- An ADF bearin g indicator incorporates a beari ng pointer an d
duced, the loop antenna was a com plicated installation an azim uth dial which is graduated in degrees from O to 360.
th at h ad to be manually rotated to pick up m aximum and Some indicators h ave a fixed card, such as th at in Fig.9.17.
m inimum signals from a station. Modern ADF equipment is Others have a m ovable card, such as th at in Fig.9.18.
m anufactured on the principle of solid state circuitry and has With a bearing indicator with a fixed card, the nose of th e
fewer moving parts and is therefore easier to operate and is aeroplane is always oriented to 0 on th e bearing indicator,
considered m ore reliable. regardless of the actu al magnetic heading of the aeroplane.
The sense antenna usually is a long wire installed on the top
of the aeroplane, stretching from an insulator near th e top of
the fuselage back to the stabilizer.
The loop antenna, a metal ring enclosing coils of insulated
wires, is usually contained w ithin a streamlined housing
mounted well forward on the u nderside of the fuselage.

1
Ill
.I Oj....i
c c 11

II ;:() ~ff
- 0- 0- 0
'-------·=·_.. ...
Fig. 9.16 Automatic Direction Finder Fig.9.17 ADF Bearing Indicat or (Fixed Card)

Very recent innovations in ADF equipmen t incorporate both With a bearing indicator with a movable card, the pilot is able
the sense and the loop antennas in a single blade antenna to rotate the azimuth card so that it corresponds with the
installed on the top of the fuselage. h eading of the aeroplane indicated by the heading indicator
and th e magnetic compass.
The ADF Receiver Regardless of which type of bearing indicator is used, th e
Modern ADF receivers are digital tuned providing rapid and bearing pointer always points in the direction of the station
precise tuning to any desired frequency. Th ey receive stations to which the receiver is tuned.
throughout th e low and m edium frequency band.
The loop antenn a which senses the magnetic bearing of th e
The ADF receiver, like th e ADF pictured in Fig.9.16, receives station is positioned in relation to the longitudinal axis of th e
information from the antenna and translates it into move- aeroplane. It measu res, and the ADF pointer on the bearing
m ent of the needle of the bearing indicator. indicator displays, the number of degrees, m easured clock-
The ADF receiver incorporates a five position function selec- w ise, between the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane and the
tor switch. station. This is known as a relative bearing.

The REC position (on other m odels of ADF equipment, this The magnetic bearing of a station can, therefore, be deter-
position is sometimes called ANT for antenna) selects only mined from th e displayed information . It is the su m of the
th e non-direction al or sense antenna. The loop antenna and magnetic headin g of th e aeroplane and th e relative bearing.
therefore the bearing selector are disconnected from the
system. With the switch in this position, the receiver operates Magnetic Bearing =
as an ordinary L/MF receiver, receiving the voice facilities of
Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing
the station to which it is tuned. This switch position is used
MB = MH +RB
for station identification or for listening only.
Or, conversely
When operated in the ADF position, th e receiver selects the MH = MB - RB or RB = MB - MH
autom atic direction finding loop antenna which in combi-
nation with the signal received by the sense antenna gives

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

For example, the aeroplane in which the ADF in Fig.9.17 is 090° and on towards 180°. As long as the aeroplane maintains
installed is flying on a magnetic heading of 090°. The ADF a constant heading, the bearing pointer, of course, will never
bearing indicator (fixed card) indicates that the station to point directly to 180° since the station will never be directly
which the ADF receiver is tuned has a relative bearing from behind the aeroplane.
the aeroplane of 135°. The magnetic bearing to the station (i.e.
In the following discussion of how to use the ADF, we will
the magnetic heading to which the aeroplane would have to
assume that the aeroplane is equipped with an ADF bearing
turn in order to fly directly to the station) would therefore be
indicator with a fixed card.
225° (090° + 135°).

Horning to a Station
In order to fly directly to the ADF facility to which the receiver
is tuned, simply turn the nose of the aeroplane until the
pointer of the bearing indicator points to 000°. Keeping the
pointer on zero will result in a straight course to the station .
On passage over the station, the pointer will swing around to
180° indicating that the station is now behind. The aeroplane
is then able to track away from the station by keeping the
pointer of the bearing indicator on 180°.
The above procedure is valid in a no-wind situation. The wind,
however, tends to drift the aeroplane to one side or the other
of a straight line to the station. A continuous process of correc-
Fig.9.18 ADF Bearing Indicator (Moveable Card) tion of drift occurs as the ADF keeps heading the nose of the
aeroplane towards the station . The resultant track flown is a
An ADF bearing indicator with a movable azimuth card auto - curved line (Fig.9.19).
matically displays the magnetic bearing of the station. In
The progressive change in the heading of the aeroplane will
Fig.9.18, the azimuth card of the bearing indicator has been
be indicated to the pilot by the magnetic compass or heading
rotated to 350° to correspond to the magnetic heading of the indicator.
aeroplane. The pointer indicates that the station to which the
ADF in this case is tuned has a magnetic bearing of 145° (the In a crosswind situation where the wind is causing the aero-
relative bearing is 155°). plane to drift away from the straight line track to the station,
it is possible to narrow the curvature of the track by the fol -
lowing method:
9,3.2 ADF Navigation The pilot has tuned the station on which he/she wishes to
First of all, let us review the behaviour of the bearing indicator home and has centred the ADF pointer to 000°. As the track
in various flight situations. that he/she intends to fly is 090° magnetic, the heading indica-
Let's take an example of an aeroplane with a bearing indicator tor will read 090° (Fig.9.19 top).
with a fixed card. If the aeroplane is heading directly towards
the station, the bearing indicator pointer will point straight up H.J. 110°
to 000° (towards the nose of the aeroplane). If the aeroplane is
heading directly away from the station, the pointer will point H.J. ogoo
ADF 000°
H.J. 095°
ADF 000°
~
¥ · · · · · · ---.
ADF WIND

... ----·-· ··.

straight down to 180° (towards the tail of the aeroplane). If the
aeroplane turns 90° to the signal from the station, so that the +:::::~:-.~---- __-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-________________________________ @
station is on its left, the pointer will point to 270° (towards the
left wing). If the station is on the right, the pointer will point B
to 090° (towards the right wing).
A H.J. 098°
ADF 357°
H.J. 098°
ADF 357°
Wind Direction
Suppose that the bearing indicator has a movable card. The H.J. 090°
aeroplane in the above example is on a heading of 020° mag- ADF 000° ':/: ~
netic. The pilot has rotated the azimuth card of the bearing
indicator to set 20 under the upper azimuth index. If the aero-
+ :·:_·_·_·_·_-_-____ ---~~--~~~~~~~ --- ___::::::::::::::~"--·0
plane is flying directly towards the station, the pointer will
point straight up to 020°. If the aeroplane is heading directly Fig. 9.19 Correction for Wind Drift
away from the station, the pointer will point straight down to
200° (020° + 180°). If the station is directly off the left wing, the After flying some minutes, the pilot notes the heading by HI
pointer will point to 290° (020°+ 270°). If the station is off the has altered to 095°. He/she, therefore, realizes that the aircraft
is drifting to port and that the wind is from the starboard.
right wing, the pointer will point to 110° (020° + 090°).
He/she heads the nose of the aeroplane, say, 3° more into the
Now, let us suppose that an aeroplane is flying a track that wind, steering 357° by ADF instead of 000° (098° by HI, see
will take it directly over the station to which the ADF is tuned. Fig.9.19 bottom).
On the heading in to the station, the ADF pointer will point Note that when the heading is altered to starboard by the heading
to 000° (fixed card). As soon as the aeroplane passes over the indicator (i.e. increases), the heading on the ADF alters to port (i.e.
station, the pointer will swing around and point to 180° as the decreases).
aeroplane heads away from the station.
If the heading continues to alter to starboard by HI, the pilot
Let us suppose that an aeroplane is flying a track that will should steer a few more degrees into wind and continue this
take it past a station that is off its right wing. As the aero- process until he/she finally observes that the heading by HI
plane approaches and passes the station, the ADF pointer will remains constant. He/she has now counteracted wind drift
gradually increase its reading from its initial indication, past and established a straight heading towards the station.

© Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Radio Navigation: Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

oo
/,.?.<. 300-
,... IA\
~

Outbound x/ -:~<>~_i···-j,
... .............. ..........
--------~.... ..340°
~--···/
..... _
........
...... .. .....
NDB

.. :::::·_·_-_·:~~~: ___ -------------------------------------.¢- ·-.......... Jr 020°

'i :,"t-.
·--·--300°
Fig . 9.20 Reverse Homing Error
Fig.9.22 Choosing the Proper Magnetic Heading
Having reach ed and passed the station, a pilot must be in Order to Intercept an ADF Course
especially careful to maintain the desired track when flying
an outbound track from an AOF facility. If there has been a In actual practice, some allowance should be made for the
significant crosswind, keeping the AOF needle on the tail of turn. The turn onto the desired course should be started a few
the aeroplane {180°) and allowing the heading to change will degrees before the AOF pointer reaches the required relative
result in a curved track leading away from the desired des- bearing. How does a pilot choose the proper magnetic heading
tination. This reverse homing error will take him/ her far off to fly to intercept a particular AOF course? First of all, he /she
course. Flying an outbound track requires special attention to should take up a heading which parallels the desired course,
wind drift, crab angle and heading. ch eck the AOF indicator and note the number of degrees th e
needle is off the 0 index. The interception angle should be
To Intercept an ADF Track double this amount. For example, let us assume that you w ish
Sometimes a pilot may wish to fly a specific course into a to intercept a course to an AOF station that has a magnetic
station. This would happen when an AOF facility, such as an bearing of 300° to the station. Take up a heading of 300° and
NOB, is located several miles from an airport. The extension of you note on the AOF indicator that the station is to your right
the magnetic track joining the NOB to the airport will be the at a relative bearing of 020°. Make 40° your interception angle
track the pilot needs to intercept and turn to in order to arrive and fly a course of 340° magnetic. When the AOF bearing indi-
over the station on the proper heading to reach the airport. cator indicates a relative bearing of 320°, you have intercepted
the desired course. (Magnetic heading of 340° plus relative
After tuning in the station, the pilot should select a magnetic bearing of 320° equals magnetic bearing of 300° - 340 plus
heading by HI that will intercept the required course to the 320 less 360). Turn onto a magnetic heading of 300° and fly
AOF facility. By applying the formula given above (i.e. RB = the AOF track into the station by keeping the AOF needle on

e
MB-MH), it is relatively simple to determine the relative bear- 0, {Fig.9.22).
ing shown on the AOF indicator that indicates interception of
the required track. Deviation S"W

0700 osoo
\~\tr·u.~'.~'.~'~;:
·········•···.•.:)(_.........- o• \.. .-il~~~~~or~···... .

r
-: , , Compass North ..\ •. Heading

\I _ ___ . .- -.. - ·
\\ ! •..-" ". 30° Relative Bearing
......... ····-v·
.-
... r---... 1.,
-.<Oo
t
.......· -----~
\.,..-
~ ------ --- --- -- - - -------------------·
• /2' . .

x..
BeanngLme

···--·-@ Fig. 9.23 Conversion of a Relative Beari ng (Shown

on Dial) to a Geographical Bearing

Fig. 9.21 Intercepting an ADF Track

Taking Bearings
For example, the course to the NOB that the pilot wishes to Bearings can be taken on AOF facilities in the same way as
intercept has a magnetic bearing of 120°. The magnetic head- they can be taken on VOR stations.
ing selected by the pilot in order to make the interception is To take a bearing on an NOB or a broadcasting station, etc.,
050°. The AOF indicator should indicate a relative bearing of that is off track, tune in to the frequency of the station. Th e
the station of 070° when the aeroplane intercepts the cou rse pointer on the bearing indicator will indicate the direction of
(magnetic bearing of 120° minus magnetic heading of 050° the station from the h eadin g, or longitudinal axis, of the aero-
equals relative bearing of 070°). plane. This is, as we have already learned, a relative bearing
On intercepting the course, the pilot should turn the nose of from the aeroplane to the station.
the aeroplane until the bearing indicator pointer centres on The magnetic bearing of the station is the sum of the mag-
000°and then keep the pointer on 000° to arrive over the sta- netic heading of the aeroplane and the relative bearing.
tion, (Fig.9.21).

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

To plot a position line on an aeronautical chart, the magnetic aeroplane and maximum at bearings in between. Most ADF
bearing of the station must be converted to a true bearing by receivers have provisions for making a partial correction for
applying deviation and variation. this error. In this case, the loop antenna should be installed
Fig.9.23 graphically shows how to convert a relative bearing to in a position on the aeroplane where the built-in quadrantal
a true, or geographical, bearing. error compensation matches the error caused by the aero-
plane. But this is difficult and time consuming and rarely
The relative bearing of the station from the aeroplane is 30°. done. The quadrantal error can be determined by swinging
The compass heading of the aeroplane is 075°. Therefore, the the aeroplane both on the ground and in the air. However, this
compass bearing of the station is 105°. too is difficult to do and therefore is rarely done. Usually the
error is less than 10° and since the system is accurate off the
By applying the deviation of 5°W and the variation of 10°W,
nose and other cardinal points, the quadrantal error does not
the true bearing of 090° is determined.
affect operation of the ADF significantly.
The true bearing can be plotted as a position line on an aero-
nautical chart. Draw a line on the chart away from the station,
that is, using the reciprocal of the bearing. This is a position
Oscillation of the Needle
Normally, a small degree of needle oscillation is a built-in fea-
line, somewhere on which the aeroplane is known to have
ture of the automatic direction finder. It indicates to the pilot
been at the time the bearing was taken.

/r+
that the instrument is functioning. Wide fluctuations of the
needle, however, may be due to the following causes:
1. Bad static conditions.
A C 2. A weak signal. (The ADF is tuned to a station that

@.+ - - - - - - - - - - - •tt---@ 3.
is too far distant or not sufficiently powerful.)
The aeroplane is midway between two stations which
are both transmitting on the frequency tuned.
Fig. 9.24 Correction for Wind Dri ft with Dual ADF
When wide oscillation, or hunting, of the needle occurs, aver-
A. Pilot tunes one ADF to station ahead and the other to station age the oscillation and fly the average heading.
behind. Dual pointers are on reciprocal bearings. B. Wind drifts pilot
to left of the course. Dual pointers no longer on reciprocal bearings. C. Night Effect
Pilot steers right until dual pointers are on reciprocal bearings again, The low and medium frequency radio bands produce both
indicating that the course has been regained. For remainder of fligh t ground and sky waves. The ADF homes on the ground waves.
pilot maintains heading which wi ll keep dual pointers on reciprocal At night, the sky waves are much stronger than in the daytime
bearings. since at night they are most reflected by the ionosphere. Since
When two or more bearings are taken nearly simultaneously the sky waves may be arriving from any direction depending
on several different stations and the position lines plotted on on how and where they have been reflected, they cause errors
a chart, the point where the position lines intersect will be in the ADF bearing indication. The bearing indicator will
a fix (the position of the aeroplane at the time the bearings swing rapidly as the sky wave changes. This is called night
were taken). effect. The farther from the station, the more pronounced
will be the night effect. Within some minimum distance of
When plotting a fix by two or more position lines, the angle
the station (varying from 20 to 40 nautical miles), the night
between the position lines should not be less than 30°.
effect usually disappears. Much larger errors are possible due
to propagation disturbances caused by sunrise and sunset.
DualADF Bearings taken between one hour before sunset and one hour
Some aeroplanes are equipped with two automatic direction after sunrise may be very inaccurate. Night effect is more
finders. With dual ADF, a pilot may take simultaneous bear- noticeable over land than over sea. It is also more pronounced
ings on two stations, or may home on one station and at the at the higher frequencies so that homing on a broadcast sta-
same time obtain a continuous bearing on another station, tion will be more affected than on an NOB beacon. In order
thereby providing a running position fix. to minimize night effect, choose a station to home on with a
Dual ADF may be used to correct wind drift when homing. low frequency.
This is done by tuning one receiver to a station ahead and the
other to a station behind. The heading is adjusted to keep the Terrain Effect
two needles in line, that is, on reciprocal bearings (Fig.9.24).
COASTAL EFFECT
Dual ADF is particularly useful to a pilot on instruments As radio waves pass from land to water, their direction of
executing a holding pattern procedure over an NOB. It can also travel is changed. This is known as shoreline effect. Because
be used to track the approach course to the runway. of this, a bearing taken on an inland station from an aeroplane
over water is inaccurate if it makes an angle of less than 30°
9.3.3 ADF System Inaccuracies with the shoreline. At greater angles, bending is negligible.
When taking bearings over water, therefore, choose either sta-
tions right on the shore, such as marine stations, or stations
Quadrantal Error so located that bearings on them make angles greater than 30°
The ADF is affected by an error very similar to deviation in the with the shoreline.
magnetic compass. This is called quadrantal error. It is caused
by refraction, or bending of the incoming radio waves by the MOUNTAIN EFFECT
metal structure of the aeroplane. Quadrantal error is minimal In mountain terrain, the signal is reflected off the side of
at the cardinal points (off the nose, tail and wing tips) of the mountains. The signal that arrives at the ADF loop antenna
may not, therefore, be coming directly from the station.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Radio Navigation: Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Erroneous and fluctuating bearings may be registered on the the station. (The RMI VOR needle does not represent the posi-
ADF bearing indicator. tion of the aeroplane with reference to a desired radial regard-
less of the aeroplane's direction of flight, as does the course
ORE DEPOSITS deviation indicator. It merely points to the station in exactly
Ore deposits will sometimes cause the needle of the ADF to the same way as the RMI ADF needle points to a L/MF navaid.)
deflect off course.
In the RMI depicted in Fig.9.25, the aeroplane is on a magnetic
heading of 324°. An NOB (or other L/MF) facility is off the port
Ice & Sleet wing at a bearing of 290° magnetic. A VOR facility is off the
Accumulation of ice and sleet on the antennae tends to pro- starboard wing at a bearing of 012° magnetic. As Jong as the
duce erroneous readings of the ADF needle and also reduce aeroplane continues on its present course, the ADF needle will
signal strength. continuously move counterclockwise as the aeroplane passes
abeam of the station. The VOR needle will move clockwise
Precipitation Static as the aeroplane moves past that station. (In both cases, the
When flying in heavy rain or snow, static may be encountered needles will slow in their movement as they approach the 6
on the low and medium frequency bands. This static may be o'clock position and will settle short of it, since neither station
severe enough to interfere with the pointing capabilities of the will ever be directly behind, but always slightly to port and
bearing indicator needle. Reception of the audio signal may be starboard respectively.) If the pilot wishes to intercept the 040°
so poor that identification of the station is impossible. radial inbound to the VOR, he/she would continue on course
(324°) until the arrowhead of the VOR needle points to 040° on
Precipitation static can be lessened by reducing the airspeed
the compass card and then turn to starboard (into the needle)
of the aeroplane.
to that heading. The single bar needle will then be pointing
Thunderstorms, containing large charges of static electricity, straight up pointing to the VOR station directly ahead. The
also interfere with the L/MF radio waves and cause erroneous double bar needle will continue to respond to the ADF signal
readings of the ADF. from the L/MF facility that is now astern of the aeroplane.
The latest generation of RMI incorporates a switching capabil-
9.3.4 Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) ity by which the pilot is able to select either VOR or ADF for
The radio magnetic indicator (RMI) is an instrument that each needle. The instrument can, at the pilot's option, work
combines the directional function of a heading indicator (or both needles on two different VOR's or on two different L/MF
directional gyro) with an indicator which points to a spe- navaids or on one VOR and one L/ MF station. (The aeroplane
cific selected navaid, in other words, a bearing indicator. The must, of course, be equipped with dual VHF nav receivers and
development of the radio magnetic indicator was a natural dual ADF receivers to utilize this feature to full capacity.)
outgrowth of the introduction of ADF and is a valuable instru- The great advantage of the RMI is that it offers instant informa-
ment because it tends to reduce pilot workload. tion on magnetic bearings to navaids on one instrument. The
pilot is free of the mental task of calculating relative bearings
and magnetic bearings. In addition, the two needles provide
simultaneous bearings on two different stations, giving the
pilot position lines by which to continuously establish fixes
on stations that are abeam of the aeroplane. The VOR feature
of the instrument frees the pilot of the task of centering the
needle of the OBS to determine which radial he/she is on. The
RMI presents continuously the relative position of a VOR in
the same way as it does an ADF station. The information can
be used to identify a VOR intersection as has been described
above. The RMI provides more warning of interception than
does a conventional CD!. To fly directly to a VOR, it is only
necessary to read the magnetic bearing to the station under
the arrowhead of the VOR needle and turn to that heading.
Fig. 9.25 Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI}

The rotating compass card of the RMI is controlled by a

remotely mounted slaved compass so that the magnetic
heading of the aeroplane relative to magnetic north is always
9.4 Distance Measuring
presented under the index at the 12 o'clock position of the
instrument. In a slaved system, there is no tendency to pre-
Equipment (DME)
cession and there is, therefore, no requirement for periodic DME (distance measuring equipment) is an electronic trans-
adjustment as is necessary in a gyroscopic heading indicator. mitter/receiver that gives the pilot a continuous reading of
The bearing indicator needles of the RMI always point to the distance to a fixed ground station. It does this by measuring
navigational facility and therefore display magnetic bearing the time it takes a transmitted radio signal to travel to and
to the station. return from the ground station. Since radio waves travel at a
Most radio magnetic indicators use two indicator needles, one constant, known speed, it is easy to convert the radio signal
of which is tied to the ADF receiver while the other responds travel time into distance. The ground installation from which
to signals from the VOR receiver. Each needle points to the DME can obtain distance information is a VORTAC or a TACAN
station to which its complimentary nav receiver is tuned. station transmitting a radar beacon on UHF.
Usually the ADF information is displayed on the double bar The airborne equipment transmits pulses to the ground sta-
pointer and the VOR information on the single bar pointer. The tion that, in effect, ask "How far am I from your station?"
arrowhead of the RMI VOR needle indicates the radial inbound Each aircraft interrogation has a unique transmission rate or
to the station and the tail indicates the radial outbound from pattern which the ground station reproduces in its replies to

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

that aircraft even transmitting on the same frequency to all The DME is also used in making orbiting or arc approaches to
aircraft working the station. The airborne DME receiver selects an airport. The DME arc is a course flown at a constant DME
the reply pulses designated for itself (i.e. those with the same distance around a navaid such as a VORTAC which provides
rate relationship as used in its own original transmission), distance information. In a case where the VORTAC is located
measures electronically the time interval between its own a few miles (for example, S miles) from the airport, by keeping
transmission and the received reply, converts the elapsed that mileage reading constant on your indicator (S miles in our
time into a mileage figure which is continuously displayed in example), you will be able to bring your aeroplane right over
the cockpit indicator as the slant range from the aeroplane to the airport. The exact position of the airport can be pinpointed
the station. The range increases as the plane flies away from a by using the omni in conjunction with the DME. The airport
station and decreases as it approaches the station. lies on a particular omni radial from the VORTAC and will be
Slant range can be converted into ground distance by the fol- located where the radial intersects the orbiting track.
lowing formula : ground distance is the square root of S2 (slant DME operates in the 960 to 1,21S MHz UHF range, transmitting
range in nautical miles) minus A2 (altitude in nautical miles). in the range from 960 to 1,024 MHz and from 1,1S1 to 1,21S
When the slant range is more than double the altitude, the dif- MHz and receiving in the 1,02S to 1,lSO MHz range.
ference between slant range and ground distance is negligible. DME is normally collocated with VOR installations (VOR/ DME).
However, when the aircraft is in the vicinity of a station and at It may also be collocated with an !LS or with localizers for LOCI
high altitude, the difference between slant range and ground LDA approaches. It is also sometimes collocated with en route
distance will be appreciable. In such a case, the pilot must NDBs to provide improved navigation capability. DME chan-
employ the above formula to determine the actual ground nels are paired with VOR, NDB or localizer channels so that,
distance from the station unless the DME includes a compo- when you choose on your DME equipment a VOR channel, you
nent solver that converts slant mileage to horizontal mileage automatically choose the UHF frequency as well. Channels on
automatically. the DME channel selector are marked with the VOR frequen-
In practical application, the DME readings can be considered cies even though it is controlling DME channels in the UHF
accurate if the aeroplane is over S miles from the station. MHz range. A DME frequency requiring only one decimal place
Within S miles, slant range must be considered. Directly over (e.g. 110.3 MHz) is known as an X channel; one that requires 2
a VORTAC installation, the DME will read altitude above the decimal places (e.g. 112.4S MHz) is known as a Y channel.
station in nautical miles.
MHz .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
DME units also have the capability to give groundspeed read-
108 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
ings and a time- to-station reading.
109 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
The DME pictured in Fig.9.26 is a typical airborne unit. It has
110 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
200 channel capability and a gaseous discharge display. It
features two display modes. The first provides simultaneous
111 47 48 49 so S1 S2 S3 S4 SS S6
distance to station, groundspeed and time to station informa- 11 2 S7 S8 S9 70 71 72 73 74 7S 76
tion. The second displays distance to station and frequency. 113 77 78 79 80J 81 82 83 84 8S 86
The frequency may be selected either internally or remotely 114 87 88 89 9~ 91 92 93 94 9S 96
from a VOR nav receiver. 11 5 97 98 99 100 ~ 01 102 103 104 105 106
All DME distance readings are in nautical miles and the 116 107 108 109 110 1'_1 112 113 114 115 116
groundspeed readings are in knots. 11 7 117 118 119 120 12\ 122 123 124 12S 126
\
Example: TACAN channel 80 pairs with 113.3 MHz

Fig . 9.27 Chart of TACAN & VHF Channels

The TACAN military installations can also be used to derive

distance measurement. The TACAN stations are designated
on navigation charts by channel numbers 1 through 126. The
chart in Fig.9.27 shows how to translate a TACAN channel into
megahertz in the VOR band.
Fig. 9.26 DME Receiver
Remember, however, that only the distance information
A DME groundspeed reading, however, is accurately displayed derived from a TACAN station is valid. Any apparent radial
only when the aeroplane is flying on a course inbound or out- information obtained through a coupled VOR receiver must be
bound from a VORTAC station. When the aeroplane is flying considered a false signal since the nature of the TACAN instal-
past a station, the DME groundspeed reading will be mean- lation is such that only special TACAN equipment can derive
ingless because of the principle on which the DME makes its azimuth information from it.
computations. An inaccurate reading will also be displayed
DME equipment is considered reliable up to 200 nautical
when the aeroplane is passing directly over the station. The
miles from the station. Some equipment, however, limits
groundspeed indicator will drop to O for the period that the
its distance readout to a maximum of about 170 miles. It is
aeroplane is over the VORTAC installation.
considered accurate within about 2%. Since UHF reception is
The groundspeed feature of the DME is of special value to you dependent on line-of-sight, altitude is important in the effi-
for it allows you to choose the altitude where you will encoun- ciency of the equipment. The higher the altitude, the greater
ter the most favourable winds. By flying at several different the effective range.
altitudes and observing the groundspeed readout on the DME,
you can determine at which altitude the groundspeed was
highest (i.e. an indication of the most favourable winds).

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Radio Navigation: Instrument Landing System (ILS)

Note: The above needle indications apply when the pilot is inbound
9.s Instrument Landing towards the field. When flying outbound away from the field, the
needle sensing is reversed.
System (ILS) The glide path beam guides the aircraft along the proper
The instrument landing system, or !LS, is a method of guiding downward approach path to enable it to touch down on the
a pilot through the overcast to a landing by means of visual threshold of th e runway. The glide path transmitter is situat-
re ference to instruments in the cockpit. Th e system provides ed about 1,000 fe et from the approach end of th e runway and
alignment and descent information about the approach path is offset approximately 400 feet from the runway centreline. It
of the aircraft as it desc ends towards the runway. operates in the UHF frequency band between 329.3 and 335.0
MHz. Each glide path frequency is paired with a correspond-
The system consists of a localizer, a glide path transmitter ing VHF localizer frequency. The centre of the glide path beam
and a non-dire ctional beacon (NDB) along the approach path. is aligned with the centre of the localizer beam (the area of
A DME fix may replace the NDB in certain installations. equal strength between the 90 and the 150 hertz patterns)
The localizer transmits a radio beam whose purpose is to and extends about 1° above and below the centre. Th e glide
keep the pilot lined up with the centreline of the runway. The path projection is normally set at an angle of 3° from the
localizer transmitter is located at the far end of the runway horizontal. There is no usable back course glide path. At some
and operates in the VHF frequency band between 108.1 and airports, an !LS is installed at each end of a runway to provide
111.9 MHz (on odd frequencies). The transmitter sends out a front course approach to either end of the runway. The two
two signal patterns, one modulated at 90 hertz and the other systems are interlocked so th at only one !LS can operate at
at 150 hertz. The 90 hertz signal is to the left of the centreline any one time.
and the 150 hertz signal is to the right of the centreline. When Identification for both the localizer and glide path is transmit-
the aircraft is on an extension of the centreline of the runway, ted on the localizer frequency on the form of a two letter or
it receives the two signals equally and the localizer needle on letter number indicator preceded by the letter I: a 1.2 second
the OMNI display is centered. The aeroplane will remain lined space separates the I from the standard identifier. For exam-
up with the runway if the pilot maintains a heading to keep ple I OW - !LS Ottawa.
the needle centered. The localizer course which is associated
with the glide path and the outer marker beacon is called the The instrument in the cockpit which enables the pilot to
front course. Many localizer installations also provide a back follow these two beams is the course deviation indicator and
course which is the reciprocal of the front course and which cross-pointer indicator of the VOR indicator (see Fig.9.7 and
enables a pilot to carry out a non-precision approach using the the insert in Fig.9.28). The vertical (localizer) and the cross-
other end of the runway. However, when inbound on the back pointers (glide path) give the pilot directions. If the aircraft
course, reverse needle sensing applies and it is necessary to gets off to the right or left of the approach to the runway, the
correct opposite to the needle. There is no glide path informa- vertical needle indicates which side and how far. The hori-
tion provided for a back course approach. Not all !LS local- zontal needle indicates if the aircraft is above or below the
izers radiate a usable back course signal. Always check the proper glide path. A flag alarm signal appears when a weak,
publish ed information about an !LS at any particular runway. u nreliable or null signal is being received.
A low powered NDB is located on the localizer (front and back

•
courses) about 3.5 to 6 miles from the runway threshold to
VHF Runway Localizer
provide a fix to which the pilot can navigate for the transition
to the !LS. In some cases, an en route NDB is located on the
i ~-....... .,. 1000· .
· ·· · ·~ o~·~~~way Length (typical)
localizer to serve as a terminal as well as an en route facil-
ity. These NDB's transmit a single letter indicator: the NOB
on the front course localizer transmits the first letter of the
I I :-. ··· • 3.5 <o6 mil" (<ypicol) two letter localizer indicator and the NOB on the back course
750-12~;:· . transmits the second.
A OME fix, which may be installed wh ere it is not practicable
UHF Glide Path
Transmitter to install an NOB provides distance info rmation to define the
initial approach fix and missed approach fix.
A further development of the system combines !LS with the
automatic pilot, enabling the aeroplane to be flown down the
two beams to a landin g automatically.
'Not necessarily standard
0
Approximate width (full scale limits) · · . ._
*
3° above horizontal The original !LS inst allations included several marker bea-
cons. An outer and a middle marker were installed on the
Fig. 9.28 The Instrument Landing System front course and a back marker was sometimes installed on
the back course. Their purpose was to let the pilot know the
The insert shows the localizer and cross-pointer indicators. The
distance of the aircraft from the threshold of the runway
instrument illustrated shows the pilot is off the localizer beam to the
during an instrument landing approach. The marker beacons
right and must turn left"into the needle" to centre the vertical needle
emitted an audible signal that was heard as a series of dots
and get back on the beam. He/she is above the glide path and must
and/or dashes. They also illuminated signal lights on the
fly down "into the needle" to centre the horizontal needle and get back
marker beacon receiver in the aircraft. These marker bea-
on the glide path.
cons are, for the most part, being phased out and are being
replaced by NOB's. They may be retained in a few locations

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Area Navigation

where terrain difficulties have made the in stallation of an long distances. Area navigation greatly enhances air traffic
NOB impracticable. con trol flexibility providing relief for some of the problems of
Th e broadcast beam of the !LS localizer can be considered air congestion and relieving some of the workload of air traf-
valid and reliable through 35° on either side of the front course fic controllers. It also contributes to air safety since it permits
centreline for a distance of 10 n.m. from the transmitter and the pilot to choose a route that will bypass heavily congested
through 10° for a distance of lS n.m. from the transmitter, for areas and it reduces the fun nelling of traffic over navigation
both the front and back courses. Beyond these limits, false or aids. It permits the establishment of multiple side-by-side
erratic indications may be received. routes between main centres and permits segregation of traf-
fic on the basis of speed. The direct point-to-point navigation
Failure of cert ain elements of the multi-element localizer
reduces flight time by shortening flight paths.
antenna systems can cause false courses or low clearances
beyond S0 from the front or back course centreline. This could
result in a premature cockpit indication of approach ing or
9.6.1 Area Navigation (RNAV)
intercepting an on course centreline. A coupled approach RNAV, by freeing the pilot from the need to fly directly to and
should be initiated only when the aircraft is established on away from radio navigation facilities, has provided greater
the localizer centreline. It is important also to confirm the lateral freedom for aircraft and, at the same time, allowed for
localizer or course indication by reference to the heading more complete use of the airspace.
indicator. False on course captures can occur anywhere from
As a result, flight distances can be minimized, traffic con-
S0 to 35° but are most likely to occur in the vicinity of S0 to 12°
gestion decreased and traffic flow at terminal areas can be
azimuth from th e published localizer course. expedited. In addition, instrument approach es, within certain
Electronic interference on !LS localizer system integrity is limits, can be made at airports without local instrument land-
becoming significant especially in built-up areas where power ing systems.
transmitter st ations, industrial activity and broadcast trans-
With the capabilities of an RNAV system, precise off-air-
m it ters generate interference w ith localizer receivers.
ways, cross-country navigation is possible using the present
The interference may be transitory. Certain receivers are VORTAC facilities. The RNAV permits a pilot to fly directly
more susceptible than others. The interference is not likely from any spot in the service area of a VORTAC to any other
to cause erroneous readings where the aircraft is being flown spot in that service area, at all times knowing exact position
within the margins quoted above. and the distance to destination. Neither the destination point
nor the starting point need be serviced by any kind of naviga-
9.5.1 ILS Categories tional aid to use this system of straight line navigation. The
pilot no lon ger needs to track to a VORTAC installation, cross
Category I (CAT I) allows operation down to minima of 200 it and track out, doglegging his/ her way to destination.
feet decision height (DH) with a runway visual range (RVR)
of 2,600 feet or, when RVR is not available, 0.5 s.m. ground A typical RNAV airborne system is pictured in Fig.9.29. This
visibility. instrument is the computer of the system. In addition to it,
the aeroplane must be equipped with a VHF NAV receiver,
Category II (CAT II) allows operation to minima as low as 100 a DME and a Nav display unit, such as a conventional VOR
feet DH with an RVR as low as 1,200 feet depending on the indicator with RNAV mode or an HSI. The VHF NAV receiver
category of aircraft. provides the VOR information to the RNAV computer neces-
Category III (CAT III} minima are prescribed in an air carrier's sary for establishing a waypoint along the radial of a particu-
operating specifications or manuals, or in the Canada Air lar VORTAC. The DME provides range information so that the
Pilot (CAP). RNAV can compute the distance from the VORTAC to the way-
Precision approach lighting systems are installed at airports point. With this information, the RNAV computes the aero-
plane's position relative to the waypoint. The HSI indicates
that have been approved for !LS category operations. Such
lighting systems include: approach lights, runway threshold the course to fly to reach the waypoint and the DME provides
lights, touchdown zone lights, centreline lights, runway edge an updated display of distance to the waypoint.
lights, runway end ligh ts, all stop bars and lead-on lights, and
essential taxiway lights.
63.B 168 23 llY.90
NM KT MIN FRO RAD DST
9. 5. 2 Localizer Approach PAR ENR APR I I
A localizer without glide path guidance is installed at some VDR RNV HLD ILS USE DSP
air ports to provide track guidance du ring an approach. These NAV SYSTEM
aids m ay have a back course associated with them. Where rMOOE, DME rWAYPOINT1 rFRQ-RAD-DST,
the localizer is aligned within 3° of the runway, the approach • mm cm a mm m.m !C\PULL 0
procedure is called a localizer (LOC) approach. oFFV ID

Fig. 9.29 RNAV System

9.6 Area Navigation In a typical RNAV system, it is possible for the pilot to pre-
Area navigation systems, such as RNAV, INS, and GPS are program the waypoints that will be used during a particular
invaluable in permitting flight to points that are not served flight. To create a waypoint, it is only necessary to key into the
by any kind of navigation aid, in finding airports in marginal RNAV computer the radial from the VORTAC and the distance
weather. They permit straigh t line cross-cou ntry flights over from the VORTAC of the site chosen to be a waypoint. During

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Radio Navigation: Area Navigation

the flight, the pilot selects the desired waypoint and all the aircraft's movement in all three axes (pitch, roll and yaw) .
information for it that h as been stored in the computer's While no more accurate than the earlier gyro systems, lasers
memory will appear on the digital readouts. The remotely have much high er mean time between fai lures, MTBF's, (e.g.
channelled NAV receiver and the DME will automatically be 10,000 hours versus 2,500 hours) because of their lack of
ch annelled to the new VORTAC frequency. The HSI (or OBS) moving parts. Often, the laser system will provide its data
will indicate the aeroplane's position relative to the waypoint. direct to the onboard flight management system. In this
The DME readout will show the distance of the aeroplane application, the laser is called an inertial reference system
from the wayp oint. (IRS).

What the RNAV system does is create an imaginary VORTAC

station over the waypoint. The HSI reacts to the radials radiat-
ing out from this imaginary VORTAC station. The DME com-
putes distance to it.
When th e HSI (or OBS) is working in the RNAV mode, the
deflection of the CD! needle that indicates off course error is
in nautical miles rather than in degrees. Each dot represents
1/2 mile off course.
Most manufacturers call their area navigation systems of this
type RNAV. It is also known as a course line computer or track
line computer.

9.6.2 Inertial Navigation System (INS)

The inertial navigation system is a completely self-contained Fig. 9.30 Inertial Navigation System
system, independen t of any ground based n avigation aids.
After being supplied with initial position information, it is
capable, by use of a computer, precision gyros and sensitive
9.6.3 Global Navigation Satellite
accelerom eters, of continuously updating extrem ely accu rate Systems (GNSS)
displays of position, groundspeed, attitude and heading. It
The International Civil Aviation Organization (!CAO) has rec-
also provides guidance and steering information for the auto-
ognized that a global n avigation satellite system (GNSS) will
pilot and fli ght instruments. It can calculate the track to fly
satisfy navigation requirements for aviation in the 21st cen-
and the distance between two points and, in flight, the dis-
tury. A complete GNSS includes satellites provided by various
tance an aeroplane is off that track. The airborne equipment
countries or commercial groups as well as ground syste m s to
u ses barometric pressure to resolve DME slant range.
augment and monitor the satellites. As referenced earlier (see
Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration. Data Link Com munic ations), there are three satellite naviga-
Two accelerometers, gyro st abilized, are mounted in a gi mbal tion system s: th e U. S. GPS, the Russian GLONASS and Chinese
assembly, commonly called the platform. One measures BeiDou.
acceleration in the north-south direction and the other in the
!CAO comm ittees are tasked with monitoring and co-ordinat-
east-west direction.
in g development of a global system to provide cost effec tive
The gyro stabilized platform on which the two acc elerom- improvements in communications, navigation and surveil-
eters are mou nted is kept level with respect to the earth lance (CNS) and air traffic management (ATM).
(rather than fixed in space) by a compensating me chanism
GNSS navigation capability is able to provide high integrity,
that allows for the fact that the earth is rotating and that it highly accurate navigation service, suitable as a sole means of
is round. Th e computer, which knows the latitude and longi-
navigation for en route, termin al and non-precision approach
tude of the take-off point, computes the inform ation from the
landing operations.
accelerometers into present position.
!CAO has develop ed a concept of automatic dependent sur-
The accuracy of the INS is dependent on the accu racy of the
veillance (ADS). With ADS, an aircraft automatically trans -
initial position information. Therefore, system alignment, mits its position and other relevant data to the air traffic
norm ally called gyrocompassing, at the beginning of the
control centre via satellite data link. The aircraft position is
fl ight is very important. The accelerometers must be levelled
displayed on a screen similar to present radar displays. Th is
and the system must be oriented to true north.
service is primarily intended for oceanic operations, remote
Some systems combine INS and fu ll RNAV (VOR and DME) land areas and area s where primary and secondary radar is
into one system. The system can therefore be used as a ter- impractical.
minal area aid as well as a long distance en route navigation
aid. A control display unit such as th at sh own in Fig.9.30 Global Positioning System (GPS)
displays navigation data generated by the system. Waypoint The global positioning system was developed by the U.S.
and station data is entered into th e computer using optically Department of Defense to provide a very precise, global navi-
encoded cards. Information on initial position, nine waypoint gation service. GPS is based on a constellation of a m inimum
positions and nine station positions, with their frequencies, of 24 satellites orbiting the earth at an altitude of 11,000 n.m.
elevation and magnetic variation s ca n be entered into the Each satellite propagates its signal to h alf of the earth. The
computer at one time. system uses technology that can pinpoint position anywh ere
The latest generation of inertial navigation systems replaces in the world, 24 hours a day, and claims accuracies in the
the precision gyros with laser sensors which me asure the region of 100 m eters in three dimensions.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Area Navigation

Another source of error is the multipath error. The signal

transmitted from the satellite bounces around, taking a cir-
cuitous route before it reaches the receiver. Special antennas
minimize this problem but, in severe cases, it can add some
uncertainty to the measurements.
All of these inaccuracies, even if taken together, will affect
the accuracy of position calculations by no more than 25 to
50 meters. Triangulation calculations can magnify or lessen
these uncertainties depending on the relative angles of the
satellites in the sky. The wider the angle between satellites,
the better will be the measurement. A good GPS receiver will
take into account this subtle principle of geometry that is
called geometric dilution of precision (GOOP), will analyze the
relative positions of all the satellites available and will choose
the best four.
The satellites broadcast two separate forms of the pseudo-
Fig. 9. 31 GPS Satellite Orb its random code on the frequencies 1,227.6 and 1,575.42 MHz.
The P code, which provides precise position service (PPS), is
GPS is based on satellite ranging. Position on earth is deter- encrypted so that it can be used only by the military and pro-
mined by measuring distance from a group of satellites in vides the U.S. Department of Defence with some exclusivity to
space. The system works by timing how Jong it takes a radio the system. The CIA code, which provides standard position
signal from a satellite to reach the receiver. Since radio waves service (SPS), is used by civilian receivers. The SPS signals
travel at a constant speed (the speed of light which is 186,000 are degraded through a technique called selective availabil-
miles per second), distance is calculated as a function of time. ity (SA) which artificially creates a significant clock error in
Both the satellites and the receivers generate a very compli- order to deny high precision signals to unfriendly military
cated set of digital codes known as "pseudo-random codes" forces. Even with SA, horizontal accuracy is within 100 meters
at precisely the same time. An individual GPS receiver uses and meets the requirements for en route and non-precision
the ephemeris data sent by the satellite to calculate the time approach applications.
differential in receiving the satellite code and uses that time/ The accuracy of the system can be boosted using a technique
distance information to establish latitude, longitude, altitude called differential GPS (DGPS). A GPS receiver on the ground
and to determine groundspeed. in a known location acts as a static reference. It measures
To achieve the accuracy demanded by the system, very pre- distances to satellites, calculates corrections to match the
cise clocks are required. The satellites use atomic clocks, the GPS position to the actual position and transmits an error cor-
most stable and accurate time reference as yet developed. rection message to any other GPS receivers in the local area.
Receiver clocks must also be very precise but can tolerate They in turn use that error message to eliminate virtually all
some imperfection. By taking readings on at least 4 satellites error in their own measurements. Differential GPS measure-
and using a method known as triangulation, receiver clock ments are, therefore, much more accurate than standard GPS
errors are cancelled out. measurements.

The GPS satellites are constantly monitored by the U.S. Local area differential (LDGPS) is limited by line-of-sight
Department of Defence. The ground monitoring and control communication from the differential stations and requires
system evaluates the performance of the satellites which hundreds of ground stations. Wide area differential (WDGPS)
orbit the earth every twelve hours. has no line-of-sight limitations but has some degradation of
accuracy due to transmission of the signal through the iono-
Ephemeris errors are determined and corrections are sent up sphere. It requires fewer ground stations.
to the satellites when necessary. These errors are usually very
minor and are caused by gravitational pulls from the sun and The integrity of the GPS system is compromised by the fact
moon and by pressure of solar radiation on the satellite. Each that the GPS satellite constellation does not warn users
GPS satellite transmits not only its pseudo-random code but promptly if the system is providing faulty signals. Some
also a data message about these minor errors. receivers provide this integrity through receiver autonomous
integrity monitoring (RAIM). RAIM works by calculating
There are several sources of error in the GPS system. Water aircraft position using different sets of satellites, compar-
vapour in the atmosphere can affect the speed of the signals. ing positions and warning the pilot if there is a discrepancy.
The earth's ionosphere also affects the speed of the GPS radio It requires at least six satellites within the view of the GPS
signals. The electrically charged particles that make up the receiver to provide the receiver with enough information
ionosphere slow down the signals at a rate inversely propor- combinations to detect an unhealthy satellite.
tional to its frequency squared. The lower the frequency of
the signal, the more it gets slowed down. Very sophisticated GPS equipment used in !FR applications must meet certain
GPS receivers are able to eliminate this kind of error. However, standards (TSO C 129), one of which is RAIM capability.
even without a receiver based correction, these errors are Top of the line GPS receivers are able to track four or more
negligible and will cause a position error of only a few meters. satellites simultaneously and display instantaneous position
Receivers sometimes make errors by rounding off a math- and velocity information. They also can eliminate the GOOP
ematical operation. Such receiver errors may incorporate a problem by tracking all satellites in view. Single and double
few feet of uncertainty into every measurement. channel receivers with sequencing capability can achieve
quite precise measurements but are slower in calculating

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Radio Navigation: Radar & Surveillance Systems

position and velocity. A single ch annel receiver moves from

one satellite to the next to gather data. Th e sequencing can 9.7 Radar & Surveillance
in terrupt positioning, limiting overall accuracy and limiting
its capability to provide continuous positioning. A double Systems
ch annel receiver has increased capability, does not h ave to
The name radar is an abbreviation of "radio detection and
interrupt its n avigation functions to receive satellite sign als
ranging". To operate, radar requires a h ighly directional radio
and provides more precise velocity measurements but does
transmitter/anten na and a scope, or screen, to display the
not have the capability to eliminate the GOOP problems.
information received by the antenna.
CPS allows aircraft to make curved approaches to airports, The principal u ses of radar in aviation are
fly m ore efficient routes and obtain positional inform ation
anywhere in th e world. Its benefit is especially realized over 1. Fixing position s of aeroplanes in flight.
oceanic areas. 2. Air traffic control.
3. Detecting thunderstorm activity.
GPS Augmentation System 4. Approach and landing guidance to aeroplanes.
Augm entation of the GPS constellation is necessary to meet
Rad ar operates on the 3,000 to 10,000 MHz frequency band.
accuracy, integrity and availability requirements for aviation.
Extremely short bursts of super high frequency radio energy,
A satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) is known by called pulses, are fired into space along a beam from a highly
the acronym WAAS, (see below). A ground-based augmen- directional radar antenna. These pulses strike aeroplanes,
tation system (GBAS) is known by the acronym LAAS, (see ships, buildings and other objects and are reflected back to
below). the sender. The time it takes the pulse to travel to the reflect-
ing object and return is timed electronically in millionths of
WIDE AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (WAAS} a second to determine the distance of the object from the
The wide area augmentation system (WAAS) allows GPS to be sender. This information is displayed on the face of a cathode
used as a primary m eans of n avigation from take-off through ray tube called an oscilloscope or, more commonly, a scope or
Category I precision approach . Unlike tradition al grou nd- screen. The information appears in the form of a small blip of
based navigation aids, the WAAS covers a more extensive light that is called a target.
service area with ground reference stations linked to a WAAS At the centre of the scope is the radar anten na. The scope is
network. GPS signals are received by these ground reference marked with concentric rings (called range markers) that mea-
stations wh ich determine any errors in the signals. Each sure distance from the antenna (Fig.9.32). An azimuth scale
station in the network relays the data to a wide area master is marked around the circumference of the scope (not shown
station where correction in formation for specific geographi- in (Fig.9.32). The controller working th e scope is thus able to
cal areas is computed. The message is then broadcast on determine the bearin g and distance of a t arget representing
the sam e frequency as GPS to GPS/WAAS receivers on board an aeroplane.
aircraft that are flying w ithin the broadcast coverage area The beam, transmitted by the radar transm itter and called in
of the WAAS. The WAAS broadcast m essage improves GPS radar terminology a trace, will pick up only objects towards
signal accu racy from 100 m eters to approxim ately 7 meters. wh ich it is pointed directly. In order to "see" objects around
The world-wide installation of these system s creates interna- the entire horizon from th e sender's position, the beam is
tional navigation capability similar to GPS, but with greater rotated through 360° by a scan ner at a constant rate of speed.
accuracy, availability and integrity. A sweep line on the scope is synchronized with the rotation
of the antenna. The target that appears on the scope fades out
LOCAL AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (LAAS) after the sweep line passes, but reappears again as the sweep
Similar to the WAAS concept which incorporates the use of line passes on its next rotation. As a result, the track of an
communication satellites to broadcast a correction message, aeroplane can be seen on the radar scope.
the local area augmentation system (LAAS) broadcasts its
correction message via a very h igh frequency (VHF) radio
data link from a ground-base d transmitter. Its impact is on
aviation n avigation .
LAAS yields th e extrem ely high accuracy, availability
and in tegrity necessary for Category I, II, and III precision
approaches, with the ability to pinpoint an aircraft's posi-
tion to within one meter or less. Curved approach paths are
possible using LAAS as are approaches around obstacles.
Avoidance of restricted airspace, noise sensitive areas, and
congested airspace is also possible with LAAS usage. LAAS
provides precision approaches to all runways as well as pro-
Fig.9.32 A Radar Scope
viding the m eans for controllers to determine the location of
all airport service veh icles and taxiing aircraft to assist in the Radio waves travel at a rate of 186,000 miles per second. To
prevention of runway incu rsions. measure them, the unit of time used is the microsecond,
which is one m illionth of a second.
Continuing developm ent and refining of WAAS and LAAS
systems w ill see the two combined into th e same avionics Pulses of electromagnetic energy are beamed out to the target
equipment for use by air crew and airport personnel. and reflected back (Fig.9.33). The signal which is reflected back
is called an echo. It takes 10.75 microseconds for a signal to
travel one mile out to a target and for the echo to return. The
round trip distance is known as a radar mile.

From the Ground Up ·· 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Radar & Surveillance Systems

To request radar assistance on an approach if you are flying

VFR, call the tower. State your approximate position as accu-
rately as you can and your altitude. The tower will assign a
transmitting and receiving frequency for communication w ith
the radar controller. You will then be requested to execute
a few simple turn maneuvers or, if you are transponder
Fig. 9.33 Distance Measuring by Radar
equipped, you will be asked to "Squawk !dent". This is for posi-
The use of radar in ATC procedure greatly increases utiliza- tive identification of your aeroplane on the scanning screen.
tion of the airspace and permits expansion of flight informa- At this point the controller may give you lost communications
tion services such as traffic and weather information and instructions as follows:
navigational assistance. Controller: If you lose Radio Contact for any 5
There are two types of radar systems: Primary Surveillance Second Interval, Maintain VFR and
Radar and Secondary Surveillance Radar. Contact the Tower on - MHz (Tower
frequency) for Secondary Instructions.
9.7.1 Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) If you are lost under VFR conditions, the surveillance approach
controller will give you a heading to steer to bring you to the
Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) measures range and azi-
runway and will continue to vector your approach in case you
muth of transmitted and reflected radio frequencies to deter-
happen to stray from the required track.
mine the position of an aircraft. It is, thus, based solely on the
echo principle and requires no equipment in the aeroplane.
Primary radar is used by ATC in the following applications:
1. Terminal Surveillance Radar (TSR) is a short-range
PSR (80 n.m.) operating in the 1250 MHz to 1350
MHz designed to complement secondary surveil-
lance radar (SSR) for terminal operations.
2. Precision Approach Radar (PAR) is a short-range,
high-definition PSR operating on 9000 MHz to
Fig. 9.34 Radar Scanning Screens
9180 MHz used as an approach aid to guide air-
craft to final approach on a designated instru- Left: On the precision approach radar screen, the exact position of the
ment runway. PAR provides ATC with highly aircraft is constantly shown in three dimensions: altitude, azimuth
accurate altitude, azimuth and range informa- and range. (The aircraft silhouettes have been sketched in to make the
tion to assist pilots with glide path information principle more easily understood. In actual practice, aircraft appear as
down to the point of touchdown on the runway. blips, as they do on the scope on the right.) The controller has two such
3. Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE) is a scopes, one covering a 10 mile area and the other a 3 mile area. The
high-definition PSR operating on 16 GHz (16000 latter is scaled up to provide greater precision on final approach. The
MHz). ASDE is used by control tower operators equipment is accurate to within plus or minus ten feet.
to monitor the position of aircraft and vehicles Right: On the surveillance scope, circular lines are 5 miles apart. The
on the maneuvering areas of the airport, espe- blips are aircraft. The radar surveillance antenna, rotating through
cially during conditions of reduced visibility. 360°, scans a radius 30 miles out and 10,000 feet up. The position of
4. Weather Radar is a PSR used by every aircraft within a 2,800 square mile area is continuously shown
Meteorological Service of Canada to moni- on the surveillance scope.
tor for hazardous weather conditions. If the visibility is marginal and it is necessary to make a land-
ing under instrument conditions, you will be given precision
Radar Assisted Approach radar navigation assistance to guide you at a safe altitude, into
The capabilities of the radar systems provide a method of the traffic pattern and on to the base leg. At this point you will
guiding a pilot on instruments down to the runway for a land- be requested to check your gyro compass and not to reset it
ing by means of verbal instructions from a controller working during the remainder of the approach. In case your gyro is not
on a primary surveillance radar system. working, advise the controller immediately. You will be given
a no gyro approach and will probably brief you as follows:
A radar assisted approach can be provided when no alterna-
tive method of approach is available. It requires no special air- Controller: This will be a No Gyro Precision Approach.
borne equipment other than a radio receiver and normal flight Runway One Three. Make Standard Rate
instruments. Radar assistance can be requested by a pilot who Turns. Execute Turn Instructions on Receipt.
may have become lost or accidentally caught in instrument Obey the instructions implicitly, using your attitude indicator
conditions. It can also be used in an emergency situation. as your turn reference. Do not attempt to make corrections on
The radar operator on the ground can see the aeroplane on the your own.
radar scanning screens (Fig.9.34) which are located on their On base leg, as you are about to intercept the final approach
operating panel. Lines and circles on the scanning screens leg, the controller will take over and turn you on to the cor-
provide the radar operator with azimuth, range and altitude rect heading to line you up for final approach to the selected
data which enables guiding of the pilot down to the runway runway. As you intercept the glide path, you will be given
of the airport. the correct rate of descent to maintain. Instructions will be
simple.

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 Radio Navigation: Radar & Surveillance Systems

Controller: You are now on Final Approach for Runway

One Three. Six Miles from Touchdown.
Transponder
Designed to reinforce a surveillance radar signal, the tran-
Once the descent has started, if the approach is normal, the sponder permits positive identification of an aircraft by the
controller will merely give you distance, steering and glide ground facilities of ATC. A typical airborne transponder
path checks. For Example: system includes a control, a receiver/transmitter and a small
Controller: Three Miles from Touchdown. You L-bank antenna mounted on the underside of the aircraft.
are on Course. On the Glide Path. Ground equipment consists of a transmitter/receiver and a
rotating directional antenna that usually is mounted on top of
Should you get off the line of approach or glide path, he/she
the regular surveillance radar antenna.
will advise you of the deviation and give you the necessary
correction. For Example: The transponder works like this. The ground radar equipment
sends out a special interrogation signal asking all aircraft,
Controller: Four Miles from Touchdown. 200 Feet to
"Who are you?". Only transponder-equipped aircraft can
the Left. Turn Right. Heading One Three
answer. The airborne transponder picks up the signal and
Six. Followed by, You are on Course. Or You
automatically sends back a strong pulsed signal in reply. The
are 50 Feet Above the Glide Path. Ease It
reply signal is computed into distance and direction (and
Down. Followed by, You are on the Glide into altitude on Mode C) by the ground radar station and is
Path. Adjust Your Rate of Descent As you displayed with the aircraft's target on the traffic controller's
near the threshold of the runway, he/she will scope as one or two slashes.
caution you, Wheels Down and Locked.
The interrogation signals from the ground radar are moded.
When you reach it, he/she will advise you, Mode A asks for identification. Mode C requests altitude infor-
Over the End of the Runway. Take it Visually. mation. Pilots adjust their sets to the appropriate mode. On
You are then cleared to take over and land. transponder controls used in general aviation, mode selection
of A or A/C is provided. On Mode A, the transponder automati-
Secondary Surveillance

,
9.1.2 cally replies to all interrogations. When the mode selector is
Radar (SSR) placed in the A/C position, the transponder provides proper
identification plus automatic altitude information.
Although radar is a very valuable asset to the air traffic control
system, it has several disadvantages. In heavy traffic areas, all _ __ _/'·.· .... _,................ ·...· .. ·. - .......
the targets on the radar scope look the same. There is no way
a controller can distinguish between two targets in the same
general area. The controller must ask one of the aeroplanes to Fig. 9.35 Pulse Signals between Aeroplanes & Ground Stations
take up a specific heading and then wait to see which target (either way) Moded & Coded for Signal Identification
on the screen reacts to the instruction in order to make an
identification. Also, the signal directed to low flying aero- In order that altitude information can be encoded by the air-
planes often experiences interference from terrain features, borne transponder and relayed to ATC, an encoding altimeter
buildings, etc. As a result, the echo is weak. Precipitation also must be installed in the aeroplane and linked into the tran-
returns echoes. sponder equipment.

To overcome these disadvantages of the primary radar system, Only aircraft equipped with transponders capable of auto-
a secondary radar system was developed. It requires airborne m atic pressure altitude reporting (i.e. Mode C) may operate in
equipment that returns a strong signal to the primary radar Class A, B and C airspace. Transponders are required in Class
transmitter. As a result, the target on the radar scope is stron- D and E airspace if so designated in the Designated Airspace
ger and more readily identified by the controller. Handbook.

Secondary Surveillance Radar {SSR), thus, determines the In the transponder shown in Fig.9.36, the Mode A selection is
range to an aircraft by measuring the interval between the automatically selected when the set is activated. Mode C selec-
transmission of an interrogation signal to an aircraft, and the tion is made by selecting ALT.
receipt of a reply from an aircraft. The airborne equipment
required to enable the reply is called a transponder. The radar ~~ ~
system that uses only transponder generated data on the VFR FUNC • .. -

ground radar display is called a radar digitized display. /.:/ Qvi\;::;

Secondary radar is used by ATC in the following applications: o 1 2 3 4 ·s s 7 s g

1. En route control is an SSR with a long-range of 200 Fig.9.36 Transponder

n.m. or more. It transmits on 1030 MHz and receives
transponder replies on 1090 MHz. SSR is the main Mode C should always be selected (if the transponder is capa-
means for en route surveillance of aircraft; it is not ble of the altitude reporting function) unless directed by ATC
normally combined with primary surveillance radar. otherwise. If the aeroplane is on a VFR flight plan, the appro-
priate VFR code (see below) must also be selected.
2. Terminal control uses long-range SSR equip-
ment similar to en route control and combines it The reply signal sent by the airborne transponder is coded.
with a short-range primary surveillance radar. Specific codes are assigned by an air traffic controller on th e
ground for various flight levels and conditions of flight. The
pilot selects this code on the control in the cockpit.
Most transponders have 4096 code capability. All transponder
codes are, therefore, 4 digit codes. In Fig.9.36, the code 1200

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Radar & Surveillance Systems

has been selected. The controller can identify the various code the aircrew is changing from one code to another. To avoid
settings assigned to different flight requirements. unnecessary activation of the alarm system at ATC, pilots
should be very careful not to select a 7 in the left hand position
In assigning codes, for example, arrival control at a particular
on the transponder head while changing codes. However, do
ATC centre may use 4700 while departure control will use
not select "standby" while changing codes as this action will
2400. One ATC centre in handing a flight over to another
cause the target to be lost on the radar screen at ATC .
centre will ask the pilot to select the code of that centre. A
pilot on a VFR flight plan may select 1200 (at or below 12,500 Transponders should be adjusted to "standby" while taxiing
feet) or 1400 (above 12,500 feet) on the transponder control. for take-off, to "on" as late as practicable before take-off, and
This will automatically inform the ATC radar controllers that to "standby" or "off" as soon as practicable after landing.
the aircraft is a VFR flight and they will be able to maintain
ATC Phrase Meaning
positive separation of their !FR and VFR traffic.
Squawk (four digit code) Input assign ed t ransponder co de
When ATC issues instructions concerning transponder opera- Squawk !dent Press th e "!dent" bu t-
tion, the pilot is required to operate the transponder as direct- ton on the t ranspond er

ed until receiving further instructions or until the aircraft has Squawk Mode Cha rlie Ensu re Mod e C fu nc tio n is selec ted

landed. Only in the event of an emergency, communication Stop Squawk Mode Charlie Turn off Mode C fu nc t ion

failure or hijack should the transponder code be changed Stop ADS -B Altitude Transmission Turn off ADS-8 altitude t ransmission
without authority from ATC. Reset ADS -8 Turn ADS-8 off, t hen back on
Reset Transponder Turn t ransponder off, then ba ck on
In the event of an emergency and if unable to establish com- Report/ Say You r Altitud e State you r current attitude
munication immediately with an ATC unit, a pilot wishing Vis ually, then vocally co nfirm
to alert ATC to the situation should select code 7700. Upon Confirm Squawk
the selected mode/ code
establishing communication, he/she should operate the tran- Squawk Standby Select "Standb y" funct io n
sponder as directed by ATC . Used by FSS to ac kno wledg e
Roger !dent a requ est to squ awk ident
In the event of a communications failure, the transponder
should be adjusted to reply on Code 7600, in order to alert ATC Fig. 9.37 Transponder Phraseology
to the problem. Code 7500 is used to alert ATC of unlawful
A development in transponder technology is the implemen-
interference (i.e. hijacking).
tation of Mode S. These are transponders with a data link
On an !FR flight plan, the loss of all radio communication capability. With 16 million separate codes, Mode S gives each
ability necessitates termination of the flight at the first con- aircraft a unique signature of its own, (referred to as a flight
venient airport. The versatility of the transponder can be seen identification, or FLT ID). It is fully compatible with the ATC
in the situation in which the communications problem affects radar beacon system (ATCRBS). An SSR with Mode S capability
only the transmitting capacity. A flight, on an !FR clearance, will transmit the conventional ATC RBS interrogation, followed
can be continued by using the transponder as a transmitting by a series of additional signals. The Mode S transponder will
device. The ATC controller is able to ask questions and give reply to the conventional ATCRBS interrogation but also will
instructions in normal fashion; the aircraft acknowledges send back the additional requested data . The information
these transmissions by "squawking ident". sent through the Mode S system can include clearance deliv-
If the transponder or encoding altimeter fails during flight in ery, take-off clearance confirmation and other information
airspace where Mode C is required, the aircraft may be oper- relating to clearances, routes, and weather information. The
ated to the next airport of intended landing and, thereafter, to information is displayed on a cockpit display through which
complete its itinerary or to a repair base, if authorized by ATC. the crew can acknowledge receipt of the information by press-
ing a button on the display unit. Mode S has the advantage of
ATC may, upon written request, authorize an aircraft not helping to reduce the load on the heavily used VHF channels.
equipped with a Mode C transponder to operate in airspace Mode S transponders are an integral component of all ACAS
where its use is mandatory. Such authorization is given (TCAS) installations (see below).
only if the safety of air traffic within that airspace is not
compromised. Air traffic controllers use certain phraseology when refer-
ring to the operation of transponders. See the table below for
If the controller decides to verify a "target" when more than descriptions of such transponder phraseology.
one aircraft are on the same code, the pilot will be called and
asked to "squawk ident". When the pilot presses the ident
button on the transponder control, a special signal is sent out
Encoding Altimeter
that causes the target to "blossom" on the controller's scope. Altitude information is relayed by the airborne transponder
The target will blossom for a few seconds and then return to equipment to the ATC radar display for the information of
its regular pattern. The ident feature should be operated only controllers. The instrument that feeds the altitude informa-
when directed by ATC. tion into the transponder is known as an encoding altimeter.

Most controls have a function tester or small reply light which There are two basic types of encoding altimeters - the pneu-
blinks every time the transponder replies to a ground inter- matic or mechanical type and the servo type. The pneumatic
rogation signal, letting the pilot know that the transponder type is essentially a conventional barometric altimeter with
is operating. an encoding device that converts altitude into digitally coded
electrical signals in 100 foot increments. These signals are
ATC radar units are equipped with an alarm system that wired to the transponder which, when set to Mode C, are
is triggered when an aircraft within its radar coverage has transmitted as replies to the "What's your altitude?" inter-
selected the emergency, communication failure or unlaw- rogation of ground radars. It uses evacuated capsules called
ful interference transponder codes. It is possible for those aneroids to sense altitude, by expanding and contracting
codes to be momentarily and unintentionally selected while with static pressure. The movement of the aneroid walls, via

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 Radio Navigation: Radar & Surveillance Systems

gearing, drives the altimeter pointers for visual display. At This data is transmitted every second. This functionality is
the same time, the pressure of the moving aneroids drives a known as ADS-B Out. Being so equipped as to receive this
small glass disc providing the electrical signal to activate the information is known as ADS-B In. ADS-B thus allows for the
encoding device. information seen on the ATC controller's surveillance screen
to be broadcast back, via satellite, to the aircraft in flight. This
enables the aircraft crew to monitor th eir own progress while
also keeping them aware of other traffic in their immediate
vicinity.
ADS-B Out enhances safety by making an aircraft visible to
ATC and to other ADS-B-equipped aircraft. The benefits of
ADS-B In include greater traffic awareness for pilots who can
have, displayed in their aircraft, data concerning the altitude,
heading, speed, and distance to other aircraft in their vicin-
ity. With ADS-B In, pilots also have access to current weather
data, terrain conflicts, and flight information such as NOTAM.
The framework for ADS-B Out functionality in Canada is
based upon space-based satellite communications delivered
Fig. 9.38 Encoding Altimeter over 1090 MHz. Therefore, for aircraft in Canada to be com-
patible with the Canadian ADS-B environment, they must
The servo type of encoding altimeter also uses the aneroid be equipped with a 1090 MHz extended squitter ADS-B Out
system to sense altitude but the power to drive the encod- transmitter. (While a "squawk" is a response that a tran-
ing and display mechanism is derived from the aeroplane's sponder makes to an ATC interrogation, a "squitter" refers
electrical system. The servo type, having an outside source to a transponder's random broadcast of data without being
of power, can drive pointers and encoders and at the same interrogated. With ADS-B, an aircraft's GPS navigation system
time provide ancillary outputs for an altitude alerter, rate of generates information regarding aircraft identification, posi-
climb indicator, vertical nav system and autopilot. The servo tion, direction of flight, airborne velocity, vertical climb/
type encoding altimeter is very accurate and very reliable. Its descent, etc., then transmits this data once per second using
disadvantage is its complete dependence on electrical power an "extended squitter.")
to operate.
Implementation of mandates requiring ADS-B Out equipment
Like a conventional altimeter, the encoding altimeter is fitted in aircraft are in place in Canada for Classes A, B, C, D, and
with a barometric scale by which the pilot is able to set the E airspace. Pilots should be aware of the existence of these
current altimeter setting on the instrument. The pointers on mandates, and the activation dates by which they must be
the face of the instrument respond to any change in the altim- followed. (Mandates will be enabled through airspace classi-
eter setting in the same way as does a conventional altimeter. fication designation and amendment to transponder require-
However, the altitude information that is relayed through the ments, as described in the Designated Airspace Handbook.)
encoding altimeter and the transponder to the radar receivers In the U.S., all aircraft, (including foreign -registered aircraft),
at the ATC unit is based on pressure altitude (a barometric must be equipped with ADS-B Out to fly in airspace where a
reading of 29.92" Hg). The ATC computers correct the received Mode C transponder is required.
pressure altitude signals to the local altimeter setting in order
Owing to the satellite-basis of the Canadian system, a skyward
to have a uniform standard for altitude information for all the
facing antenna and a WAAS GPS source is required for ADS-B
aeroplanes within radar range of any one particular ATC unit.
in Canada. In the U.S. where a ground-based ADS-B infra-
structure is in place, a belly-mounted antenna is necessary
9.7. 3 AutomaticDependent to operate in airspace where ADS-B is mandated. Antennae
Surveillance (ADS) that transmit both up and down simultaneously can fulfill the
ADS -B transmission requirements of both countries.
Surveillance of aircraft is possible via data link technology.
Aircraft so-equipped can automatically provide data derived
from on-board navigation and position systems. The airborne 9.7.4 Airborne Collision Avoidance
equipment has the capability of relaying the exact geographi- System (ACAS)
cal co-ordinates of the aircraft as it proceeds along its track.
With the substantial increase in air traffic and the concern
This information is displayed on a surveillance screen at the
about mid-air collisions and near misses, it was inevitable
air traffic control unit and is monitored by ATC controllers.
that an automatic collision avoidance system (ACAS) would
Known as automatic dependent surveillance (ADS), this be developed. ACAS is based on transponder technology and
system has the advantage of providing position monitoring requires Mode S capability in the airborne equipment. ACAS
of aircraft that are out of range of normal radar coverage, on equipment designed and manufactured in the United States
transoceanic flights and/or in the remote areas of the conti- is called traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
nent. Flight control and flight separation can thus be provided
An ACAS (TCAS) equipped aircraft constantly sends out inter-
for flights in these areas.
rogations to which any aircraft equipped with at least a Mode
Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) is the C transponder will automatically respond, with no pilot action
latest innovation in ADS technology. It allows equipped air- required.
craft and ground vehicles to broadcast their identification,
position, altitude and velocity to other aircraft and to ATC.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Navigation Systems & Displays

ACAS (TCAS) is designed to operate independently of ATC.

Depending on the type of equipment, ACAS (TCAS) w ill pro- 9.s Navigation Systems
vide traffic alerts (TA) and/or resolution advisories (RA). TA's
provide information on nearby traffic and are intended to help & Displays
the crew in visual acquisition of conflicting traffic. RA's may
be preventative advisories which instruct the pilot to main-
9.8.1 Moving Map Display
tain or avoid certain vertical speeds or corrective advisories
which instruct the pilot to take preventative action by deviat- A moving m ap display based on GPS uses the technology and
ing from th e current flight path. capability of GPS systems to depict the aeroplane's realtime
flight path on a multifunction display (MFD) screen that also
If two ACAS II equipped aircraft are on potential collision
displays the applicable navigational chart.
courses, their computers will communicate using th e Mode
S transponder data link which has the capability of providing With position inform ation obtained from the GPS, the system
co-ordinated and complimentary RA's (e.g. one being advised displays the flight path w ith the aeroplane's position depicted
to descend, the other to climb). either in the centre of the map as the map moves or with the
map stationery while the aeroplane's position moves. Position
There are currently three versions of ACAS (TCAS). relative to navigation aids and airports, terminal control
ACAS I is the simplest version . It provides a proximity alert areas, control zones and other special use airspace is continu-
function that gives range, altitude and a rough indication of ously displayed.
relative bearing, accurate to about 14 degrees. Its range is The adaptability of the system permits a flight crew to pro-
about four n autical miles. ACAS I provides a traffic alert only, gram the route they w ish to travel and enter all particulars
advising of a potential collision. No guidance (RA) is given. of the route into the system's memory before the flight. The
The pilot must visually acquire the traffic and take what system can also store and display alternate routes. In flight,
avoidance maneuver is necessary. any route changes are computed resulting in updated informa-
tion and position being displayed instantly. The system shows
ACAS II has greater range (about 14 to 15 n.m) and bearing
the position of the aircraft relative to any selected waypoint;
inform ation is accurate to abou t 9 degrees. It consists of a
it displays heading, altitude and groundspeed information, it
computer, controls, wiring and antennas which provide both
creates new waypoints, and it projects the aircraft's true and
TA's and vertical plane RA's. ACAS II has sophisticated colli-
intended courses. It can display the approach course to an !LS
sion avoidance logic built in. It will compute a suitable avoid-
and at the same time depict the aircraft's position relative to
ance maneuver and display it on a separate display screen, that course. Information about weather ahead derived from
weather radar or EFIS cockpit display. If two ACAS II equipped the onboard weather radar, operational data relating to the
aircraft are on potential collision courses, the avoidance aircraft (airspeed, rate of climb or descent, altitude, etc.) and
maneuvers are co-ordinated. The system transmits the avoid- the engines (engine temperatures, rpm or turbine speeds, etc.)
ance maneuver of one aircraft to the other and the second all can be displayed.
aircraft takes a complementary maneuver.
ACAS III is a more advanced system. It h as even greater
accuracy and range and will provide for both vertical and
horizontal plane maneuver advisories (that is, turns as well
as climbs and descents) instead of the vertical advisory only
that is given by ACAS II.
ACAS equipped aircraft require two antennas, instead of th e
one only that is usually installed on the belly of the aircraft.
Since the unit is meant to interact with aircraft both above
and below, an antenna on the upper surface of the fuselage
is also required.
ACAS (TCAS) does not diminish a pilot's responsibility to
ensure safe fligh t. ACAS responds only to aircraft which are
transponder equipped whose transponders are functioning.
Aircraft without transponders or with only Mode A are invis-
ible to ACAS (TCAS) equipped aircraft. Alerts and advisories
are not provided.
Air regulations permit pilots to deviate from an ATC instruc-
tion or clearance in order to follow ACAS/TCAS resolution
advisories. When responding to a resolution advisory, the
pilot is required to advise the appropriate ATC unit of the
deviation in flight path as soon as possible. When clear of
th e conflicting traffic, h e/she should expeditiously return to
the last ATC clearance or instruction received and accepted.
Aircraft maneuvers conducted during a resolution advisory
should be kept to the minimum necessary to avoid the con-
flicting traffic.
Fig. 9. 39 Multifunction Display (MFD} with Moving Map

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 Radio Navigation: Navigation Systems & Displays

All database information (such as airports and their runways

and approaches, navaids, waypoints and intersections) can be 9.8.3 Flight Director
called onto the screen for navigation purposes. Flight plans A flight director is a highly sophisticated system that elec-
can be created and keyed into the system. When coupled to tronically collects the information provided by a number
an autopilot, the moving map display system will fly the aero- of instruments, feeds this information into a computer and
plane automatically on the flight plan, as it visu ally depicts presents it in two visual displays.
the aircraft's progress on the MFD screen.
The map scale can be zoomed to display an area from 1,000
miles down to 1 mile in length (the latter for approach mode).
The system displays minimum en route safe altitude, CD!,
groundspeed, ETA, ETE, bearing and distance to the next
waypoint, nearest airport or VOR, etc. Geographical informa-
tion such as elevation, hydrography, man-made obstacles,
highways, etc., are also presented.

9.8.2 Flight Management System (FMS)

Most of today's air carrier and corporate aircraft are equipped
with computer-based flight control systems known as Flight
Management Systems (FMS). Such systems are primarily to
facilitate navigation.
A typical FMS consists of a control display unit (CDU), a flight
management or navigation computer, global position sensors,
and a data loader. The flight management computer accepts
information from navigation sensors including VOR, DME
and GPS. Data from the sensors is merged to provide accurate
position information.
The computer h as a programmable database containing
known radio navigation stations along with their tunable
frequencies, airport information, and instrument departure
and arrival information. Owing to frequent database changes,
databases can be updated every 28 days for use within the
FMS. Custom databases can also be created for FMS as well. In Fig. 9.40 Flight Director System. Top: Attitude Director
such cases, information pertaining to aircraft performance, Indicator (ADI) Bottom: Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
frequently used flight plans, and waypoints can be stored for The two instruments that provide this visual display are a
future use in the FMS. horizontal situation indicator (HSI) and an attitude director
FMS is based on using all the available navigation sensors to indicator (ADI). Usually the flight director installation is com-
fly from point to point along a planned flight route. Waypoints bined with an autopilot system. The entire package is then
can be selected based on data stored within the navigation known as a flight control system. Different manufacturers
database, or via coordinates inputted by the pilot. Once this give other names to the components of their systems. The
information has been entered, the FMS can generate com- HSI is sometimes called the pictorial navigation indicator
mands or cues informing the pilot on where to steer the (PNI) and the ADI is sometimes called the flight command
aircraft. indicator.

To navigate, the FMS uses data from all navigation sensors, as We have already discussed the HSI at some length. (See
well as attitude, heading and air data. Based on its recognition Horizontal Situation Indicator in this chapter.) The HSI pic-
of its initial position at start-up, the FMS will scan its naviga- tured in Fig.9.40 h as two additional features to a conventional
tion database and select the appropriate navigation stations HSI. It displays a readout of the selected VOR radial and a
for the area. Information from this scan is blended with other DME readout of distance to the station. The ADI is somewhat
sensor inputs to identify the aircraft's exact position. As the similar to an attitude indicator but much more sophisticated.
It incorporates a command display mounted over a horizon
aircraft begins its journey, the FMS automatically scans and
display. It is of prime value as an aid to flying instrument
tunes to navigation radio signals along its route, always m erg-
approaches with greater precision. An ADI may use either
ing database data with sensor data to pinpoint the aircraft's
a cross-pointer or a V-bar as the command display. Fig.9.41
location at all times during the flight.
shows a cross-pointer display that indicates that the pilot is
In the event that no navigation signal information is being to the right of th e localizer and below the glide path. The pilot
received by the aircraft, the FMS is able to compensate by must correct to the left and fly up to bring the cross-pointer
determining the aircraft's course via a dead reckoning mode. back to the stationary aeroplane symbol. (The dotted line in
In such situations, the FMS will estimate the location of the Fig.9.41 represents the horizon.)
aircraft based on the last known position, h eading and air-
speed. In dead reckoning mode, the FMS will flag the pilot
that it is active.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

Autopilot com pu ters and flight director computers are inter-

connected in present day technology. The autopilot con-
trols the aeroplane. The fligh t director monitors au topilot
operation.

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

The purpose of the ground proximity warning system is to
alert th e fligh t crew to the existence of an unsafe condition
due to terrain proximity.
It is activated when the aircraft is experiencin g an excessive
sink rate or when there is an excessive closure rate because of
rising terrain. The system relays aural messages and activates
w arning lights on the instrument panel.
It also warns of terrain proximity during landing and take-off
Fig. 9.41 Cross- Pointer of ADI sequences. It is programmed to give warning of closure rates
that are in excess of preset threshold values. It recognizes
Because computers h ave the ability to accept and process an landing gear and flap positions and gives aural warnin g if
almost limitless amount of information, som e m anufacturers they are not in the proper position for landing. It w arns of
include as much inform ation as possible on the ADI. Most of excessive deviation below the glide slope on a front course
this additional information is displayed arou nd the periphery !LS approach.
of the instrument. It may include a ball to indicate slip or skid,
an angle of attack indicator, a glideslope needle, a radio altim- For proper operation, the GPWS requires input data relating
eter readout , a decision height indicator. The ADI pictured in to airspeed, barometric altitude, radio altitude and glide slope
Fig.9.40 h as several of these additional features. deviation.

When the flight director installation is combined with an

autopilot system, inform ation from the computer is fed
directly to the autopilot which makes the necessary flight 9.9 Emergency Locator
control corrections.
The flight director, as well as giving comm ands for an instru-
Transmitter (ELT)
ment approach , can intercept a radial inbound to a VOR or !LS, An emergency locator transmitter is a battery operated radio
give pitch com mands for a missed approach , for take-off and transmitter. Traditional ELTs send out a distinctive analog dis-
climb and for turns to heading, direct a pilot through a back tress signal on the international emergency fre quency 121.5
course approach, give guidance on procedure t urns and, when MHz and/or 243.0 MHz.
in the RNAV m ode, captu re a cou rse to a waypoint. Altitudes,
A new generation of ELTs transmit a digital signal on 406 MHz.
courses and approach es are selected by the push of a button to
A 406 MHz beacon is u niquely coded and therefore identifi-
feed the fligh t director the information it needs to accomplish
all its functions. able to the aircraft in wh ich it is installed. A 406 MHz beacon
transmits for about h alf a second every 55 seconds. A 121.5
MHz beacon transmits continuously.
Autopilot
The ELTs in use in general aviation aircraft contain a crash
An autopilot system operates on the principle of gyro -
activation sen sor (G-switch) which is designed to detect the
scopic rigidity in space (a rot ating body's resistance to forces
attem pting to tilt it from its plane of rotation). The system abnormal deceleration characteristics of a crash and auto-
incorporates two gyroscopes to control fligh t in the longitu- m atically activate th e transmitter. They are constructed to
survive that crash and to transmit a signal for at least 48 hours
dinal, lateral and vertical axes of the aircraft. If the aircraft
at a wide range of ambient temperatures. The ELT is activated
deviates from th e programmed attitude, the system com -
if subjected to a force of 5 G's to 7 G's for 11 milliseconds.
puter detects the deviation and issues commands to th e servo
motors wh ich m ove th e primary fligh t control surfaces as Most aircraft are required to have an approved ELT in stalled.
required to retu rn the aircraft to the required flight attitude. Those exempted are aircraft which operate only within 25
This is called aerodynam ic respon se. m iles of their home airport, multi-engine and jet aeroplanes
that operate only in controlled airspace, gliders, airships, bal-
Different autopilot systems provide a wide variety of control.
loons, ultralight aeroplanes and gyroplanes.
A very simple autopilot m ay control only the rudder to permit
m ore accurate h olding of flight h eadings. More complex sys- The ELT has been proven to reduce significantly th e time
tem s offer a greater variety of options. Modes of operation in necessary to locate a downed aircraft, thus substantially
the roll ch ann el include maintaining the wings level, follow- improving the chances of su rvival of injured crew and pas-
ing a selected heading, following a selected radio path. Modes sengers. Do not assume that the automatic activation feature
of operation in the pitch chan nel include maintaining a cer- has worked. Ensure that the ELT is indeed sending a signal.
tain pitch attitude, a certain vertical speed or following an !LS Turn th e switch to ON. To improve your chances of being
glide slope. Autopilot system s w ill react to centre of gravity located as soon as possible, do not delay t u rning on the ELT
ch an ges to keep the aircraft in proper trim, w ill automatically until your flight planned time expires. Such a delay w ill only
shu t down in th e event of malfunction, will turn, climb or delay rescue. Do not cycle the ELT through OFF and ON posi-
descend smoothly as directed. tions in an attempt to preserve battery life, as irregular opera-
tion reduces localization accuracy and w ill h amper homing

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 Radio Navigation: Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

efforts. Once the ELT is turned on, leave it on until you have activated or deactivated. Provision is also made for
been positively located and have been directed to turn it off recharging the batteries. An additional antenna
by the SAR forces. may be provided for portable use of the ELT. Most
A system of orbiting geostationary satellites (COSPAS/ general aviation aircraft use this type of ELT.
SARSAT) is used to detect and locate 406 MHz ELT signals. 3. fype AP - Automatic portable is similar
The system is very efficient. In many cases, a downed aircraft to type F except that the antenna is inte-
has been located before it was reported missing. The COSPAS/ gral to the unit for portable operation.
SARSAT satellite can pick up the signal anytime and relays the 4. fype P - Personnel has no fixed mounting
information to the search and rescue (SAR) aircraft. The SAR
and does not transmit automatically. A manual
aircraft home on the signal to find you. In contrast to 406 MHz
switch is used to start or stop the transmitter.
ELTs, 121.5 MHz ELTs are no longer monitored by satellite-
based tracking systems. Only ground stations and specialized 5. fype W or S - Water activated or survival trans-
SAR aircraft can pick up 121.5 MHz ELT signals. mits automatically when immersed in water. It
is waterproof, fl oats and operates on the sur-
406 MHz beacons have superior performance capabilities over face of the water. It has no fixed mounting. It
121.5 MHz transmitters. They transmit a stronger signal, are
should be tethered to survivors or liferafts .
more accurate, verifiable and traceable. Their signals can be
accurately detected within a matter of minutes whereas 121.5 Inadvertent activation of ELTs has been a problem and it
MHz signal detction can take upwards of 90 minutes. 406 MHz is recommended that all pilots operating aircraft with this
signals can be pinpointed from 5 kilometers down to within equipment installed listen on the ELT frequency (1 21.5 MHz)
100 meters of the signal's location. 406 MHz units provide immediately after arming th e ELT and again immediately
global coverage; 121.5 MHz units provide regional coverage. prior to shutdown to ensure that it is not transmitting. The
If an aircraft is equipped with one or more ELTs capable of battery must be disconnected whenever the ELT is removed
broadcasting on the frequency of 406 MHz, each ELT must be from the aeroplane for servicing. Any accidental activation of
registered with (in Canada) the Canadian Beacon Registry of the ELT should be reported immediately to the nearest ATS
the National Search and Rescue Secretariat. Otherwise, they unit.
must be registered with the appropriate authority of the coun- The ELT is a battery operated transmitter. Pilots must bear in
try identified in the coded message transmitted by the ELT. mind that the battery must be replaced at or about the expira-
121.5 MHz ELT signals are effective only in line-of-sight. For tion date marked on the battery. Only approved batteries may
best range, the ELT transmitter should be placed as high as be used. ELTs also require an annual recertification to assure
possible on a level surface with no obstructions between it that, in a crash situation, they will transmit a signal which
and the horizon. The antenna should be vertical. will be picked up by the COSPAS/SARSAT satellite. An ELT
signal, which is off frequency or low power, could be missed
As well as the type of ELT that is installed in the aeroplane and
by COSPAS/SARSAT. The satellite requires a coherent signal to
is activated automatically by the impact of a crash landing, develop the position of a crashed aircraft.
there is also a portable hand held type of ELT that is operated
manually. Installation of the former type is mandatory but Testing of a 121.5 MHz ELT may be carried out in the firs t 5
many pilots feel that having the portable ELT aboard as well is m inutes of any hour UTC. A maximu m 3 audio sweeps taking
an extra precaution. about 2 seconds is all that is necessary to determine that the
ELT is in good operating condition. In no case should the test-
The ELT will only do its job if it has been "armed". The trans-
ing take longe r than 5 seconds. Longer testing can result in
mitter has a three position switch - ON, OFF and ARMED.
false alarms being registered with ATC.
Arming the ELT should be part of the preflight check. Turning
it off should be part of post-flight shutdown procedures. Testing of a 406 MHz ELT should be carried out in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions only. Given that 406
If you have landed because of bad weather or for some other
MHz ELT digital signals are detec ted almost immediately by
non-emergency reason and no emergency exists , do not acti- COSPAS/SARSAT satellites, selection of the ON position for
vate you r ELT. If, however, the delay will extend more than one more than SO seconds will result in the signal being inter-
hour beyond your flight plan or more than 24 hours past your preted as a real emergency. 406 MHz ELTs are equipped with
flight itinerary or beyond your specified SAR time, you will be integral self-test func tionality. Follow the manufacturer's
reported overdue and a search will be in iti ated. To avoid an instructions when carrying out self-tests, and when interpret-
unnecessary search, you should notify the nearest ATS unit ing the results.
of your changed flight plan. If you cannot contact an ATS unit,
attempt to contact another aircraft on one of the following Any accidental activation of the ELT should be reported to the
frequenc ies in order to have that aircraft relay the informa- nearest ATC unit giving the location of the transmitter and the
tion to ATS: 126.7 MHz, a local common frequency, 121.5 MHZ time and duration of the accidental transmission, in order to
or 5,680 kHz. foresta ll an unnecessary search activity.

There are five categories of ELT. It is the pilot's responsibility to ensure that all passengers and
crew know the location of the ELT and how to operate it. There
1. fype A or AD - Automatic ejectable or automatic
must be a placard in the aircraft cabin giving this information.
deployable automatically eject from the aircraft
and are set in operation by inertia sensors when Commercially available 406 MHz ELTs inlcude an integrated
the aircraft is subjected to a crash deceleration. 121.5 MHz transmitter to allow for an additional means of
homing in on a downed aircraft. In Canada, all Canadian
2. fype F or AF - Fixed (not ejectable) or automatic aircraft that are required to have ELTs must be equipped with
fixed are automatically set in operation by an iner-
a digital ELT capable of broadcasting simultaneously on fre-
tia switch when the aircraft is subjected to crash quencies of 406 MHz and 121.5 MHz .
deceleration forces. The transmitter can be manually

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Radio Navigation: Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

Overview of Part 5
10 Airmanship 10.6.8 Activating a Ballistic Recovery System. . ... 323
10.6.9 Radar Assistance . .. 324
10.1 Care of the Aeroplane .................. 281
10.1.1 Aeroplane Cleanliness . 281 10.7 Remote Area Flying: Having "Bush Sense". 324
10.1.2 Ground Handling of the Aerop lane . 282 10.7.1 Backcountry Flying .. .. 325
10.1.3 Picketing an Aeroplane Outdoors 282 10.7.2 Seaplanes 326
10.1.4 Refuelling . ........................ 282 10.7.3 Skiplanes ..... 327
10.1.5 Winter Operations ......... 283 10. 7.4 External Load s .. .... 328
10.1.6 Critical Surface Contamination ...... 284 10.7.5 Equipment to Carry On Board . .328

10.2 Weight & Balance . 286 10.8 STOL Aircraft 329

10.2.1 Weight ... 286 10.9 Ultralights .. 330
10.2.2 Balance Limits . 288
10.2.3 Weight Shift 290 10.10 Gliders .. ........ 331
10.2.4 Weight & Balance & Flight Performance ......... 290
11 Human Factors
10.3 Aeroplane Performance . 291
10.3.1 Effect of Temperature & Altitude on Aeroplane 11.1 Physical Factors ...... 333
Performance.. 291 11.1.1 General Health 333
10.3.2 Take-Off Performance Charts 292 11.1. 2 Hypoxia 333
10.3.3 Climb Performance Charts 293 11.1.3 Ozone Sickness . .. 334
10.3.4 Cruise Performance Charts 294 11.1.4 Carbon Monoxide . . ........ 334
10.3.5 Landing Performance Charts .. 294 11.1.5 Hyperventilation ......... 335
10.3.6 Landings & Take-Offs at Unimproved Airstrips 296 11.1.6 Decompression Sickness . 335
10.3.7 Tailwind Landings 297 11.1.7 Vision . 337
10.3.8 Crosswind Landings & Take-Offs 297 11.1.8 Noise, Vibration & Temperature . 338
10.3.9 Taxiing . 298 11.1.9 Sensory Illusions .............. 339
10.3.10 Cruising Speeds .. . 298 11.1.10 Alcohol ............ 340
10.3.11 Use of Performance Charts 299 11.1.11 Drugs . 341
11.1.12 Blood Donations 341
10.4 Wake Turbulence 299
11.1.13 Fatigue .342
10.4.1 Wake Turbulence Avoidance . 300
11.1.14 Pregnan cy 342
10.4.2 Jet Blast Hazard .. . 301
11.1.15 Eating 342
10.5 Flight Preparations. 302 11.1.16 Stress 342
10.5.1 Preparation for a Flight. .. . . . .. . .. 302 11.1.17 Panic . 343
10.5.2 Pilot's Inspection Prior to Flight 305 11.1.18 Physical Fitness ..... 343
10.5.3 Cockpit Check Prior to Flight 307
10.5.4 Take-Off Procedure 308
11.2 Psychosocial Factors ... 343
11.2.1 Pilot Decision Making ......... 343
10.5.5 En Route Procedure . 309
11.2.2 Human Fa ctors 345
10.5.6 Landing Procedure .. 310
10.5.7 Braking Technique .. 310
10.5.8 Landing Errors ... 311 12 Air Safety
10.5.9 Hydroplaning ... 313 12.1 State of Mind . 349
10.5.10 Go-Around/Overshoot .313
10.5.11 Wind Shear .. . 314 12.2 Checklists for Safety 349
10.5.12 Ground Effect .. 314 12.2.1 Checklist for Safe VFR Flight .. 349
10.5.13 Gust Conditions 315 12.2.2 Make These Resolutions ... 350
10.5.14 Low Flying 315 12.2.3 Obey These 12 Important Rules . .351
10.5.15 Visibility in Rain 316 12.2.4 Do's & Don'ts for Safe Flight ................ 352
10.5.16 Flight in Volcanic Ash 316 12.2.5 Principles of Safe Take-Off 352
10.5.17 Flying the Laminar Flow Airfoil .. 316 12.2.6 Principles of Safe Landing 353
10.5.18 Mid-Air Collision Hazard . .......... .. 316 12.2.7 I'M SAFE Checklist .. 354
10.5.19 Practicing Good Airmanship 318 12.3 Ensuring Safe Outcomes .. 354
10.6 Emergency Procedures . 319 12.3.1 Seatbelts & Shoulder Harnesses . .. 354
10.6.1 Engine Failure on Take-Off ................ 319 12.3.2 Airbag Restraint Systems 354
10.6.2 Unlatched Door in Flight . 319 12.3.3 Flight Helmets . .... 355
10.6.3 Action in the Event of Fire .. 319 12.3.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Detectors 355
10.6.4 Distress Signals ... 320
10.6.5 Forced Landing 320
10.6.6 Precautionary Landing 322
10.6.7 Emergency Landing Precautions . 322

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 Airmanship: Care of the Aeroplane

is m ost susceptible to collecting grime. Aircraft constructed

10 Airmanship of composite materials should be kept clean using solutions
recommended by the manufacturer.

Airmanship is proficiency in the handling and operating of Metal aeroplanes are susceptible to corrosion and must be
aeroplanes on the ground and in the air. It involves under- kept scrupulously clean to prevent corrosion. Cleaning agents
standing of the necessity and care in the execution of keeping which do not contain abrasive compounds should be used.
an aeroplane in airworthy condition. A proficient pilot is fully Wax applied to metal surfaces prevents oxidation and redu ces
conversa nt with the capabilities of the aeroplane and under- the amount of cleaning and polishing required
stands and regularly refers to the flight performance charts Visibility is much better through a clean windshield than
in the Pilot's Operating Handbook. The pilot understands the through a dirty one. The windshield should always first be
principle of weight and balance and knows how to load an washed with clean water using the bare hands to loosen accu-
aeroplane properly. He/she knows how to plan and carry out mulated dirt. Then polish with special non-abrasive liquid
a cross-country flight proficiently, how to avoid wake turbu- cleaners made especially for this purpose. Clean the inside of
lence, how to m ake good landings, how to deal with emergen- the windshield as well.
cies, etc. This chapter is designed to introduce pilots to the
Make certain that the cool air inlets are open and free of for-
concepts involved in good airmanship and whet their appetite
eign objects. In the spring of the year especially, it may be nec-
to seek further information and experience in broadening
essary to cover these openings while the aeroplane is parked
their proficiency as pilots.
outdoors to prevent birds from building nests in the engine.

10.1 Care of the Aeroplane Interior

Dirt and dust in the fuselage increase weight and add to the
The wise pilot carefully and systematically supervises the fire hazard.
inspection, maintenance, and servicing of his/her aeroplane. Keep the interior of the cabin and fu selage free of dirt and
Aeroplane mechanics are, on the whole, more precise, pains- foreign material. Use a vacuum cleaner on floor are as. Be
taking and conscientious about their work than is the average extremely ca reful when cleaning upholstery as it may have
pilot. They are, however, only human and as such are not been treated with fire resistant chemicals and this pro -
infallible. They could forget to clean the filter or fit a split- tection should not be removed; follow the manufacturer's
pin, or ground the airframe while refuelling. It pays a pilot to recommendations.
check every detail him/herself before taking an aeroplane off
Spilled acids, chemicals, fire extinguisher fluids, etc., should
the line.
be reported as they could cause corrosion and weakness of
the structure.
10.1.1 Aeroplane Cleanliness Dirt falling beneath the floor where control pulleys and con-
Dirt covers defe cts, making them more difficult to detect. Dirt nections are located can cause wear of the bearing surfaces
also increases skin fric tion, detrac ting from the performance and lead to incorrect operation. Dirt and dust may also inter-
of the aeroplane. fere with proper operation of electrical switches.
Dead insects commonly found on the leading edge of wings
and propeller blades cause drag and should be removed to Propellers
assure maximum aerodynamic efficiency. This is a sensi- Propellers sh ould be kept clean. As these are rotating airfoil
tive area and should be extremely smooth at all times if the sec tions, what applies to wing cleanliness applies also to
manufacturer's performance fi gures are to be realized. (The them. They should be kept clean of dead insects , grass and
manufacturer obtained the performance calculations in a dirt. A clean and waxed propeller will actually produce a
clean aeroplane). Therefore, keeping an aeroplane clean is higher rpm at full power settings than one that is dirty. A
very important. propeller constructed of composite material will requ ire dif-
ferent cleaning methods than those used on metal propellers.
External Airframe Always refer to the Owner's Manual for the manufacturer's
For washing aeroplanes, use mild detergent soaps and water. recommendations.
Linseed soap is an approved soap for fabri c covered aero-
planes and, when properly used (after the surface is dry, rub Carburetor Air Filter
down with a soft dry cloth as if to shine), it has the advantage Inclined to be overlooked by pilots between scheduled main-
of leaving a thin film which makes the surface slippery and tenance inspections is the condition of the carburetor air
thereby helps to reduce drag. Remove mud with water. Never filter. It should be kept clean of bugs, plant seeds, dust and
use gasoline as a cleaning fluid. dirt at all times. One of the most frequent causes of prema-
Be sure that the drain grommets located at the lowest points ture engine wear is a dirty air filter. Constant attention to the
in the wings, fuselage and control surfaces are not clogged cleanliness of this part will assure many additional hours of
with dirt or foreign matter. If these are clogged, water is pre- running before an engine overhaul becomes necessary.
vented from draining away; moisture left sitting in the interior
of the airframe tends to start corrosion and rot. Ventilation, Exhaust Heaters
especially important in woo d and fabric structures, will also Cabin heaters which obtain heat from the exhaust system
be h ampered if the drain grommets are clogged. should be inspected at frequent intervals for leaks which
Varsol is the approved cleaning flu id for removing oil and might allow carbon monoxide fume s to enter the cabin.
grease from engines, fi re walls, cowlings and all external
metal surfaces including the underside of the fuselage which

From th e Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Care of the Aeroplane

7. In very cold weather, drain the oil into a

10.i.2 Ground Handling of clean container while it is still w arm.
the Aeroplane 8. Place a spoiler spanwise over the top of the wing
Tricycle ge ared aeroplanes are m ost easily and s afely maneu- about 20% back from the leading edge. Such a
vered , during ground h andling, by the use of a tow-bar spoiler will prevent lift from being developed. A 2 x
attached to the nosewheel; th erefore , it is recom mended that 4 piece of lu mber held in place by a light rope looped
one be used whenever possible. When moving tricycle geared around the w ing chordwise is an effective spoiler.
aeroplanes by h and when no tow-bar is available , push down
on the fuselage at the point where the stabilizer attaches to 10.i.4 Refuelling
th e fuselage in order to raise the nosewheel. The aeroplane
Always ground the aeroplane and the hose nozzle when
can then be turned by pivotin g it about the m ain gear.
refuelling, owing to the d anger of fire from static electricity.
On both tailwheel an d tricycle geared aeroplanes, when Static electricity builds up in aircraft simply as a consequence
moving a high wing aeroplane forward or backward by h and , of moving through the air. After landing, the ch arge cannot
push at the wing strut root fitting or at the m ain landing gear dissipate to ground because of the insulating effect of the
strut. Low wing aeroplanes are most easily pushed backwards rubber tires. In order to dissipate this electrical charge and
by h and by pushing against the leading edge of the w ing; th e prevent the generation of a spark that could ignite fuel vapour
wing tips may be u sed to help maneuver the aeroplane. into a fireball, it is required procedure to properly grou nd th e
Under no circu m stances sh ould an aeroplane be moved aircraft before refuelling begins. The grounding w ire should
by pulling or pushing on the propeller blades. This action be attached to some part of th e aircraft; usually th e landing
imposes u nnecessary stress on the propeller blade, but, more gear is selected.
importantly, there is always the danger of serious injury if the Th e hose nozzle should m ake metal to metal contact with
propeller is alive. the filler neck of the fuel tank that is being filled. Although
grounding of the aircraft is important at any time, it is espe-
cially important in very cold temperatures wh ich are more
favourable to the generation of static electricity.
Static free clothing sh ould be worn at all times when working
around aeroplanes in order to reduce th e possibility of fire.
Nylon and other synth etics are very susceptible to the gen era-
tion of static electricity.
Plastic containers, funnels or other devices of non-conductive
m aterial should not be used for the transfer of fuel to an
aeroplane.
Fig.10.1 Picketing an Aeroplane in the Open
Be sure that the proper type of fuel is used in refuelling your
aeroplane. Only fuel of the type and octane rating specified by
10.i.3 Picketing an Aeroplane Outdoors the engine manufacturer sh ould be used. Be especially consci-
1. Park the aeroplane in a sh eltered location , such as entiou s in checking the fuel supply if you use jet fuel which
behind a row of trees or buildings. (However, parking is colourless. Two grades of fuel, each with its own distinctive
beside a building is not recommended in winter since colour, will become colou rless when mixed together. Water
ice falling from the roof could damage the aeroplane.) also is colourless.
2. Head the aeroplane into the prevailing wind. Tanks sh ould be fille d immediately after flying. Water vapour
in the air in an empty or partially filled tan k w ill condense
3. Use external control locks to hold the aileron s,
and cause water contamination of the fuel.
flap s, elevators and rudder in the neutral position
to prevent dam age occu rring to control surfaces. All aviation fuels absorb moisture from th e air and contain
(Cockpit control surface locks are not recommended water in both suspended and liquid form. The water in liquid
for continuous outdoor storage as gusts can still form , bein g heavier than the fuel, will settle to the bottom of
exert pressu re on the various control surfaces the tan k. This water must be removed from the tank. During
and stretching of the control wires w ill result .) the inspection prior to flight, a reasonable quantity of fuel
should be drawn from the lowest point of the fuel system into
4. Place chocks beh ind and in front of all wheels. a glass container. Any w ater in the sample will settle to the
5. Fasten ropes to appropriate places on the bottom where it can be readily detected. Uncontaminated fuel
wings and fa sten them to weights buried in h as an inherent brilliance and will sparkle in the presence of
the grou nd. Stakes, pegs or corkscrew s are not light. Water or fine dirt particles will make th e fuel appear
recommended. If the ground becomes satu- cloudy or hazy.
rated w ith rain, these will easily pull out. If there is any suspicion of serious water cont amination of
6. Cover the engine and cabin with a tarpaulin , poly- th e aeroplane fuel system , the entire system should be thor-
ethylene, or canvas, etc.to prevent dust from en ter- ough ly checked.
ing the engine where it might cau se excessive w ear The water th at exists in the fuel in suspended form does not
and to prevent birds from building nests , etc. The ordinarily cause problems. It passes h arm lessly through the
covering over the cabin will prevent rain from enter-
system and evaporates in th e heat of the combustion process.
ing and causing corrosion and general deteriora- However, in very cold weath er, any water in the fuel, includ-
tion. Cover the pilot pressure source (pitot tube). ing the m inute particles in su spension, m ay freeze into ice

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpubhshers.com

 Airmanship: Care of the Aeroplane

crystals that can block fuel lines and filters. A de-icing addi- Only oil of the S.A.E. number or grade specified by the engine
tive usually prevents this problem but it is important to use manufacturer should be used. The manufacturer usually rec-
only an additive that is recommended by the engine manufac- ommends different oils for varying climatic conditions.
turer. A drop in engine power or in fuel consumption or rough
Oil should be changed only in accordance with the recom-
running of the engine are signs of fuel icing.
mendation of the engine manufacturer.
Water is not the only contaminant that might be present in The oil tank should never be filled to the top. Leave room for
fuel. Sand, dust, rust and microorganisms may also find their the expansion of the oil when it gets hot.
way into fuel supplies. Sand and dust can be blown into tanks
during refuelling or introduced through unclean refuelling Be alert for possible battery overcharging which may occur due
equipment. A fuel nozzle, for example, that is dragged across to faulty current/voltage regulator malfunction. Overcharging
the ground will likely pick up dirt. Rust may develop in storage produces heat that causes plates within the battery to warp
tanks and fuel trucks and rust particles could be introduced and allows destructive acid to leak out and corrode adjacent
into the aircraft fuel tanks if the filtering devices of the refu- parts.
elling system are poorly maintained. Microorganisms tend
to occur in unleaded fuels especially and may multiply suf- 10.i.5 Winter Operations
ficiently rapidly to cause corrosion in the fuel tank and clog
Flying in the wintertime necessitates extra precautions on the
filters and screens. Careful maintenance, proper filtration
part of the pilot. Snow, ice and cold weather create problems
during refuelling and thorough fuel inspections will prevent
that the pilot who flies only in the summer never has to worry
the problems caused by these foreign bodies.
about.
Fuel additives to prevent icing and fouling should be used only
Aircraft tied down outside require special attention because
if they are approved and only in strict compliance with the
of the hazards posed by the build-up of snow and ice on wings
manufacturer's instructions.
and tail surfaces. They are not designed for the stress of heavy
Do not completely fill the tanks with cold fuel if the aeroplane loads of snow and ice; they should be removed even if the air-
is to be stored in a warm hangar. Aviation gas will expand craft is not going to be flown.
about 0.5% in volume for a 5°C rise in temperature.
When the aircraft is parked outdoors, blowing snow can enter
Because of the danger of static electricity and possible pitot and static pressure sources, fuel tank vents, airscoops,
fire, refuelling from drums and cans is not advisable. wheel wells and any other uncovered openings and free ze
Unfortunately, in some situations, there is no alternative. solid causing malfunctions of the parts affected. Engine
Proper bonding and grounding connections are very impor- covers and pitot pressure source covers should be used in
tant and tank caps should not be removed until grounding has winter.
been done. To be as safe as possible, first ground the aircraft,
If the drain holes in the airframe are clogged, water that gets
then attach the funnel to the aircraft by a grounding wire and
inside the structure will be trapped and will freeze. Ice can
finally attach the h and-held refuelling container to the funnel
jam the controls, throw the weight and balance off, crack the
by a grounding wire.
airframe and interfere with proper venting. Inspect the drain
When refuelling from a drum, it is important to use a proper holes regularly to be sure they are open.
filter/water separator with a portable pump bonded to the
Water in the fuel lines will at any time of year affect engine
drum. Never pump fuel from the bottom of a drum. The
performance but, during the winter, there is the added risk of
pump intake pipe should be made shorter than the depth of
the water free zing, blocking the fuel lines and causing engine
the drum by approximately one inch. Do not pump fuel from
stoppage. Refuel after each flight to help prevent condensa-
a drum which has just been moved. Let the drum stand for
tion and, in addition, drain a substantial amount of fuel from
some time to allow water or dirt to settle to the bottom. A
the lowest point of the fuel system before each day's flight
chamois lined funnel should be used only in emergency, since
and after each refuelling. Special care needs to be taken when
the passage of fuel through the chamois increases the pos-
the temperature hovers around the freezing level. Moisture in
sibility of generation of a charge of electricity. Chamois fibres
the fuel may be present as suspended ice crystals. They will
may clog fuel system filters and nozzles. If you are using a
not show up when a contamination drain check is done. If the
chamois as a filtering device, use a chamois of good quality
temperature rises above freezing, these ice crystals m ay turn
only. Any reduction in the flow through the chamois should
to water and, if they exist in sufficient quantity, may cause
be reason to suspect water contamination. Never wring a
engine failure.
chamois free of water as this action nullifies the water separa-
tion properties of the chamois. After the flight during which Since cabin heaters will be in regular use during winter opera-
the aircraft was refuelled using a chamois or felt lined funnel, tions, it is essential to ensure that the cabin heater system is
the aircraft should be thoroughly checked for a contaminated free of cracks or holes. In light aircraft, heat to the cabin is
fuel system. produced by engine exhaust. Any failure in this system may
result in carbon monoxide entering the cabin. Even small
All fuel filters, sumps, bowls and screens should be regularly
amounts of this dangerous gas affect judgment and flying
inspected and cleaned. During the preflight inspection, check
ability. Large amounts can be lethal. It is essential to carry
all drain cocks and tank caps to be sure they are properly
out a thorough visual inspection of the external parts of the
closed and seated. The condition of fuel tank caps should be
exhaust system as part of the preflight inspection and on a
especially noted. Deterioration of the cap seal or corrosion of
regular basis perform preventative maintenance. It is also
the cap itself or the cap seating area will permit water to enter
good practice to carry out periodic tests for the presence of
the fuel tank.
carbon monoxide.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airman ship: Care of the Aeroplane

Regularly ch eck the carburetor heat control to ensure that it In planning any winter flight, it is wise to be prepared for the
is operating properly throughout its entire range. Be sure also worst conditions that winter can bring.
that the carburetor temperature gauge is working properly Winter cold is just as hard on the human body as it is on the
and is giving true indications. It is your ice warning device. aeroplane. Proper warm winter clothin g, including warm
During cold weather operations, when checking proper opera- boots, gloves and hats, should be worn by all crew members
tion of the carburetor hot air control as part of the normal pre- and passengers. Several layers of loose clothing provide more
take -off check, allow the engine to run for a few seconds w ith warmth th an one bulky layer. Clothin g should be kept as clean
the heat control in the full ON position to assure that any ice and dry as possible to be m ost effective. The clothing worn for
that may h ave formed in th e carburetor Venturi area during an aeroplane flight in the winter should be adequate to keep
taxiing and warm-up will be eliminated. you warm in the event of a forced landing, not just to keep
Control cables should be checked for proper winter tension . you comfortable during the fligh t. The survival kit should be
Colder temperatu res can cause cables to contract, may lower designed for the worst combination of terrain, temperature
the cable's tension and m ake the flight controls less effective. and precipit ation that m ay be encoun tered. THINK SURVIVAL!
Retractable landing gear and wheels equipped with wheel You w ant to be able to survive the environment a fter surviv-
pants can become clogged by the mixture of ice, slush and ing the crash.
mud that is thrown up during landing and taxiing. Be su re the Special procedures for the operation of the en gine in cold
landing gear is clean and capable of spinning freely. Check weath er have been discussed in the Chapter Aero Engines.
strut extensions. Oleos should be serviced with nitrogen for Directional control is difficult on an icy runway during take-
winter operations to preven t the formation of ice crystals in off, especially in a crosswind sit uation . Stopping distances, in
the hydraulic fluid. Struts should be wiped with clean hydrau- the event of an aborted take-off, will increase. Acceleration is
lic fluid to remove snow, ice and dirt. Check tires for proper reduced on snow and slush covered runways. There are limits
inflation . Extrem e cold tem peratures may require th at they to the depth of slush that can be tolerated. Consult your Pilot's
be serviced. It is wise, in the winter, to remove the stream line Operating Handbook for lim its for your aircraft.
wheel covers on fixed gear aircraft to prevent an accumula-
tion of slush th at m ay freeze and lock the wheels or brakes. On During landing, it is important to establish a good crosswind
retractable gear aircraft , the condition of shields, boots and correction and stabilize your approach so that you are prop-
curtains used to protect activating devices and switch es must erly lined up with th e runway centreline. Landing with crab or
be carefully m aintained. During take-off, more slush and mud off centre will aggravate control problems on an icy runway.
will be th rown on the landing gear and m ay freeze solid after Touchdown should be made at low speed so th at decelera-
the gear is retracted. To prevent this, delay retractin g the gear tion can be accomplished without use of brakes and within
for a moment or so to allow the slipstream to blow off most the available ru nway. Reliable inform ation about the current
of the slush. conditions of the runway at your destination (plowing, ice
cover, slush) should be obtained before even contemplating
Taxiways and runways are often icy and slippery in the win-
the flight.
tertime. Taxi very slowly and keep lots of distance between
you and other aircraft taxiing ah ead. Avoid taxiing through
puddles. The w ater th at splashes up on the brakes m ay later 10.i.6 Critical Surface Contamination
freeze. Avoid the use of brakes as much as possible. When the An accu mulation of frost, snow or ice on the wings or other
brakes are used during taxi, heat is generated at the wheel horizontal surfaces w ill substantially alter the lifting charac-
h ubs, melting any snow or slush th at h as accu mulated there. teristics of the airfoil. Even a very ligh t layer of frost will suf-
As the wheels cool while th e aeroplane is stopped (awaiting ficiently alter the lifting ch aracteristics of the airfoil that the
take-off clearance, for example, or to do the t ake-off ch eck), aeroplane's take-off capabilities will be substantially affected.
the moisture in th e wheels is likely to freeze and lock th e Th e rough ness of the frost covered surface spoils the smooth
wheels. Even worse is the situation of moisture in th e wheels flow of air over the airfoil, separates the vital boundary layer
freezing after the aeroplane takes off. At the next landing, the and causes an increase in stall speed and a decrease in the
wh eels will be frozen and the landing roll may be unusually stall an gle of attack. Tests h ave shown that frost on the wings
short. of a conventional light aeroplane has increased the stall-
Above all, do not hurry your preflight inspection because of ing speed by at least 5 to 10% and even as much as 30% and
th e discomforts of the cold weather. Be even more th orough the take-off distance by as much as 100%. In one test, a ski-
th an you would normally be. Dress warmly so that you are equipped STOL aeroplane with frost on th e wings could not
comfortable enough to take your time. reach a speed at wh ich it could take off even though a large
lake w as available for the t ake-off run.
Be sure that you have carefully studied th e h andbooks per-
taining to your aeroplane, u nderstand all the systems of the If frost can cause so much trouble, ice is worse. It is possible
aeroplane and know the recommended win ter operation for the stalling speed of an ice contaminated aeroplane to be
procedures. increased to such a degree that the aeroplane can not reach
sufficient speed to ach ieve take-off or, if having achieved
It is important to conduct your preflight planning with care, take-off, to maintain flight. The aeroplane is very likely to
so that your flight can be carried out safely within the limita- stall as soon as it flies ou t of ground effect. Ice contamination
tions of both the weather and your abilities as a pilot. Winter severely affects the flight characteristics of all aeroplanes.
operation s mean fewer h ou rs of daylight , snow showers that In addition to adding significantly to the weight of the aero-
com pletely and sudden ly obscu re th e terrain, whiteout condi- plane, it changes horizontal stabilizer forces, upsetting the
tions, icy runways, etc. Do not fly in icing conditions if you aerodyn amic balance and cen tre of gravity location. The tur-
h ave no de-icing equipment. Even light freezing drizzle will bulent airflow over the ice contam inated wing means that the
quickly spread a cover of ice over the w indshield and side aeroplane will stall at a h igher airspeed and at a lower angle
windows, producing instrument conditions inside the cockpit. of attack. Lateral control of the aircraft deteriorates requiring

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 Airmanship: Care of the Aeroplane

larger and larger control wheel deflections to maintain stable Operation in close proximity to other aircraft must not be
flight. Ice and snow on the airfoils can also cause flutter that overlooked. The exhaust or prop wash from other aircraft can
may result in deformation of wing or aileron structures. blow snow or slush onto your aircraft or can cause snow on
It is, therefore, absolutely critical that all frost, snow and ice your aircraft to melt and then later freeze as ice. Don't follow
be removed from critical surfaces before take-off. Critical sur- too closely behind another aircraft when taxiing to take -off
faces are defined as wings, control surfaces, rotors, propellers, position.
horizontal stabilizers, vertical stabilizers or any other stabiliz- Operation on snowy, slushy or wet surfaces increases the pos-
ing surfaces of an aircraft and, in the case of an aircraft with sibility that contaminants will be splashed onto the wings,
rear-mounted engines , the upper surface of the fuselage. flaps and control surfaces. It is important to remember that
Never assume that snow will blow off. Snow can actually cont aminants on the underside of w ings are as degrading to
change to ice during the t ake-off run. Always clean off any performance as contaminants on the upper surface. Keep taxi
accumulation and be sure the w ings are clean before getting speeds slow to reduce the possibility of splashing snow and
underway. Pay special attention to the hinge areas of flaps slush onto your aircraft.
and control surfaces. Small pieces of ice can restrict their Aircraft configuration and surface roughness must be con-
movement and prevent full travel. Wing covers are a good sidered. Aircraft collect snow, slush, freezing rain and ice on
investment for aeroplanes that operate regularly during the any exposed surface or angle. Smooth surfaces don't collect
w inter. as much contamination as do rougher surfaces. However, a
Under the right conditions, ice can form very rapidly, com- smooth surface sometimes gives the appearance of being wet
pletely coating the aeroplane with a thick covering in a matter when it, in fact, is covered in clear ice.
of minutes. Be alert to the conditions that cause icing even before going
Clear ice m ay form on the upper surface of the wing over the out to your aircraft. Get a thorough weather briefing and th e
fuel tank after prolonged flight at below freezing tempera- most up -to-date forecast so that you are aware of tempera-
tures. Rain striking the wing over the cold fuel tank will turn tures and precipitation at your stops and en route.
to a sheet of clear ice that is so transparent that it is hard to Ice and snow not only affect the lifting surfaces . They can
detect. The refuelling process, if the fuel is warm, can melt clog and close off vital openings, such as the pitot and static
snow or ice on the wings that will later refreeze or, if the fuel pressure sources of the pitot-static system, rendering the
is cold, can cause m oisture to freeze. airspeed, altimeter and vertical speed u seless. Clogged fuel
In icing condition s, you cannot rely on the stall warning sys- breather vents will prevent the free flow of fuel. Gyroscopic
tems to give a warning of an impending stall. These devices instruments powered by a Venturi would be affected by ice
are calibrated to perform under clean w ing conditions and do building up on the Venturi throat. Ice on antennas impedes
not recognize the degraded performance of a contaminated radio reception.
wing. See also Snow, Frost and Ice in Section Stall in Chapter Theory
If the aircraft does not have any de-icing or anti-icing capabil- of Flight and Icing in Chapter Aviation Weather.
ity, flight through known icing conditions must be scrupu-
lously avoided. De-Icing
There are a number of major factors that contribute to critical Examine your aircraft very carefully prior to flight. Use your
surface contamination and a knowledgeable pilot will recog- eyes and hands to examine the surfaces to ensure that your
nize them as indicators of an icing condition. aircraft is "clean" before departing on a flight. Have the air-
craft de-iced by ground crews if there is any contamination.
Ambient temperature provides a good indication of the poten-
tial for icing conditions. The de-icing process is intended to restore the aircraft to a
clean configuration so that there is no degradation of the
Aircraft surface temperature indicates the susceptibility of aerodynamic ch aracteristics nor mech anical interference
the aircraft to icing. Aircraft surface temperature is affected with moving parts, antennas, sensors, etc.
by solar radiation. An aircraft will have a warm er surface tem-
perature on a sunny day than on an overcast day with identi- There are several suitable methods to de-ice an aircraft. It
cal ambient temperatures. When the fuel in a wing fuel tank is may be parked in a heated hangar until all the contamination
very cold, the cold fuel in the tanks can so chill the aluminum has melted. Wing covers and other temporary shelters w ill
wing surface that moisture in humid air or rain will turn to reduce the amount of contamination and the time required
fro st or ice over the fuel tank (cold soaking). to de-ice the aircraft . Light, dry snow can be removed with a
broom. Light frost can be rubbed off using a rope sawed across
Precipitation type and rate are important factors to consider. the cont aminated area.
Dry snow tends not to stick to aircraft surfaces whereas wet
snow will adhere and build up rapidly. Freezing rain combined De-icing is most commonly accomplished, especially on larger
with snow creates slush . Heavy precipitation is potentially aircraft, using h eated solutions of water and FPO (freezing
more critical than precipitation falling at a light rate. point depressant) fluids. These fluids lower the freezing point
of water in the liquid or crystal (ice) ph ase. De-icing is often
Relative humidity must be considered. Very moist air in com- followed by anti-icing using cold, rich solutions with a very
bination with cold air temperatures and cold aircraft surface low freezing point. Th e anti-icing solution is relatively thick
temperatures can give icing conditions even on a clear sunny and forms a protective layer over th e aircraft that impedes
day. the formation of ice, snow and frost. De-icing and anti-icing
Wind direction and velocity are critical considerations. North fluids should not be used unless approved by the aircraft
winds are cold and dry but south winds are usu ally m oist. manufacturer.
High winds will blow snow onto a parked aircraft. The FPO fluids u sed to de-ice aircraft in North America are
usually composed of ethylene glycol or propylene glycol

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Weight & Balance

combined with water and other fluids. They should not will be reduced. Maximum ceiling will be lowered and range
be used in an undiluted state. Ethylene glycol has a much shortened . Landing speed will be higher and the landing roll
h igher freezing point in its pure state than when diluted with longer. In addition, the additional weight may cause structural
water and may freeze when exposed to slight temperature stresses during maneuvers and turbulence that could lead to
decreases associated with cold-soaked fuels in wing tanks, damage.
reduction of solar radiation by clouds obscuring the sun, wind The total gross weight authorized for any particular type of
effects and lowered temperature during development of wing aeroplane must never be exceeded. A pilot must be capable of
lift. Pure propylene glycol, being quite viscous, can cause lift estimating the proper ratio of fuel, oil and payload permissible
reductions .
for a flight of any given duration. The weight limitations of
FPD fluids in concentrated forms should not be applied to pi tot some general aviation aeroplanes do not allow for all seats to
and static pressure sources, angle of attack sensors, control be filled, for the baggage compartment to be filled to capacity
surface cavities, cockpit windows, the nose of the fuselage, and for a full load of fuel as well. It is necessary, in this case,
the lower side of the radome, air inlets or engines. to choose between passengers, baggage and full fuel tanks.
SAE and ISO Type I fluids are unthickened. They are used for The distribution of weight is also of vital importance since
de-icing but provide very limited anti-icing protection. the position of the centre of gravity affects the stability of
SAE and ISO Type II fluids contain no less than 50% glycols the aeroplane. In loading an aeroplane, the C.G. must be
and have a minimum freeze point of -32°C. They are thickened within the permissible range and remain so during the flight
and thus have the property of adhering to aircraft surfaces to ensure the stability and maneuverability of the aeroplane
until the time of take-off. These fluids are used for de-icing, during flight.
when heated, and for anti-icing, when used unheated. They Aeroplane manufacturers publish Weight & Balance limits
are effective anti-icers because of their high viscosity and for their aeroplanes . This information can be found in two
pseudo-plastic properties. They remain on the wings during sources:
ground operations but flow off the wings readily during take-
1. The Aircraft Weight & Balance Report
off. SAE and ISO Type II fluids should not be used on aircraft
with a rotation speed (VR) of less than 100 knots. Below this 2. The Aeroplane Flight Manual/ Pilot's Operating
speed, some of the fluid may not completely flow away and Handbook
may cause some degradation of performance. The information in the Pilot's Operating Handbook is general
SAE and ISO Type III is a thickened fluid with properties for the particular model of aeroplane.
between Types I and II. It has a longer holdover time than The information in the Aircraft Weight & Balance Report
Type I but less than Type II. It is suitable for use on aircraft is particular to a specific aeroplane. The aeroplane with all
with a shorter ground roll to rotation and a rotation speed of equipment installed is weighed and the C.G. limits calculated
less than 100 knots. and this information is tabulated on the report which accom-
SAE and ISO Type IV fluids meet the same specifications as panies the aeroplane logbooks. If alterations or modifications
the Type II fluids while also having a significantly longer are made or additional equipment added to the aeroplane, the
holdover time. They are dyed green so as not to be mistaken weight and balance must be recalculated and a new report
for ice. prepared.

Temperature buffer is the temperature difference between

the freezing point of the fluid being applied and the ambient 10. 2 .1 Weight
temperature. Hold-over time is increased with an expansion Various terms are used in the discussion of the weight of an
of the temperature buffer. (It should not be less than 10° for aeroplane.
Type I fluids or 3° for Type II fluids, depending on the ambi-
Standard empty weight is the weight of the airframe and
ent temperatures .) The maximum buffer is the best choice.
engine with all standard equipment installed. It also includes
However, greater buffers require the use of more glycol which
the unusable fuel and oil.
is costly and increase the burden for collection and process-
ing of FPD spillage and run-off. Nevertheless, the maximum Optional or extra equipment is any and all additional instru-
buffer provides the greatest margin of safety and reduces the ments, radio equipment, etc. installed but not included as
possibility of refreezing of the FPO fluid during take-off, climb standard equipment, the weight of which is added to the
and at altitude. standard empty weight to get the basic empty weight. It also
includes fixed ballast, full engine coolant, hydraulic and de-
If your aircraft is fitted with anti-icing or de-icing systems, be
icing fluid .
sure that this equipment is operational before taking off on a
flight during which it may be required. Be sure that you know Basic empty weight is the weight of the aeroplane with all
how and when to use it. optional equipment included. In most aeroplanes, the manu-
facturer includes full oil in the basic empty weight.
Useful load (or disposable load) is the difference between
10.2 Weight & Balance gross take-off weight and basic empty weight. It is, in other
words, all the load which is removable, which is not perma-
You as pilot are responsible for the safe loading of your nently part of the aeroplane. It includes the usable fuel, the
aeroplane and must ensure that it is not overloaded. The pilot, crew, passengers, baggage, freight, etc.
performance of an aeroplane is influenced by its weight Payload is the load available as passengers, baggage, freight,
and overloading it will cause serious problems. The take-off
etc., after the weight of pilot, crew, usable fuel have been
run necessary to become airborne will be longer. In some
deducted from the useful load.
cases, the required take-off run may be greater than the
available runway. The angle of climb and the rate of climb

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 Airmanship: Weight & Balance

Operational empty weight is the basic empty weight of the Maximum landing weight is the maximum weight approved
aeroplane plus the weight of the pilot. It excludes payload and for landing touchdown. Most multi-engine aeroplanes which
usable fuel. operate over long stage lengths consume a considerable
Usable fuel is the fuel available for flight planning. weight of fuel. As a result, their weight is appreciably less
on landing than at take-off. Designers take advantage of this
Unusable Fuel is the fuel remaining in the tanks after a runout condition to stress the aeroplane for lighter landing loads ,
test has been completed in accordance with government thus saving structural weight. If the flight has been of short
regulations. duration, fuel or payload may have to be jettisoned to reduce
Operational gross weight is the weight of the aeroplane loaded the gross weight to maximum landing weight.
for take-off. It includes the basic empty weight plus the useful Maximum weight - zero fuel is the weight of the aeroplane
load. exclusive of usable fuel , but including useful load. Some
Maximum gross weight is the maximu m permissible weight manufacturers designate this weight for structural reasons.
of the aeroplane. Transport planes carry fuel in their w ings, the weight of
which relieves the bending moments imposed on the wings
Maximum take-off weight is the maximum weight approved
by the lift. The maximum weight - zero fuel, limits the load
for the start of the take-off run.
which may be carried in the fuselage. Any increase in weight
Maximum ramp weight is the maximum weight approved for in the form ofload carried in the fuselage must be counterbal-
ground maneuvering. It includes the weight of fuel used for anced by adding weight in the form of fuel in the wings.
start, taxi and run-up.
Float buoyancy is the maximum permissible gross weight of
Passenger weights are the actual passenger weights that must a seaplane and is governed by the buoyancy of the floats. The
be used in computing the weight of an aeroplane with limited buoyancy of a seaplane float is equal to the weight of water
seating capacity. Allowance must be made for heavy winter displaced by the immersed part of the float. This is equal to
clothing when such is worn. Winter clothing may add as much the weight the float will support without sinking beyond a
as 14 lbs to a person's basic weight; summer clothing would predetermined level (draught line).
add about 8 lbs.
The buoyancy of a seaplane float is designated by its m odel
On larger aeroplanes with quite a number of passenger seats number. A 4580 float has a buoyancy of 4,580 lbs. A seaplane
and for which actual passenger weights would not be avail- fitted with a pair of 4580 floats has a buoyancy of 9,160 lbs.
able, the following average passenger weights may be used.
Regulations require an 80% reserve float buoyancy. The floats
The specified weights for males and females include clothing
must, therefore, h ave a buoyancy equal to 180% of the weight
and carry-on baggage.
of the aeroplane.
Passenger Summer Winter To find the maximum gross weight of a seaplane fitted with,
Males (12 yrs & up) 206 lbs / 93.4 kg 212 lbs/ 96.2kg say 7170 model floats, multiply the float buoyancy by 2 and
Females (12 yrs & up) 112 lbs/ 78.1 kg 178 lbs / 80.7 kg divide by 1.8.(7,170 x 2) -;. 1.8 = 7,966 lb.
Children (2-11 yrs) 75 lbs / 34 kg 75 lbs / 34 kg
I nfa nts (up to 2 yrs) 30 lbs / 13.6 kg 30 lbs / 13.6 kg
Computing the Load
A typical light aeroplane has a basic weight of 1,008 lb. and an
Fig.10 .2 Passenger Weights
authorized maximum gross weight of 1,600 lb. An acceptable
Fuel and Oil weights can be derived from their respective loading of this aeroplane would be as follows:
quantities. The Pilot's Operating Handbook for aeroplanes of Basic Empty Weight ... 1,008 lb.
U.S. manufacture give fuel and oil quantities in U.S. gallons.
Consisting of Empty Weight. . . . . 973 lb.
Canadian manufactured aeroplanes of older vintage may have
Oil. . .. .... .... 15 lb.
manuals that give fuel and oil quantities in Imperial gallons.
Extra Equipment . . . .. 20 lb.
Some recently printed manuals may give fuel and oil quanti-
ties in litres. At airports in Canada, fuel is predominantly Useful Load .. 592 lb.
dispensed in litres. It is therefore necessary to convert from Consistin g of Pilot. . . . .. . ..... .. 150 lb.
litres to U.S. or Imperial gallons as required for your particular Fuel ...... .... .. .. .146 lb.
aeroplane. Payload: Passenger ... . .... 175 lb.
To convert litres to U.S. gallons, multiply by 0.264178. To con- Baggage ........ . .... ..... 121 lb.
vert litres to Imperial gallons, multiply by 0.219975.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The following weights are for average density at the standard To find the maximum payload that can be transported a given
air temperature of 15°C. At colder temperatu res, the weights distance and the amount of fuel required.
increase slightly. For example, at -40°C, one litre of aviation
A seaplane on contract with a mining company is required to
gasoline weighs 1.69 lbs.
transport a maximum load of freight a distance of 300 nauti-
Litre U.S. Gallon Imp. Gallon cal miles to a bush operation. The estimated groundspeed is
Av. Gas 1.59 lb. 6.0 lb. 7.20 lb. 110 knots. The useful load for this aeroplane is 1,836 pounds.
J.P.4 1.77 lb. 6.6 lb. 8.01 lb. Fuel capacity is 86 U.S. gallons. Fuel consumption is 20 gallon s
Kerosene 1.85 lb. 7.0 lb. 8.39 lb. per hour or 120 lb of fuel per h our.
Oil (65) 1.95 lb. 7.5 lb. 8.85 lb. The time to fly 300 nautical miles is 164 minutes (300 -;. 110 x
60). Add to that the 45 minutes required for reserve and the
Fig . 10.3 Fuel & Oil Weights amou nt of fuel required must be sufficient for 209 minutes of
flying time.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Weight & Balance

The amount of fuel required at 20 gallons per hour is 69.7 U.S.

gallons (20 .;. 60 x 209). That quantity of fuel weighs 418 lb.
(69.7 x 6 lb.). Balance Datum

The fuel calculations can also be computed by using the

weight of fuel consumed per hour. The weight of fuel neces-
sary for the flight is 418 lb. (120 .;. 60 x 209).
~:·-. . .··~llr1lil~'
The useful load is 1,836 lb. The weight of the pilot (170 lb.)
and fuel (418 lb.) is 588 lb. Therefore, the maximum payload ' ., :9
permissible is 1,248 lb. l+---o____..!
!• d .. :
What quantity of fuel in litres w ill be required? One U.S. gallon
equals 3.785332 litres. The quantity of fuel required is, there- Fig.10.4 Balance
fore, 263.8 litres (69.7 x 3.785332). (See Conversion Tables.)
The moment arm (D in Fig.10.4) is the horizontal distance in
inches from the balance datum line to the C.G. (0 in Fig.10.4).
10.2.2 Balance Limits The distance from the balance datum line to any item, such
The position of the centre of gravity along its longitudinal axis as a passenger, cargo, fuel tank, etc. is the arm of that item (d
affects the stability of the aeroplane. There are forward and in Fig.10.4}.
aft limits established by the aircraft design engineers beyond The balance moment of the aeroplane is determined by mul-
which the C.G. sh ould not be located for flight. These limits tiplying the weight of the aeroplane by the moment arm of
are set to assure that sufficient elevator deflection is available the aeroplane. It is expressed in inch pounds. The balance
for all phases of flight. moment of any item is the weight of that item multiplied by its
If the C.G. is too far forward, the aeroplane will be nose heavy, distance from the balance datum line. It is, therefore, obvious
if too far aft, tail heavy. An aeroplane whose centre of gravity that a heavy object loaded in a rearward position will have a
is too far aft may be dangerously unstable and will possess much greater balance moment than the same object loaded in
abnormal stall and spin characteristics. Recovery may be a position nearer to the balance datum line.
difficult if not impossible because the pilot is running out The moment index is the balance moment of any item or of
of elevator control. It is, therefore, the pilot's responsibility the total aeroplane divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000,
when loading an aeroplane to see that the C.G. lies within the or 10,000. It is used to simplify computations of weight and
recommended limits. balance especially on large aeroplanes where heavy items and
Usually the Aeroplane Owner's Manual lists a separate weight long arms result in large unmanageable numbers.
limitation for the baggage compartment in addition to the If loads are forward of the balance datum line their moment
gross weight limitation of the whole aeroplane. This is a factor arms are usually considered negative (-). Loads behind the
to which the pilot must pay close attention, for overloading balance datum line are considered positive (+). (In many cases
the baggage compartment (even if the aeroplane itself is not the positive sign is omitted, but the negative sign is always
overloaded) may move the C.G. too far aft and affect longitu- sh own. To simplify matters, both are included in our exam-
dinal control. ples). The total balance moment is the algebraic sum of the
The Aeroplane Owner's Manual may also specify such things balance moments of the aeroplane and each item composing
as the seat to be occupied in solo flight (in a tandem seating the disposable load.
arrangement) or which fuel tank is to be emptied first. Such The C.G. is found by dividing the total balance moment (in
instructions should be carefully complied with. inch-pounds) by the total weight (in lb.) and is expressed in
As the flight of the aeroplane progresses and fuel is con- inch es forward (-) or aft (+) of the balance datum line.
sumed, the weight of the aeroplane decreases. Its distribution The centre of gravity range is usually expressed in inches
of weight also changes and hence the C.G. changes. The pilot from the balance datum line (i.e. +39.5" to +45.8"). In some
must take into account this situation and calculate the weight aeroplanes, it may be expressed as a percentage of the mean
and balance not only for the beginning of the flight but also aerodynamic chord (25% to 35%). The MAC is the mean aero -
for the end of it. dynamic chord of the w ing.
To calculate the position of the C.G. in percent of MAC, let us
Definitions assume that the weight and balance calculations have found
The centre of gravity (C.G.} is the point through which the the C.G. to be 66 inches aft of the balance datum line and
weights of all the various parts of an aeroplane pass. It is, in the leading edge of the MAC to be 55 inches aft of the same
effect, the imaginary point from which the aeroplane could be reference (Fig.10.5). The C.G. will, therefore, lie 11 inches aft
suspended and remain balanced. The C.G. can move within of the leading edge of the MAC. If the MAC is 40 inches in
certain limits without upsetting the balance of the aeroplane. length, the position of the C.G. will be at a position (11 .;. 40)
The distance between the forward and aft C.G. limits is called 27% of the MAC. If the calculated C.G. position is within the
the centre of gravity range. recommended range (for example, 25% to 35%), the aeroplane
The balance datum line is a suitable line selected arbitrarily is properly loaded.
by the m anufacturer from which horizontal distances are
measured for balance purposes. It may be the nose of the
aeroplane, the fire wall or any other convenient point (see
Fig.10.4).

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 Airmanship: Weight & Balance

• M.A.C. • suitable type of ballast to compensate for a too far forward

Balance Datum Recommended Rang~ C.G. Every pilot sh ould, th erefore, calculate the moment arm
-~-4---.JI for the lightest possible loading of his/her aeroplane to deter-

~i .........
~
/ '
mine if it is acceptable.
,;i.__

- • CG

Fig.10.5 Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Finding Balance by Graph Method
Most Pilot's Operating Handbooks include tables and graphs
for calculating weight and balance. The charts in Fig.10.7 to
Fig.10.9 are typical of those found in su ch manuals. They are
very easy to use and eliminate the time consuming m ath-
ematical steps of the computation method.
There are several methods by which weight and balance cal- P172 SAMPLE AUtPl.ANE TOUR AIRPLANE

culations may be m ade for any loading situation. SAMPLE LOADING PROBLEMS
WEIGHT MOMENT WEIGHT MOMENT
_:::::..... (LBS) (LB Ins.
/ 1000)

1507 56.6
Finding Balance by Computation Method 1. Licensed Empty Weight {Sample Airplane)

2. Oil-10Qts. 19 ·0.4 19 ·0.4

For this example, an aeroplane with a basic weight of 1,575 lb.
3. Pilot and Front Passenger 340 12.0
and an authorized gross weigh t of 2,600 lb. has been selected.
The balance datum line for the aeroplane, selected by the 4. Fuel -(41 .S Gal at 6#/Gal) 249 12.0

manufacturer, is the fire wall. The recommended C.G. limits 5. Rear Passengers 340 23.8

are 35.5" to 44.8". 6. Baggage for Passenger on Auxillary Seat 45 4.3

List in table form the aeroplane (basic weight), pilot, passen- 7. Total Aircraft Weight (Loaded) 2500 108.3

gers, fuel, oil, baggage, cargo, etc., their respective weights 8. Locate this point (2500 at 108.5 on the center of gravity envelope, and since this
point falls within the envelope, the loading is acceptable .
and arms. Calculate the balance moment of each . Total the *NOTE: Normally fuel oil may be assumed for all flights.
weights. Total the balance moments. Divide th e total balance
moment by the total weight to find the moment arm (i.e. the Fig.10.7 Sample Loading Chart
position of the C.G.).
Using the charts in Fig.10.7 to Fig.10.9, let us work out a weight
(In th is example, th e oil is listed as a separate item and the and balance problem.
balance datum line is the fire wall in order to give an example
of a n egative moment arm.) 1. Take the authorized empty weight and moment/1,000
from the Weight & Balance Data Sheet carried in the
The moment arm for this loading of the aeroplane is 42.52" aeroplane and enter them in the columns of the chart
(110,270 c- 2,593). The total weight (2,593 lb.) of the loaded aero- in Fig.10.7. For the aeroplane used in ou r problem,
plane is less than the authorized gross weight (2,600 lb.). The these figures are 1,507 lbs. and a moment of 56.6.
moment arm falls within the C.G. range (35.5" to 44.8"). The
aeroplane is, therefore, properly loaded. 2. Enter the weight and moment/1,000 for the oil in the
proper columns. The sample aeroplane in this prob-
Item Weight (Lb.)
Moment Arm Balance Arm lem uses 10 U.S. quarts (19 lbs. and a m oment of -0.4).
(Inches) (Inch-Lb.)
You usually have a full load of oil for a trip. Therefore
Basi c Aeropla ne 1,575 +36 +56,700
these figures can be considered non-variables.
Pilot 165 +37 + 6, 105
Passenger (front seat)
Passenger (rear seat)
143
165
+37
+72
+ 5,291
+11 ,880
... - I
LOADING GRAPH
I

.
I.I
Child ~
77 +72 +5,544
(rear seat)
,,
320
(ii
Baggage 90 +98 +8,820 ~ 280
Ii 41.5 GAL.
(MAX)
t.,....~ P172 I ~
Fuel
::>
0
II •• I '
(60 U.S. Gal. @ 6 lb.) 360 +45 +16,200 0
e:. "
,... j) '3rM'!~~
..
.... 200 '
172
Oil
18 -15 -270
J:
Cl 0
JOGAL. i.i-1-- , ,_ CODE
-
(2.4 U.S. Gal. 7.5 lb.) iii ,
~ 120 -- 20 GAL. ... '
- PILOT

."
@
I AND FRONT PASSENGER
-
2,593 110, 270 ..
~
...J I
10GAL. 5
' '
~-
. --
- - FUEL
REAR PASSENGER

-- - -· BAGGAGE ANO PASSENGER ON

-
Fig.10.6 Example for Finding Balance AUXILIARY SEAT (120 • MAX.) -
i.;r-. -
.2 Io 1 4 6 8 10 181 20 r 22 I 24 I 26 I 281 30

The above example examines the situation of an aeroplane ' 12

13
14
IS
16
17 19 21 23 2S 27 29

MOMENT 1 : 1000 (POUND - INCHES)

almost at gross weight with the C.G. in a rearward position
but within the C.G. range. If this calculation had resulted in a Fig.10.8 Sample Loading Graph
C.G. position that was aft of th e C.G. limits, even though the
total weight of the aeroplane was under the authorized gross 3. Compute the weight of the pilot and the front seat
weight, it would be necessary either to lighten the load or to passenger. Refer to the Loading Graph (Fig.10.8) and
shift the load by, for example, having the passengers change find the m oment/1,000 on the scale. Enter these fig-
seats. ures on th e chart - 340 lbs. and a m om ent of 12.0.

A lightly loaded aeroplane at the end of a flight when the fuel 4. Determine the weight of fuel on board. (In this
is almost all consumed may experience the situation that case, 41.5 U.S. gallons at 6 lbs. per gallon). Find the
the C.G. moves forward beyond the permissible C.G. range. moment/1,000 from the Loading Graph and enter the
In some aeroplanes, when flying with only the pilot on board figures on the chart - 249 lbs. and a moment of 12.0.
and no passengers or baggage, it is necessary to carry some

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Weight & Balance

5. Calculate the weight of passengers in the rear 40. The aft C.G. limit is 46 but the unacceptable loading h as
seat. Using the proper line on the Loading Graph, produced a C.G. of 48.
find the m om ent/1,000 and enter these figu res
on the chart - 340 lbs. and a moment of 23.8.
X = 2 (48 less 46) X = 70.5 lbs.
~~~- -~~~~~~~
I I I I I I I I I
2500 ,___ CENTER OF GRAVITY I 3,000 85 (125 less 40)
,___ I
cz 2400 ,___ MOMENT ENVELOPE I ~

::>
0
e,. 2300 P172 , .,. This formula can also be used to determine h ow far forward
....
:i: 2200
... , .,. ~
a piece of cargo, equipment, etc. must be m oved in order to
"'~ ~
.,,. achieve an acceptable C.G. position. After the piece of cargo/
Ii:
2100
, II
luggage has been m oved, recalculate the weight and balance
"a:a:
0
2000 ... I.I
I
II

to ensure that the desired result h as been achieved.

;; 1900 ~

fil
0
"g
1800 I I.I
10.2.4 Weight &Balance &
,
I.I
.J
1700

~ ,;
l.J Flight Performance
1600
so 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 115 200 11 5 The flight characteristics of an aeroplane at gross weight with
LOADED AIRCRAFT MOMENT / 1000 (POUND - INCHES)
the C.G. very near its most aft limits are very different from
Fig. 10.9 Sample C.G. Movement Envelope those of the same aeroplane lightly loaded.

6. Weigh the baggage and read the moment/1,000 on For lift and weight to be in equilibrium in order to maintain
the proper line on the Loading Graph. Enter these any desired attitude of fligh t (see Theory of Flight), more lift
figures on the chart - 45 lbs. and a moment of 4.3. must be produced to balance the heavy weight. To achieve
this, the aeroplane must be flown at an increased angle of
7. Tot al the w eight column. The total mu st be attack. As a result, th e w ing will stall sooner (i.e. at a h igher
less than th e gross weight allowed for you r airspeed) when the aeroplane is fully loaded than wh en it is
aeroplane. The gross weight of the aeroplane light. Stalling speed in turns (that is, at increased load factors)
used in this problem is 2,500 lbs. If the total in will also be higher. In fact, everything connected with lift will
the weight column exceeds the gross weight, be affected. Take-off runs will be longer, angle of climb and
you m ust lighten the aeroplane's load. rate of climb will be reduced and, because of the increased
Total the m om ent column. Rem ember drag generated by the h igher an gle of attack, fuel consump -
to subtract the oil moment. tion will be higher th an normal for any given airspeed. Severe
G forces are m ore likely to cause stress to the airframe sup -
8. Refer to the Centre of Gravity Moment Envelope
porting a heavy payload.
(Fig.10.9). Locate the intersection of the lines
connecting the total weigh t with the total An aft C.G. makes the aeroplane less stable, making recovery
mom ent/1,000. If this point is w ithin the enve- from maneuvers more difficult. The aeroplane is more easily
lope, your aeroplane is loaded w ith in proper upset by gusts. However, with an aft C.G., the aeroplane stalls
limits. If this point of intersection is outside at a slightly lower airspeed. To counteract the tail heaviness of
the envelope, the load must be adjusted. the aft C.G., the elevator m ust be trimmed for an up load. The
horizontal stabilizer, as a result, produces extra lift and the
10.2.3 Weight Shift w ings, correspondingly, hold a slightly lower angle of attack.
An aft C.G. means th at the aeroplane will h ave a better range
Sometimes in weigh t and balance calculations, the gross
w eight of the aeroplane or the position of the C.G. turns out in cruise because of the lower angle of attack an d the reduced
downward force on the horizontal tail surfaces. Under no
to be beyond acceptable limits. If th e total weight is too much,
circumstances, however, should the aeroplane purposely be
some part of th e load h as to be removed. If, however, the gross
loaded with the C.G. outside the envelope in order to achieve
weight is not exceeded but the centre of gravity is outside the
better ran ge.
C.G. envelope, the problem may be solved by shifting som e
portion of the load from a rearward position to a more forward An aeroplane with a forward centre of gravity, being nose
position (if the C.G. is aft of limits) or vice versa (if the C.G. is h eavy, is more stable but more pressure on the elevator con-
forward of limits). trols will be necessar y to raise the nose - a fact to remember
on the landing flare. The forward C.G. means a somewhat
Suppose that the loaded aeroplane weigh s 3,000 pounds
which is within limits but the C.G. is located in a position that h igher stalling speed - another fact to remember during
take-offs and landings.
is too far aft . Som e baggage or cargo stowed in the rear cargo
hold could be moved forward. How much weight must be Every pilot sh ould be aw are of these general characteristics,
moved forward to bring th e C.G. in to acceptable lim its? sh ared by most aeroplanes, when they are loaded to their
Apply the following formula: weight and balance limits. The important thing to remem-
ber is that these characteristics are more pronounced as the
limits are approached and may become dan gerous if they are
Weight to moue Distance C.G. Must Moue exceeded. Overloading, as well as the immediate degradation
Weight of the Aeroplane = Distance Between Arms of performance, subjects the aeroplane to unseen stresses and
precipitates component fatigue.
The moment arm of the rear baggage compartment is 125. A
more forward position for a piece of baggage h as an arm of

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

aeroplane thinks it is flying based on the den sity of the sur-

10.3 Aeroplane Performance rounding air mass.

Density Altitude at
10.3.1 Effect of Temperature & Altitude Sbmdard
Temperature Elevation 27°C J2°c Js 0c 43°C
on Aeroplane Performance 15° Sea Level 1200' 1900' 2500' 3200'
The figure s published in the Pilot's Operating Handbook for 11 ° 2000' 3800' 4400' 5000' 5600'
70 4000' 6300' 6900' 7500' 8100'
the performance capabilities of a certain model of aeroplane 30 6000' 8600' 9200' 9800' 10,400'
are always related to standard atmosphere (29.92 inches of -1 · 8000' 11,100' 11,700' 12,300' 12,800'
mercury at 15°C at sea level). However, only rarely will the
aeroplane actu ally operate under conditions that approximate Fig.10. 11 Density Alt itud e Cha rt
stand ard atmosphere. Any increase in temperature or altitude
Too often, pilots associate density altitude only with high
means a decre ase in the aircraft's optimum performance.
elevation airports . Certainly, the effects of density altitude on
Air density de creases with altitude. At 10,000 feet, the pres- aeroplane performance are increasingly dramatic in opera-
su re exerted by a column of air is considerably less than at tions from such airports, especially when the temperature is
sea level. As a result, at high elevation airports, an aeroplane also hot. But it is important to remember th at density altitude
requires more runway to take off. Its rate of climb will be less, also has a negative effect on perfor mance at low elevation
its approach will be faster (because the TAS will be faster than airports when the temperature goes above the standard air
the !AS) and the landing roll will be longer. value of 15°C at sea level. Remember also that the standard air
temperature value decreases with altitude.
Fig.10.10 illustrates the effect of density altitude. The take-
At 5000' elevation off run at sea level with a temperature of 15°C (standard air)

~41r------.:.-------···········-----~------------·· is 1,000 feet. At a 5,000 foot elevation, with a temperature of

20°C, the take-off run is doubled and the rate of climb dimin-
ished 55%.
Fig.10.11 gives some examples of how high temperatures
Fig.10.10 Effect of Altitude & Temperature on Take-off & Climb increase the density altitude even at low elevation fields.
Air density also decreases with temperature. Warm air is less Pilot's Operating Handbooks publish tables or charts (see
dense than cold air because there are fewer air molecules in a Fig.10.15, Fig.10.17 and Fig.10.24) that give specific figu res
given volume of warm air than in the same volume of cooler for performance at varying density altitudes. These figures
air. As a result, on a hot day, an aeroplane will require more should always be referred to when operating in high density
runway to take off, will have a poor rate of climb and a faster altitude situations.
approach and will experience a longer landing roll. In order to compute the density altitude at a particular loca-
In combination, high and hot, a situation exists that can tion, it is necessary to know the pressure altitude. To deter-
well be disastrous for an unsuspecting, or m ore accurately, mine the latter, set the barometric scale of the altimeter to
an uninformed pilot. The combination of high temperature 29.92" Hg and read the altitude. (See also Density Altitude in
and high elevation produces a situation that aerodynami- the Chapter Theory of Flight.)
cally reduces drastically the performance of the aeroplane. Density altitude can be calculated for any given combination
The horsepower output of the engine is decreased because of pressure altitude and temperature on the circular slide rule
its fuel/air mixture is reduced. The propeller develops less portion of a flight computer. The procedure for doing so has
thrust because the blades, as airfoils, are less efficient in the already been discussed in the Chapter Navigation.
thin air. The wings develop less lift because the thin air exerts
less force on the airfoils. As a result, the take-off distance is
substantially increased, climb performance is substantially
Density Altitude Koch Chart
reduced and may, in extreme situations, be non-existent. The Koch Chart (Fig.10.12) shows in representative form the
kind of decrease in performance a pilot can expect when oper-
Humidity also plays a part in this scenario. Although it is not ating in situations of high altitude and/or higher than normal
a major factor in computing density altitude, high humidity temperatures. It can be used to estimate the increase in an
has an effect on engine power. The high level of water vapour aeroplane's take-off roll, and the decrease in its rate -of-climb
in the air reduces the amou nt of air available for combustion over its known standard-air, sea-level values. For example,
and results in an enriched mixture and reduced power. In assume a pressure altitude of 6,000 feet and an airport tem -
situations of high humidity and high density, it would be wise perature of 37°C. Locate 6,000 feet on the airport pres sure alti-
to add 10% to the computed take-off distance and to expect a tude index on the right edge of the chart . Locate 37°C on the
reduced rate of climb. temperature index on the left edge of the chart. Join these two
Mountain airports are particularly treach erous when tem- points and note where the line cuts the percentage index. The
peratures are high, especially for a low performance aero- aeroplane's normal take-off distance would be lengthened by
plane. The actual elevation of the airport may be near the 230% and its initial rate of climb would fall off 76%.
operational ceiling of the aeroplane without the disadvantage
of density altitude. Under some conditions, the aeroplane may
not be able to lift out of ground effect or to maintain a rate
of climb necessary to clear obstacles or surrounding terrain.
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temper-
ature. It is, in layman terms, the altitude at which the

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

 Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

Denalt Performance Computer

••• c TO f'IND THE i:rn:cT 0, ALTITUDE ANO Tr.MPt:RATURF.
.45 CO'N"N'r.CT THf: TtMPfo:RATUllE ANH AlltPollT Al .THU D!: A small circular computer called the Denalt Performance
lit •Y A STRA IGHT LINE .
Computer may also be used to calculate expected take -off
... nmM s ·rANIMl\lJ StA distance and rate of climb in h igh density altitude situations .
,. Rotate the computer until the outside air temperature appears
in the appropriate window. The take-off factor can then be
..• 25

20
II read opposite the pressure altitude in a second window.
(Pressure altitudes from sea level th rough 14,000 fee t, in incre-
• 1$
P'l~IU
KUUM
. . . .fl OJ •• m ents of 2,000 feet, are given.) Multiply this take-off factor by

:7
It 10 i the take-off distance that is normally required for your aero -
.. 12 a- plane at sea level in standard conditions and at the same gross
r
i..... ..•
0

-5 •OO •M• ..
...
O(lOU. . •O _ _ _ , , I . .
TOVa llO••M. lUl -Ofr CHITAIKf llO
i.
to
10
u.
~i
weight. The percent rate of climb (ROC) can be read opposite
the pressure altitude in a third window. Multiply the percent
ROC by the normal sea level rate of climb for your aeroplane in

It
-IO
..••r .. ....
~i
standard conditions and at the same gross weight .

Ic -15

-20
'.."()~'lO
~~
Si 10.3.2 Take-Off Performance Charts
• • ~1 The Pilot's Operating Handbook publishes information , usu-
.
-It
-25
~-

...-·
ally in chart form, on the take-off perform ance of a specific
lO ;; model of aeroplane. As a pilot you should familiarize yourself
-J5 with these charts to be able to predict how your aeroplane will
-2
perform under varying conditions and should refer to these
..... -40
charts whenever there is any doubt that the take-off condi-
Fig. 10.12 Koch Chart tions m ay not be sufficient for the performance capabilities
of the aeroplane. In addition, it is important to remember that
If you have neither your Pilot's Operating Handbook nor a the charts for any particular aeroplane were compiled from
Koch Chart, take-off performance can be calculated by a rela- performance figures of factory new equipment in optimum
tively simple rule of thumb. Remember, first, that an increase conditions. Any typical general aviation aeroplane, w ith con -
in density altitude will cause a corresponding decrease in siderable time on both airframe and engine, will have a poorer
take-off performance. Add 10% to the normal take-off ground performance potential than that predicted by the ch arts. In
roll and to the distance to clear a SO foot obstacle for every addition, underinflated tires, dragging brakes, dirt on the
1,000 foot increase in the density altitude up to a density wings, etc. will also affect performance negatively.
altitude of 3,000 feet. Above 3,000 feet, add 20% per 1,000 foot TAKEOFF DISTAN CE
MAXIMUM W E IGHT 2400 L B S
increase in the density altitude. T AK EOFF <l'C •<l'C ><1"c J<Pc o<l'c
!w£1C1·n
sruo 'Rf.SS
KIA $
For Example: ~~T CANO TOTAL rT CRNO TOTA.L JT CANO TOT ... L FT G RNO TOTAL FT GR lltD TOTAL FT
"' ~'"AT
..
ROLL O C L EAR RO LL TO CU:Al'I PIOLL TO CLE Ai~ ROl l TO CLEAR ROLL TO CLE AR

At an airport at sea level, the altimeter setting is 29.92" Hg ""'

,, '" ''
0"

... ...'"',. ""

.." '"
"
"' "'°
!.o FT ODS
"
SO FT O DS SO FT OOS

1570
"
"'
SO MOOS

....
1685
50 FT 0 6S
"
,., "
,,.,
18 10
,,..
11145

.... .... '""' ''°' 1015

""" '°"" "'° ,,.. 215s

.... ,... ,,......""' ,...,,.,"'""'"....

and the altimeter indicates that the pressure altitude is 0 feet. .....
... '"'
2000 1no l'ilO 1115
,,.,
'°'° ''°" ,...,
mo ,..,
3000
21 8 5 ""'
1)55 2510 "" """
1465 JOJO
14 25
1575

The temperature is 15°C which is standard air. The take-off

'""' """
0000

""' ''"'
1285 24 45
21 55
JUO
1540
1110
..
'""'
1665
,.''"'
1895
llOO
3805

""' """'
"'°
""' "'"
•no
>800 3900
1745
1940
) 4 55

''°" .. .. '""'
" ... ...
8000 1155
run under these conditions would be 1,000 feet. Suppose that
the temperature were to rise to 25°C and the pressure altitude
"""' ...
' '° ......""' ""'""'
"" ''" '" ....
119S
1)10
1440
uoo;,
1!'>4!.
...
"" .... "'
'"' "" "'° '""
1)75
1510

'" '°"
10)0
1615
1185
1575
1135
11115

remain constant. The density altitude of the airport at sea """ 99'.i

""' """
1835 11115
""'
"""' ""' ""' ""' ""'
""" "' ""' """ 1180 1210 1375

,,..
1040 19 4 5 1125 1210
""'
....""""""""
1215 1305 1465
12 40 1)40
level would now be 1,000 feet. For the increase of 1,000 feet """'
'""' 1'10
2110
1440 1315
23!'>5
1655
'"'
1555 14 45 1715
J I S5
1555
HJO

""" "'"
''°'
.. .. '"" ""
8000 1410 1525
"'" "'"' ""
in density altitude, add 10% to the take-off run which would
""" " '""'
" "' . ..
''° . .. '"
, '°" ... 1110 1165 ,,.,
"""' ...
''° 11 35
"' '""
"' "' 1'1115 1385

...
1215
'"
now be 1,100 feet.
""" '" "' ""' ...
'"
'" .... 1270
1140
1J6S 800 '"
"' ""' ,...,
'"'
14 65 ""...
'"'
141S
1510
152S

""
,.,.
,....
,,.
"""
"""'
"""' '"' .... '"
.... no '""'
... 1545
17 10
900
....
""'
1615
"" ""'
, .,, "" .
11115
1015
""
....
""' "" """
1070 1145 23\S

CONDITION S
'""' "" 8000
1015

'""
21'5 1215 1310
"""
1:n5
14 10
""'
'1115
1)70

"""
Fl.tin 100 l".,.ed, L.,.el, a.., Run _ .,
FuH Tl.,oul•l"r10<10 8uhRe1<tH<1 Zero Wind
NOTE S
sr--. 1..l d t - - •• - •'>l'd •nS.C1...., 4
,.,._ 10 t•keoU fto<n "*~ ~ 3000 ' " ' ...,.. ,, ..... 11>e ..... , .... ......,.., t><t .........., 10 .,..................... Rl"lwl '" • 1.. u 11>•011 ...
n • roc '"""P
l. 0.Cr UM dn"nc:"" IO'Wo lor 1..:1> II knon he~w.nd Fo< ""*'• "on w"" 1a1lw1nd1 up 10 10 k non . •nc•HM d,.,.,,.,., b y IO'll.
•o• t-cf'I 1 ~ nou
Fo< - 1110n0<1 • d<.,, gttU fun wa.,, inc •f1Mdlua<>ee1 b., l !i'll. o l 1"""groundtOll " h 9"••.

Fig .10.14 Take - Off Data Chart

Fig.10.14 depicts a Take-Off Data Chart which tabulates the

expected ground run and the expected distance over the
ground needed to clear a SO foot obstacle. The figures are
given for a gross weight of 2,400 lb. and for lighter loadings of
2,200 lb. and 2,000 lb. The table includes take-off performance
data at sea level and at elevations in 1,000 foot increm ents up
to 8,000 feet and at temperatures varying from 0°C to 40°C.
The performance figures in Fig.10.14 are given for take-off
from a h ard surface, level, dry runway with no wind and with
Fig.10.13 De nalt Pe rform a nce Compute r 10° of flap. For operation on a dry, grass runway, the distance
required for the ground roll should be increased by 15%. Less
favourable conditions such as long grass, s and, mud, slush ,

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

standing w ater, glassy water (in the case of seaplan es) and soft true at high elevation airports , but even at lower elevations,
snow (in t h e case of skiplanes) can easily double the take -off. aircraft performance m ay be marginal. Aircraft operation s
A 10% reduction in distan ces may be applied fo r every 9 knots should, therefore , be planne d fo r early morning or late eve-
of he adwind; a 10% increase in distances fo r every 2 knots of ning h ours .
tailwind . It is important to remember that in taking off fr om airfields
Wh at would be the expec ted take -off p erform ance to clear a that are at high elevation , you should use as a referen ce the
50 foot obstacle of the aeroplane to which the table in Fig.10.14 same indicated airsp eed that you would use durin g take -off
applies at an airport with an elevation of 4,000 feet , with a from an airfield at sea level. It is the true airspeed that is
dry, grass runway, an 18 knot h eadwind and an outside air affe cted by the increase in elevation an d temperature.
temperature of 10°C? At an operational gross weight of 2,400 In a high density altit u de situ ation (above 5,000 ft .), a normally
lbs., the expected ground roll w ith zero wi nd on a paved dry aspirated engine should be leaned to achieve m aximum power
runway could be 2,365 feet. Eighteen knots of h eadwind would on take-off. The excessively rich mixture th at is produced at
decreas e t h e ground roll by 20% to 1,892 feet . However, th e dry full rich w ould furth er degrade the overall perform an ce. (See
grass ru nway would in crease the roll by 15% of the ground also When to Lean the Engine in Chapter Aero Engines.)
roll figure . Thus, the expected ground roll would be approxi-
m ately 2,081 feet to clear a 50 foot obstacle. WEIGHT
PRESS CLIM B RA TE OF CLIMB - FPM
ALT SPEED
LBS
For some aeroplan es, th e take -off d at a is given only for gross FT KIAS -20°c o0 c 20°c 40°c

weigh t . A useful rule of thumb to rememb er is: a 10% reduc- 2400 S.L.
2000
76
75
805
695
745
640
685
580
625
525
tion in weight w ill result in a 10% reduction in take -off roll. A 4000
6000
74 590
485
535
430
480 420
73 37 5 320
10% increase in weight will result in a 20% increas e in take -off 8000 72 380 330 27 5 220
. ..
10.000 71 275 225 175
roll. 12.000 70 )75 125 .. . ·-·

Som e Pilot's Operating Handbooks publish a graph th at relates CON DITIONS '
FIClpS Up
NOTE '
Mi 11. ture leaned above 3000 fee t for ma ll: imum RPM .
take -off distance to den sity altitude. Fig.10.15 illustrates su ch Full Throt tle

a graph. To use this graph, t h e pilot must fir st calculate the Fi g . 10 .16 Maximum Rate of Climb Data Chart
den sity altitu de of the airport of operation.

TAKE OFF DISTANCE 10.3.3 Climb Performance Charts

Vs
DENSITY ALTITUDE The Pilot 's Operating Handbook also publishes data fo r climb
MAXIMUM EFFORT
performance. Fig. 10.16 illustrates a typical table of fi gures for
25° FLAP m aximum rate of climb.
PAVED LEVEL ORY RUNWAY

7000
I I RATE OF CLIMB
18000 Vs
600 0 I DENSITY ALTITUDE
16000
t 5000 I ~

w I 14000
\
0
;:,
§ 4000
z
;:,
er $
c;:iC I
' \
<( 0 12000
z ~, t \
~ ;:,
iii 3000 0 1;:· w
zw er 0 r\
CJ 10000
& ;:,
0
$
>- \
2000 ~
61 <(
> 8000
~

>- \
I iii
1000 zw
0 6000 '
\
0
I \
4000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3 000 3500
\
TAKE OFF DISTANCE FT.
2000
\
Fig . 10.15 Density Altit ude Take-Off Graph
\
For example, let us assume that the density altitude is 5,000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
fee t . Locate the figure 5,000 on the left edge of the graph. RATE O F CLIMB FT. PER MINUTE
Locate the intersection of the 5,000 foot line with the "ground
run" line and th e "over 50 ft. barrier" line . The ground run Fi g . 10 .17 Density Altitude Rate of Climb Graph
to achieve take -off will be approximately 1,000 feet and th e The maxim um, or best rate of climb, it will be remembered, is
di stance re quired to clear a 50 fo ot obstacle will be approxi- the rate of climb which will gain t h e most altitude in the least
mately 2,335 feet. time and is used to climb after take -off until ready to leave
If after calculating density altitude an d ch ecking t h e tables, it the traffic circuit. The table in Fig. 10.16 lists the rate of climb
appears that the take-off run will require more runway than in feet per minute at 2,400 lb. gross weight. Th e ch art includes
is available, you, as pilot-in-command, h ave several alterna- climb performance data at sea level and at pressure altitudes
tives. You can lighten the load, if possible, or you can wait up to 12,000 fe et and at temperatures varying from -20°C to
until the temperature decreases. Generally, the most critical 40°C. Note h ow the rate of climb decreases w ith altit u de. At
time for flight operation s when the temp erature is very h ot is gross weight, at sea level, wit h an ambient tem perature of
from m id-m orning throu gh mid-afternoon. This is especially 20°C, the rate of climb is 685 feet per minute , at 10,000 fee t 175

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

ft/min, at 12,000 feet 0 ft/min. At 12,000 feet, therefore, (at an To use the graph in Fig.10.20, the pilot must also refer to a
outside air temperature of 20°C) the aeroplane has reached its graph (Fig.10.21) relating power to altitude to determine what
service ceiling. rpm will give the percentage of power required. For example,
These climb performance figures are calculated with flaps up, to achieve 65% power at 5,000 feet density altitude, it is neces-
full throttle and the mixture leaned for maximum rpm above sary to operate at a power setting of 2,400 rpm.
3,000 feet.
CRUISE PERFORMANCE
CIUISI CUMI LEAN M IXTURE

POWEi
Climb .......
r .. 1 ~ooo rr . 41•r 10000 FT . 2S·r ISOOO FT . s•r Standa r d Con d iti o ni ~ Z e ro W i nd ~ G rou We i gh t . 2800 Po v nd1

...
F ROM SEA LE VE L FROM SEA LL VEL FROM SCA LEVEL 60 GA l( NO R!Sll VE) 7 9GAl (NO RESllVE )
IAS Gr&. Hr
SITTING MPH Fuel fuf' I Fu•I
T1nw
0 111 . u... D11 t . Tim• u... Dist . Ti me U•M
,; G AL / TAS ENOlt . RAN GE ENDI . RANGE
•PM r.t . P . M1M-1 Min . Co l. M 1lu M in . Gi l. Mi lo M11'1 . Gil. RPM MP IHP HOUI MPH HOUR S MI LES HOURS MILES

h ll 2500 FEET
..,
2600

mo
f . T.

29
150

130
fh ch

U .S
'
10
'
'
1

1
II

22
1

10
10

• "
)0 II

15
"
12
24SO 23
22
21 ."
76
72
14 . 2
13 . 4
12 . 1
IS8
154
ISi
...
4. 1
670
6' 0

"'
"'
"'
6. 2
6.6
885
910
'40

• 20 12 . 0 148 5.0 730

"'
2'50 29 150 1~.s 15 1
" 12 10
" " .
I]
2300 23 71 13 . 1 1'4
...
4.6 700

...
6.0
"'
"""
22 12 . 2 14' HO 6. 5 970
2200 21 12 .6 I 1 II II 10
150 20
" "
..
11. S I ...
21
20 11.0
14'
142 "'
u
760

"' 7.2 1020

.......
5. 0
"'
""
2200 23 12 .1 149 960
22 11. 4 146
"' 77 0 6.9 1010

...
21 10 . 8 142 7'0 7.3 1040

.... .,""
NOTE : WARM -UP AHD'fAKE .orr ALLOWANCE . GALLONS AT SEA UVEL .

...... ..."'
20 10. 2 136 81 0 1065

....,...,. .
MIXTURE AT RECOMMtJfDED F UE L FL.OW , F LAPS AHO GEAR UP .
9.1
........,.. 6.7 lUS

"" "' "'

20
..,. 8.2 121 7.3
8. 0 •oo 10.S
1110

Fig.10.18 Cruise Climb Chart

II
11
" "' 7.0 105 8. 6 11 . 3
111$
n to

24SO 23
"
14. S
5000 FEET
"' ...
...
4. 1 670 ... 885
Some Pilot's Operating Handbooks also publish a graph that
relates climb performance to density altitude. The graph in
22
21
20 ."
73
70
13 . 6
13.0
12 . 2
"'
1'6
ISi ...
...
700
720

"" ..
S. 8
6. 1
6. S ...
"'
950

...
Fig.10.17 is such a chart. It indicates the climb performance
that can be expected at varying density altitudes. At a density
altitude of 10,000 feet, for example, the aeroplane for which
23 00

2200
23
22
21
20
23
22
..
...."
60
13. 4
12 . 6
11. 9
11. 2
12 . 4
11. 1
IS8

"'
l> I
146
l>S
151
.
.....
"'
s. o

S. I
710
730
,..
760

"°
71'
...
6.3
6. 6
7.1

6. 8
"o
I ...
1035

"'
1020

....,," "'"' '" "'

21 60 11.0 146 800 1050

...
-....,. ... ......
this chart is applicable will climb at about 250 feet per minute. 20
••
10. S 14J
'" "' "' '""
2000 126

...
"' "' 1115

" ...
10.0 1110
At a density altitude of 16,000 feet, it has reached its ceiling II
11 u "'
Ill "' 110 10.1 uoo
and will not climb any higher. """"" 16 102 ILi 1110

Many Pilot's Operating Handbooks also publish charts for Fig . 10 .19 Cru i se Performance Chart
cruise climb (Fig.10.18). Cruise climb, or normal climb, is the
climb airspeed used for a prolonged climb. The chart indi-
cates the fuel used, time required to reach altitude, and still
10.3.5 Landing Performance Charts
air distance covered in order to reach various altitudes when Perfect landings are usually preceded by deliberately planned
climbing at a certain indicated airspeed with various power and well executed approaches. Correct approach speeds
settings. are important. The Pilot's Operating Handbook for any par-
ticular model of aeroplane recommends the speeds to use on
approach with various flap settings. These airspeeds should
10.3.4 Cruise Performance Charts always be used.
Performance figures for cruise at gross weight are also given
in most Pilot's Operating Handbooks. These charts show the I I I I I I I I I I I

RANGE
fuel consumption, true airspeed, endurance and range that --
vs -
may be expected when cruising at a certain altitude with -- DENSITY ALTlTUDE -
the engine being operated at normal lean mixture, at various - - 2900 LB MAX GROSS TAKEOFF WEIGHT -
combinations of rpm and MP (manifold pressure) settings (to -- 84 GAL FUEL - FULL TANKS -
give a required % of power). I I I I I I I

The figures in the chart in Fig.10.19 are for a typical general

I I
aviation aeroplane. They are tabulated for cruise at various 12000 l--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--1+-I+---+--+--+--+---<
55% POWER 129 HP 103 GPH
altitudes: 2,500 feet and 5,000 feet are illustrated. The Manual
includes figu res for 7,500 feet, 10,000 feet, etc., up to the aero- 10000 1-"65"1°!."-
o '-PO,._W=Ei-'R,,_1'-'5"'3-'-H+P,_
, 1'-'1;o.5-'G'<P.,_
H"-t'!Jf-+-+-+--+--+--t

plane's service ceiling. 10•. PclwE~. 1 5 HP. 12 G ;:- I

w
0
It must be noted, however, that these figures are calculated :i 8000
>=
on standard air conditions and zero wind. Wind direction and 5
<(
velocity will not affect fuel consumption or endurance but will 6000 l--+-+--+---tr'/
+-il-f-+-
, _'f-+--+--+-+-+-+--1
~
certainly affect range. Interpolation of the figures must also (ii
zw
I I
be made for variations as a result of density altitude. 0 4000 l---+--+--+---+- l#,--+-H,.......,1--1---+--+--+--+---t
I
Some manuals publish their cruise performance data in I
I I

' I'
graph form such as that shown in Fig.10.20. By reference to 2000
the graph, a pilot can determine the expected range for any I
combination of density altit ude and percentage of power. For I I I
example, at 5,000 feet density altitude and 65% power, the 800 900 1000 11 00 1200
aeroplane for wh ich this graph applies, has a range of approxi- RANGE - MILES
mately 1,050 m iles.
Fig.10 .20 Cruise Perfo r mance Graph

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

airspeed for the m aximum weight of your aeroplane by one-

- - POWER ~ half of the percentage of the weight decrease. If, for example,
vs the aeroplane weight is 20% below maximum, the calibrated
- - ALTITUDE -
- - - approach airspeed would be decreased by h alf of th at, or by
69 INCH FIXED PITCH PROPELLER
10%.
- - 2900 LB GROSS WEIGHT ~

14000 The 1.3 Vso airspeed should be used only after all maneuvering
is completed, that is, on short final only.
12000
I
I

WEIGH T
SPEED

50 fT
AT "'f SS
ALT
o•c ..., .
,,
GRN O TOTA L FT GRNO TOTAL FT GRNO TOTAL FT G RNO TOTAL FT GRNO TOTA L FT
30"C
"'''
LIS
I fT

..
KI A$ ROLL TO CL EA R ROLL TO CL EAR ROLL TO CLEA~ ROLL TO CLEAR ROLL TO Cl.EAR
f-
UJ
UJ
u.
.;.
10000

II
,. " S. L
>000
FT

...''°... ""
.. o 1235
1:165
,,.
550
1265
1'295
...
50 FT 08S FT SO FT OBS FT SO FT 0 85 FT SO FT 085 FT so FT oas

510
1295
1325
510
590 ,,
1325
.. "'
.. o
'350
>J90

Cl
::> 8000
s; tt l
v
I
2000
JOO()
•000
5000
5>0

....
>JJO
1)65
510
590

'"
6'0
. ..
>JJO
"'°
U JS
590

"'
"' "'
>360
1395
>OJO
100
"o
G60
""' "'
""'
14 70
630

680
1425
1460

''°°
1540
E '" 660

"' "'° '"

1510 705

:;
<
>- 6000 &
"- -~~ ~
~ e---~ v
0000
7000
8000 ...'"
"' 14JS
14 75
15 15
660
690

'"
1470
1S15
1555
1' 0
7'0
1510

"' ""'
"' 1595
1'0
"'°
16 JS
730
760
790
'580
"'°
1675

-·
¥j_ e->-o
f-
iii ~ <l Iii/ CON DITIONS:
f l1p1 300
Mo 1mum e,.~ ;n;
P1nd.Lr-t l,DfyRun ,...y

~-<lo~I
z - ZffoWind
UJ
Cl 4000 - /fl~ ~~ ~"
I ·'f
~ ()
~ ii
NOTES ·
Sholl l<t ldlKhnrqu1u1J)f( 1l it d•nSK t 1on 4
Otcru" d•ll l f\Ctl l O'll. tor n ch 9 knoll hud""•"d. For OPt•llr o n w rlh U •l w 1nch up to 10 knon. 1ncruH d 1U1ncfl l) y 101'

~ ~ For o pcr11+onon 1 d• y.9flll •un ...1v. •nc<t l l • d•lllt>C U by451'ol 1h1 " 9fOund •oll " figur•.
ll 1 l1 nd 1n9 w1thll, ptu p11ntn1 u rv .•rn::•o 1tthc1ppr o1chipecd l) y 7 KtAS 1nd 1llo..,fo1JS'lttlOn91"rdi1u 11c n .
2000 / I o\0 '/

y 1 ~,r Fig .10.23 Land i ng Distan ce Chart

0 I I I
2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600
On some aeroplanes, the manufacturer m ay require a particu-
POWER-RPM lar approach speed for all weights because, during certifica -
tion flight testing, it was found that for stability and control
Fig .10.21 Power Graph reasons, or for go-around safety, a fixed airspeed is required.
Always comply with the m anufacturer's recommendations.
If information on approach speeds is not available, a useful
rule of thumb to determine final approach speed for the aver- Most Pilot 's Operating Handbooks publish information on
age conventional design aeroplane may be found by applying landing performance in a table such as that in Fig.10.23 . The
the formula presented in Fig.10.22. table assumes 30° of flaps, power off, no wind an d maximum
braking on a paved, dry, level runway. It lists the expected
The 1.3 V 50 formula should be calculated using calibrated air- ground roll and distance to clear a 50 foot obstacle when
speed. Calibrated airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected for landing at airports of varying elevations and at varying ambi-
position and instrument error. CAS values are published in ent air temperatures. A probable 10% reduction in landing
the Owner's Manual. distan ce is indicated for every 9 knots of headwind; a 10%
For some aeroplanes, t h ere is a significant discrepancy increase for every 2 knots of tailwind. If, for example, the
between CAS and !AS, especially at the lower end of t he speed velocity of the headwind at an airport at 3,000 feet (tempera-
range near the stall. ture 20°C) is 9 knots, the ground roll can be expected to be 554
Under normal C.G. and load conditions, feet [615 - (615 x 10%)].
Power-off Over the
stall LA.S. fenceLA.S. final approach speed= 1.3 v,,,

40 52
V50= Power-off stall speed in landing configuration
- -
- -
I I I I

LANDING DISTANCE
VS
I I I I I I I

--
_,_____
45 59
- - --
--
DENSITY ALTITUDE
50 65
55 72 - - 2400 LBS GROSS WEIGHT

60 78
65 85
70 91 7000
75 98 I
80 104
6000
85 111
90 117 f-
UJ
95 124 UJ
u.
5000
100 130 UJ

Fig .10.22 Approach Speed

0
::;)
j::
~
<(
4000
....
::>
_,_,
0
a:
UJ
a:
a:
-
,....__
The factor of weight is important in determining landing ~ 3000 0
~
~,....__

a:
iii ....

--
Q
speed. All aeroplanes stall at slower airsp eeds when they are z z UJ e--->--
w ::;) UJ
u.
light. A lightly loaded aeroplane, landing at the same airspeed 0 2000 0
a: ,,,
--
0
(!l
that is used when it is h eavily loaded, will float before touch- a:
UJ
down to dissipate the excess energy, thu s extending the land- 1000
>
0
ing distance. The 1.3 V 50 formula should be calculated u sing I

the stalling speed for the actual weight of the aircraft, not the
maximum landing weight. If the Owner's Manual does not
publish a table of approach speeds as a functio n of reduced
0 200 400 600

LANDING DISTANCE - FEET

800 1000
' 1200 1400

weight, a rule of thumb is to reduce the calibrated approach

Fig.10.24 Density Altitude Rate of Climb Graph

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

Since there is some loss in the quality of braking action on there is a 20% increase in the ground roll/distance (a ratio of
the grass of a sod runway, the ground roll after landing can 1:2).
be expected to be longer than it would be on a hard surface
runway. In the chart in Fig.10.23, a 45% increase is suggested SURFACE
On a firm turf runway, add 7% to the ground roll/distance.
as probable for the ground roll when landing on a sod runway
when the grass is dry. In any less favour-able conditions, such On a rough or rocky runway or on short grass (up to 4 inches) ,
as wet grass, slush, or standing water on either a sod or a hard add 10%.
surface runway, braking action will be degraded even further On long grass (more than 4 inches), add 30%.
and the landing roll will be increased substantially.
On a soft surface, such as mud or snow, add 75%. In some
Density altitude affects the landing performance of an aero- situations, it may be impossible to achieve take-off, if the
plane as greatly as it affects take-off performance. High tem- conditions are bad enough.
perature and high elevation will cause an increase in the land-
ing roll because the true airspeed is higher than the indicated HEADWIND
airspeed. Therefore, even though using the same indicated Use the following formula to determine the effect of a head-
wind. The formula should not be used for a headwind of less
airspeed for approach and landing that is appropriate for sea
than 10 knots.
level operations, the true airspeed is faster, resulting in a
faster groundspeed (with a given wind condition).
90% minus the headwind component divided by
The increase in groundspeed naturally makes the landing dis-
the rotation speed equals % of ground roll/distance
tance longer and should be carefully considered when landing
at a high elevation field, particularly if the field is short.
For Example:
Some Pilot's Operating Handbooks contain performance
charts and tables such as the one in Fig.10.24 which relate If the headwind is 10 knots and the
landing distance to density altitude. Pilots should develop the rotation speed is 50 knots, then:
habit of referring to these charts in order to anticipate the 90% - ((10 knots c- 50 knots) x 100]
distance that will be required to land their aeroplane under = 90% - 20%
various conditions of flight. = 70% of ground roll/distance.

10.3.6 Landings &Take-Offs at TAILWIND

Use the following formula to determine the effect of a tail-
Unimproved Airstrips wind . The formula should not be used for tailwinds greater
The data published in the Pilot's Operating Handbook gener- than 5 knots. Take-offs with tailwinds greater th an 10 knots
ally applies to dry paved runways. It is almost impossible to are not recommended.
produce accurate figures applicable to turf runways because
of the number of variables involved. The conditions change 100% plus the tailwind component divided by the
depending on whether the turf is wet, dry, frozen, snow or rotation speed equals % of ground roll/distance
ice covered and change still further depending on how wet,
how much snow, etc. The weight of the aeroplane is a factor
since a heavier aeroplane tends to sink into the surface. The SLOPED RUNWAY
size of tires, tire pressure and tire tread all have an effect For every 1° of upward slope in the runway, add 10% to the
both on take-off roll and on braking action . New tires and take-off roll. An upslope of 2° will add quite significantly to
new brakes can produce greater braking action . In addition, take-off distances. Sloping runways provide a different visual
take-off and landing performance vary with the condition of perspective than a level surface and landings and take-offs
the aeroplane and the powerplant. demand more planning and closer attention to flying tech-
For the most part, a pilot has to learn by experience what his/ niques . When attempting to take off from a runway with an
her aeroplane will do by way of performance at unimproved upslope, it is important to know if the aeroplane can climb
airstrips. safely away from the rising terrain. Uphill take-offs with tail-
winds should be avoided.
Rules of Thumb A 1° downward slope in the runway reduces the take-off roll
There are some rules of thumb that will supplement the by only 5%. If a take-off is commenced downhill with a tail-
approved take-off and landing performance charts and wind, the aeroplane will accelerate more rapidly. Avoid the
increase the safety of operations at unimproved airstrips. temptation to lift off prematurely because the groundspeed
They should not be used at variance with data published by seems high. Wait for a safe indicated airspeed.
the manufacturer. COMBINED EFFECT
DENSITY ALTITUDE The combined effect of a change in aircraft weight, runway
For every 1,000 foot increase in the density altitude, add surface, runway slope and/or density altitude, in one or more
10% to the ground roll and to the distance to clear a 50 foot combinations, can dramatically alter take-off distances.
obstacle up to 3,000 feet density altitude and add 20% above ABORTING A TAKE-OFF
3,000 feet density altitude. At 25% of the ground roll to take-off, the aeroplane should
WEIGHT have achieved 50% of its lift-off speed.
For a 10% decrease in the weight of an aeroplane, there is a At 50% of the ground roll, it should have achieved 70% of its
10% decrease in the take-off ground roll and in the distance lift-off speed.
to clear a 50 foot obstacle. For a 10% increase in the weight,
At 80% of the ground roll, it should have achieved 90% of its
lift-off speed.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

Lift-off speed should be reached within the first 75% of the Wind compon ent charts similar to that in Fig.10.25 are pub-
usable runway. If lift-off has not been achieved in this dis- lished in Pilot's Operating Handbooks for u se in determining
tan ce, the take-off should be aborted. For example, with a h eadwind components in take -off an d landing situations. Let
ground roll to t ake-off of 1,200 feet, the minimum runway us assume that the wind as reported by the tower is from 080°
length must be 1,600 feet. at 30 knots. The runway in use is 05 and the angle between
the wind and the runway is, therefore, 30 degrees. By locat-
10.3.7 Tailwind Landings ing the intersection on the chart of the 30° line representing
"angle between wind direction and flight path" and the wind
On occasion, because of dangerous terrain ne ar an airport,
it is necessary to operate from a runway with a tailwind curve, the headwind component is found to be 26 knots and
component. Safe operation in this situation requires special the crosswind component 15 knots. The pilot would, there-
training and firm guidelin es . The tailwind component should fore, base his/her take-off performance on a 26 knot headwind
b e limited to less th an 10 knots. Den sity altitude and aircraft component.
capabilities must be considered . I R\Jl 1N0 f A
\() ,. 10

Tailwinds contribute to an illusion of a "hot" landing (or take -

off). The pilot must p ay sp ecial attention to the airsp eed indi-
cator and ignore the illusion of excessive speed. A headw ind
over the vertical stabilizer contributes to directional control
but a tailwind does not, resulting in some degradation of
directional control. A tailwind w ill lengthen the take-off roll
and decrease the angle of climb after t ake-off. During land-
ing, a tailwind will require the pilot to increase the rate of
descent to m aintain a given glideslope .
The best advice on de ciding on whether or not to land or take-
off w ith a tailw ind is DON'T. If you have an option, change
runways or go to another airport.

10.3.s Crosswind Landings & Take-Offs

The amount of headwind is an important factor in determin- Fig.10.26 Marking the Wind Sp e ed
ing the take-off and landing di stance that w ill be required
in any given situation. In Fig.10.23, for example, it was noted
that a 10% reduction in landing distance could be expected
for every 9 knots of h eadwind for the aeroplane for which th at
chart was applicable. Similar reductions in take-off distanc e
were noted in Fig.10.14. The wind, h owever, is rarely a direct
headwind, especially at single strip airports . It is more likely
to be blowing from some an gle off the runway and will, there -
for e, b e a h eadwind component.

Fi g .10 .27 Finding Headwind & Crosswind Components

If you don't h ave a crosswind compon ent ch art h andy, h ere

are some rules of thumb. If the cro sswind is 20 degrees off the
runway, the cro sswind component is 25% of the wind velocity.
If the wind is 40 degrees off, the cro sswind component is 50%.
If the wind is 60 degrees or more off, the crosswind compo-
nent is 75% of the wind velocity. If the wind is 90 degrees to
the landing p ath, the cro sswind component is 100%.
100° The he adwind component can also be quickly calculated
-10 using the wind side of a flight computer that has a squared
110° graph section. Using the above wind and runway situation,
170° ~ 150°
rotate the compass rose to set the wind direction (080°) under
1 ao 0
Hl= 1so·t ~ 140° 130° 120°++-tt-cr+-1-H the true index. With the grommet on the straight 0 line, draw
-20 -F~f!
I
,.iijffil:$±±±tMU±i±ij~~l±i1
I I
a wind vector arrow 30 units long to represent the wind speed
0 10 20 30 40 (Fig.10.26). Rotate the compass rose to set the runway (050)
CROSSWIND COMPONENTS - KNOTS under the true index. The wind vec tor arrow indicates a head-
w ind component of 26 knots and a crosswind component of
Fig . 10 .25 Wind Component Chart
15 knots (Fig.10.27).

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Airmanship: Aeroplane Performance

Strong crosswinds that are blowing at angles approaching 90 aeroplane's nose to the left, a crosswind from the right will
degrees to the runway cause a problem in directional control. not be too difficult to handle. In a crosswind from the left,
Any pilot who has attempted to land a light aeroplane at a however, it could be possible to run out of right rudder. If the
small airport with a single strip that happened that day to be crosswind is near maximum permissible speed, a left-hand
directly 90° to a heavy wind knows the value of good cross- crosswind calls for a decision to stay at home, unless the aero-
wind technique. plane is a twin w ith counter-rotating propellers.
In a stiff crosswind with full upwind aileron held, it is pos-
oo
sible to end up making the final segment of the take-off on
the upwind wheel only. This makes the aeroplane difficult to
handle but the pilot should avoid the temptation to haul the
aeroplane off prematurely. It is advisable to break ground at
a slightly higher than normal speed, even if it is necessary to
force the aeroplane to remain on the runway. Once in the air,
the pilot wants to have the positive control responses that
t come with good flying speed.

......
~
On the other hand, it is inadvisable to carry too much air-
0 speed when landing in a crosswind. The greater the angle of
~
c the crosswind, the less headwind component there is, so that
i
.... in a 90° crosswind there is no headwind component at all.
Although in extremely gusty conditions, some extra speed is
advisable, too much may complicate the job of bringing the
aeroplane to a stop before the end of the runway.
EXAMPLE

Fig.10.28 Crosswi nd Tolera nce Chart

10.3.9 Taxiing
Aircraft are just that: air craft. They are not necessarily very
There are essentially two kinds of contrary wind conditions good ground craft. The effect of wind on an aircraft during
that affect light planes on landing. There is the fairly steady its roll out and while taxiing demand that the pilot be alert
wind at a pronounced angle to the runway which can be to wind direction. A strong wind that was right down the
determined. There is also the gusty changeable wind. This runway on landing will be a strong crosswind or tailwind
second crosswind condition requires instinctively correct while taxiing and will expose the aircraft to directional con-
responses from the pilot, who must use aileron for keeping trol problems. The Owner's Manual for your aircraft will give
the aeroplane over the runway and opposite rudder to line directions on how to taxi in high winds and how to keep the
it up with the runway and, at the same time, be prepared to aircraft from tipping over.
deal with sudden changes in airspeed and altitude due to the
gusty conditions.
Don't ever stop flying an aeroplane
When the wind is gusting, a shift in almost any direction, until you have parked it, shut off
even to 180°, can occur. The pilot is well advised to pay special the engine and tied it down.
attention to the behaviour of trees, bushes and dust and not
just the windsock.
How much contrary wind can an aeroplane handle? This 10.3.10 Cruising Speeds
information is usually given in the Owner's Manual. If the
Between an aeroplane's top speed and its stalling speed, there
manual has been conscientiously written, it will list wind-
is a wide range of speeds that have often been referred to as
speed maximums for every conceivable angle. It may, how-
the working speeds. Each is the answer to a particular prob-
ever, give only the maximum crosswind angle and the maxi-
lem of practical flying.
mum wind velocity.
Best gliding speed or normal glide is the speed at which an
A crosswind tolerance chart (Fig.10.28) can be used to deter-
aeroplane with power off will glide the farthest distance. This
mine the maximum permissible windspeeds for varying
is the speed at which the lift/drag ratio is best and therefore
crosswinds. All aeroplanes of North American manufacture
might be called the "speed of least drag".
are designed to handle crosswinds of 90° with a velocity of
20% of their stall speed. An aeroplane with a stall speed of Speed of slowest descent is the speed at which the aeroplane
60 knots, for example, can tolerate a crosswind of 12 knots loses altitude at the least rate. In a nose high attitude, near the
(60 x 20%). Draw a line on the graph parallel to the landing stalling speed, the aeroplane sinks most slowly. This speed is
path from the point 12 knots on the index at the bottom of made constant use of by glider pilots.
the chart. The point at which this line intersects each of the Maximu m range speed is the speed at which the aeroplane
lines representing wind degrees off runway and the speed travels the most miles per gallon of fuel. This speed is about 5
curves indicates the permissible wind speeds for the varying to 10% faster than the best gliding speed.
crosswind conditions. For a crosswind of 60 degrees off the
Maximum endurance speed is the speed at which the fuel
runway, the maximum permissible wind speed is 14 knots; at
consumption is the least per hour. To achieve this condition
30 degrees, 24 knots; at 15 degrees, 45 knots.
of flight, the aeroplane is flown quite slowly, with minimum
Crosswind considerations are of considerable importance for power, very nose-high, with the wings at a high angle of
take-off as well as for landing. In take-off, the effect of torque attack. The aeroplane is not covering much distance for it is
must be remembered. Since torque will tend to push the too slow but its endurance is substantially extended.

© Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Airmanship: Wake Turbulence

Maneuvering speed is the maximum speed at which the

aeroplane sh ould be flown in rough air. It is the speed least 10.4 Wake Turbulence
likely to permit structural damage to th e aeroplane in rough
air or during aerobatic maneuvers. Maneuvering speed for The phenomenon of w ing tip vortices was introduced in the
most aeroplanes is set at about twice the flaps-up, power-off Chapter Theory of Flight in the discussion of induced drag. Lift
stall speed. is generated by the creation of a pressure differential over the
wings: low pressure over the upper w ing surface and h igher
Optimum cruise speed is the speed at which the best balance pressure under the wing. As the lift producing airfoil passes
between use of fuel and maximum range is achieved. through the air, the air rolls up and back about each wing tip
Best rate of climb speed is the speed at which the aeroplane producin g two distinct counter rotating vortices, one trail-
w ill gain the most altitude in the least time. This speed is ing each wing tip (Fig.10.29). The intensity of the turbulence
rather fast ; for most aeroplanes it is approximately the same within these vortices is directly proportional to the weight
speed as that of best glide. and inversely proportional to the wing span and the speed of
the aeroplane. The h eavier and slower the aeroplane, there-
Best angle of climb speed is the speed at which the aeroplane
fore , the greater is the intensity of the air circulation in the
climbs most steeply, gaining the most altitude for distance
vortex cores. The most violent vortices would be generated
covered over the ground. In routine flying, it is seldom neces-
by aeroplanes during take-off and landing and at near gross
sary to use best angle of climb speed but it is of importance
weights when the aircraft are flying at high angles of attack.
when it is necessary to climb out over a high obstacle at the
end of a runway. It is, however, not a climbing procedure that
should be used except in emergency. Firstly, it is a speed that
is not much above the stall and the pilot must be very vigilant
not to permit the aeroplane to stall. Secondly, at such a slow
speed, with full power, insufficient air is passing over the
engine to cool it properly. The engine is therefore likely to
overheat and the resulting engine wear is undesirable.
Air endurance is the maximum time an aeroplane can contin-
ue to fly under given conditions with a given quantity of fuel.
Range is the maximum distance an aeroplane can fly under
given conditions with a given quantity of fuel.
Both airspeed and altitude affect the range and endurance. The best
airspeed for maximum endurance is generally less than that for Fig.10.29 Wing Tip Vortices
maximum range. Generally speaking, a propeller-driven aeroplane
Air density influences vortex strength. In cold air, the vortices
may be flown at a relatively low altitude for maximum endurance.
can be expected to be more severe. Vortex strength is also
For maximum range, a propeller-driven aeroplane should be flown at
that height at which, at full throttle, the indicated airspeed is about 5 affected by the configuration of the aeroplane producing the
to 10% better than the best glide speed. This is realized at a relatively vortices. The position of flaps and landing gear, as well as
high altitude. A jet, on the other hand, would fly at high altitude for
the location of the engines and the tail configu ration, modify
both range and endurance.
vortex pattern and persistence. For example, the high tail of
the DC-9/ MD-30 aircraft series increases the persistence of
Range and endurance, when stated in the aeroplane specifi- the vortices.
cations, are usually based on still air, standard atmosphere
The greatest vortex strength occurs under conditions of clean
conditions. However, they may be computed for any assumed
w ind direction and wind speed. configuration, high weight and slow speed.
Similar vortices are generated by rotary wing aircraft. These
Aeroplane performance is always a compromise between
vortices have the sam e internal air circulation as those gen-
such variable factors as range vs payload, endurance vs air-
speed, etc. erated by fixed-wing aeroplanes, but are potentially more
dangerous because the helicopter's lower operating speeds
produce more concentrated wakes.
10.3.11 Use of Performance Charts
Hovering helicopters can be particularly hazardous to fixed-
The performance information that is available to you, as a wing aeroplanes. For a helicopter to hover, the main rotor
pilot, in the form of the tables and graphs that h ave been must supply lift equal to the total weight of the helicopter.
illustrated in the preceding sections is very valuable. You As a result, a hovering h elicopter's rotor blades move large
should thoroughly familiarize yourself with the tables and volumes of air. When hovering with no forward motion, a
graphs published in the Pilot's Operating Handbook for your helicopter's wake does not trail out behind it as it does in the
aeroplane and should practice using them at every opportu- case of an aeroplane; rather, its wake radiates in all direc-
nity in order to gain confidence in their u se and to determine tions. When hovering close to the ground, large volumes of
for yourself that your calculated or anticipated performance rotor downwash can hit the surface with the resulting out-
equals the actual or realized performance on any particular wash deflecting off the ground and moving quickly outward,
flight. upward, around and away from the m ain rotors. Hovering
The ch arts are particularly useful in planning a cross-country requires substantial horsepower that accelerates the air to
flight and in solving the navigational problems of range, fuel relatively high velocities that can reach upwards of 100 knots
con sumption, etc., that are part of proper preflight planning. depending on the size of the rotor and the gross weight of
the helicopter. For this reason, it is crucial that pilots of fixed
wing aircraft be very vigilant when operating in the vicinity of
hovering rotorcraft. It is recommended that fixed-wing pilots

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Wake Turbulence

stay a minimum of three rotor discs away from a hovering Vortex generation starts with rotation (the raising of the nose
small helicopter, or five rotor discs away from a hovering large from the runway) and reaches its peak intensity at lift-off
helicopter. when the full weight of the aeroplane is sustained by the
wings and when the airspeed is low. It ends when the aero-
Aircraft which fly directly into the core of a vortex will tend
plane touches down . The vortices of large, heavy aeroplanes
to roll with the vortex. The effectiveness of control response
and the wing span of the aeroplane determine its capability to settle below and behind the aeroplane at about 300 to 500 feet
counteract the roll. per minute for about 30 seconds. The vortices of smaller, light-
er aeroplanes settle more slowly. In all cases, within about 2
minutes, they level off about 1,000 feet below the aircraft's
flight path. They may trail the generating aircraft by 10 to 16
miles depending on its speed and, in still air, decay slowly.
The strength of the vortex remains relatively constant during
the first 2 minutes after the passage of the generating aircraft.
After that, dissipation of the vortices occurs at varying rates,
Fig.10.30 Hazards of Wing Tip Vortices
first in one vortex and then the other. Vortices have been
If the wing span and the ailerons extend beyond the vortex, known to last as long as 5 minutes. Atmospheric turbulence
counter-roll control is usually effective. Aircraft with a short helps to break up the vortices; the greater the turbulence, the
wing span, even though they may be high performance types, more rapid the dissipation of the vortices.
will have great difficulty counteracting the roll. The vortex flow field covers an area about 2 wing spans in
The vertical gusts encountered when crossing laterally width and one wing span in depth. The rotating vortex may,
through the vortex can impose structural loads as high as therefore, have a diameter as great as 200 feet behind a very
lOG on a small aeroplane flying at a high angle of attack. large aeroplane.
The combined effect of an upgust immediately followed by a When the vortices sink to the ground, they tend to move lat-
downgust has been estimated as high as 80-feet-per-second. erally outward over the ground at a speed of about 5 knots.
Most small planes are designed to withstand vertical gusts of This characteristic means that the laterally moving vortices
30-feet-per-second at their normal operating speeds. may position themselves over a parallel runway and consti-
Aircraft in the ultralight category are especially vulnerable to tute a hazard to aeroplanes operating there. In a crosswind
the devastating effects of being caught in wake turbulence, condition, the lateral movement of the upwind vortex will
even the wake turbulence generated by relatively small trans- be decreased while the movement of the downwind vortex
port aircraft. will be increased. As a result, the upwind vortex may remain
stationary in the touchdown zone. A tailwind condition can
move the vortices of the preceding aeroplane forward into the
touchdown zone of the aeroplane following even though the
latter takes the precaution of landing beyond the touchdown
point of that preceding aeroplane.
Very large jets, in the class of the Boeing 747, Airbus A380,
or Lockheed C-5, make the problem of wake turbulence even
more acute. These aircraft generate roll velocities exceeding
the roll control capability of some of the larger light aero-
planes and far in excess of the capability of small aeroplanes.
The phenomenon of wake turbulence is of immense impor-
tance to a pilot. In fact, it can be a matter of life and death. It
is of prime importance, that you, for your own safety, learn to
envision the location of the vortex wake generated by large
aircraft so that you can avoid encountering the very serious
hazards that are associated with this situation.

10.4.1 Wake Turbulence Avoidance

Remember that the vortices, in still air, have a downward and
outward movement but that the ambient wind will alter their
Fig.10.31 Wake Turbulence in the Runway Area
normal pattern of movement. Pilots should be particularly
There is a distinct possibility of structural failure when an alert to wind conditions and try to picture mentally how those
aeroplane crosses a pair of vortices at a large angle (about 90°). wind conditions will affect the vortices. Will they remain in
The severe up-down/down-up forces and the pilot's attempt the touchdown zone, or drift onto a nearby runway, or sink
to counteract them could result in airframe design limits into the landing path from a crossing runway, etc.?
being exceeded. Loss of control is another result of encounter-
ing these unseen monsters. Vortex cores can produce a roll
rate of 80 degrees per second, a situation with which the small
light aeroplane is structurally unable to cope.

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 Airmanship: Wake Turbulence

Phases of Flight Considerations Minimizing Risk

DURING FLIGHT In an effort to minimize the h azards of wake turbulence, ATC
Although wake turbulence is most likely to be encountered has established separation minima that are to be applied to
during the arrival and departure procedures, it can be a landing and departing aircraft. Controllers generally apply
hazard during cruising flight as well. Avoid crossing behind a 6 mile radar separation between a heavy jet and a light
and less than 1,000 feet below the flight path of a large, aeroplane (one that weighs less than 12,500 lbs.) that is fol-
h eavy aeroplane or of a helicopter, especially at low altitude lowing at the same altitude or at less th an 1,000 feet below. A
when even a momentary wake turbulence encounter could light aeroplane is kept at least 4 miles behind a medium sized
be hazardous. Alter course or climb to be above the expected aeroplane.
vortices. In non-radar departures, a minimum of two minutes is
required between the departure of a heavy aeroplane and any
DURING TAXI lighter aeroplane. This will be extended to 3 minutes if th e
Stay well behind large aeroplanes that are taxiing or maneu- second aeroplane will use more r unway th an the first or if it
vering on the ground. Do not cross behind a large aeroplane is an intersection take-off.
that is doing an engine run-up. Avoid taxiing below a hovering
helicopter. The downwash from its rotors is significant and ATC cannot guarantee that wake turbulence will not be
hazardous. encountered. When the tower controller advises, "Caution
Wake Turbulence", you are being warned of the possible exis-
DURING TAKE-OFF tence of this phenomenon.
On the same or a parallel runway, start the take- off roll at the In some situations, the full wake turbulence separation may
beginning of the runway and plan to be airborne before the not be required. Take-off clearance w ill usually be issued to
rotation point of the previous aeroplane. Stay upwind of the a pilot who, on his/her own initiative, has requested a waiver
large aeroplane. This action and a normal climb should keep of separation. Th e waiver may, however, be refused to a light
you above the descending vortices of the preceding aeroplane. aircraft taking off behind a heavy aircraft if the take-off is
Do not make intersection t ake-offs when large aircraft are started from an intersection or a point significantly farther
using the same runway. along the runway or if the preceding h eavy aircraft made a
On an intersecting runway, plan to be airborne before you low or missed approach along the same runway. A request
cross the intersection, remembering to keep your flight path for a waiver indicates to the controller that the pilot accepts
well above that of the aircraft that departed on the other responsibility for wake turbulence separation and avoidance.
runway. Th e controller will still issue a wake turbulence caution with
the take-off clearance.
When following an aircraft that has just landed, plan to
become airborne beyond the point of touchdown of the pre- Even when the controller advises of the possibility of wake
ceding aircraft. turbulence, it is solely the pilot's responsibility to avoid
encountering it. Don 't hesitate to ask for further information
DURING LANDING if you believe it will assist you in analyzing the situation and
When following a heavy aircraft that has just taken off, plan deciding on a cou rse of action. Even though you have received
to touch down before the rotation point of the preceding a clearance to land or take off, if you believe it safer to wait, or
aeroplane. to use a different runway, or in some other way to alter your
operation, ask the controller for a revised clearance. The con-
When following an aircraft that has just landed, plan to touch
troller is interested in the prevention of accidents too and w ill
down beyond the point where the preceding aircraft touched
assist you in any way possible while accomplishing the job of
down, remembering to keep your approach path above that
expediting traffic.
of that aircraft.
When landing on an intersecting runway behind a large aero-
plane that has taken off, note the aeroplane's rotation point
10.4.2 Jet Blast Hazard
and, if it was past the intersection, continue your approach The area immediately behind jet aeroplanes can be par-
and land prior to the intersection. If the rotation point of the ticularly dangerous to small aeroplanes maneuvering on th e
large aeroplane was prior to the intersection, it might be best ground or about to take off or land. Pilots should exercise cau-
to abandon the landing unless you can assure a landing well tion when operating near active runways or taxiways. With
before the intersection. the increasing use of intersecting runways, there is always
the possibility of jet blast or propeller wash affecting other
When departing or landing after a large aeroplane has exe-
aircraft.
cuted a missed approach or a touch-and-go landing, a vortex
h azard may exist along the entire runway. Ensure that an Light weight aeroplanes with h igh w ings and n arrow track
interval of at least 2 minutes has elapsed before m aking your undercarriages are particularly susceptible to jet blast acci-
take-off or landing. dents. Stay at least 600 feet away from a jumbo jet when its
engines are idling and 1,600 feet away from it when it is at
Above all, avoid a long dragged-in approach. The largest
full throttle for take -off. Fig.10.32 illustrates the danger areas.
number of dangerous encounters with wake turbulence has
been in the last h alf mile of the final approach .

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

10.s Flight Preparations

Jumbo jet size Thrust up to
Good airmanship involves careful attention to the many
transport aircraft 55 ,000 lbs. facets of preparation for and execution of a flight whether it is
a short hop around the circuit or a long cross-country flight.

10.5.1 Preparation for a Flight

Before embarking on any cross-country flight, pilots must
prepare and plan carefully. They must confirm that they, as
well as their aircraft, are suitably prepared for the flight. Some
examples of pre-flight matters to be addressed must include,
but by no me ans be limited to, the following: pilots must
ensure (1) that licences and medical certificates are valid; (2)
that their current medical fitness is acceptable; (3) that they
are current on the type of aircraft to be flown; (4) that required
inspections on the aircraft to be flown have been done; (5) that
the aircraft's weight and balance is properly calculated, inclu-
sive of passengers and baggage to be carried on board; (6) that
the necessary emergency equipment is present, etc.
Once pilots have confirmed such pre-flight fundamentals,
they can proceed to an in-depth systematic review of all of
Medium size jet Thrust up to the details required to prepare for the flight, including the
transport aircraft 25,000 lbs.
route to be flown.
Standard items to check are identified below.

FUGllT PLAlOONG FORM

FROM TO ALT l.A.S. I.AS. TRACK WN HDG VAR HOG GIS DIST TIME FUEL
rn rn (M)

j...

·----1·-----ti;:~=~~:::·::::~:~~:~::···:···········
:-----------------:i:soit·--------------:
1200ft i
[__ y_a_~~:9!f !!:':1!~!-~~':~~?.':1:j':!:.Z:~!'.'.': .!
- - - - - - 150ft - - - - -

Fig.10.33 Flight Planning Form

Executive jet Thrust up to 1. Up-to -date aeronautical charts appropriate for the
ai rcraft 10,000 lbs. route of the flight should be obtained (and download-
ed if using an electronic flight bag, EFB) and carefully
studied to select a route that will take into consid-
eration the nature of the country to be flown over,
refuelling points, emergency landing areas, prohibited
areas, etc., all of which are factors which influence
the selection of a good route. Avoid areas where
there is no chance of m aking a safe forced landing.
If the flight is to be conducted in accordance with
visual flight rules (VFR) by contact navigation (i.e.
navigating with reference to landmarks), the track
selected should be drawn on the paper chart and
Fig .10.32 Jet Blast Danger Areas its direction measured by a navigation plotter.
Distance between checkpoints should be mea-
sured, using the mileage scale at the bottom of the
chart. The track should then be converted from
true to magnetic (applying the variation from the
chart) and its direction indicated on the chart by
figures above and below the line. Arrows should
be used to distinguish between the track out and
home. If the flight is to be a long one, the figures
should be spotted in at convenient intervals, allow-
ing for changes in variation and for convergency.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Airmanship: Flight Preparations

A distance scale should be marked along the track between checkpoints, radio frequencies for navaids,
to assist in making groundspeed checks at, say, information about the destination airport and refuel-
50 or 100 mile intervals. Some pilots prefer to ling stops, tower or mandatory frequencies , weather
mark prominent checkpoints (such as communi- forecast for destination, etc. Forms, such as those
ties, omnirange stations, reporting points, etc.). shown in Fig.10.33 and Fig.10.34 or electronically gen-
Draw 10 degree drift lines on either side of the erated forms, can be used in preparing your flight log.
track opening out from the departure point 10. You are required by Air Regulations to be fam iliar
and closing down into the destination. with pertinent flight information such as navaids,
The character of the country should be good operating practices, VFR procedures, air traffic
carefully studied, particularly as regards control procedures, light gun signals, radio telephone
high ground and dangerous obstructions. phraseology and techniques, VOR checkpoints, emer-
Outstanding landmarks should be noted. gency, search and rescue, ESCAT rules, weather infor-
mation, how and where obtainable.
RADIO FACILITF.S AIRSPEEDS
Normal Takeoff _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
AIRPORT NA VAID FREQ TWR MF ATIS Normal Climb_ __ __ _ _ _ __
ATF
Best Rate of Climb _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Best Angle of Climb _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Max Maneuvering _ _ _ _ __ _ __
Best Glide _ __ __ __ _ _ __
Max Flap Extended _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Max Gear Down _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Clean Stall _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Stall with gear
and flaps down _ __ _ __ _ _ __
Never Exceed _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Normal Approach _ __ _ _ __ _
Fig .10.34 Radio Facilities Planning Form
PERFORMANCE
2. Contact flight service providers to obtain the meteo-
Takeoff Distance to Clear 50'
rological information available and access weather
Sea Level 15°C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
information through the Internet. Study the weather
5000' ASL 25°C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
map for wind circulation, frontal activity, and the
weather over the whole general area in which you
intend to fly. (This knowledge will be valuable in case WEIGHT & BALANCE
you have to alter your flight plan to an alternate des- Center of Gravity Limits
tination.) Check the aerodrome, area and upper winds Forward _________ Aft _ __ _ _ __
forecasts, and hourly weather reports along your Empty Weight _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
route. Max Takeoff Weight _ _ _ _ _ _ __
3. Select the altitude at which you wish to conduct the Max Baggage
flight, taking into consideration the winds aloft, high Compartment Weight _ _ _ _ _ __
ground and obstructions en route and in the vicinity
of landing fields, weather minima for VFR flight, FUEL & OIL
cruising altitude rules. Fuel Grade _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
4. Calculate the true heading to steer and apply the vari- Usable Gallons of fuel _ _ _ _ _ __
ation to obtain the magnetic heading. Calculate the Consumption per hour
groundspeed for each leg of the route. 65% at 5000 feet (ISA) _ _ _ _ __
Oil Grade _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
5. Compute the safe and maximum range of your aero- Quantity _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
plane. Compute the fuel required, based on the esti-
mated times en route, using the cruise consumption
chart in your POH. Select refuelling points. Fig.10.35 Aircraft Performance Chart
6. Check suitability of airports, runway patterns and 11. Note the location of classified airspace (terminal
field conditions. control areas, control zones, etc.). Note the loca-
7. Check radio facilities which are available en route and tion of specified areas that surround aerodromes
the frequencies on which they operate. at which mandatory frequencies are established.
Note Class F airspace (restricted and advisory
8. Note the time of sunrise and sunset (VFR). Review the
areas) and air defence identification zones (ADIZ).
latest NOTAM, AIP SUP, AIC. Glance over the airport
bulletin board for any helpful postings. 12. If the flight is to be conducted VFR at night,
check the elevation of the land over which the
9. Prepare a flight log entering in appropriate sections
aeroplane will fly during the climb after take-
all the information about the flight, altitude to be
off and on the approach to landing. Check also
flown, track, wind velocity and direction, heading,
calculated groundspeed, checkpoints, mileage

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

for obstacles on these flight paths. Plan the it pass through any areas where poor weather is forecast; does
flight path to clear all terrain and obstacles. it cross inhospitable territory where there are few escapes if
13. If the flight is to be conducted in accordance with mechanical issues arise; does it pass closely to tall obstacles,
VFR rules but by using only air n avigation radio aids, etc.
en route low altitude charts and/or th e appropriate If pilots h ave access to the Internet, most apps will automati-
!FR charts must be used. These charts contain all the cally access the winds aloft forecasts and provide information
distance and en route information necessary for fly- that allows them to m ake a final decision about the altitudes
ing from point to point by using radio equipment only. at which to fly.
14. When u sing paper charts, fold them correctly and Note that, if a pilot's m ain means of navigation is planned to
place them in the proper sequence in the cockpit. Be be by visual reference to objects on the ground, the route on
sure to carry other charts for areas adjacent to your the app's electronic display can always be adjusted. This is
line of flight. You may need them if you have to fly typically done by touching a point on the route's electronic
around bad weather or if you become temporarily lost. display and pulling it across the screen with a fingertip to a
15. Be sure that you are properly licensed and qualified new position. In this way, the pilot can easily adjust the app's
for the particular type of aeroplane you are flying and electronic display to show a flight route that passes over
for the nature of the flight you are about to undertake. clearly identifiable waypoints that can enhance the visual
references while en route. Distinctive towns (preferably with
16. See that the aeroplane is properly certified. features such as railway tracks or cross-roads), power lines,
Ensure that it is serviceable and fit for the flight. distinctively shaped lakes, headlands along a shoreline and
Be sure that the mandatory manuals and cer- aerodromes, all make good waypoints.
tificates are on board, along w ith the licences
and/or permits for all members of the crew. If the flight is to be made under !FR, then the app will display
See also Pilot's Inspection Prior to Flight. routes recently cleared by ATC to other aircraft that are simi-
lar to the pilot's aircraft of intended use. This makes !FR route
17. Be sure that fuel of the proper grade is on board selection much easier.
and that it is sufficient for the flight plus 30
Apps can typically prepare a form for the pilot that they can
m inutes (day) or 45 minutes (night) reserve.
print and carry, as a hardcopy, during the flight. The form will
18. Check the load (gross weight must not exceed the contain waypoints, distances and anticipated times between
authorized limit) and the distribution of the load them, the estimated heading that is required to fly, the sun-
(to insure that the centre of gravity is within safe rise and sunset times at the point of departure and destina-
limits). Make sure the load is properly secured tion, and the radio frequencies that the pilot will need to
and does not block the emergency exits. use en route. These hardcopy flight logs, generated from the
19. Check the temperature and the elevation of the field. pre-flight electronic data inputs, also typically contain blank
Be sure that runway lengths are adequate if high frames in which the pilot can record the time that they actu-
temperature or high elevation conditions prevail. ally passed over each waypoint while flying.
20. Review the flight load factors and airspeed limita- Once the route and anticipated time en route are established,
tions as outlined in your Pilot's Operating Handbook. a full weather briefing from a specialist remains an essential
pre-flight protocol. The Internet can give pilots considerable
21. Prepare a table in paper form or in an equivalent
information; their studying of this information before calling
electronic format such as that shown in Fig.10.35,
flight services is recommended as it w ill focus the discus-
showing all the information relating to your aero-
sion with the flight services specialist resulting in a more
plane's performance. Ensure that your route, includ-
informed and streamlined briefing.
ing all waypoints, are properly and accurately entered
into your GPS and any other navigation device. Once the route h as been selected, a flight plan or a flight
itinerar y will need to be filed. Some apps will file a flight plan
22. File a flight plan or flight itinerary with ATC or
automatically into the NavCanada system once additional
leave a flight itinerary with a responsible person.
information about number of souls aboard and amount of fuel
A significant percentage of pilots plan their flights using an on board has been inputted.
electronic application, (i.e. an "app"), on a tablet or via an
As a weight and balance calculation must be performed before
online service. (See also Smartphones & Tablets in Chapter
flight, every flight app can not only provide this once the
Theory of Flight.) These apps typically allow for information
appropriate data is entered into the system, most apps may
about a given aircraft to be stored for future flight planning
also p rovide the means to email the completed weight and
reference. This storing of data about an aircraft - its type, its
balance information to the pilot. This feature allows pilots to
call-sign, its flight performance data, etc. - accelerates the
meet the regulatory requirement to carry out this calculation
process of flight planning for actual flights, thereby allowing
and carry it on board during the flight.
the app to provide thorough planning information using the
d ata it has stored regarding the aircraft. If the flight is from Canada to a destination in the USA, pilots
must submit a request into the USA's Electronic Advance
Pilots can download all the necessary data pertinent to the
Passenger Information System (eAPIS: see Transborder Flights
flight for which they are preparing. An app that has the
in Chapter Air Rules & Procedures). Most flight apps will
intended route of flight superimposed on the display of an
advise of this necessity, and many, if not all, may file the
electronic VNC allows pilots to zoom in/out as required to
eAPIS request on the pilot's behalf. (Some apps may charge a
best view critical information on the chart. This facility gives
fee for this.)
pilots the ability to answer important questions regarding
their upcoming flight, such as: does the route cross large Pilots should always remember that if they are working on
bodies of water; does it pass through restricted airspace; does a tablet rather than an online website, they must make sure

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 Airm anship: Flight Preparations

that the ch arts they are using are up-to-date. This should also 3. Empennage.
apply to a downloaded Canada Flight Supplement (CFS): the • De-icer boots - condition and security.
latest version should always be in use by the pilot . Often the
• Control surface locks - REMOVE.
m anual action of tapping an "Update Charts" button within
the app is all that is needed to dow nload the latest documents. • Fixed and movable control surfaces - dents, cracks,
excess play, hin ge pins and bolts for security and
condition.
10.5. 2 Pilot's Inspection Prior to Flight • Tailwheel - spring, steering arms and chains, tire
A careful inspection of the aeroplane should be carried out inflation, and condition.
prior to flight. • Lights - navigation and anticollision lights for
This inspection guide is applicable to almost any single- condition and security.
engine or ligh t twin-engine aeroplane, provided it is modi- 4. Fuselage.
fied to suit the aeroplane type and the m anufacturer's • Same as Item 2.
recommendation s. S. Wing.
This checklist and all others in this m anu al are representative • Control surface locks - REMOVE.
only. Always refe r to and follow the recommendations of the
• Control surfaces, including flaps - dents, cracks,
manufacturer in carrying out any inspections and procedures. excess play, hinge pin s and bolts for security and
Individual m odels of aeroplane m ay have special p rocedures condition.
and inspection guidelines that will vary from those published
• General condition of wings and covering - torn
in this m an ual.
fabric, bulges or wrinkles, ripples, loose or missing
rivets, etc.
• Sa. Win g tip and navigation ligh t - security and
damage.
• Sb. De-icer boots - general condition and security.
• Landing light - condition, cleanliness, and security.
• Stall warning vane - freedom of movement. Prior
to inspection , tu rn the master switch ON so that the
stall warning signal can be ch ecked wh en the vane
is deflected.
6. Landing gear.
• Wheels and brakes - condition and security,
indications of fluid leakage at fittings , fluid lines
and adjacent area.
• Tires - cuts, bruises, excessive wear, and proper
inflation .
• Oleos and shock struts - cleanliness and proper
inflation.
Fig.10.36 Preflight Inspection • Shock cords - general condition.
• Wheel fairing - general condition and security.
The circled numbers in Fig.10.36 correspond to the numbers On stream lined wheel fairings, look inside for an
indicated on the list below. By following the numerically accumulation of mud, ice, etc.
indicated route, a system atic inspection of the aeroplane can • Limit and position switches - security, cleanliness,
be accom plished. Stand off and observe the general overall and condition.
appearance of the aeroplane for obvious defect s. • Ground safety locks - REMOVE.
1. Cockpit/Cabin. • Seaplanes: floats - remove float covers and inspect
• Battery and ignition switch es - OFF. for water. Pump out with bilge pump if necessary.
• Control locks - REMOVE. 7. Fuel tank.
• Landing gear switch - gear DOWN position. • Fuel quantity in tank - visually check the tanks to
verify the am ount and the correct grade or type of
2. Fuselage.
fuel. The fuel quantity must be sufficien t to allow
• Baggage compartment - contents properly secured the aircraft to fly for a period of 30 minutes beyond
and within the safe C.G. limits, that is, not too far the destination airport (in VFR flight by day) and for
forward or too far back to upset the trim. Airspeed 4S minutes beyond the destination airport (in VFR
static source - free from obstructions. Condition of flight at n igh t).
covering - missing or loose rivets, cracks, tears in • Fuel tank filler cap and fairing covers - secure.
fabric, etc. • Fuel tank vents - obstructions. If the fuel tank is
• Anticollision and n avigation lights - condition and equipped w ith a quick or snap -type drain valve,
security. drain a sufficient amount of fuel into a container to
• Avionics antennae (nav com, VOR, transponder, ch eck for the presence of water and sediment.
marker beacon, glideslope, CPS, ELT) - cracks, oil or • Drain cocks - make sure they open and close
dirt, proper mounting and dam age. properly. No drips.

From the Grou nd Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

8. Engine. A hand-held fire extinguisher in the cockpit should

• Engine oil quantity - secure filler cap and dipstick. be of a type suitable for extinguishing any fire that
General condition and evidence of fuel and oil leaks. is likely to occur and that is designed to minimize
toxic gas concentrations.
• Cowling, access doors, and cowl flaps - condition
and security. • Emergency exits - not obstructed by disposable
load.
• Carburetor air filter - cleanliness and security.
• First aid kit (mandatory) - on board and accessible.
• Exhaust stacks - check for cracks and studs for
tightness. • Timepiece that is readily available to every crew
member.
• Spark plugs - check terminals for security and
cleanliness. • Flashlight, if the flight is to be conducted at night.
• Engine mount - for cracks and security. Drain • Tablet and smartphone mounts - securely
a sufficient quantity of fuel from the main fuel fastened, unobstructing of panel instruments,
strainer (often referred to as the filter bowl or switches, flight controls, and away from heat and/or
gascalator) to determine that there is no water or glare of direct sunlight.
sediment remaining in the system. • ELT- secure in mounting, connections tight,
• When closing the cowling, be sure to inspect general condition and security (no corrosion),
cowling and baffle seals to assure that they are antenna secure, annual recertification completed
snug and in place. This is important to assure and current, battery not time-expired, ELT switch in
proper cooling of the engine. ARMED position.
9. Nose landing gear. • Appropriate charts on board or downloaded and
readily accessible. Where the aircraft w ill be
• Wheel and tire - cuts, bruises, excessive wear, and operated VFR Over The Top, in night VFR flight
proper inflation. or !FR flight, all necessary and latest charts and
• Oleo and shock strut - proper inflation and publications (including the latest CFS) covering
cleanliness. the route of the proposed flight and any possible
• Wheel well and fairing - general condition and diversionary route must be on board.
security. • Cockpit checklists or placards that enable the
• Limit and position switches - cleanliness and aircraft to be operated in normal, abnormal or
security. emergency conditions in accordance with the
• Ground safety lock - REMOVE. limitations specified in the Aircraft Operating
Handbook. These include checklists for pre-
10. Propeller.
start, pre-take-off, post-take-off, pre-landing
• Propeller and spinner - security, oil leakage, and and emergency procedures. The emergency
condition. Be particularly observant for deep nicks checklist shall include emergency operation of
and scratches. fuel, hydraulic, electrical and mechanical systems,
• Assure that the ground area under the propeller is en gine inoperative procedures and any other
free of loose stones, cinders, etc. procedures necessary to ensure the safety of the
11. Fuel tank. flight and passengers.
• Mandatory documents on board - certificate of
• Same as Item 7.
registration, certificate of airworthiness (or flight
12. Landing gear. permit relating to the flight), journey logbook, the
• Same as Item 6. Aircraft Operating Manual, radio equipment licence,
13. Pitot. licence of each crew m ember, radio operator's
licence, certificate of insurance. Regulations require
• Pitot cover - REMOVE.
that a copy of the procedures to be followed in
• Pitot and static ports - remove obstructions. the event of interception be carried on board. Also
• General condition and alignment. have on board any special authorization for the
14. Wing. flight (e.g. authorization for an employee to collect
expenses for flying on business). Check that the C
• Same at Item S, Sa, and Sb.
of A is valid and that the aeroplane h as been signed
l S. Cockpit. out within the required period.
• Cleanliness - see that there are no loose articles • Survival equipment - on board. It shall include
which might foul controls, or cause distracting survival equipment sufficient for the survival on
noises. the ground of each person on board, given the
• Windshield and windows - obvious defects and geographical area, the season of the year and
cleanliness. the anticipated climatic variations. The survival
• Safety belt and shoulder h arness - condition and equipment shall include the means of starting a
security. See that there is a safety belt for every fire, providing sh elter, purifying water and visually
passenger. Secure belts in unoccupied seats. sign alling distress. (See also Survival Equipment in
Ch apter Aeronautical Rules & Procedures.)
• Fire fighting equipment - check cabin fire
extinguisher for capacity and ease of release from • Adjust rudder pedals so that full rudder travel may
its holder and for availability to each crew m ember. be assured.
• Parking brake - SET.

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 Airmanship: Flight Preparations

• Check all instruments for proper reading and, 2. Check all instruments systematically (usually from
where applicable, fluid levels (turn and bank and left to right) and adjust each as they are checked if
compass). adjustment is necessary. For example: Set the altime-
• Landing gear and flap switches or levers in proper ter setting on the altimeter and check that the height
position. indicated is the elevation of the airport (plus or minus
• Check all switches and controls. 50 to 75 feet). If the altimeter setting is not known,
set the airport elevation under the indicator needle.
• Check fuel selector valve to be sure it is moving
Wind the clock and set the correct time, etc.
freely.
• Trim tabs - SET. 3. Check hydraulics to assure the proper
pressure reading on the gauge.
• Pilot's seat - LOCKED.
16. Cabin Briefing. 4. Set trim tabs of both elevator and rudder
to take-off position according to the particular load
• Operation of seat belts - h ow to secure and h ow to and C.G. of the aeroplane.
release.
5. Mixture - Full rich (unless h igh elevation of the air-
• Securing of seat backs and ch air t ables, where
port requires slight leaning).
applicable.
• Stowage of carry-on baggage. 6. Carburetor heat - COLD (unless atmospheric condi-
tions necessitate heat).
• Smoking limitations - when smoking is permitted,
if at all. 7. Pitch - Propeller in full fine for take-off.
• Location of normal and emergency exits - how to 8. Fuel - Check the fuel gauge(s) for the proper quantity
operate door handles. of fuel in each tank and adjust the fuel selector to the
• In the case of an over-water flight, the location and proper tank for take-off. Adjust cross feed and booster
use of personal flotation devices and life preservers. pumps. Primer locked. Be sure that you have enough
• In the case of a flight that will require the use fuel for the flight you are planning plus the reserve
of oxygen, the location and the use of oxygen fuel that is required by regulations.
equipment. 9. Flaps - Adjust to take-off position.
• Crash position, location of fire extinguishers, first 10. Switches - Magneto ON. Generator ON. Anti-collision
aid kit, ELT - how to operate. beacon ON. Pitot heat, navigation lights etc., as
• Emergency procedures should be outlined on cards required.
which passengers should be advised to read so 11. Gyros - Adjust the heading indicator to the runway
they can act knowledgeably and positively if an heading. Adjust the attitude indicator if neces-
emergency situation should arise. sary. Allow 5 minutes after engine start for gyros of
It is extremely important to carry out a thorough preflight vacuum operated instruments to reach normal oper-
inspection before every flight. Small clues indicating a m al- ating speed. Allow 3 minutes if the gyros are elec-
functioning or dam aged comp onent m ay easily be missed in trically driven . If the gyro instrumen ts are Venturi
a hurried preflight check. The extra effort involved in not just driven, only after the aeroplane is well es tablished in
looking at but really inspec ting every part of the aeroplane fli ght will the instruments give reliable indications.
may m ake the difference between a safe fligh t and one th at
12. Cowl Flaps - Adjust cowl fl aps to take-off position .
ends in an accident. The time to be even m ore vigilant is after
a m ainten ance, painting or modification job h as been per- 13. Arm the ELT if you h ave not already done so. Listen
formed on the aeroplane. It is, unfort unately, not uncommon on 121.5 MH z to m ake su re th at the ELT is not
for components to be reinstalled incorrec tly. transmitting.
14. Safety belts of all passen gers and crew fas tened. No
10.5.3 Cockpit Check Prior to Flight sm oking.
A system atic and careful cockpit check should also be carried 15. Parking brake off. Tailwheel lock adju sted. Water rud-
out prior to flight. ders up (seaplanes).
1. Do a complete run-up of the engine as described in 16. Doors and windows or ca nopy top - Closed and
the Ch apter Aero Engines. secure.
During the run-up of the engine and especially when 17. Check freedom of all controls - ailerons, elevators
checking the engine for correct and norm al opera- and rudders. While moving the control column and
tion, if there is any indication that the engine(s) is rudder pedals, check th at the control su rfaces are
m alfunctioning, under no circumstances should you responding in the proper direction of travel. This
attempt to take off. There is only one course of action check is especially important if the aeroplane has
in such a circumstance and that is to return to the undergone maintenance during which the control
ramp and conduct a thorough investigation as to the connections have been adjusted or removed and
possible cause of the malfunction. The trouble may be reinstalled. It is not unheard of for the controls to be
serious, such as wrong fuel in the tanks or air leaks reinstalled in reverse.
in the fuel line plumbing. If you attempt to take off
The cockpit check should be made deliberately without haste
knowing that the engine(s) is not operating smoothly, from a written check list. A definite sequence should be fol-
you are inviting disaster. Power failure is very likely lowed, moving clockwise around the cockpit. Touch each
to occur at the most critical phase of the take-off or
control with your hand and name it aloud. For Example:
during the initial climb.
"Trim Tabs - Flaps - Fine Pitch", etc. With larger and more

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

sophisticated types of aeroplane, the cockpit check becomes

more and more involved. On some large transport aircraft, Controlled Airports
the cockpit check requires several typewritten pages to list. WITH RADIO
Always work from a written, not a memorized, checklist no If your aeroplane is radio equipped, taxi instructions will be
matter how small your aeroplane. You may be interrupted given to you verbally by the tower. If you have been authorized
while doing your chores by a radio call, forget where you left to taxi to the runway in use, taxi to the indicated holding posi-
off and overlook some vitally important procedure. tion on the taxi strip. If there is no indicated holding position
There are many ch ecklists relating to the various phases in marked, taxi to a position approximately 200 feet from the
the operation of an aeroplane. There are checklists for pre- boundary of the runway in use to do your engine run-up and
flight, before starting engines, engine starts, before taxiing, cockpit check. (You may taxi across non-active runways w ith-
en gine run-up, before take-off, take-off and climb, cruise, out further authori zation from the tower to reach the runway
descent, before landing, aborte d landing, after landing and in use unless otherwise instru cted.) Turn at an an gle of about
after shutdown, as well as checklist s relating to em ergency 45° to the taxi strip to do your engine run-up in case there may
situations. Sm all, single-engine aeroplanes m ay use only a be another aeroplane behind you. When you h ave m ade your
portion of these. Larger, multi-engine aeroplanes m ay use cockpit check, request a t ake-off cleara nce from the tower.
them all. Whatever checklists are prepared for your aero- (Radio traffic procedures are described in the Chapter Radio.)
plane, m ake a habit of always using them during the phases If requesting take -off clearance from an intersection, it is your
of operation to which they apply. responsibility as pilot to ensure that the portion of runway
available to you is sufficient for the requirements of your
10.5.4 Take-Off Procedure aeroplane. The tower controller bases his/her authorization
on the existing traffic, noise abatement rules, etc., and not on
Taxiing an aeroplane is an elementary operation, the fir st the capabilities of your aeroplane.
thing a student pilot is taught. Neverth eless, no pilot should
become complacent about the procedure. It is always neces- If you have approached a runway at an interse ction but wish
sary to pay close attention to the control of the aeroplane. Taxi to back track on that runway to achieve enough runway
slowly enough th at the aeroplane will stop instantly when the length for take-off, you must indicate your intentions to the
brakes are applied, slowly enough that it will stop on its own tower and obtain a clearance for the maneuver prior to enter-
when the throttle is closed. Always check the brakes before ing the runway.
moving more than a few metres. Keep a sharp lookout outside Sometimes, to expedite the movement of traffic, the control-
of the cockpit and have someone on the ground guide you ler in giving take-off clearance includes the word "immedi-
through any area where the clearance seems marginal. Avoid ate". On acceptance of the clearance, you must taxi onto the
taxiing too closely behind large turbine powered aeroplanes . runway and take off in a continuous movement. If, however,
Be very careful taxiing in conditions of high winds and gusts . in your opinion, this action would affect your operation, you
You are responsible for ensuring that there is no likelihood of should refuse the clearance and request a static take-off (i.e.
collision with another aircraft or vehicle, both during taxi and a full stop in position prior to starting the take-off roll). There
during take-off, and that the aerodrome is suitable for your is documented evidence th at the loss of an engine on take-off
intended operation . h as been caused by an air gap in the fu el system occasioned
by the centrifugal fo rce of the tight turn onto the runway leav-
ing the fu el tank line m om en ta rily exposed.
Uncontrolled Airports
At an uncontrolled airport at which a m andatory frequ ency Always turn left after take -off, unless otherwise authorized
h as been designated, always follow the procedures fo r report- by the tower.
ing your inten tions to the FSS or CARS operating the MF. If an
WITHOUT RADIO (NORDO)
aerodrome tra ffi c fr equency h as been designated, report your
If your aeroplane is not fitted with radio, you must inform
intentions to the operator of the ATF or broadcast your inten-
the control tower of your intentions and m ake arrangem ents
tions blind. See Mandatory Frequency and Aerodrome Traffic
for visual signals. Do your en gine run -up and cockpit check
Frequency in the Chapter Aeronautical Rules & Procedures.
on the apron before taxiing to the runway. (The apron is a
Always taxi downwind to the extreme end of the field or sur face d area in front of the h an gars, som etimes referred to
runway to take off. By doing this, the full length of the runway as the tarm ac.) When ready for take- off, taxi to position on
is available for the take-off run if it is needed. This prac tice is the taxi strip approximately 200 feet from the boundary line
a good habit to cultivate. One day, in a short fi eld on a hot day, of the runway in u se. Turn your aeroplane toward the tower
you will be glad to h ave every fo ot of the runway to use. In a to attract the attention of the controller. Wait for the steady
seaplane , it is wise to allow at least twice the dist ance th at is green ligh t signal to proceed onto the runway and take off.
really required fo r the take-off run.
Light Indication Meaning
Make a fin al ch eck of the instruments and everything in Steady Green Light Clear to take -off.
the cockpit again. Make a conscientious visual check of the Flashing Green Light Clear to taxi, but do not t ake off.
approach path to the runway to see that no aeroplanes are Steady Red Light (or Red Flare) Stop. Do not ta xi.
approaching to land. Report your departure intentions on the Flashing Red Light Taxi clea r of th e landing area in use.
MF or ATF. Fla shing Whi t e Light Return to the ramp or hangar.
Trim the stabilizer properly for take -off and turn and take off Flashin g Red and Green Light (U.S.) Danger. Be on alert.
into the wind. Blinking Run way Lights
Vehicles and ped estrians are to
va cat e the runway immediately.

Fig .10.37 Light Signals to Aircraft

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 Airmanship: Flight Preparations

Acknowledge reception of visu al signals by the full m ovement 4. Avoid thunderstorms. Take appropriate action if
of the rudder or ailerons of your aeroplane at least 3 times this is u n avoidable. Avoid turbulent air if possible. If
in succession or by taxiing the aeroplane to the authorized unavoidable, slow the aeroplane to the recommended
position. maneuvering speed. Do not get stranded over a cloud
If your aeroplane is equipped with a receiver only (RONLY), layer. Avoid the wake of large aeroplanes.
before embarking on the fligh t, you must advise the tower, 5. Check th e weath er, as you go, by radio, via onboard
preferably by telephone, of this fact. The tower will then realtime display, or observation. Listen for the
transmit clearances and instructions to you on the tower weather reports from stations en route. Maintain a
frequency rather than u se light signals. Otherwise, th e pro- continuous listening watch for en route advisories,
cedures that apply to NORDO aeroplanes apply also to RONLY SIGMET and AIRMET. Flight information service does
aeroplanes. provide information regarding u nfavourable weather
developing along your route, thunderstorms, icing,
Take-Off Considerations unserviceability of radio aids, airports or other haz-
ards to safety providing you contact an ATC u nit prior
Be sure, before beginning your take-off run, that you have
to take-off or en route.
given full consideration to the effect on your take -off of the
following: gross weight and centre of gravity, density altit ude, 6. Apply carburetor heat, windscreen defroster, wing de -
wind direction and velocity, runway con dition s, ground effect icers wh en necessary.
and emergency procedures in the event of power failure. 7. Observe air traffic rules, especially those dealing w ith
It is difficult for controllers to track the many aircraft and distance from cloud (both vertically and horizontally),
vehicles moving on the maneuvering areas of the airport, visibility, cruising altit udes both on and off airways,
especially at large airports. Practice ground safety aware- weather minima in control zones and other controlled
ness by proceeding with caution when approach ing any other airspace.
taxiw ay or runway. Always communicate clearly and listen 8. Keep a constant lookout for oth er aircraft. If your air-
to the other traffic on you r frequency. If you have received craft is equipped with ADS-B In , then th is will display
a clearance th at you do not understand , ask for clarification. the position of any nearby aircraft fitted with ADS-B
Have your checks completed and be ready for take -off before Out, eith er on a panel-mounted display or on a tablet.
requesting it. Wh en cleared for take-off, move onto the active
runway decisively and take off, so as not to spoil the tim ing 9. Keep an accu rate check on fuel consumption,
of the controller and other pilots who are anticipating your constantly.
action. 10. Observe wind and weather changes.
After take-off, maintain a listenin g watch on the appropriate 11. Report to communications stations en route any
frequency for aerodrome control communications and keep u nusual weath er conditions encountered, or
a watchful eye on other aerodrome traffic to avoid potential observed , as an aid to other pilots, i.e. provide PIREP.
collision situations.
12. Keep a lookout for bad weather and fly around
it if possible. If this is impracticable , turn back.
10.5.5 En Route Procedure (Remember that weather information displayed on a
While en route, system atic checks should be carried out . tablet, while being very useful, may be out of date.)
1. Note the time of take-off in the journey log. Con form 13. Check your fligh t and engine instrumen ts frequently.
to the traffic circuit procedures for departing the cir- Be sure you understand altimeter setting and altim-
cuit. When well clear of the circuit traffic, turn on to eter errors thoroughly. Compute true airspeed based
th e desired heading. Climb to the selected altitude, on indicated airspeed, outside air temperature and
adjusting the power and the mixture in accordance pressure altitude.
w ith the manufacturer's operating instructions. 14. Report time over intermediate stations en route. This
During the climb, check the instruments regularly. is good practice if you intend to acquire an instru-
On reaching the desired altitude, level off and adjust ment rating later on: it also provides the search and
the power and mixture as necessary. rescue service with a clue as to your whereabouts if
2. Check distance, time and groundspeed by D.R. you fail to arrive at your destination. Stay away from
navigation as detailed in the Chapter Air Navigation any area classified as Class F Airspace.
or by radio aids as detailed in the Ch apter Radio 15. If the fligh t is being conducted at a high altit ude, cal-
Navigation. !f using GPS, check groundspeed given on culate the point at which to begin a gradual descent
the GPS with the groundspeed estimated during the that will result in arrival at the destination airport
fligh t planning. If th e actu al groundspeed is slower at approximately circuit height. A gradual descent
than planned, ensure you have sufficient fuel for the avoids rapid power-off letdown s th at contribute to
fligh t, make course corrections and revise your ETA carburetor icing. During such a gradual descent, the
as necessary. Keep a log of the progress of the flight aeroplane is able to pick up a bit of airspeed and con-
and record the time over all planned checkpoints/ sequently a better groundspeed which in turn gives a
waypoints. better en rou te time.
3. Fly straight-and-level when checking headings on
the magnetic compass. Reset the heading indicator
frequently.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

in the air and be prepared to comply with any signal

10.5.6 Landing Procedure directed to you.
On approach to destination, contact the ATC facility that 6. Clear the active runway as quickly as possible.
is appropriate for that airport (i.e. terminal area controller,
approach control, control tower) several miles outside the 7. Taxi with the utmost caution to the parking area.
boundaries of the classified airspace. If an ATIS broadcast is 8. Monitor 121.5 MHz just before shutting down your
available, listen to it first and note the information. Follow the engine to be sure that your ELT has not been inadver-
instructions of the control facility. tently activated.
If the airport has no control facilities but does have a desig- 9. Record your flight time and air time.
nated mandatory frequency or aerodrome traffic frequency,
10. Close your flight plan by filing an arrival report with
report on the MF or ATF 5 nautical miles before you reach
ATC.
the specified area and again when you have joined the traffic
circuit. If air traffic control fails to receive an arrival report
within a reasonable time, you will be assumed
If the airport is uncontrolled and has no published frequency, lost and a costly search and rescue operation will
keep a careful watch for other traffic and monitor 123.2 MHz
commence.
and report your own intentions on this frequency. Observe the
wind T or windsock and note the direction of traffic. Conform 11. Refuel the tanks and service your aeroplane.
to the standard procedure for traffic circuits at uncontrolled 12. Tie the aeroplane down securely if hangar storage is
airports. See also Aerodrom e Traffic Procedures in Chapter not available. Put wing covers and engine covers on
Aeronautical Rules & Procedures. if the aeroplane is to be stored in the open in a cold
When operating in the vicinity of an aerodrome, you must climate.
conform to the traffic pattern that is published for that aero-
drome or that is formed by other aircraft in operation there. Post-Flight Inspection
You must be observant of other traffic for the purpose of A post-flight inspection is a recommended practice for small
avoiding collision. aeroplanes as well as for large ones. Mechanical deficiencies
which arise during a flight can best be identified and attended
Pre-Landing Check to at the completion of the flight. It is an ideal time to check
1. Fuel. Check gauges as to contents of fuel the condition of the aeroplane, noting signs of strain or wear.
tanks. Pressures. Tank selectors, cross- Condition Cause
feed, booster pump(s) as required.
Wrinkled skin could indicate internal structural damage as a result of
2. Parking brake off. exposure to seve re turbulence or excessive airspeeds .

Metal damage from sto nes or other debris. Propellers

3. Gear down. (Amphibians, as applicable) are especially vulnerable.
4. Water rudders up. (Seaplanes) that clogs small openings suc h as the
Mud or ice pitot pressure source or ven t holes .
5. Mixture rich. scuffing and tearing of tires may occur as
Tire surfaces
6. Fine pitch. a result of poor runway conditions.
Uneven landing could be caused by the loss of tire pres-
7. Carburetor heat. Check. Set as required. gear extension sure, improper hydraulic pressure in struts.
8. Flaps. As recommended. Fuel stains or other signs of leakage of fuel , oil or hydraulic fluid.

9. Safety belts fastened. No smoking.

Fig.10.38 Post-Flight Inspection Conditions & Causes
Be sure, before beginning your descent towards a landing, that
you have given full consideration to conditions which might Your experience during the flight may indicate other poten-
affect the landing: proper approach speed, gross weight and tial trouble areas. Excessive fuel consumption may indicate a
centre of gravity, density altitude, wind direction and velocity problem with the seating of the fuel caps, with the fuel drains
and gustiness, runway conditions, runway slope. or line fittings. Look for oil drips if the oil consumption was
high. Check out any other condition that was abnormal during
Landing & Post-Landing Procedures the flight.
1. Keep a sharp look out for other aircraft. Be ready to
pull up and go around if necessary. 10.5.7 Braking Technique
2. Adhere strictly to approach speeds and flap settings Excessive braking shortens the life of the brakes and the
recommended for the aeroplane. aircraft tires. Therefore, aeroplanes should not be taxied at
3. In rain and in winter, be prepared for adverse brak- excessive speeds with unnecessarily high throttle settings
ing conditions. Many airports prepare reports on the that require use of brakes to maintain control.
condition of the runway and report these to pilots on Excessive landing speeds also result in accelerated tire wear
request. and increase the possibility that excessive braking may be
4. Touch down as near the threshold as possible to required to bring the aeroplane to a stop. If you have landed
have as much runway as possible for the ground run, with too much speed and the tower then calls for a short turn-
especially on a slippery runway or when the density off or if the runway is short or if a vehicle or aeroplane unex-
altitude is high. pectedly enters the runway, heavy braking will be required to
comply with the situation.
5. Be thoroughly familiar with traffic control light sig-
nals as they apply to traffic both on the ground and

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 Airmanship: Flight Preparations

Don't begin to brake as soon as you touch down. Right after chemicals, corrosion and rust will contaminate the discs. The
touchdown, the aeroplane is still producing lift and the prime component of the brake system is the hydraulic fluid.
application of brakes has no effect on slowing the aeroplane. It transmits pressure and energy but also lubricates and cools
Aerodynamic drag is the major factor in slowing the aero- the moving parts. Obviously, the hydraulic fluid must always
plane in the first quarter of its speed decay. Brakes become be at full capacity. But it is also important to use the exact
increasingly effective as airspeed and lift decrease. Once the type of brake fluid specified by the manufacturer. Mixing
aeroplane has slowed to at least 75% of its touchdown speed, fluids may render the system useless. Some brake fluids may
rolling friction and the use of brakes will bring the aeroplane actually dissolve the rubber seals of incompatible systems.
to a stop. In addition, the fluid must be kept clean. Particles of dirt can
Form the habit of landing at the proper recommended speed render the system inoperative.
and touching down at the end of the runway so that excessive
braking will not be required. Tire Pressure
In nosewheel aeroplanes, lower the nosewheel gently to the Tire pressure has a direct bearing on the life span and general
runway as quickly as possible after touchdown to reduce wing condition of tires during their useful life. Both overinflation
lift. Be sure to fully close the throttle so that there is no extra and underinflation result in external signs of misuse and may
power counteracting the stopping process. Apply the brakes cause structural damage that leads to blow-outs.
smoothly and firmly. For the brakes to be most effective, it Because they sustain a considerable impact on landing, air-
is necessary to keep as much weight as possible on the main craft tires are designed to have much more flex than automo-
gear wheels. Therefore, while braking, apply some back pres- bile tires. Underinflation, however, imposes additional flexing
sure on the control wheel. Under conditions of deceleration, that builds up internal heat that may cause material damage
braking and rolling friction, there is a nosedown pitching to the inner lining and sidewalls. Worse still, in one known
force that transfers the weight of the aeroplane to the nose- case, the heat from underinflated tires led to the breakout of
wheel rather than keeping it on the main gear where it is most fire that caused the crash of a passenger-carrying airline and
effective. Do not, however, apply so much back pressure that considerable loss oflife.
the nosewheel is lifted off the ground. You need it to steer the Low pressure can also allow a tube-type tire to slip on the rim,
aeroplane.
resulting in valve shear. Underinflation makes tires more sus-
Maintaining positive brake pressure until the aircraft has ceptible to hydroplaning and loss of control on wet surfaces.
come to a stop is preferable to pumping the brakes. The former
Ambient temperature has a direct bearing on tire pressure.
technique results in a shorter landing distance. More sig-
There is about one psi (lb. per square inch) of pressure loss for
nificant, however, is the fact that the constant brake pressure
every 2°C to 3°C drop in temperature. In a country like Canada
allows the brake system to absorb more heat before reaching
where there can be wide ranges of temperature during one 24
the point at which the brake fluid would boil.
hour period, a very significant loss of tire pressure can take
If brake discs are subjected to excessive heat during a land- place overnight on a particularly cold night.
ing, the brake discs may cone (become distorted). As the disc Aircraft tires are designed for an optimum pressure and this
starts to cone, the clearance between the disc and the linings
level should be maintained as closely as possible. Be alert to
decreases, causing non-uniform pressure distribution and possible tire pressure loss as a result of seasonal temperature
poor braking action. Excessive heat energy is generated if changes, slow leakage developing after a hard landing or ter-
the brakes do not have sufficient time to cool between suc-
rain damage during taxiing. Acquire a tire gauge and check
cessive applications (as in two landings within a short time
your tire pressure regularly.
span of each other). This residual energy is stored in the disc
and is added to the heat energy created during the next brake
application. The resulting high temperature may exceed the 10.5.8 Landing Errors
brake insulation threshold and cause the brake fluid behind
the brake cylinder pistons to boil. Continued brake application Unstable Approach
will produce excessive pedal travel and poor brake response. An unstable approach is an approach to landing wherein the
Brake fluid will sustain a higher temperature without boiling pilot fails to keep the aircraft within reasonable limits of cer-
when it is under pressure. If it is close to its boiling point when tain parameters that would ensure the safety of the landing.
under pressure, when the pressure is removed, the brake fluid The parameters that require stabilizing are: airspeed, angle
will boil. It is for this reason that pumping the brakes is an of descent, rate of descent, and aircraft landing configuration
inadvisable technique. (such as flap settings and trim settings). Unstable approaches
Braking is reduced by sliding wheels. In addition, directional are considered as causal factors in a significant number of
control is jeopardized. During braking, take care not to lock landing accidents not least of which are runway over-runs
the wheels. Braking effectiveness drops significantly in a skid. or aircraft that land short of their intended runway. It is,
To make matters worse, tires can be easily damaged in a skid. therefore, crucially important for pilots to understand the
stabilized approach concept to avoid the potentially lethal
Braking action is virtually non-existent on wet sod or wet consequences of this type of landing error.
runways or on frosted or icy runways. Landing rolls will be
substantially increased under such conditions when brakes The concept of a stabilized approach is that in which the pilot
can be expected to be ineffective. establishes and maintains a constant angled glidepath toward
an identified aiming point on the landing runway surface with
Braking problems can best be avoided by the use of proper the aircraft in the desired configuration. By his/her use of
speeds during taxi, landing and take-off and by proper main- good judgement culled from visual cues, a stabilized approach
tenance. Mostly, aeroplane brakes are trouble free. However, depends on the pilot's maintenance of a constant final
if the aeroplane flies less than 200 hours per year and if it is descent airspeed coordinated with the aircraft's configuration
exposed to unusual amounts of moisture, salt or industrial for that airspeed. Done correctly, little floating results in the

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

flare, and the true aiming point and the desired touchdown • Failure to prevent a flat or skidding turn from
point end up nearer to being coincident. the base leg to the final approach as a result
of inadequate correction for the w ind.
For all practical purposes, at a given pitch attitude there is
only one power setting for one airspeed, one flap setting, and • Failure to prevent an overshooting or undershooting
one wind condition. A ch ange in any one of these variables of the turn on to final approach as a result of too
requires an appropriate coordin ated change in the other con- steep or too sh allow a turn from the base leg.
trollable variables. • Poor coordination of controls during the turn
If there is any indication to the pilot that their aiming point from the base leg to the final approach.
on the runway is not wh ere they desire it to be, an adjust- • Poor trim tech nique on the final approach.
men t must be made to the glidepath. This in turn moves the • Poor altitude control on the final approach
aiming point. If, for example, the aiming point is short of the resulting from use of elevator alone.
desired touchdown point putting the aircraft on a path to an • Focusing attention too close to the aeroplane
undershoot, an increase in pitch attit ude and engine power resulting in a fl are that is too h igh.
m ust be made while ensuring that a constant airspeed is • Focusing attention too far from the aeroplane
maintained. Balanced correctly, this results in a shallowing
resulting in a flare that is too low.
of the glidepath with the aiming point moving toward the
desired touchdown point. Conversely, if th e aiming point is Planning for the approach in advance is critical: pilots must
farther down the runway than the desired touchdown point, h ave a plan for their airspeed, their flap settings, their power
the glidepath must be steepened by a simultaneous decrease settings, their descent rate and their touchdown point. Good
in pitch attit ude and power to avoid the probability of an over- planning in advance of their arrival into the downwind will
shoot. Once again, the airspeed must be held constant wh en contribute to an effective stable approach. If the plans, how-
th ese adjustments are contiguously made. ever, go awry - for in stance, the aircraft is too high , too low,
too fast, or drifting off the centreline - it is important that the
When the pitch attitude and airspeed have been stabilized, pilot recognizes these signs and that a go-around is initiated
the aeroplane must be re-trim med to relieve th e pressures w ithout delay.
being held on the controls. Once the approach is properly
set up and stable, it is essential that the pilot continuously
and proactively monitor the aircraft's approach status so
Wheelbarrowing
as to ensure that its stability is maintained throughout the Low w ing aeroplanes with steerable nose gear are most sus-
approach sequence to touchdown . While doing so, the pilot cep tible to the pilot error of wheelbarrowing, although any
can focus their attention on the scanning of outside references tricycle gear aeroplane can be put into this unfavourable
to aid in any minimally required fine-tuning of control and attitude.
throttle inputs du ring this culminating phase of their flight. It occu rs when the pilot has inadvertently th rust too much
It is essential that deviations from the desired glidepath be weight on to the nosewheel. Loss of directional or braking
detected early so that pilots need only make slight and mini- control is the usual result.
m al adjustm ents to its trajectory. The closer the aeroplane Wheelbarrowing usually occurs when the pilot uses excess
gets to the runway, the larger and more frequent required cor- speed wh ile making an approach in a full flap configura-
rections can become if not dealt with in the initial phases of tion . He/she may, in this situation, touch down with little or
the approach. The more the frequency of adjustments, and the no rotation and then may try to hold the aeroplane on the
greater their amplitude, the greater the approach will creep ground with forward pressure on the control column. As a
towards becoming unstable and, thus, u nsafe. result, the main wheels are carrying insufficient weight for
Pilots must never try to stretch a glide by applying back-eleva- normal braking response. In winter, when snow or ice make
tor pressure to reach th e desired landing spot. This shortens the runway pavement more slippery than usual, the problem
the gliding distance if power is not added simultaneou sly. A is compounded.
proper angle of descent and airspeed is maintained by coor- Som e wheelbarrowing accidents have occurred, under strong
dinating pitch attitude changes and power changes. When crosswind conditions, when the pilot is using the slip method
the approach is too high, reduce power and lower the nose. of drift correction.
When the approach is too low, add power and raise the nose.
If there is sufficient runway remaining with no obstructions,
Crucially, if the aircraft is not stabilized by 200 ft AGL, then
the best corrective action is probably a go-around. If this is not
the decision must be taken to overshoot the runway and a go-
possible, close the throttle and ease the column to aft of the
around must be performed. (See section Go-around/Overshoot
normal position. This action may lighten th e load on the nose
further in this ch apter.)
gear and put sufficient weight on the main gear to achieve
The errors that are conducive to unstable approaches are normal braking response.
many. They can occur in the downwind phase of the flight, in
The chief cause of wheelbarrowing on take-off is the tendency
the base phase of the flight, in the base-to-final t urn phase,
to h old the aeroplane on the ground with forward control
and/or in the final approach phase. Typical errors that can
pressure in order to build up a faster than normal ground-
occur are: speed before rotating.
• Failure to complete the landing checklist in a
timely m anner during the downwind phase. Balloons & Bounces
• Failure to adequately stabilize the aircraft's Sometimes in the final stages of the approach, the pilot has
configuration when flaps are extended. the sensation that th e ground is coming up faster than it in
• Failure to anticipate and correct for fact is. Increasing the pitch attitude too rapidly causes the
w ind drift on the base leg. aeroplane to climb instead of descend. This climbing during

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 Airmanship: Flight Preparations

round out is known as ballooning. It is also caused when the There are three types of hydroplaning.
flaps are lowered too late in th e landing sequence.
Viscous hydroplaning occurs when there is a th in film of
A bounce will almost certainly occur if the rou nd out is made water and relatively low tire speeds. The water lubricates the
too slowly or too late so th at the nose gear (in the case of surface and decreases traction. A water film of only a tiny
tricycle geared aeroplanes) or the main gear (in the case of fraction of a centimetre w ill drastically reduce the friction
tailwheel aeroplanes) touches first. A bounce will also occur between the tire and the pavement and double the stopping
if the round out is completed too high and the aeroplane is distance.
dropped onto the runway.
Dynamic hydroplaning requires deeper water and results in
A bounce or a balloon each produces a critical situation. Not complete loss of tire contact with the pavement. The tire lift s
only is the aeroplane gaining h eight above the runw ay but it off the runway and rides on a wedge of water.
m ay also be approaching a stall. As well, the crosswin d cor- Reverted-rubber hydroplaning can occur when a locked tire
rection may h ave been lost and the pitch attitude of th e aero- skids on a wet or icy runway. Frictional heating raises the tire
plane m ay be in excess of th at of th e norm al landing attitude.
tem perature causing rubber particles to shred off the tread.
The best corrective action for a severe balloon or bou nce is to These particles accumulate behind the tire forming a dam
apply pow er and execute a go around. If the balloon or bounce that blocks the escape of water. The trapped w ater heats and
is low in height and the pitch ch ange is not extrem e and there turn s to steam. The steam pressure lifts the tire from the
is sufficient runw ay left, a landing may be made by establish- surface.
ing direction al control, applying power to cushion the land- The point at which dynam ic hydroplan ing begins is deter-
ing and adjusting the pitch attitude to that landing attit ude
mined by water depth, runway text ure, tire tread depth and
proper for touchdow n.
tire pressure. The depth of water on the runway must exceed
However, during a bounce or a balloon, the crosswind correc- the depth of the tire's tread and the depth of the runway sur-
tion w ill almost invariably be lost and the aeroplane will start face texture. Nosewheel tires will begin hydroplaning earlier
to drift. A landing should not be attempted unless the longitu- than main wheel tires because nosewheel tire pressures are
dinal axis of the aeroplan e is straigh t w ith the runway and all normally lower th an those of the main wheels. (It is, therefore,
drift has stopped. If the situation is not right, go-arou nd again. important to lower the nose as soon as possible after touch-
If the pitch attitude has exceeded the landing attitude , the down in order to quickly get a vertical load on the nosewheel
nose h igh situation means a rapid decrease in airspeed and tire and get it tracking effectively.) Th e minimu m speed
diminishing response to the controls as th e stall is neared. (knots) at which dyn am ic hydroplan in g can occur can be
Lowering the nose is essential but lowering it too m uch may calculated by m ultiplying the square root of the tire pressure
result in a hard landing th at could cause structural damage. It (psi) by nine. Once established, hydroplanin g can continue at
is best to apply full power, release som e of the back pressure speeds well below this figure.
to achieve level flight and then initiate the procedu re for a go Tests h ave shown that one -half an inch of slush on the
arou nd. runway increases take-off distance by abou t 15%. One-and-
a-qu arter inches of slush increases safe runway distance by
Porpoising 100%. With two inch es of slush , the test aeroplanes could not
Porpoising is the name given to the condition in wh ich the accelerate to take -off speed.
aeroplane bounces back and forth between th e nosewheel (or One of the best w ays to minimize the chances of hydroplaning
tailwheel) and the m ain gear after touchdow n. It occurs most is to ensure that your tires h ave good treads and are properly
frequently as a result of an incorrect landing attitude and inflated and th at you r brakes are effective. Tires with less
excessive airspeed that results in the nosewheel coming in than one-sixteenth of an inch of tread and brakes worn to
contact with the runway before the main gear. 90% of limits compou n d the problem. When landing on a dry
The porpoise m ay becom e progressively worse resulting in runway, the required landing distance sh ould not exceed 60%
violent unstable oscillation of the aeroplane about the lat- of th e available runw ay. If the runway is wet, the required
eral axis th at can damage the landin g gear and the aeroplane landing distance is 115% of the dry runway requirement.
structure. Ensure that the runw ay is long enough for your needs before
attemptin g a lan ding. Remember that runways contaminated
The best corrective action is to smoothly use the controls to by w ater following or during a rain shower can be as slick as
establish the normal landing attitude and add power to get wet ice.
the aeroplane airborne again . If there is sufficient runway left,
land; otherwise, go arou nd.
10.5.10 Go-Around/Overshoot
10.s.9 Hydroplaning A go-around, or an oversh oot (the two terms mean substan -
tially the same thing), is a basic flight m aneuver to be used
Hydroplaning is a condition that can develop whenever a tire when it becomes inadvisable to continue a landing approach .
is m oving on a wet su rface. The tire squeezes w ater from It should be the pilot's obvious choice of action when there
under th e tread generatin g w ater pressu res which can lift is interfering traffic or when the landing procedures (flare,
portion s of the tire off the runway and reduce the amou nt of crosswind correction, touchdown, etc.) do not come together
friction th e tire can develop. properly to ensure a safe landing and roll ou t . At a controlled
On a r u nw ay contaminated by rain or wet snow, it can be airport, the tower m ay, because of a potentially unsafe situ a-
impossible for an aeroplane to accelerate to take-off speed tion on the runway, advise the pilot of an aeroplane on final
and then to stop on the rem aining runw ay in an aborted take- approach to pull up and go around again.
off. During landing, deceleration and stopping an aeroplane A go-arou nd can becom e a very risky flight procedure if th e
can be similarly com promised. pilot does not decide soon enough that a go-around is the best

From the Ground Up·- 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

choice and delays making a decision until the situation has stall could occur since any loss in airspeed means a reduction
become critical. in lift.
Do not be indecisive about executing a go-around. If there is Conversely, if a positive wind shear (increase in the velocity
any suspicion that a landing is turning out poorly, start the of the headwind or a decrease in the velocity of the tailwind)
go-around procedure. The sooner you make the decision, the of 20 knots takes place, again inertia causes a delay in the
easier and safer the procedure will be. A go-around should be reaction of the aeroplane and the airspeed briefly builds up
viewed as an opportunity to correct what was an unaccept- by about 20 knots. During this brief lag, there is an increase
able landing approach and to make a good and safe landing in lift as a result of the increased airspeed, th e rate of descent
on the next try. decreases and there is a tendency to overshoot.
A go-around initiated at relatively high altitude is hardly Crosswind shears and vertical shears also have an adverse
more than a fly through. Initiated at low altitude, it demands effect on the aeroplane. An abrupt crosswind shear will make
attention to proper procedure. Be mentally prepared for the it weathercock into the new wind. An abrupt downdraft
go-around on every landing. Complete the landing checklist causes a brief decrease in the angle of attack of the wing with
early. Be sure that rich mixture and fine pitch have been a resultant loss of lift. An abrupt updraft causes an increase
selected. They are needed to achieve full power if a go-around in the angle of attack that, if the aeroplane is already near
is necessary. the stall speed, may push the angle of attack beyond the stall
angle.
Make the go-around decision early. Once having made it,
don' t change your mind. First, smoothly apply full power, The important parameter is the rate of change of the wind's
select carburetor heat to the cold position and re-trim the velocity with respect to time. This determines the pilot's and
aeroplane for full power operation. Establish and maintain the aeroplane's ability to cope with the wind shear. If the aero -
the proper airspeed for level flight and then retract the flaps. plane could be instantaneously accelerated or decelerated to
When a safe airspeed is attained and there is no chance of the respond to changes in wind speed, there would be no problem.
aeroplane settling onto the runway, raise the landing gear. However, there is an inevitable lag in pilot reaction time and
Continue to maintain straight-and-level flight until you reach in aeroplane response. Large aeroplanes with larger inertia
climb speed. factors adj ust less quickly than do smaller general aviation
Climb at the airspeed for best angle of climb, using the maxi- aeroplanes. The outcome of a critical wind shear encounter
mum allowable power, until all obstacles have been cleared. depends, therefore, upon quick and correct action on the part
Then, assume the airspeed for best rate of climb and reduce of the pilot. Even a slight delay in initiating corrective action
the power to that recommended in the Pilot's Operating can result in the loss of crucial performance capability needed
for an aeroplane to recover from a severe wind shear encoun-
Handbook.
ter at low altitude.
If the go-around was initiated because of other traffic on the
runway, make a slight turn to parallel the runway when a If a pilot is aware of a wind shear condition, he/she can com-
safe altitude and airspeed have been obtained. Keep the other pensate for the expected value of the shear by varying normal
aircraft in sight until the possibility of a collision no longer approach airspeeds . This is a solution only up to a point. Wind
exists. shear is complex and unpredictable. Wind changes can be
gradual or abrupt. Strong headwinds or tailwinds can sud-
Make a radio call to advise the tower (or on the mandatory fre- denly become weak or vice versa. There may be turbulence.
quency at an uncontrolled airport) of your action at the same There may be a lateral component that introduces drift and
time as you are stabilizing the climb at the proper power, heading problems.
speed and trim.
There are certain clues that, by alerting a pilot to its possible
presence, ca n help avoid a wind sh ear encounter. They include
10 .5.11 Wind Shear pilot reports (PIREPS) from other pilots who have encountered
One of the basic principles of flight is that airspeed is not it, low level wind shear alerting system warnings, the pres-
affected by the movement of the air body itself. This is true ence of thunderstorms and virga.
except in the situation of wind shear which involves an abrupt During any landing or take -off, a pilot should be especially
or sudden change in wind velocity. Since the inertia of the alert to any fluctuation in airspeed, vertical speed and atti-
aeroplane is far greater than that of the surrounding body tude. Any excessive variation should be taken as an indication
of air, there is an inevitable Jag in the aeroplane's response of wind shear and corrective action instantly initiated.
to the sudden increase or decrease of wind, resulting in a
temporary gain or reduction in airflow over the wings and See also Wind Shear in the Chapter Aviation Weather.
therefore in airspeed. The change in airspeed may not last
more than a few seconds. In cruising flight, there would be 10 .5.12 Ground Effect
no serious problem but, under some landing or take-off condi- Every pilot has encountered the term ground effect. What
tions, it could be critical, since it can cause stalls, undershoots
exactly is it?
or overshoots.
The total drag of an aeroplane is divided into two components,
If, for example, the wind changes suddenly from a no wind parasite drag and induced drag. Induced drag is the result of
condition to a 20 knot tailwind or if there is a sudden 20 the wing's work in sustaining the aeroplane in flight. The
knot decrease in the headwind (negative wind shear), inertia
wing lifts the aeroplane simply by accelerating a mass of air
causes a several second delay before the aeroplane reacts to downward. (It is perfectly true that reduced pressure on top of
the change in wind during which the airspeed will fall by an airfoil is essential to lift; that, however, is only one of the
almost 20 knots. If the aeroplane is approaching to land at an factors that contributes to the generation of lift.) The amount
airspeed near the stall, the approach path could steepen or a of downwash is directly related to the work of the wing in
pushing the mass of air down and therefore to the amount of

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 Airmanship: Flight Preparations

induced drag produced. At high angles of attack, induced drag and a heavy load, in any of many combinations, sets the scene
is high. As this corresponds to lower airspeeds in actual flight, for this type of accident.
it can be said that induced drag predominates at low speed.
When you do find yourself in a marginal take-off situation,
(See also Drag in Chapter Theory of Flight.) know your aeroplane's take-off speed for the conditions pre-
vailing, the distance required to accelerate to that speed and
then allow a generous margin of safety by picking up as much
speed as possible just off the ground before trying to climb.
An aeroplane accelerates more rapidly in ground effect than
above it. Therefore, just a few moments in level flight just a
few feet off the ground achieves the goal of attaining a safe
climb speed more quickly.
Ground effect is also influential in landing. As the aeroplane
flies down from free air into ground effect, the reduction of
induced drag as it nears the runway comes into effect to make
the aeroplane float past the point of intended touchdown. In
the common case of an aeroplane coming in with excessive
speed, the usable portion of the runway may slip by with the
aeroplane refusing to settle down to land. A go-around will
probably be necessary. On short fields, approach as slowly as
Fig.10.39 In Ground Effect (Bottom), Out of Ground Effect (Top) is consistent with safety.
An aeroplane also tends to be more longitudinally stable in
When a wing is flown very near the ground, there is a sub-
ground effect. It is slightly nose heavy. The downwash from
stantial reduction in the induced drag. Downwash is signifi-
the wing normally passes over the tail at an angle that pro-
cantly reduced; the air flowing from the trailing edge of the
duces a download on the tail. Ground effect deflects the path
wing is forced to parallel the ground. The wing tip vortices
of the downwash and causes it to pass over the tailplane at a
that also contribute to induced drag are substantially reduced;
decreased angle. The tailplane produces more lift than usual
the ground interferes with the formation of a large vortex
and the nose of the aeroplane tends to drop. To counteract
(Fig.10.39).
this tendency, more up elevator is required near the ground.
Many pilots think that ground effect is caused by air being During take-off as the aeroplane climbs out of ground effect,
compressed between the wing and the ground. This is not so. the download on the tailplane increases and the nose tends
Ground effect is caused by the reduction of induced drag when to pitch up.
an aeroplane is flown at slow speed very near the surface.
Ground effect exerts an influence only when the aeroplane is 10.5.13 Gust Conditions
flown at an altitude no greater than its wing span, which for
A gust or bump increases the load on the wings. The speed
most light aeroplanes is fairly low. A typical light aeroplane of the aeroplane should therefore be reduced when flying in
has a wing span of perhaps 35 feet and will experience the
gusty air.
effect of ground effect only when it is flown at or below 35 feet
above the surface (ground or water). In approaching to land, on the other hand, a little higher speed
should be maintained to assure positive control.
A low wing aeroplane is generally more affected by ground
effect than a high wing aeroplane because the wing is closer A tailwheel aeroplane making a landing in gusty wind condi-
to the ground. High wing aeroplanes are, however, also influ- tions should make a wheel landing. With this type of land-
enced by this phenomenon. ing, the aeroplane makes contact with the ground while still
maintaining flying speed. There is no critical period between
At the moment of take-off, when the wing is only 3 or 4 feet
positive air and positive ground control. If the tail is held high
above the ground, a low wing aeroplane will experience a
until all forward speed has been lost, there is no tendency for
reduction in induced drag of about 48% as compared to the
a gust to lift the aeroplane back into the air.
induced drag generated at flight altitude. At 18 feet altitude,
the reduction in induced drag drops off to about 8%. When
the aeroplane reaches an altitude equal to its wing span, the 10.5.14 Low Flying
influence of ground effect disappears. Remember the one about the dear old lady who cautioned
Pilots get into trouble because of ground effect when they her son to "Always fly low and slow"? There is one occasion
precipitate take-off before the aeroplane has reached flying on which her counsel turns out to be good sound airman-
speed. Take the scenario of a pilot trying a take-off from a ship after all. That is when a pilot is forced to fly low in poor
poor field. Full power is used and the aeroplane is held in a weather. Under these conditions the following precautions
nose high position. Ground effect reduces induced drag and should be observed:
the aeroplane is able to reach a speed where it can stagger off. Reduce speed because of the limited visibility but keep a safe
As altitude is gained, induced drag increases as the effect of margin in case it is necessary to turn quickly to avoid a col-
the ground effect diminishes. Twenty or thirty feet up, ground lision. Always keep one hand on the throttle, ready for any
effect vanishes, the wing encounters the full effect of induced sudden emergency. Keep more than a customary sharp look-
drag and the struggling aeroplane which got off the ground out both ahead and on either side.
on the ragged edge of a stall becomes fully stalled and drops
Remember that it is easy to overestimate actual airspeed
to earth.
when flying low downwind, because of the apparent high
A mixture of short runways , rough ground, grass or snow, groundspeed, and a pilot has therefore a tendency to stall
high airport elevation, high air temperature, a weak engine after turning downwind.

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

It should be noted that the tendency to stall when flying

downwind is due to an optical illusion on the part of the pilot. 10.5.17 Flying the Laminar Flow Airfoil
The actual stalling speed of an aeroplane is the same whether Laminar flow airfoils, introduced in Theory of Flight, have
flying upwind or downwind. certain flight characteristics that the pilot flying them must
When forced to fly low, detour around any towns or cities that learn to appreciate. The laminar airfoil takes less energy to
lie along your route. slide through the air since it h as the advantage of producing
less drag.
Flying low in poor weather should be resorted to, of course,
only in an emergency or when an air traffic controller autho- There are, however, also disadvantages to this type of airfoil.
rizes you to proceed in conditions that are below the VFR The principle disadvantage is that anything that mars the
minima. absolutely smooth surface of the wing (mud splashes, dust
and dirt, grime or any foreign material) will reduce the effi-
ciency of the wing much more than would be the case with
10.5.15 Visibility in Rain the same amount of foreign material on a w ing of conven-
Rain falling on the windshield of an aeroplane causes a dis- tional airfoil design.
tortion that will make the terrain contours appear lower than
Pilots flying aeroplanes with laminar flow wings must be
they actually are. A hilltop half a mile ahead may appear to be
more precise in their technique. Abrupt changes in speed and
200 feet lower than it actually is. This distortion is the result
angle of attack can suddenly cause large areas of the wing to
of refraction. Light beams are refracted (change direction) as
change from laminar flow to turbulent flow. This can cause
they pass from one m edium to another, as from air to water.
large variations in the drag of the wing resulting in hunting
Water slows up the passage of light and causes it to bend. As
and porpoising especially during low speeds.
a result, objects, terrain, lights appear lower than their actual
elevation relative to the aeroplane. Refraction error also An aeroplane with a laminar flow wing is subject to more
causes the eye to see a horizon below the true horizon. abrupt stalls should the angle of attack be increased suddenly.
If the stall is approached gradually, the aeroplane will perform
Diffusion also causes a distortion. Lights seen through mois-
normally. But an abrupt increase in the angle of attack or in G
ture tend to spread apart and appear less intense and there-
load can result in a violent stall. For this reason, pilots flying
fore farther away. However, on landing approaches, diffusion
this type of airfoil must be especially careful during landing
has a different effect. Approach lights appear larger and
not to approach with too high an angle of attack near the stall-
therefore nearer. The degree of distortion w ill vary according
ing speed. A sudden disturbance can cause instant stall.
to weather and terrain conditions so no rule of thumb applies.
Pilots simply must be aware of the phenomenon and when
flying in the rain be alert to the problem. It is essential to 10.5.18 Mid-Air Collision Hazard
ensure proper terrain clearance when flying en route and on With the progressive increase in both speeds and traffic
final approach to landing. density, risk of collision becomes an increasingly serious
Rain repellant used on the windshield may help reduce the hazard. For example, a pilot in a high speed executive trans-
refraction error. Effective windshield wipers also help to port aeroplane who observes a jet 1 1/2 miles distant on a 90°
reduce the problem. converging track has only approxim ately 7 seconds to take
evasive action. However, it takes a minimum of 10 seconds for
a pilot to spot traffic, identify it, realize that there is a collision
10.5.16 Flight in Volcanic Ash hazard and take evasive action.
Flight in volcanic ash has the potential for serious and hazard-
Surprisingly, a very small percentage of mid- air collisions
ous complications to aircraft components. Aircraft surfaces
occur between aircraft converging at a head-on angle. Most
and windshields can be damaged. Aircraft heat and vent sys-
occur as a result of a faster aeroplane overtaking and hitting
tems, hydraulic and electronic systems may be contaminated.
a slower aeroplane. The closing speed in this case would be
Powerplant failures are a common result of the ingestion of
relatively slow, giving the pilot ample time to react and take
volcanic ash. In addition, volcanic ash is heavy and accumula-
evasive action.
tions of it on the wings and tail surfaces can adversely affect
weight and balance. Nearly all mid-air collisions occur during daylight hours, in
VFR conditions, within five miles of an airport, usually in the
Ash from volcanic eruptions can rapidly rise to heigh ts in
traffic circuit and primarily on final approach.
excess of 60,000 feet and be blown downwind of the source for
considerable distances. Encounters have been reported 2,400 Given these facts, it would appear that pilots are not practic-
n.m. from the source and up to 72 hours later. in g the principle of "see and avoid". Seeing is a full time job for
every pilot regardless of the type of aeroplane being flown. A
If ash is visible, do not enter it. The risk of enterin g ash in IMC
pilot must visually scan in all directions constantly.
conditions or at night is particularly dangerous because there
is no visual warning. Unfortunately, aviation radar cannot
detect volcanic ash. St . Elmo's Fire is a tell tale sign of a n ight Scanning
encounter, although engine problems may be the first indica- The eye is a miraculous organ but it does h ave cert ain limita-
tion. Exit the cloud as quickly as possible. tions. It is vulnerable to dust, fatigue, age, optical illusions,
emotion, germs. In flight, vision is affected by atmospheric
In remote areas, pilots are often the first to be aware of a
conditions, hypoxia, acceleration, glare, aircraft design, wind-
volcanic eruption. If an eruption or ash is observed, an urgent
shield distortion, etc.
PIREP should be filed with the nearest ATS unit.
More than this, however, the eye only sees what the mind lets
it see. A day dreaming pilot sees nothing.
The eye is subject to focusing problems. it takes time to adjust
the focus from near to far objects. In h azy conditions with no

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 Airmanship: Flight Preparations

distinct horizon, there is nothing to focus on and a pilot will Never descend, turn or climb into a blind spot. When lettin g
experience empty field myopia, not seeing even opposing traf- down, tu rning, or climbing, it is advisable to make a slight S
fic when it does enter his/her field of vision. Another problem turn to have a look before initiating the maneuver. During
is that of narrow field of vision or tunnel vision. The eyes are prolonged climbs or descents, outside positive control areas ,
limited to a relatively narrow field of vision in which they can execute gentle left and right banks every few thousand feet
actually focus and classify an object. The mind cannot iden- in order to broaden your field of vision and also to increase
tify targets in the periphery. the likelihood of being seen as a result of motion and light
Glare on a sunny day makes objects hard to see, especially reflection.
during flight directly into the sun. Contrast creates another Sustained periods of straight-and-level flight outside positive
problem. An aeroplane over a cluttered landscape blends into controlled airspace should be broken at intervals by gently
the background and can be almost impossible to see. banking the aeroplane in each direction in order to broaden
Since visual perception is affected by many factors, it follows your field of vision.
that pilots must learn to use their eyes in the most efficient Be especially mindful of the fact th at pilots of high win g
and effective manner in an external scan . and low wing aeroplanes can be in each other's blind spot.
Collisions of this type happen most frequently at uncontrolled
Learn how to scan properly, knowing how to concentrate on
the areas most critical at any given time. In normal flight, airports, when the low wing aeroplane descends on top of
the critical area is about 60° to the left and to the right of the the h igh wing aeroplane, especially on fin al approach or just
centre of your visual area and about 10° up and down from before touchdown, although it can happen anywhere in th e
your flight path. The slower your aeroplane, the greater your circuit.
vulnerability and the greater the scan area required. With the introduction of mandatory communication proce-
The most effective scan pattern is the block system. Traffic dures at uncontrolled airports, the ch ance of a collision of
detection can only be made through a series of eye fixations this type is substantially reduced but not eliminated. There
at different points in space. The viewing area (the windshield) have been incidents of pilots who were talking to each other,
should be divided into segments (blocks), each about 10° to but were unable to see each other. Collisions between them
15° wide. The pilot should methodically scan for traffic in were in each other's blind spot. In such a situation, it would be
each block of airspace in sequential order. In other words, advisable for the pilot, caught in a situation in which another
stop and look in block A, move to block B and stop and look, aeroplane is in the same landing pattern but can't be seen, to
move to block C and stop and look, etc. The sequence may be assume that the other aeroplane is in their blind spot and to
from left to right, from right to left, or front to left side, front make a gentle level turn to the left. Simultaneously he/she
to right side. There is no one scan sequence that is best. You should report his/ her intentions on the mandatory frequency.
should develop a scan that is comfortable and workable for Any turn, no matter h ow slight, will increase the separation
you. The scan must include a series of fixations in the block between the two aeroplanes and decrease th e risk of collision.
areas. When the head is in motion, vision is blurred and the While flying at circuit height, your aeroplane will cast a
mind will not register targets. You will not see a stationary shadow on the ground on a sunny day. So will other aero-
target, yet it is the one which constitutes a potential mid-air planes. Glance at your shadow occasionally and scan a wide
collision h azard. circle around it. Two converging sh adows could foretell a
External scanning must be shared with internal (instrument collision.
panel) scanning. Generally, the external scan w ill take about When another aircraft is approaching and it has movement,
3 times as long as the internal scan . The internal scan should left , right, up or down, there is no danger of colliding. The rate
start with the attitude indicator, move to the heading indica- of movement governs the margin of separation. If, however,
tor, the altimeter, the airspeed indicator, the rate of climb, the the other aeroplane is approaching your track and there is
turn a nd bank and back to the attitude indicator. Navigation no apparent change in the relative position at which you first
and engine instruments might be included in every third or saw it, you are on a collision course and sh ould take immedi-
fourth scan. ate evasive action. Any turn, climb or descent will provide a
margin of separation.
Collision Avoidance An important thing to remember is th at you cannot hit any-
Collision avoidance involves more than proper scanning tech- thing that has moved out of the spot from which it was first
niques. There are other important factors in the see and avoid noticed. If, however, it becomes stationary at any point, a col-
principle. lision is imminent.
Plan your flight ahead of time. Have charts folded and in Th e most common er ror is turning the wrong way. The rule
sequence. Prepare a flight log with all the information that of turning towards the target and keeping it in sight as long
might be required during the flight so that you need to spend as possible is the rule for visual collision avoidance. By keep-
as little time as possible with your head down in the cockpit. ing the other aircraft in sight, you remain in control of the
To do a competent scan, the windshield and windows must situation.
be clean and free of obstructions such as solid sun visors and When meeting another aircraft head on, alter course to the
window curtains. right in order to avoid any chance of collision.
Encou rage your passengers to look for other aircraft and bring Observe rigidly the traffic rules governing flight altitude when
aircraft sightings to your attention. flying both on and off airways. Update your altimeter setting
All aeroplanes have blind spots because of their inherent as often as practicable.
design: a window frame, the wing or wing strut, the forward Be especially alert when flying in areas where traffic is likely
fuselage, etc. These blind spots are inevitable but can be com- to be heaviest - near busy airports especially at lower alti-
pensated for by the pilot. tudes and at any height over navigation facilities. When below

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Flight Preparations

3,000 feet and within 10 miles of an airport, reduce speed to

the minimum airspeed which permits safe control for any 10.5.19 Practicing Good Airmanship
necessary maneuver. Good airmanship is the result of good planning and prepara-
When fly ing cross-country, avoid high density areas unless tion. Some tips for good airmanship are listed here.
landing. 1. Whenever possible, schedule your flight during a time
The use of landing lights greatly enhances the probability of when traffic is least heavy.
an aeroplane being seen and thus is an excellent technique 2. Be so familiar with the layout of your aeroplane that
to avoid mid-air collisions. Therefore, turn on your landing you can find and work every control without looking.
lights both during day and night, while landing or taking off, Practice this blindfolded on the ground until you can
when flying below 2,000 feet AGL within terminal areas and do it perfectly.
in aerodrome traffic circuits, while operating under Special
3. Keep the windows of your aeroplane unobstructed.
VFR conditions or in conditions of reduced visibility such as
Don't put maps and computers in the windows.
haze or at dusk.
4. Keep the windows of your aeroplane clean.
High intensity strobe and anti-collision lights should be on at
any time the aeroplane is in the air. However, they should not 5. Wear sunglasses on bright days. Do not use opaque
be used on the ground as they are distracting to pilots taxi- sun visors.
ing, awaiting take-off or on final approach to landing. Strobe 6. Be sure you are flying at the correct altitude for your
lights should be activated only immediately prior to take-off direction of flight.
and extinguished after landing.
7. Always look around carefully before starting a turn,
A Mode C transponder will permit ATC to use radar to see you, while in the turn and after resuming straight-and-
know your altitude and provide you and other aircraft with level flight.
timely traffic advisories. Also, ADS-B technology, in aircraft
so equipped, provides a highly accurate understanding of 8. When climbing or descending, do several clear-
traffic activities thereby allowing pilots to respond in a timely ing turns to check the path of your flight for other
way to potential traffic conflicts. aeroplanes.

If visibility drops below VFR minima and you are not quali- 9. Keep up a regular routine of scanning the sky around
fied to file an !FR Flight Plan, do not proceed. Land or turn you for other aeroplanes. Don't forget to do this while
back. Under an overcast with low ceilings (particularly around concentrating on one aeroplane. There may be others
1,000 ft.), be careful to avoid approach corridors in the close around also.
vicinity of an airport. !FR traffic will be dropping out of 10. Keep a watch for older or large aeroplanes and stay
the clouds. Approach corridors are shown on instrument out of their way. Visibility out of these types is usu-
approach charts . If you don't happen to have one, you can ally poor.
roughly estimate the location of an approach corridor by visu-
11. Give your passengers the job of looking for and point-
alizing a line from the radio navigation facility to the runway,
ing out other aeroplanes in the air.
extending the line 10 miles outbound from the facility and
allowing room for the procedure turn which an aeroplane 12. Pay attention to the radio as other pilots call in and
doing an instrument approach will make. report their positions.
Be careful flying on top of cloud. Don't skim the tops . Jets may 13. Be precise in reporting over the geographic location
come barrelling up out of the clouds as fast as 6,000 fpm. Pilots requested by the controller. Call at that point and not
flying VFR Over The Top must be especially vigilant and main- two or three miles beyond.
tain a flight path that is at least 1,000 feet above the overcast. 14. Once you have accepted an ATC clearance, follow it.
It is none too ample a margin. If an ATC clearance is not acceptable because of the
At night, the see and avoid concept depends on aircraft lights. operational capabilities of your aeroplane, so inform
Navigation and anti-collision lights need to be in good work- ATC and ask for other instructions. Ask to "Say Again"
ing order. if you don't understand. Never acknowledge a trans-
mission if you have not understood.
At night, the eyes see in a different way than they do during
the day. Peripheral vision is better than direct staring because 15. If you fly a high performance aeroplane, try to slow it
the cones in the eye which are concentrated in the centre of down to around 100 knots in the circuit so that your
the eye need a lot of light to function properly. Conversely, the speed matches that of other circuit traffic.
rods in the eye around the edge of the eye do not require so 16. Be especially alert when joining the circuit and when
much light and are more efficient at night. Using peripheral turning on final.
vision is, therefore, better than direct staring. Objects will be
17. Be sure to remain VFR and well clear of cloud unless
more apparent if you look 10 to 15 degrees to one side of the
you are cleared !FR.
object. (See also Vision in Chapter Human Factors.)
18. If you are !FR and in good visibility, remember that
Aviation Safety Reports have established that air collisions
VFR traffic could be at your altitude and track.
most always happen in ideal weather. When you are flying
VFR - look where you are going. Do not argue the right-of-
way. You may be dead right but, if the other pilot doesn't real-
ize it, you may be just dead, period.

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 Airmanship: Emergency Procedures

10.6 Emergency Procedures Engine Failure After Take-Off

1. Lower the nose and assume the speed for best glide.
Aircraft today are very safe and, especially if they are well
2. Select the best available landing area in an area of
maintained, rarely experience malfunction or emergency
about 60° left or right of the aeroplane heading.
situations. You should not, however, become complacent
but should always be prepared to deal with such a situation 3. Turn off the fuel and the magne-
should it occur. Being prepared by having a pre-determined tos. Pull the mixture to idle cut-off.
plan of action which you periodically review and practice will
4. Make gentle turns to avoid obstacles.
help you make a good decision when the worst happens.
5. When sure of reaching the chosen landing area, lower
In almost all situations , the aircraft will be capable of con-
the flaps. Do not allow the airspeed to increase.
trolled flight. Flying the aeroplane is, therefore, your primary
task while you assess and deal with the problem. 6. On short final, turn off the master
No one can predict when an inflight emergency will occur. switch. Unlatch the cabin doors (to guard
When it does, there is not much time to react. It is critical against them becoming jammed).
that the correct procedures be followed . This can happen 7. Resist the temptation to turn back to the airport.
only if you have taken training in emergency procedures
and regularly review and practice them. Only by regularly
10.6.2 Unlatched Door in Flight
rehearsing emergency procedures will you be confident and
ready to react correctly wh en faced with the real thing. Your If it has not been latched properly, the cabin door may come
emergency checklist and Aircraft Operating Manual should unlatched during flight. The door will trail in a position a
always be readily available in an accessible place in case you few inches open and will cause a lot of noise and wind in the
need to refer to it. Make sure also that the manual you have is cockpit. The flight characteristics of the aeroplane will not
for the make, model and year of manufacture of the aircraft be affected except that the rate of climb will be reduced. The
you are flying and is current with amendments from the important thing is to fly the aeroplane and not be distracted
manufacturer. by the noise and wind.
Some emergency responses will be a combination of memory Slow the aeroplane down because higher speeds will increase
and non-memory items with vital actions being completed
the suction forces to pull the door farther open. Don't try to
first (your instinctive response thanks to training) and the
close the door during flight. If the door opened during take-
remaining items completed later on (by referring to your
off, return to the airport in a normal manner. If it opened
manual or checklist).
during flight, proceed to the nearest airport. If practicable,
during the landing flare out, have a passenger hold the door
10 .6. 1 Engine Failure on Take-Off to prevent it from swinging open.
If an engine fails immediately after take-off, land straight
ahead. The worst possible action is trying to turn back to the 10.6.3 Action in the Event of Fire
airport. An aeroplane needs both time and altitude to make
a 180° turn, neither of which it has if the engine fails at low The following checklists for procedures to follow in the event
altitude during climbout. At anything less than 700 feet AGL, of fire is representative only. Always use the procedure rec-
the only option is to land straight ahead. Of course, this does ommended by the manufacturer of the aeroplane you are
not mean ploughing into a brick wall head-on. Some maneu- flying.
vering within a 60° arc right or left to select an open area
that presents an acceptable landing field is a reasonable and Engine Fire on the Ground
practicable action.
Engine fires on the ground usually are the result of improp-
It is always best to climb out after take-off at the highest er starting techniques, most specifically, overpriming.
possible airspeed that is consistent with the principles of Overpriming may cause a backfire and a carburetor fire if the
good airmanship and with the local situation. At the higher engine does not start. In most cases, any fire resulting from a
airspeed, not only is the engine obtaining better cooling backfire can be quenched by continuing to crank the engine
but the flight controls are more effective. In the event of a until it starts. If an engine fire has started and is not put out
complete and sudden power failure during the climbout, the by getting the engine running, the fuel should be shut off, the
margin between the higher airspeed and the stall speed and primer locked and a fire extinguisher used to put out the fire.
the responsive controls give the pilot time to transition safely
from climbing attitude to normal glide. If the engine fails The procedures for dealing with an engine fire will be detailed
when the aeroplane is climbing steeply at a low airspeed, in your Pilot's Operating Handbook.
there is little margin above the stall speed, the speed decays Do not fly the aeroplane after the fire h as been extin-
rapidly and there is poor response from the flight controls. guished until it is inspected by an aircraft maintenance
The aeroplane is sluggish in responding to the pilot's attempt
engineer in case there has been internal engine damage. (See
to transition to a glide attitude and will probably stall.
also Procedure for Backfire During Starting in Chapter Aero
Engines.)
Engine Failure During Take-Off
1. Close the throttle.
Engine Fire During Flight
2. Brake firmly.
SINGLE-ENGINE AIRCRAFT - ENGINE FIRE
3. Maintain runway heading. 1. Mixture Control (if fitted) - IDLE CUT-OFF.
4. Turn off the fuel, switch off the magne- 2. Propeller pitch control (if fitted) - COARSE PITCH.
tos and pull the mixture into idle cut-off.
3. Fuel and oil cocks - CLOSED.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Emergency Procedures

4. Operate engine fire extinguisher. that it is of an approved type and be sure that you know how
5. Ignition switch - OFF. to use it and the possible dangers involved.

6. Throttle - CLOSED. There are three classifications of fires:

Class A - in ordinary combustible material. On these, water
7. Reduce airspeed.
or solutions containing large percentages of water are most
8. Radio MAYDAY. State your position. effective.
9. Make a dead engine landing in the most suitable area. Class B - in flammable liquids, greases, etc. On these, a blan-
keting effect is essential.
TWIN-ENGINE AIRCRAFT - ENGINE FIRE
1. Identify the problem engine. Class C - in electrical equipment. On these, the use of a non-
conducting ex tinguishing agent is of fir st importance.
2. Mi xture Control (if fitted) - IDLE CUT-OFF.
An extinguish er using Halon 1211 is effec tive against all 3
3. Propeller pitch control (if fitted) - FEATHERED.
classes of fire and h as proven to be the most effec tive on
4. Fuel and oil emergency shut-off - CLOSED. gasoline based upholstery fires. A Halon 1211 extinguisher is ,
5. Operate engine fire extinguisher. therefore, probably the most useful typ e to install in a light
aircraft. Exposure to high levels of Halon 1211 produces dizzi-
6. Ignition switch - OFF. ness and impaired co-ordination but th ese effects disappear
7. Throttle CLOSED. quickly when fresh air is introduced. Most non-pressurized
aircraft cabins are well enough ventilated to clear out the
8. Fuel selector switch , booster pump, gen-
Halon fumes before they become toxic. Halon 1301 is less toxic
erator switch, etc. (if fitted) - OFF.
th an Halon 1211 but is not effective against Class A fires.
9. Radio MAYDAY and advise your point
Fire extinguishers require periodic inspection. About once
of intended emergency landing.
a year, they should be discharged, inspected, new seals
If mixture control is not fitted begin your action sequence at 3 installed and refilled. Extinguishers should be secured in an
(for single-engine) or at 4 (for twin). accessible position with a quick release bracket.
Generally, in the event of fire:
Electrical Fire
Modern aircraft have elaborate electrical systems that may 1. Select all electrical switches (except ignition) - OFF.
short circuit and cause a fire. Your Aircraft Operating Manual 2. All windows, ventilators and cabin air extractors
will detail the procedures for dealing with this type of -CLOSED.
emergency. 3. Apply portable fire extinguishers to source of fire.
The first step, in most procedures, is to turn off the master 4. After fire subsides, leave all switches, except ignition,
switch to stop all power to the electrical systems and to turn OFF. Land immediately.
off all electrical components in order to prevent further short-
ing while you attempt to identify and isolate the fau lty sys tem
or unit. While attempting to locate the cause of the fire, turn 10.6.4 Distress Signals
on each unit (with the master switch back on) one at a time Radio procedures for aeroplanes experiencing em ergencies in
and wait a significant time between each . With electrical flight have been discussed in the Ch apter Radio.
fires , it often takes a while for the faulty electrical component
An em ergency condition is classified in accordance with the
to heat up again and start smouldering. If a circuit breaker has degree of danger or h azard being experienced.
popped or a fus e blown, it is likely related to the fire. Do not
reset a circuit breaker or replace a fu se before consulting your Distress presumes a condition of being threatened by serious
Aircraft Operating Manu al. and/or imminent danger requiring immedi ate assistance.

Any fire causes an xiety and stress. Do not get preoccupied Urgency presumes a condition concerning the safety of an
with locating the source of the fire and forget to fly the aircraft or other vehicle or of some person on board or within
aeroplane. sight which doe s not require immediate assista nce.

Fuselage Fire 10.6.5 Forced Landing

The modern aeroplane is not a potential torch as were the Engine failure and a forced landing are circumstances every
early wood and fabric aeroplanes. Nevertheless fires do som e- pilot hopes never to h ave to face. However, with proper pre-
times start, usually through carelessness or from electrical paredness , they need not be life threatening. Most freq uently,
short circuits. A means of controllin g a fire sh ould be near at engine fa ilure is a result of fu el starvation or carburetor icing.
hand. Apply carburetor heat. Select another fu el tan k. Flip on an
Portable fire extinguishers suitable for combating cabin fires electric fuel pump if there is one. Select a full rich mixture.
and approved for u se are of 5 type s: carb on dioxide, dry While running through these procedures, prepare the aero-
chemical, water, Halon 1211 and Halon 1301 extinguishers. plane for a forced landing. Immediately establish the aero-
Generally, any fire extinguishing agent is a compromise plane in the airspeed for maximum distance glide (best glide
between the hazards of the fire, smoke and fumes and the speed). Trim the aeroplane. If it is not properly trimmed, glid-
toxicity of the extinguishing agent. Certain types of extin- ing distance will be reduced. If nothing h as worked to get the
guishers should not be installed in aircraft because of their engine going again, accept the inevitable and start thinking
high toxicity rating; these include those using carbon tetra- about the emergency landing. Select a suitable field.
chloride, Halon 1001, Halon 1011 and Halon 1202. Check care-
fully before installing a particular type of fire extinguisher

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Airmanship: Emergency Procedures

A seasoned pilot will seldom get caught with engine failure should you decide to carry on, there is no guarantee that the
without having a forced landing area already selected in their engine may not fail again a few mom ents later when you are
mind. He/sh e forms the h abit of picking suitable fields and of no longer in a position to reach the field.
constantly checking the wind. As a result, if the engine unex- Practice forced landings and have the procedures down pat
pectedly fails, h e/she immediately knows of a suitable field
so that you act instinctively. Indecisiveness and lack of co-
and is free to concentrate entirely on the approach . ordination are your worst enemies when faced with the real
Preflight planning, taking into account the possibility of a situation.
forced landing, is important. Try to select a route that keeps Immediately upon engine failure:
away from high rough terrain where there would be a poor
selection of emergency landing sites. Plan also to fly at fairly 1. Reduce speed to gliding speed and set trim. Any
high altitudes since excess height can be converted into dis- excess speed can be used to gain height. However,
tance wh en the engine fails. It also can be converted into time, be sure to maintain flying speed especially in turns
time to think about what to do. to avoid a stall and spin. Remember also that you
will lose a fair amount of height in your turns.
Selecting a Forced Landing Field 2. Select a suitable field. Select a key position, prefer-
The requirements of a good forced landing ground are: ably on the downwind side of the field, some physical
feature on the ground that will provide continuing
1. Firm surface, reasonably smooth, with suf-
orientation to the selected field . Check the direction
ficient space to effect a landing into w ind. and glide to the downwind side of field. If sufficient
Pasture land is satisfactory because the short
altitude is available, conform to the familiar circuit
grass cannot hide holes, ditches, boulders pattern. It may, however, be necessary to fly directly
or other hazards. Avoid plowed fields. to the key position or to fly a straight-in approach.
2. Since landing should be made into the wind, select
3. Check for the possible cause of the engine failure:
a field, if possible, that is into wind. If your altitude fuel selector on the correct tank; fuel selector ON.
is not sufficient to maneuver into wind or a suit- Switch to another tank that has fuel. Switch on the
able into wind field is not available, this may not fuel pump in case the failure is in the regular fuel
be possible. Be prepared for a crosswind landing. feed system. Ch eck that the primer is in and locked;
3. The approach should be clear of obstacles such that the mixture control is in the full rich position.
as trees, telephone wires, high tension lines, If the cause of the engine failure cannot be found
houses, etc. Avoid fields immediately alongside and rectified, close the throttle, turn off the fuel,
highways or railway lines because of wires. place the mixture control in the idle cut off position,
4. Clear take-off run (for when the trouble is corrected). turn off the magnetos and turn off the alternator
and generator switches. Do not turn off the master
5. Try to choose a field that is near houses or switch until the flaps and gear are set for landing.
a road so that help is readily available.
4. Transmit a MAYDAY radio call. Make this call
In winter, if on wheels , it is better to attempt a forced landing before you h ave descended below th e radio range
on a high way comparatively free of traffic than a deep snow of ground stations. Select code 7700 on your tran-
covered field. sponder. Be sure that your ELT is ARMED (that
If forced to fly over very rough bush country on wheels, it is should have been part of your preflight check).
wise to keep within gliding distance of a highway as a possible 5. At the downwind side of the field, glide cross-
emergency landing place. In choosing to land on a highway, wind and look for any obstacles in the field. Turn
special care must be taken as there may be unseen h azards onto base leg using the key position as a guide.
such as power lines and signs as well as vehicle traffic. If no Base leg must be well within the into wind glid-
such highway exists, by all means pancake into a lake close to ing range of the aircraft. Note the drift, which will
a shoreline, or into muskeg, rather than risk crashing through indicate the strength of the w ind. A strong wind
trees. will necessitate a base leg closer to the thresh-
Flying seaplanes over land w as at one time considered a old of the chosen field. Look for any obstacles in
highly h azardous undertaking. Experimental landings, how- the field. Decide on your exact landing path.
ever, h ave proved conclusively that a seaplane can be landed If you are much too high over the key posi-
in a restricted field with less risk of damage than can the aver- tion, keep the proper distance from the land-
age landplane. A pilot should have no hesitation about flying ing site and lose height by flying between two
a seaplane overland when necessary, provided good level selected key positions, always turning towards
country lies below, such as would be considered reasonably the field so that you can make the final approach
safe for landplanes. at any time. Do not lose too much altitude. It
is better to be slightly high than too low.
Forced Landing Sequence 6. At about 500 feet AGL, turn onto the final approach.
The most important principle of coping with a forced landing When certain of clearing all obst acles on the
is acceptance of th e inevitable. Time is critical. Don't waste downwin d boundary of the field, side slip off the
time trying over and over again to get the engine started. surplus altitude or lower the flaps. Do not lower
Turn your attention to landin g safely. Once you have made up the flaps or gear until absolutely necessary as
your mind to execute a forced landing, stick to your decision they increase the drag and steepen the glide.
even if the engine should start again as you near the ground.
7. Tend to overshoot. Aim to land well into the field.
Should the engine start up again on the line of approach and
It is better to overshoot and hit the far fence at low

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Emergency Procedures

speed than to undershoot and hit the near fence at overshoot areas should be free of high obstacles. It should be
flying speed. Reduce your speed as much as pos- close to transportation or communication.
sible and keep your angle as shallow as possible. Set
Wind Velocity and Direction. It is possible to judge wind
the aeroplane down nice and easy. Hard landings
velocity and direction by nearby smoke trails . Grass and grain
as a result of too high a sink rate produce as seri-
fi elds ripple in the direction of th e w ind. Dust is blown with
ous injuries as do excessive deceleration rates.
the wind. Water is calm on the leeward side of lakes.
If the field is hopelessly small or rough for a safe land- Field Inspection . Having chosen the field, fly over it at a low
ing, retract the landing gear and make a belly landing. altitude (500 to 1,000 feet) at least once, preferably to one side
of the proposed landing path, to check the size, surface and
Procedure After Forced Landing gradient of the field and the suitability of the approaches, to
If the forced landing is due to engine failu re, examine the identify landmarks and reference points relative to the field
tanks to see if there is gas and oil. Check the high tension which can be used as turning points in the landing circuit. Fly
leads to the plugs to see that they are intact. Examine the fil- over the field a second time to look for hidden obstacles and
ters for dirt. Do not attempt to repair the trouble, if you have rough or swampy ground. During the inspection, a reduced
located it, unless you are experienced and qualified to do so. airspeed is preferable. Be alert to illusions created by drift.
If the failure is repaired, a thorough test of engine perfor- Type of Approach. The typ e of approach will be determined by
mance must be made before attempting to take off. the information you learned during the inspection. If there is
If no self-starter is fitted and it is necessary to get an inex- any doubt and no alternate field is available, consider the field
perienced person to assist in swinging the prop, see that short and the surface soft and plan your approach accordingly.
the person is made familiar with propeller swinging routine The final circuit should be done at circuit height or (if weather
before attempting to start the engine. Use wheel chocks. does not permit) at the highest altitude allowable under the
circumstances. Get into position for a normal engine-assisted
Never, under any circumstances , have an inexperienced approach and landing. Do not neglect the pre-landing cockpit
person handle the throttle or switches. The pilot only must check. Lower the flaps to the landing position (if applicable).
operate these when starting an engine. Approach with as low a forward speed as possible but with
If the trouble cannot be repaired and it is necessary to obtain a safe margin above the stalling speed. Aim to touch down
assistance, be sure to have the following information ready to as close to the near boundary as is practicable. The aim is to
transmit over the telephone or radio: reduce the landing run to the minimum. If the field is very
small, switch off the engine after touching down.
1. Type of aeroplane and engine model number.
Sh ould a landing be made solely as a precautionary measure
2. Exact location of the field in which the force d land-
that will result in the flight bein g delayed beyond the ETA
ing was made and the nearest village or town.
specified in your flight plan, you should make every effort to
3. Reason for the forced landing and notify an FSS or ATC unit that no emergency exists. Search
cause, ifit can be ascertained. and rescue activity is initiated one hour after the ETA you
4. Whether gas or oil is required for the return trip. specified in your flight plan. If you cannot contact anyone,
switch on your ELT at the appropriate time and leave it on
5. Any parts, special tools, or materials until search crews locate you. Once located, use your aircraft
required to make the necessary repairs. radio to advise the SAR crew of your condition and intentions.
6. Whether the forced landing field Take-Off. When you are ready to take off again, the precau-
is suitable for take-off. tions you take are as important as those you took on landing.
7. The typ e of aeroplane that may safely Inspect the take-off path carefully. This you can do on foot. If
land and take off from the field. the landing path proved satisfactory, use that ground run path
for the take-off.
8. The telephone number at which you may be reached.
The procedure for a precautionary landing should also be used
10.6.6 Precautionary Landing when landing at any unfamiliar aerodrome. The procedure
gives you an opportunity to study the field before attempting
A precautionary landing is one made with the engine and a landing. However, in the case of an aerodrome, the pass over
aircraft functioning normally but when landing is made com- the airstrip to study it must, of course, be made well above
pulsory due to shortage of fuel, aircraft malfunction, partial circuit height. The recommended landing procedure ensures
loss of engine power, being lost, bad weather, d arkness, illness adequate ground control no matter what the surface and
on board, etc. length of the runway once the landing is m ade.
If you become lost in smoke, haze, rain, fog or snow, do not fly
around aimlessly exhausting your fuel supply. Land immedi- 10.6.7 Emergency Landing Precautions
ately and wait until conditions improve sufficiently to enable
If you h ave landed with trouble sufficiently serious to preclude
you to take off again and pick up your bearings.
all hope of getting away, REMAIN WITH YOUR Aeroplane. An
In selecting an appropriate field for a precautionary landing, aeroplane is a comparatively easy object for search and rescue
the criteria are: suitability of the land area, wind velocity and aircraft to spot but a human being in a fores t is almost impos-
direction, inspection of the landing area, type of approach. sible to sight. Anything you can do to attract the attention
Landing Area . The requirements for a landing area for a pre- of the spotters on the search aeroplane will enhance your
cautionary landing are the same as those for a forced landing. chances of being found promptly. This is especially impor-
It should be sufficiently long for both landing and for a later tant if your emergency landing h as turned out to be a crash
take-off. It should be into wind. It should be smooth, firm, level
and free of obstructions on the approaches. The approach and

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 Airmanship: Emergency Procedures

landing and you and your aircraft are in the middle of a bush.
Even when guided by an ELT signal, SAR spotters may have 10.6.8 Activating a Ballistic
trouble finding the aircraft. Recovery System
Remain with your aeroplane, reserve your energy and con- As described in the Chapter The Aeroplane, ballistic recovery
serve your food supply. Start and maintain a smudge fire . Your systems (also referred to as airframe parachute systems), in
smoke signal will assist search planes in locating you. aircraft so equipped, are designed to lower the aircraft and
If your radio is serviceable, use it sparingly. (Short messages its occupants to the ground in the event of life-threatening
save batteries.) State your position as accurately as you can. emergencies. Reasons for deploying such a system are many
You may transmit distress signals on any frequency, but and the activation scenarios that would lead to a deployment
almost all aeronautical communication stations listen on should be well-rehearsed. While a decision taken to activate
121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz. Bear in mind that reception is such a system falls upon the pilot-in-command, the recom-
better at night and there is less traffic on the communication mendations provided by the airframe manufacturer and/or
channels. the ballistic recovery system manufacturer should always
take precedence when emergency circumstances are such
Be sure that your ELT has been activated and is sending
that the system must be used. Considerations for use are
a signal. It is your best assurance that you will be located
described below.
promptly. Do not delay activation of your ELT until your flight
planned time expires . That only delays rescue. Once you have A mid-air collision is a very serious scenario that is highly
turned on your ELT, do not turn it off until you have been posi- likely to render an aircraft's controls inoperable. If such a
tively located and directed by SAR forces to turn it off. collision occurs, an immediate evaluation of the controllabil-
ity of the aircraft must be made, along with an assessment
It is beyond the scope of this text to discuss in detail the art
of the aircraft's structural integrity. If the aircraft is still
of survival in the bush after a forced landing. Every aeroplane
capable of safe and controlled flight, an emergency landing
should be equipped with a survival kit packed with the rec-
should be made. If the aircraft is immediately deemed to be
ommended equipment and supplies that will enable you to
uncontrollable, or if it is impossible to assess the condition of
make a camp and exist for some period of time until help
the aircraft following a mid-air collision, a deployment of the
comes. There are excellent texts available that discuss the
ballistic recovery system is highly recommended.
subject of survival and we recommend that every pilot secure
and study them carefully. Should a structural failure to the airframe result from any
airborne encounter aside from a mid-air collision as described
above, ballistic recovery system deployment is also highly
Ground-Air Emergency Signals recommended. A structural failure can be the consequence of
1. Make a smudge fire by pouring oil on rags or by using
an encounter with severe weather, including thunderstorms
aircraft tires, green grass, brush wood or anything
and turbulence, gusts and wind shear, particularly if the
that will produce heavy smoke to attrac t attention
aircraft is flying at a speed above its maximum structural
during the day. At night, fire is more effective, the
cruising speed. Full control movements above the aircraft's
brighter the better. However, you must be careful
design maneuvering speed, or any maneuver that exceeds
not to allow the fire to get out of control and start a
the aircraft's design load factor can also result in catastrophic
forest fire or grass fire. In wooded areas, fire, smoke
structural failure from which an airframe parachute deploy-
or pyrotechnics must be used with discretion.
ment will be necesssary.
2. Make a large SOS on open ground. In snow,
Aircraft loss of control is another scenario in which deploy-
outline the SOS with boughs or moss.
ment of a ballistic recovery system is highly and immediately
3. Make trails in virgin snow. These can be advisable. Loss of control can result from , but is not limited to,
readily seen from search aeroplanes. any of the following circumstances: severe wake turbulence
4. Lay your cowlings out so they shine in the sun. encounters, severe turbulence encounters , severe airframe
One of the best conspicuity items now available icing, pilot disorientation (particularly for VFR pilots flying
is a cloth panel of brilliant fluorescent colour. inadvertently into IMC), and any failure of the aircraft's con-
It is a highly effective ground signal when laid trol system, such as a jammed control, a cable failure or a
out on the ground during the day. It can also be run-away trim.
used as a lean-to shelter or as a warm blanket. If a spin should result from a loss of control situation from
5. Keep your airc raft clear of snow or brush. which recovery is not possible, then deployment of an air-
frame parachute must be immediate.
6. When using your radio, call at appropriate
times when others are most apt to be listen- A forced landing onto a surface that is not guaranteed to pro-
ing. Save your battery as much as possible. vide a safe and survivable outcome is one in which the use of
an airframe parachute should be considered. Forced landing
7. Point the flashlight at approaching aeroplanes and scenarios that occur when flying over rough or mountainous
flash SOS. At night, a flashlight beam can be spot- terrain, over water when beyond gliding distance to land, over
ted from the air from a considerable distance. fog or during night are advisable times to consider use of an
aircraft's airframe parachute. When the risk of not using it
will highly jeopardize the lives of the aircraft's occupants, it
is highly advisable to employ the chute.
Pilot incapacitation during a flight presents an immediate
reason for any non-pilot passengers to hasten their use of an
aircraft's airframe parachute. During every pre-flight brief-
ing, pilots of aircraft equipped with ballistic recovery systems

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Remote Area Flying: Having "Bush Sense"

should ensure that occupants are explicitly advised in how Assistance" on 126.7 MHz. When circumstances warrant a
to operate the system, and in what circumstances, assuming MAYDAY call, u se 121.5 MHz.
pilot incapacitation, they should do so. If advisory service cannot be furnished because of air defence
The maximum airspeed at which an airframe parachute priority, the station w ill reply "unable".
should be deployed is known as the maximum parachute When requesting service, climb to the best possible altitude.
deployment speed , VPo. Deployment beyond this airspeed This w ill improve your chances of being picked up by the
could result in the aircraft, as well as the parachute, being radar station.
subj ected to loads resulting in structural failure, either to the
chute itself or to the airframe. When the decision has been A pilot, who is lost or in distress and unable to make radio
taken to deploy the airframe parachute, every effort should be contact, should attempt to alert available radar systems by the
made to slow the aircraft down to this airspeed. In worst case following procedure:
scenarios, when ground impact is imminent, and time and Squawk the emergency transponder code 7700. Monitor the
altitude are not sufficient to allow for slowing of the aircraft emergency frequencies. Fly a triangular pattern as outlined
to its maximum parachute deployment speed, then the air- below.
frame parachute should be deployed. Above all, m anufacturer
If the radio receiver of the aeroplane is working but the trans-
recommendations are of upmost importance to be followed
mitter is inoperative, it is possible to attract the attention of
in such cases.
radar assistance by flying a triangular pattern such as that
The chances of a successful deployment of an airframe para- shown in Fig.10.40. Fly the pattern to the right. Hold each
chute increase with altitude. While successful deployments h eading for 2 minutes. (Jet aeroplanes will hold each heading
have been registered by aircraft at an altitude as low as 400 for 1 minute.) Repeat the triangular pattern twice. Resume
feet, deployment at such a low altitude may not permit the the original heading and repeat the triangular pattern at 20
aircraft to be stabilized under the chute, nor will it allow minute intervals.
occupants any time to properly secure the interior of the cabin
to prepare for the descent to the surface. General recommen- ... .. ----'•
dations for deployment are such that 2,000 feet is a recom-
/ / / 120° \ \ . \
mended deployment threshold; nevertheless, m anufacturer
recommendations should always be strictly followed.
After deployment of an airframe parachute, and depending
on the aircraft weight and drag forces, the aircraft can be
expected to descend at an approximate rate between 1,000 /:/
I-- 2 minutes
(1 minute for jets)
~- \\.,
and 1,800 feet per minute. Lateral speed will be equivalent to
the speed of surface winds. The force experienced at touch-
down under the canopy of an airframe parachute is typically
stated to be equivalent to falling from a height of 12 to 15 feet.
:, 120° l
··------ ------------ -------
120° :
____________ ....

Fig.10.40 Triangular Pattern for Lost Aircraft

At touchdown, aircraft occupants can expect to experience
forces of less than 4Gs. Triangular pattern for aircraft lost or requiring assistance. If the radio
An emergency landing body position is typically suggested by receiver is operating, fly the pattern to the right or clockwise. If no
manufacturers. The pilot-in-command must ensure that he/ radio is operating, fly the pattern to the left or counterclockwise.
she describes this position to occupants during the pre-flight If the radio is not operating at all or if the aeroplane is NORDO,
briefing. Should an airframe parachute deployment be initi- fly the triangular pattern to the left.
ated resulting from an emergency situation, occupants must
not loosen seat belts until the aircraft has come to a complete An aeroplane may be seen as a blip on a radar scope but
stop after contacting the ground. cannot be individually identified. By flying the prearranged
pattern, the radar facility will be able to identify the blip that
In most situations, manufacturers will recommend leaving is the aeroplane in need of help.
doors latched during an emergency descent under an air-
frame parachute. However, specific circumstances - such as A pilot lost or in need of assistance whose radio receiver is
altitude, terrain, winds, aircraft condition - may require that working will receive instructions by radio for guidance to the
a door be unlatched. Pilots must ensure that they are clearly nearest landing place. An aeroplane whose radio is inopera-
cognizant of the recommendations provided by manufactur- tive will be intercepted by a search and rescue plane and led
ers regarding doors being latched or unlatched during an to the nearest landing field .
em ergency descent under an airframe parachute. Never comply with radar vector instructions intended for
another aeroplane.
10.6.9 Radar Assistance
Radar Assistance is available on a 24 hour basis to all aircraft
within the limits of the identification zones. This assistance is 10.1 Remote Area Flying:
available to any aeroplane that is in distress or in an emergen-
cy situation. Navigational assistance will be rendered when Having "Bush Sense"
and wherever possible in the form of position information,
vectors or track and groundspeed ch ecks, weather advice, etc. The vast hinterlands of Canada and the United States offer a
Flights requesting this assistance must be operating within ch allenge to the spirit of exploration which few other lands
areas of radar and communication coverage and be radar the world over can rival. To the sportsman pilot, they spell
identified. To request radar assistance in an ADIZ, call "Radar romance, the thrill of the great outdoors, the lure of seldom
fished waters, the zest of virgin forest hunting areas, and

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 Airmanship: Remote Area Flying: Having "Bush Sense"

hiking, camping and relaxing in the deepest recesses of the backcountry surroundings, not least when such backcountry
best that nature has to offer. flying includes mountainous regions.
Flying in the trackless wilderness, known as bush flying or If flying in backcountry areas with rising or mountainous
backcountry flying, can be just as safe and practicable as terrain, pilots should always remain on a flight path that will
flying the organized airways. Plain, ordinary airmanship, a allow them to turn towards lowering terrain. Pilots should
knowledge of the basic laws and proper provision for essential plan their flight to remain 2,000 feet above the terrain along
needs are the secrets of the bush pilot's much publicized sixth their route. When approaching ridges over which they intend
sense. Bush sense is, after all, just reasonable proficiency in to fly, a pilot should turn to approach the ridge at an angle of
the h andling ofbackcountry aircraft, seaplanes and skiplanes, 45 degrees when approximately a half-mile from the ridge.
combined with some fundamental knowledge of the nuances This allows for a shorter- an gled turn-away to escape (to low-
particular to the environment in which the flyin g is taking ering terrain) if an unexpected downdraft or turbulence is
place. It's knowing your own limitations, it's using checklists, encountered from the flow of air over the ridge.
it's pre-planning of your flight, it's pre-flighting your aero-
plane, it's knowing your aircraft 's systems, and it's knowing
your aircraft's performance limits.
Flying single-engine aeropl anes in sparsely settled areas is
an undertaking that does call for some special precautions.
In these areas, radio aids to navigation, weather information,
fu el supplies, aircraft servicing facilities, accommodation and
food are limited or non-existent. And landing strips can be
tight squeezes between tall trees, with unorthodox approach-
es, sloping runway profiles, rough surfaces and challenging
winds that reduce the pilot's margins for error. Careful pre-
flight planning is of utmost importance.
Aeroplanes must be capable of two-way radio communica-
tion with a ground station from any point along the route.
Capability on 121.5 MHz and 126.7 MHz is required. Any aero-
plane operating in sparsely settled areas must continuously Fig.10.41 Backcountry Flying
monitor 121.5 MHz. In far northern regions, HF capability on When flying upsloping terrain, pilots should not fly beyond
5,680 kHz is required for any aeroplane operating outside the a point of no return. This is a point where, if the throttle is
Arctic Archipelago, as is an emergency locator transmitter reduced to idle, by lowering the nose the aircraft can assume
capable of operating independently of the aircraft battery. a normal glide and perform a 180 degree turn without impact-
Frequency 5,680 kHz provides long- range air-to-ground com- ing the terrain below. Should the latter not be achievable, the
munications coverage in the remote areas of Canada for the pilot should circle away from the upsloping terrain to gain
provision of flight information service beyond the range of additional altitude before proceeding.
VHF communications. Aircraft must use single sidebands Landing at short backcountry airstrips, be they in mountain-
(SSB) when communicating on 5,680 kH z. ous regions or not, requires precise airspeed control to elimi-
Navigation equipment must include a good heading indicator n ate float over the landing surface. Extended floating runs the
or gyrosyn compass. GPS n avigational capability should be risk of the pilot running out of runway once on the ground,
considered essential as should ADS-B In and Out. All head- thereby heightening the threat that the aeroplane cannot be
ings and bearings are measured in degrees true because of brought to a safe stop before reaching the end of the runway.
the unreliability of the magnetic compass in the areas near Since take-off distance varies with an aircraft's gross weight,
the north magnetic pole. A manual entitled Finding the every backcountry pilot should take every precaution possible
Sun's True Bearing can be used to keep the h eading indicator when considering how they are loading their aircraft. With
aligned. backcountry airstrips often being both short and soft, weight
A flight plan must be filed when proceeding northbound, is a crucial factor when conducting operations . An increase
when entering the Arctic Archipelago and when returning in the take-off weight of the aircraft - which should never,
southbound. Adequate emergency equipment must be on of course, exceed the aircraft 's maximum allowable gross
board. Within the Arctic Archipelago, fuel must be sufficient weight - will result in a significant decrease in the aircraft 's
for 500 miles range, plus 45 minutes reserve. rate of acceleration as well as a significant increase in the air-
craft's required take-off distance. A rule of thumb for weight
10.7.1 Backcountry Flying is that for every 10 percent increase in weight, the take-off
distance (as well as the landing distance) will increase by 20
While some backcountry airstrips are limited, based on their percent. Thus, pilots need to be extremely vigilant regarding
geography, to aeroplanes that can land on the roughest and the weight they are carrying into their flight.
shortest patches of land, many backcountry runways are
accessible with most popul ar piston single -engine aircraft. Also, since backcountry flying often takes pilots into higher
With careful thought and planning, specialized aeroplanes elevation operations, density altitude becomes a consider-
and/or aircraft with major modifications are not always nec- ation never to be overlooked. When the heat, the humidity
essary to safely access the majority of backcountry airstrips. and the elevation are high, the physical altitude at which one
A well-trained backcountry pilot flying an aeroplane with is operating can rise to a performance altitude that may be
a good rate of climb will be able to operate into and out of many thousands of feet higher than the actual altitude. As
most backcountry areas. Notwithstanding the latter, much a consequence, take-off distances are lengthened and climb
consideration must always be given to safely operate in rates are lowered when density altitude factors are present.

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Remote Area Flying: Having "Bush Sense"

Furthermore, in the presence of density altitude, aircraft obstacles, as well as the ability to power out of poten-
weight becomes an even greater risk factor: a heavy aircraft tial conflicts, such as downdrafts while flying near or
taking off from a short, soft runway at high density altitude over ridges.
is a scenario that requires absolute assurances from fine pre- 9. It is commonly agreed amongst backcountry pilots
flight calculations that the aircraft will safely and efficiently
that a high-wing configuration is better to not only
get off the ground and climb. If not, take-off plans should be enhance downward visibility over terrain over which
made for another day under safer conditions. As a general pilots may not be familiar, but it also ensures that
rule of thumb, if the aircraft hasn't achieved over 70 percent the aircraft's wings clear brush that could damage
of the speed required for rotation by the halfway point of the a low-wing configuration while maneuvering on the
runway, the take-off should be aborted.
ground.
Flying in the backcountry requires that pilots learn how to 10. Tailwheel aircraft benefit from having greater propel-
recognize and take advantage of unique micro-climates that ler clearance than nosewheel aircraft for backcountry
they m ay encounter. They need to learn to read surrounding operations; otherwise, tailwheel versus nosewheel
terrain, and plan landing approaches based on high, medium configurations are, for all practicable purposes, con-
and low altitude reconnaissance passes during which they sidered a matter of personal choice for backcountry
can identify surface conditions, runway slopes and obstruc- pilots.
tions, and judge landing rollouts. Wildlife, rocks and branches
need to be identified; they may be well camouflaged on the
runway such that only a low pre-landing pass will reveal their 10.?.2 Seaplanes
presence. A seaplane, or floatplane, behaves in the air much like a
Backcountry pilots must determine go/no-go points on take- landplane, being capable of the same normal maneuvers. On
off rolls, plan departure climb paths and post-rotation abort the water, the techniques for handling and maneuvering a
procedures. And critically, when selecting landing and take- seaplane are very different from those needed for handling
off direction, th ey must recognize when runway slope is more an aeroplane on land. The pilot needs to understand seaman-
critical than wind direction and speed. For all things related ship. A seaplane has no brakes and is affected by both wind
to backcountry flying, it is essential that pilots undertake spe- and currents. A seaplane always tends to turn into wind.
cific training from experienced professionals before setting Maneuvering is difficult especially in a strong wind.
off into this unique form of flying.
Aircraft that are considered good for backcountry flying have
certain ch aracteristics.
1. A sturdy landing gear that can take lots of punish-
ment is effective for absorbing the shock of landings
on surfaces that, given the nature of backcountry fly-
ing, can be rough and bumpy.
2. A landing gear geometry th at is less prone to causing
runway loss of control events, particularly resulting
from hard braking, is an important backcountry air-
craft configuration.
3. Large "balloon" style or "tundra" low pressure tires,
very typical ofbackcountry aircraft, which can spread
the aircraft's weight for soft, rough or rutted sur-
faces and increase propeller clearance on nosewheel Fig.10.42 Seaplane
aeroplanes.
Because of the weight of the floats, the useful load of a sea-
4. Excellent control response at low speeds, and good plane is normally less than that of the same aeroplane on
pitch stability, help pilots manage the challenging wheels. One might assume that the increased drag produced by
approaches which are common with backcountry the floats also means a reduced rate of climb and cruising speed.
airstrips. In fact, seaplanes are usually fitted with fine pitch propellers or
5. High-drag flaps allow steep descents into tight air- with constant speed propellers with extra fine pitch stops that
strips where surrounding sloped terrain and/or tall produce the extra power needed to take off from a water sur-
trees force upon pilots approaches from higher than face. The high rpm of the fine pitch propeller gives an increased
common angles. rate of climb overcoming the drag of the floats. Except in a few
odd cases, the drag of the floats does result in a reduced cruis-
6. An easy-to-use and fast acting trim is important on ing speed. The basic techniques of flying a seaplane, in terms
an aircraft that experiences significant pitch changes of take-off, landing, taxiing, sailing and general seamanship,
on a go-around from low speed. mooring and docking, are beyond the scope of this manual. A
7. Good visibility over the nose and for maneuvering is few pertinent points only will be mentioned.
particularly important for pilots to be able to iden- The preflight inspection of a seaplane involves the same items
tify all aspects of the backcountry environment that as a landplane with one important addition. The float compart-
will enhance the execution of their handling of their ments must be inspected for water and pumped with a bilge
aircraft. pump, if necessary. Each float has 6 to 10 compartments. Each
8. A powerful engine provides pilots with greater one must be inspected to be sure it is dry. Be sure the hose in
acceleration on take-offs, greater rates of climb over each compartment is connected. Float fittings, struts, attach-
ments and cables and the water rudders must be inspected.

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 Airmanship: Remote Area Flying: Having "Bush Sense"

Water rudders are essential to operation on the water. Be sure overheating the engine as there is not much forward speed to
they operate through their full range of travel. provide engine cooling. Apply throttle positively and quickly to
get the seaplane on the step. Once on the step, the spray line is
In cold weather when air temperatures are below freezing, the
behind the propeller.
water clinging to the water rudders may freeze after lift-off. It is
a good precaution to play with the rudders for a little while after Do not approach a dock or rocky shore downwind in a high wind
lift-off until the water is blown off and the chance of the water head-on. Allow the aeroplane to weathercock and sail it in tail
rudders freezing is minimized. first, using bursts of engine if necessary to steer it.
Temperature variations between large areas of rock and water Special techniques are sometimes necessary when taking off
in the north country cause turbulence more pronounced th an from a very restricted area. One method is to get the aeroplane
in more settled areas. Shoreline bumps can be sudden and vio- up on the step when taxiing downwind and then to skid around
lent. A seaplane approach over a shoreline should be made in a into the wind in a wide half circle. This maneuver is more appli-
straight line and with a margin of surplus speed. cable to flying boats than seaplanes because of their lower centre
of gravity. This procedure must be carried out with caution. If
Shoreline bumps also present hazards to take-off. In a strong
you turn too abruptly, the combination of centrifugal force in
wind, a very severe down-current of air may be encountered
the turn and the wind striking the aeroplane broadside may be
in taking off towards a steep shoreline. Always allow yourself
sufficient to overturn the aeroplane.
plenty of room when taking off towards a steep rising shore.
A take-off from glassy water can be assisted by taxiing over the
One of the most difficult conditions a seaplane pilot has to con-
area to make ripples or by h aving a boat do so.
tend with is glassy water. When water is glassy, its surface is
practically invisible from above. Immediately after taking off in very cold weather, move the
controls to prevent spray from freezing on the control hinges.
1. Try to land alongside a weed bed if one exists
w ithin reasonable distance of the landing area.
If necessary, land in the weeds. Wild rice is 10.7.3 Skiplanes
not heavy enough to turn a seaplane over. Ski equipped aeroplanes offer an almost limitless potential in
2. Land close to a shoreline, using the shoreline the wintertime in a country like Canada. Any flat open area,
as a guide to the height of the surface of the any frozen lake or river is a landing place. Although skis are
water. Before doing so, fly over the shoreline aerodynamically dirty, they do not affect the performance of the
at low altitude to look for reefs and shoals. aeroplane significantly. Some care must be taken to avoid bare
spots while taxiing, landing and taking off to prevent wearing
3. Make a power-on approach using the elevators to
the bottom coating of the skis.
hold the nose above the horizon and to maintain a
constant airspeed. Adjust the throttle to establish
a shallow rate of descent. Fly the aeroplane onto
the water in this nose high attitude. On making
contact with the water, gradually close the throttle
and hold the control column right back in order
to slow the aircraft down as soon as possible.
This method of approach and landing on glassy water should
be practiced under normal landing conditions at every possible
opportunity. If caught with a dead engine over glassy water and
beyond gliding distance of a shoreline or weed bed, consider
th rowin g out loose cushions or other items that will float on the
surface and provide a visual clue as to the height of the aircraft Fig. 10.43 Skip lane
above the water.
Maneuvering a skiplane on the ground requires special pre-
Do not attempt step landings on rough water. Land slow. If gusty
cautions. A skiplane has no brakes. Rolling friction alone
weather h as necessitated coming in fast, hold off until all sur-
brings it to a stop after landing. Taxiing turns can be a
plus speed has been lost. Waves, like sheep, travel in flocks. In
problem especially in h igh winds. In some cases, help from
very rough water, comparative calm patches can sometimes be
persons outside the aeroplane may be required to keep direc-
found by looking ahead.
tional control. Steerable tail skis are usually fitted but, in
When landing in an unfamiliar area, circle the vicinity at low some wind and snow conditions, their steering effectiveness
altitude several times to look for rocks, reefs or floating timber. is considerably diminished.
If you are not sure of their location when about to take off, taxi
Snow conditions affect greatly the performance of a skiplane.
slowly downwind over the area you intend to use on take-off.
Even a slight rise or fall in the ambient temperature changes
The wind direction for landing on water can be observed by the texture of the snow, making the difference between a sur-
noting the calm space which always exists on the lee side of face over which the skis slide freely and a surface that clogs
the shoreline over which the wind is blowing. Boats lying at up the bottom of the ski and impedes its progress.
anchor point into the wind. Smoke and flags are also good wind
Skiplanes should land and take off directly into wind when-
indicators.
ever possible since the ski assembly can not cope with the side
When taxiing do so either very slowly or very fast (up on the loading in a crosswind drift situation.
step). It is important to produce as little spray as possible. Any
An unbroken snow surface with an overcast condition is
speed faster than a very slow taxi will produce spray that
sometimes as difficult to judge as glassy water. This condi-
will strike the propeller, causing erosion of the blades and the
tion is known as white-out. Although visibility may not be
possibility of serious dam age. There is also the possibility of

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

Airmanship: Remote Area Flying: Having "Bush Sense"

markedly diminished, depth perception and distance judg- 3. The external load must be located in such
ment are lost due to loss of horizon and gradient. A condition a manner so as not to block norm al and
in which there is blowing snow for a height of three or four emergency exits of the aircraft.
feet above the surface produces another kind of white-out
4. The nature and shape of the external load
that is similar to ground fog. In this case, visibility is drasti-
must not interfere with the aerodynamic
cally reduced. Continued flight into white-out conditions is efficiency of the aircraft, by producing haz-
possible and safe only if the pilot recognizes the phenomenon ardous drag and eddying effects that inter-
and ch anges from visu al to instrument flight. When landing fere with airflow over control surfaces.
in white-out conditions and if in doubt as to your approach
height above the surface, fly the aeroplane on, using the same 5. Careful consideration must be given to take-off and
method as detailed above for glassy water. landing performance when carrying an external load.

For soft snow conditions, sweep a runway, or make one by 6. Pilots must follow manufacturer, and regu-
taxiing up and down with the aeroplane lightly loaded before latory authority, guidelines that are appli-
attempting to take off with a full load. cable to the carrying of an external load.

When taxiing in loose snow, make good wide turns to avoid

too much torsional strain on the undercarriage.
10.1.s Equipment to Carry On Board
If the snow is sticky, oil the skis before taking off. One simple The minimum equipment identified in this section should be
method of doing this is to freeze a couple of bags to the ice. carried by aircraft operating over remote areas.
Saturate these with coal oil and taxi over them when about Emergency survival equipment is outlined in Section Sparsely
to take off. Settled Areas in Chapter Aeronautical Rules & Procedures.
Check for ice on wings. Make sure that all surfaces are free All crew and passengers should be dressed in, or have avail-
from moisture, frost, ice or snow before attempting to take off. able, warm clothing, food and water, to enable them to survive
Even a light coating of frost can destroy the lift of the wings in the temperatures to which they would be exposed in the
sufficiently to prevent a take-off. event of an emergency landing.
When picketing in the open, skiplanes can be picketed by
freezing the ends of the wing and tail mooring lines into the Seaplanes
ice. (Dig a channel in the ice through which the lines can be When flying seaplanes, the following should be carried:
passed and frozen in.) When picketing overnight, block the
• 1 small lightweight folding anchor.
skis up off the ice or snow, lay green garbage bags under the
skis or place a mat of evergreen boughs under them. Skis • 2 wing lines (about 30' long).
become warm from taxiing, may melt the ice or snow under- • 1 line (about 50' long) for anchoring, or for tying
neath and, by morning, become frozen in. the tail to a tree or rock when beached on a shore.
If the ice has become soft and honeycombed, it may be neces- • 1 paddle.
sary to move the aeroplane several times during the night. • 1 bilge pump (for pumping out the floats or hull).
The weight of the aeroplane generates heat and it may start to • 1 engine cover.
thaw its way through the soft ice. • 1 float repair kit.
Landing on glare ice is a challenge. Unless the aeroplane is • Life jackets for all on board.
fitted with a steerable tail ski or some other form of anti- Some seaplane pilots are lured into a false sense of security
ground-looping device, allow yourself as much room as pos- because they have equipped themselves and their passen-
sible in all directions when landing on glare ice. gers with life jackets. They reason that if an accident should
Wet and slushy snow is similar to mud. With this condition happen during take-off or landing, everyone in the aeroplane
always land with the tail well down. In the spring when there would be able to swim to shore with the aid of the life jackets.
is some doubt as to ice conditions on a lake, land out in the However, it must be remembered that the water in thousands
middle. The ice is always thickest there (unless there is a of the Canadian lakes that are frequently used by float planes
current). is so cold that human beings could not survive in it for longer
than a few minutes before succumbing to death by exposure.
10.1.4 External Loads A gallon pail is not a necessity but comes in handy. It can be
used to store some of the emergency kit, for carrying water, as
In the course of transporting passengers and equipment, fixed
a drogue (sea anchor) or as an anchor (by filling it with stones) .
wing and helicopter bush pilots are frequently called upon
to carry goods that must be securely fastened to the outside
structure of the aircraft. Canoes strapped to seaplane pon- Skiplanes
toons are one popular example. When flying skiplanes, the following should be carried:
For safety's sake, pilots should consider the following guide- • 1 snow shovel, ice chisel, snow knife.
lines prior to taking off while carrying external loads on their • 2 wing lines (about 15' is ample).
aircraft. • 1 line (about 50' long).
1. The external load must be affixed secure- • 1 en gine heating tent. This fits completely
ly to the prime structure of the aircraft over the nose and reaches to the ground. It is
so as not to shift in turbulent air. designed to house a stove for preheating the
2. The external load must be positioned engine in sub-zero weather which is too severe
so as to allow the aircraft to be oper- for oil dilution to be effective (below -30°C.).
ated within its normal C.G. limits .

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 Airmanship: STOL Aircraft

• 1 blowpot, or some other form of stove, for The primary key to creating STOL aircraft lies with the design
prehe ating the engine and lubricating oil. of the wing. Wings of STOL aircraft are designed to have a
• 1 scraper approved for use on aeroplanes. high lift coefficient. To achieve the latter, the upper wing sur-
Avoid using a scraper that will scratch face is often designed with a heavily cambered profile. While
the plexiglass windscreens. a STOL aircraft will generally have a large wing to maximize
• 1 set of wing covers. its lifting capacity for its weight, operational considerations
may dictate that the STOL wing's area be as small as is rea-
• A tent. (If engine or wing covers are carried,
sonably possible to accommodate the missions for which
they may be used to improvise a tent.)
the aircraft is designed. For example, relatively sh ort wings
• Small hydraulic jack (for jacking up skis). make the aircraft easier to taxi, especially when operating in
off-airport environments where obstructions and confined
All Backcountry Aircraft spaces can restrict the ground operational flexibility of the
When flying backcountry aircraft, the following should be aircraft. Also, smaller wings (especially those of high-wing
carried: design), do not require the added weight of support structures
• 1 metal fuel funnel fitted with a such as wing struts that can increase the overall weight of the
water separating filter. aircraft as well as its parasite drag.
• 1 oil can. High-wing configurations offer several advantages for STOL
• Engine and airframe tools and spares aircraft. The height of the wing above the ground tends to
sufficient to effect at least minor repairs. prevent "floating" of the aircraft in ground effect over the
runway. A floating tendency makes it difficult for the aircraft
• ELT, handheld radio, cell phone, signal kit.
to touch down, thereby increasing the risk of a runway over-
Most bush pilots carry a small portable semi-rotary pump for run or a need for a go -around. Also, given that most STOL
refuelling out of gas drums. aircraft are designed to operate from unimproved fields, a
high-wing places the engines and propellers of twin-engined
aircraft away from potentially damaging rocks and surface
10.s STOL Aircraft debris. A high-wing layout can also accommodate the very
large wing flaps, or flaperons (see below), that some STOL
Short take-off and landing (STOL) aircraft are fixed-wing aircraft use to achieve their high lift characteristics.
aircraft designed with the specific attribute of being able to
To delay their stall to a higher angle of attack, STOL aircraft
conduct their operations into and out of short runways. They
may use slats on the wing's leading edge to lower the stall
are often designed to also operate out of soft and/or rough
speed. Leading edge slats can prevent a stall up to higher
"unimproved" airstrips, as well as high altitude runways.
angles of attack by funneling and accelerating air, Venturi-
While STOL aircraft are commonly used as bush aircraft for
like, through the larger underside opening to a slat's wing slot.
backcountry operations, they also find frequent use in com-
This funneled air then gets blown onto the top upper wing
mercial operations for passenger-carrying purposes where
surface through the narrower trailing edge opening at the
operating environments benefit from their unique perfor-
slot's upper exit. This has the effect of pulling the accelerated
mance characteristics.
air around the leading edge of the slat , thu s resulting in the
....
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- ~

c wing reaching a higher angle of attack prior to the air separat-

E
"'
P. ing from the wing's upper surface. The wing's lift increases,
0
u the aircraft can support a lower speed at a higher-than-nor-
.::: mal angle of attack, and the angle of attack at which the wing
~
·;;:
will stall is higher. (See also Slats, Slots & Leading Edge Flaps
-5
in the Chapter Theory of Flight.)

N
~
.
·a
STOL aircraft may also use vortex generators to lower their
0 stall speed. As seen in the Chapter Theory of Flight, vortex
ii;'
generators re-energize boundary-layer air which keeps the
~:l
0
main flow of air in contact with the upper surface of the w ing
u
0 at slower speeds and higher angles of attack.
....~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~--~0 Given that STOL aircraft can fly at very low speeds and are
developed to operate in remote areas where variable terrain
Fig.10.44 STOL Aircraft and obstacles can present operational challenges, slow speed
STOL aircraft are designed to have the lowest stall speed controllability is essential. Flaperons - full span ailerons
feasible for their design. Their lower resultant speed for which also act as full span fl aps - are thus common features
approaches and landings contributes to shorter landing rolls incorporated into the design of STOL wings. The fu ll span
after touchdown. Also contributing to shortened ground flaps provide maximum high lift capability while the full span
rolls are large drag-inducing flaps that allow STOL aircraft to ailerons provide maximum roll controllability. Since both
descend steeply to a runway without building up excess speed. functions are shared by the same control surface by means of
To further reduce landing rolls, STOL aircraft commonly have a mech anical controller, weight is kept to a minimum.
large brakes to enhance braking capacity thereby allowing the To achieve their short take-off performance, the wing of a
aircraft - some of which may be further enhanced by thrust STOL aircraft must reach its cha racteristically high angle of
reversers or spoilers - to stop in the shortest possible distance. attack as close to the ground as possible. In tailwheel con-
For take-offs, large power-to-weight ratios give STOL aircraft figurations, when on the ground with all three wheels in
high rates of acceleration that lead to short ground rolls prior contact with the surface, a maximum lift angle is statically
to runway lift-off points. present if the aircraft is designed with a very long main gear.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Airmanship: Ultralights

A drawback to such a design is a highly inclined cabin which a conventional stick control and rudder pedals. It should be
makes crew access and cargo loading difficult while also noted, however, that ultralight control operated as a func-
reducing the pilot's forward visibility. In nosewheel configu- tion of weight shift has not disappeared as a design feature.
rations, designing the aircraft's empennage to be higher than Some manufacturers still build such ultralights, referred to
normal allows greater elevator input by the pilot at the point as "trikes", that make use of this particular means of control.
of take-off rotation. This generates greater initial lift owing
The joy of the ultralight aeroplane is the slow speed at which
to the higher angle of attack achievable at lift-off. A greater
it flies. Many ultralights have stall speeds as low as 15 to 18
camber to th e h orizon tal stabilizer can also be incorporated knots. As a result, landin g speeds are low and the runway
into the STOL design. This facilitates the downward thrust of needed for take-off and landing is quite short. They also
the tail section upon rotation, thus helping generate a quicker cruise at relatively slow speeds. Because ultralight aeroplanes
transition to the higher angle of attack of the wings at lift-off.
have the capability for sustained flight and would, therefore,
Given that the nature of STOL operations is such that they are be apt to stray into controlled airspace, certain regulations as
often conducted "off airport," STOL aircraft require a durable to their operation have been formulated to govern their use.
landing gear system. Since STOL aircraft are very often used A basic ultralight aircraft is defined as an aeroplane having
in these backcountry environments, they are often also no more than two seats, designed and manufactured to have
equipped with large tires to help absorb energy on landings. a maximum take-off weight of 544 kg and a stall speed in the
landing configuration (V50) of 39 knots (45 mph) or less indi-
cated airspeed at the maximum take-off weight.
10.9 Ultralights An advanced ultralight aircraft is defined as a propeller driven
aeroplane, capable of carrying a maximum of two persons,
In many ways, ultralights are reminiscent of the original
including the pilot, with a maximum take -off weight of 350
flying machines of the Wright Brothers in the early 1900's
and of the famed Silver Dart designed by Alexander Graham kg for a single-place aeroplane, or 560 kg for a two-place
aeroplane. They are further defined as requiring a maxi-
Bell and first flown in Canada in 1909. Like those first air-
mum stalling speed in the landing configuration, V50 , at the
craft, the first generation of ultralight aeroplanes had single
manufacturer's recommended maximum take- off weight,
surface wings with exposed tubing and bracing cables that
not exceeding 39 knots (45 mph) indicated airspeed. They are
held everything together. The pilot sat in an unenclosed seat,
limited to non-aerobatic operations, including maneuvers
feeling the rush of surrounding wind. There are still some
incident to normal flying, stalls and spins (if approved for
ultralights of this design manufactured and flying today but
the new generation of aeroplanes in the ultralight category type), lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns, in which the
angle of bank is not more than 60°. (For Canada, the complete
has advanced to utilize wings of conventional airfoil section
type design standards for advanced ultraligh t aeroplanes are
and enclosed cabins. In fact, many of them look very much
defined by the Light Aircraft Manufacturers Association of
like the early models in the lines of famous aeroplane manu-
Canada, LAMAC.)
facturing firms.
Ultralight aeroplanes must be registered, must be issued with
a certificate of registration and must have registration marks
painted or attached in some permanent fashion on the aero-
plane. The first letter of the registration, as always, begins
with the letter denoting the country in which the ultralight is
registered. The nationality and registration, the name of the
manufacturer, the date and place of manufacture, the model
and serial number of the aeroplane must all be inscribed on
a fireproof identification plate that is securely affixed in a
prominent position on the aircraft.
Anyone piloting an ultralight aeroplane must be the holder of
a Pilot Permit - Ultralight Aeroplane. An applicant is issued
with a permit only upon both the satisfactory completion
of an ultralight ground school course and the satisfactory
Fig.10.45 Ultralight
completion of a written government examination. The exam
The origins of the ultralight aeroplane can be traced directly requires knowledge of aviation regulations, air traffic rules
to the hang glider movement. Someone, experimenting to and procedures, as well as basic knowledge of weight and
achieve greater flexibility and control, attached an engine to balance requirements. Applicants should also be familiar
a hang glider and gave birth to the first ultralight. with any Information Circulars and Supplements relating to
ultralights. Flight training is conducted under the direction
The simplest and earliest models of this new breed of flying
and supervision of the holder of a Flight Instructor Rating
machine were controlled by pilot weight shift. They had no
- Ultralight Aeroplane. The applicant must demonstrate profi-
landing gear. The pilot took off by running over the ground
ciency in piloting an ultralight aeroplane.
fast enough to achieve flying speed. He/she landed it the
same way. Passengers may be carried in an ultralight but the pilot-in-
command must have a passenger carryin g endorsement on
Ultralights, for the most part, h ave moved away from pilot
their pilot permit to perform this activity. Th e privileges of
weight shifting as a means of control and have advanced their
this rating allow the permit holder to carry no more than one
design to include shock absorbing wheel landing gear, either
passenger in an ultralight aeroplane that is not prohibited
in the tricycle configuration or a main gear with a tailwheel.
from carrying passengers in accordance with regulations.
They feature independent three axis aerodynamic controls,
To obtain a passenger carrying rating, the applicant must
that is, aileron s, elevators and rudder, that are operated by

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 Airmanship: Gliders

undergo additional training based on the higher level of expe- from daytime heating, the glider pilot can achieve climbing
rience and skill required of those applying for the new rating. rates of 1,000 feet per minute. In a strict sense, therefore, it
Ultralights may be flown only in accordance with visual flight is in fact, solar energy (the energy from the sun heating the
rules and only during daylight hours. They may not be oper- ground) that powers the sailplane and keeps it buoyant.
ated within 5 nautical miles from the centre of any airport or A second form of rising air, the ridge lift, (also known as oro-
within the control zone associated with any uncontrolled air- graphic lift) is air forced upwards by the prevailing action of
port, unless prior permission has been obtained in writing or wind rushing up against a ridge of hills. When the hills are
by two-way radio from the airport operator. To operate within high enough and long enough, the glider pilot can ride along
the control zone associated with a controlled airport, it is nec- these ridges, never requiring to circle. In this way, gliders can
essary to obtain an air traffic control clearance by two-way achieve ever greater heights by converting gained airspeed
radio voice communication from the air traffic control unit in into greater aircraft altitude. These forms of rising air - the
the tower at that airport. upward motion of winds against hills - have on occasion been
known to carry sailplanes over distances of 1,000 kilometers.
Although by law, any holder of a private, commercial or airline
transport licence is legally entitled to fly an ultralight aircraft, Discovered by early pioneering glider pilots is the phenom-
such individuals should still seek dual flying instruction in an enon known as the mountain wave. Just as water flows over
ultralight before soloing in an ultralight. The flying character- a rock in a stream, wind blowing over a mountain peak forms
istics of some ultralight aircraft may differ widely from those a wave in the atmosphere, rising at as much as 2,000 feet
of conventional aircraft. per minute, and ascending to altitudes of 50,000 feet. The
experienced sailplane pilot who crests a mountain wave can
find him/herself staying aloft for hours and, indeed, it is the
10.10 Gliders mountain wave effect that has allowed glider pilots to set the
altitude records that exist for the sailplane flying category.
If there is one human activity that most closely resembles Other types of lift involve cumulus cloud flying, flying the
ornithological flight it is, perhaps, the activity known as edge of a cold front, and using sea breezes to stay aloft and fly
soaring; that is, motorless flight using an aircraft (known as large distances.
a glider or sailplane) that flies like any normal aircraft, while
The rudimentary gliders of yesteryear - often nothing more
also staying aloft aided by naturally occurring atmospheric
than kites big enough to carry the weight of one man - have
lifting agents.
evolved into the highly specialized composite built sailplanes
of today. Mostly designed to be light and small, but with high
aspect ratios to maximize lift and minimize drag, wooden and
aluminum constructions exist alongside the more modern
composites, and continue to be used for soaring activity in
many parts of the world where soaring is practiced.
Sailplane instrumentation consists primarily of an altimeter,
an airspeed indicator, a magnetic compass, a variometer (a
sensitive vertical speed indicator), and a yaw string (a device
that helps glider pilots compensate for the strong effects of
adverse yaw resulting from the large wing spans of common
gliders). Pilots can also install total energy systems that pro-
vide readings of lift and sink rates outside the sailplane that
are independent of pilot-induced control movements. In day
VFR flight, a glider must also be equipped with a radio com-
munication system adequate to permit two-way communica-
Fig.10 .46 Gli der tion on the appropriate frequency when the glider is operated
within Class C or Class D airspace, or within an MF area, or
Originally, gliders were launched using winches and bungees
an ADIZ.
off the sides of hills or gently rolling terrains. Today's practice
is more commonly geared towards aerial launches from small For additional operational control, most sailplanes are
powered towplanes using thick, 200 foot polypropylene tow equipped with dive brakes and spoilers to modify descent
rope. Once airborne, and usually between 2,000 and 3,000 feet, rates primarily for landings.
the sailplane releases the rope and begins its free flight, the Any given glider's primary performance characteristic is its
pilot relying on his/her senses and skills to recognize atmo- glide ratio. A glider with a glide ratio of 30:1 will travel 30 feet
spheric activity to extend the duration of the flight before forward for every 1 foot it descends; it is, therefore, the ratio
bringing the aircraft back to its earthly origin. of airspeed to sink speed. A glider's glide ratio varies with
A sailplane is always gliding downwards, but by locating the airspeed at which it flies meaning a best glide ratio is an
atmospheric lift to offset the downward motion of the aircraft important calculation for every glider pilot to determine.
due to gravity, the pilot of a sailplane can gain altitude and fly Anyone piloting a glider must hold a Pilot Licence - Glider
great distances without necessarily needing to find lift again. which, under day VFR, allows them to operate as pilot-in-
A lifting force is what fuels a glider's capacity to gain altitude command of a glider in which no passenger is carried on
and maintain flight. In the earth's atmosphere, it can occur in board. If a passenger is carried on board, the licence holder
the form of thermals, ridge lift, and mountain waves. must be endorsed in the method of launch by the holder of a
Flight Instructor Rating - Glider. Furthermore, for passenger
The thermal is the most common form of lifting agent used by
carrying privileges, the method of launch must also have
glider pilots. By circling inside a rising column of air resulting
been u sed by the licence holder for at least three previous solo

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Airmanship: Gliders

flights. To obtain a Pilot Licence - Glider, the applicant must

demonstrate proficiency in piloting a glider and successfully
complete a written government examination. Flight training
must be conducted under the supervision of a holder of a
Flight Instructor Rating - Glider.
Aerobatics may be performed in gliders but the pilot-in-com-
mand must meet the criteria as described in the Canadian
Aviation Regulations for conducting aerobatic maneuvers.
All technical records in respect of glider aircraft may be kept
in the journey log of the aircraft.
It is not uncommon for glider pilots, due to changing prevail-
ing conditions, to be forced into making off-field landings
when it no longer becomes possible to attain their desired
landing base. Therefore, it is a good rule during cross-country
soaring flights that pilots keep their options open for safe
landing areas. A flat, cultivated farmer's field is always a
favorable option.

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 Human Factors: Physical Factors

11 Human Factors 1i.1 Physical Factors

The preceding chapters of this manual have been devoted to 11.u General Health
the technical aspects of flying. The reader should now under- Since flying an aeroplane demands that pilots be alert and
stand how lift is produced by an airfoil to make an aeroplane in full command of their abilities and reasoning, it is only
fly, the basic construction of an airframe, all about the opera- common sense to expect that they will ensure that they are
tion and care of an aero engine, how to use aircraft communi- free of any conditions that would be detrimental to their alert-
cation and navigation radio equipment, how to navigate from ness, their ability to make correct decisions, and their rapid
A to B, the vagaries of weather, etc. etc. reaction times before seating themselves behind the wheel of
When the first editions of this book were published and, an aeroplane.
indeed until not too many years ago, it was generally believed Certain physical conditions such as serious heart trouble,
that if an individual had a good understanding of all these epilepsy, uncontrolled diabetes and other medical problems
technical aspects of pilotage, then they had acquired the basic that might cause sudden incapacitation and serious forms of
prerequisites to be a successful, efficient and safe pilot. psychiatric illness associated with loss of insight or contact
In the last few decades, however, it has been learned that with reality may preclude an individual from being judged
a thorough grasp of these subj ects, though essential, is not medically fit to apply for a licence.
enough. Human factors are a very important part of flight crew Other problems such as acute infections are temporarily dis-
training. Human aspects, such as cockpit organization, crew
qualifying and will not affect the status of a pilot's licence.
co-ordination, fitness and health, sensory illusions and deci-
But they will affect their immediate ability to fly and they
sion making are as vital to safety in the air as are flying tech-
should seek a doctor's advice before returning to the cockpit
n iques. The relationship of people with machines, the environ-
of an aeroplane.
ment and other people is part of the human factors equation.
In fact, any general discomfort, whether due to colds, indi-
There is much to understand about the pilot him/ herself and
gestion, nausea, worry, lack of sleep or any other bodily
their physical and involuntary reactions to the unnatural envi-
weakness, is not conducive to safe flying. Excessive fatigue
ronmental conditions of flying. Du ring the Second World War,
is perhaps the most insidious of these conditions, re sulting
it was first realized that some aeroplane losses were due to
in inattentiveness, slow reactions and confused mental pro-
pilot incapacitation rather than to enemy action. The challenge
cesses. Excessive fatigue should be considered a reason for
of explaining these unusual occurrences was taken up and
cancelling or postponing a flight.
since that time much re search has been conducted into such
subjects as hypoxia, spatial disorientation, hyperventilation,
the bends, impairment due to drugs and alcohol, and mental 11.i.2 Hypoxia
stress. Startling and sobering information is now avail able. The advance in aeronautical engineerin g in recent years h as
Humankind is essentially a terrestrial creature. The human produced more versatile aeroplanes capable of flying at very
body is equipped to operate at greatest efficiency within high altitudes. At such high altitudes, man is susceptible to
relatively narrow limits of atmospheric pressure and, through one of the most insidious physiological problems, hypoxia.
years of habit, has adapted itself to movement on the ground. Because hypoxia comes on without warning of any kind ,
supplementary oxygen must be available in any aircraft that
In their quest for adventure and their desire for progress,
will be flown above 10,000 feet . The general rule of oxygen
humans have ventured into a foreign environment, the air
above 10,000 feet ASL by day and above 5,000 fe et ASL by night
high above the ground. But these lofty heights are not natural
is one the wise pilot will practice to avoid the hazard of this
to humankind. As altitude increases, the body becomes less
debilitating condition. Hypoxia can be defined as a lack of suf-
and less efficient to a point, at sufficient altitude, of incapacita-
ficient oxygen in the body cells or tissues.
tion and unconsciousness. Completely deprived of oxygen, the
body dies in 8 minutes. Without ground reference, the senses The greatest concentration of air molecules is near to the
can play tricks, sometimes fatal tricks. earth's surface. There is progressively less air and therefore
less oxygen (per unit volume) as you ascend to higher alti-
Aeroplane accidents are an occurrence that every conscien-
tudes. Therefore each breath of air that you breathe at , for
tious pilot is concerned with preventing. Most aircraft acci-
example, 15,000 feet ASL has about half the amount of oxygen
dents are highly preventable. Many of them have one factor in
of a breath taken at sea level.
common. They are precipitated by some human failing rather
than by a mechanical malfunction. In fact, statistics indicate The most important fact to remember about h ypoxia is that
that human factors are involved in 85% of aircraft accidents. the individual is unaware that they are exhibiting symp-
Many of these have been the result of disorientation, physical toms of this condition. The brain centre that would warn of
incapacitation and even the death of the pilot during the flight. decreasing efficiency is the first to be affected and the pilot
Others are the result of poor m anagem ent of cockpit resources. enjoys a misguided sense of well-being. Neither is there any
It is the intention of this chapter to explain briefly some of pain nor any other warning signs that tell the pilot that alert-
these human factors to help pilots understand and appreci- ness is deteriorating. The effects of hypoxia progress from
ate the capacities and limitations of their own bodies so that euphoria (feeling of well-being) to reduced vision, confu-
flying might never be a frightening or dangerous undertaking sion, inability to concentrate, impaired judgment and slowed
but instead the enjoyable and safe and efficient experience all reflexes to eventual loss of consciousness.
lovers of aeroplanes and the airways have always believed it There are four types of hypoxia: Hypoxic hypoxia is a norm al
to be. effec t of altitude and is avoide d by the use of on board oxygen
systems. Anaemic hypoxia is caused by an over abundance of
carbon monoxide in the haemoglobin (see Carbon Monoxide

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Human Factors: Physical Factors

below). Stagnant hypoxia is a condition in which the brain is Positive G is experienced in an abrupt pull-out from a high
deprived of an adequate blood supply. Histotoxic hypoxia is speed dive, during an inside loop and in a co-ordinated turn.
caused by chemical poisoning and by high blood alcoh ol. (See The first symptom of stagnant hypoxia is deterioration in
Alcohol below). vision . The pilot experiences grey-out, a condition in which
the vision becomes dim and colourless. As the G force increas-
Effects on Vision at 5,000 Feet es, black-out (temporary loss of vision) occurs as the blood
The retina of the eye is actually an outcropping of the brain supply to the eyes is completely interrupted. As the G forces
and as such is more dependent on an adequate supply of are further increased, consciousness is lost.
oxygen than any other part of the body. For this reason, the
Negative G forces increase the blood pressure in the eyes
first evidence of hypoxia occurs at 5,000 feet in the form of
and cause red-out. Negative G in the excess of -5G can cause
diminished night vision. Instruments and charts are misread; rupture of the small blood vessels in the eyes. Negative G is
dimly lit ground features are misinterpreted. experienced in pushovers and outside loops.
G tolerance is affected by diet, requiring adequate hydra-
Effects Above 10,000 Feet tion and normal blood sugar. Good physical condition also is
It is true that general physical fitness has some bearing on the important: weight bearing programs are more effective than
exact altitude at which the effects of hypoxia will first affect aerobic training.
a particular individual. Age, drinking habits, use of drugs,
lack of rest, etc., all increase the susceptibility of the body to
this condition. However, the average has been determined at 11.1.3 Ozone Sickness
10,000 feet. Another problem associated with flight at very high altitudes
At 10,000 feet, there is a definite but undetectable hypoxia. is ozone sickness. Although it has been evident only with
This altitude is the highest level at which a pilot should con- flights operating at altitudes of 30,000 feet or more, the advent
sider him/herself efficient in judgment and ability. However, of general aviation aeroplanes that operate at subsonic speeds
continuous operation even at this altitude for periods of more at such levels makes this a problem of which even the private
than, say, four hours can produce fatigue because of the pilot sh ould be aware.
reduced oxygen supply and a pilot should expect deterioration Ozone is a bluish gas that exists in relatively h igh concentra-
in concentration, problem solving and efficiency. tions in the upper levels of the atmosphere, especially in the
At 14,000 feet, lassitude and indifference are appreciable. tropopause. Because the tropopause fluctuates in its average
There is dimming of vision, tremor of hands, clouding of altitude from season to season, any flight operating above
thought and memory and errors in judgment. Cyanosis (blue 35,000 feet is likely to come into contact with ozone at some
discolouring of the fingernails) is first noticed. time.

At 16,000 feet, a pilot becomes disoriented, is belligerent or Although ozone does have a distinctive colour and odour, pas-
euphoric and completely lacking in rational judgment. Control sengers and flight crew who have experienced ozone sickness
of the aeroplane can be easily lost. have been unaware of the apparently high concentrations of
ozone prior to the onset of the symptoms.
At 18,000 feet, primary shock sets in and the individual loses
consciousness within minutes. The symptoms of ozone sickness are hacking cough, poor
night vision, shortness of breath, headache, burning eyes,
At higher altitudes, death may result after a prolonged period. mouth and nose, m ild chest pains, leg cramps, fatigue,
The Canadian Aviation Regulations rule that an aircraft drowsiness, nose bleed, nausea and vomiting. The symptoms
should not be operated for more than 30 minutes between become more severe with continued exposure and with
10,000 feet and 13,000 feet or at all above 13,000 feet unless physical activity but do diminish rapidly when the aeroplane
oxygen is readily available for each crew member. In the U.S., descends below 30,000 feet.
12,000 feet is used instead of 13,000 feet as the regulated alti- Some relief from the symptoms can be achieved by breathing
tude for oxygen usage. through a warm, moist towel. Limiting physical activity to
a minimum and breathing pure oxygen are also effective in
Prevention of Hypoxia alleviating the symptoms.
The only way to prevent hypoxia is to take steps against it
before its onset. Remember the rule: Oxygen above 10,000 feet 1i.i.4 Carbon Monoxide
by day and above 5,000 feet at night.
Oxygen is transported throughout the body by combining
with the haemoglobin in the blood. However, this vital trans-
Stagnant Hypoxia portation agent, haemoglobin, has 210 times the affinity for
Stagnant hypoxia is a condition in which there is a temporary carbon m onoxide that it h as for oxygen. Therefore, even the
displacement of blood in the head. It occurs as a result of smallest amounts of carbon monoxide can seriously interfere
positive G forces and can be attributed to the fact that the cir- with the distribution of oxygen and produce a type of hypoxia,
culatory system is u nable to keep blood pumped to the head. known as anaemic hypoxia.
G is the symbol for the rate of change of velocity and it rep- Carbon monoxide (CO) is colourless, odourless and tasteless.
resents both a force and a direction. Positive G drives blood It is a product of fuel combustion and is found in varying
from the head to the feet; negative G drives blood from the amounts in the exhaust from aeroplane engines. A defect,
feet to the head. crack or hole in the cabin heating system may allow this gas
G tolerance is lowered by ill health, low blood pressure, to enter the cockpit of the aeroplane.
obesity, fatigue, smoking, hypoxic hypoxia, hangovers. It is Susceptibility to carbon monoxide increases with altitude.
affected by the peak value of the force imposed, the duration At higher altitudes, the body has difficulty getting enough
and the rate of onset.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Human Factors: Physical Factors

oxygen because of decreased pressure. The additional prob- that he/she can counteract the effects of hypoxia by taking
lem of carbon monoxide could make the situation critical. more rapid breaths. Hyperventilation does not help you get
Early symptoms of CO poisoning are feelings of sluggishness more oxygen. It only increases the emission of carbon dioxide.
Hypoxia is unlikely to occur below 8,000 feet ASL. Above 8,000
and warmness. Intense headache, throbbing in the temples,
feet, if oxygen is available, take three or four deep breaths of
ringing in the ears, dizziness and dimming of vision follow as
exposure increases. Eventually vomiting, convulsions, coma 100% oxygen. If the symptoms persist, the problem is hyper-
and death result. ventilation and should be treated as such.

Although CO poisoning is a type of hypoxia, it is unlike alti-

tude hypoxia in that it is not immediately remedied by the use
1i.i.6 Decompression Sickness
of oxygen or by descent to lower altitudes.
If you notice exhaust fumes or experience any of the symp-
Trapped Gases
Because of the change in barometric pressure during ascent
toms associated with CO poisoning, you should shut off the
and descent, gases trapped in certain body cavities expand
cabin heater, open a fresh air source immediately, avoid
or contract.
smoking, use 100% oxygen if it is available and land at the first
opportunity and ensure that all effects of CO are gone before The inability to pass this gas may cause abdominal pain,
continuing the flight. It may take several days to rid the body toothache or pain in ears or sinus cavities. In some cases, the
of carbon monoxide. In some cases, it may be wise to consult pain may be so severe as to lead to incapacitation. The con-
a doctor. ditions caused by changing barometric pressure are known
as dysbarisms; any physical damage that results is called a
Cigarettes barotrauma .
Cigarette smoke contains a minute amount of carbon monox- EAR BLOCK
ide. It has been estimated that a heavy smoker will lower his/ The ear is composed of three sections. The outer ear is the
her ceiling by more than 4,000 feet. Just 3 cigarettes smoked auditory canal and ends at the eardrum. The middle ear is a
at sea level will raise the physiological altitude to 8,000 feet. cavity surrounded by bones of the skull. It houses the organs
Haemoglobin has great affinity to the carbon monoxide in the of hearing and is filled with air. The eustachian tube connects
cigarette smoke and absorbs it readily. Its oxygen absorbing the middle ear to the throat.
qualities are reduced to about the same degree as they would
be reduced by the decrease in atmospheric pressure at 8,000
feet ASL.
Outer Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear
The carbon monoxide from cigarettes has detrimental effects
not only on the smoker but on the non-smoker as well. After
prolonged exposure to an increased level of carbon monoxide
in a confined area such as a cockpit, crew or passengers will
experience symptoms such as respiratory discomfort, head-
aches, eye irritation from the "second hand" smoke.
• • •
Cigarette smoking has also been declared as hazardous to
health, contributing to hypertension and chronic lung disor-
ders such as bronchitis and emphysema. It has been linked to
lung cancer and coronary heart disease.

11.i.5 Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation, or overbreathing, is an increase in respira-
tion that upsets the natural balance of oxygen and carbon Fig.11.1 Ear Str ucture & Eustachian Tube
dioxide in the system, usually as a result of emotional ten-
The inner ear controls certain equilibrium senses and contains
sion or anxiety. Under conditions of emotional stress, fright
the cochlea, a small organ that analyzes sound vibrations.
or pain, a person may unconsciously increase his/her rate of
breathing, thus expelling more carbon dioxide than is being During ascents and descents, air must escape or be replen-
produced by muscular activity. The result is a deficiency of ished through the eustachian tube to equalize the pressure
carbon dioxide in the blood. in the middle ear cavity with that of the atmosphere. If air is
trapped in the middle ear, the eardrum stretches to absorb the
The most common symptoms are dizziness, tingling of the
higher pressure. The result is pain and sometimes temporary
toes and fingers, hot and cold sensations, nausea and sleepi-
deafness. Eardrum rupture is even possible.
ness. Unconsciousness may result if the breathing rate is not
regulated. During climbs, there is little problem since excess air escapes
through the tube easily. However, during descents, when
The remedy for hyperventilation is a conscious effort to slow
pressure in the middle ear must be increased, the eustachian
down the rate of breathing and to hold the breath intermit-
tubes do not open readily. The situation is aggravated if the
tently to allow the carbon dioxide to build up to a normal
individual has a cold, an allergy or an infected throat. Pilot
level. Sometimes, the proper balance of carbon dioxide can be
and passengers must consciously make an effort to swal-
more quickly restored by breathing into a paper bag, that is, by
low or yawn to stimulate the muscular action of the tubes.
re-breathing the expelled carbon dioxide.
Sometimes it is advisable to use the valsalva technique, that
The early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are sim- is, to close the mouth, hold the nose and blow gently. This
ilar and may be confused. In fact, both conditions can occur action forces air up the eustachian tubes. Children may suffer
at the same time. A pilot, flying at high altitude, may think

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Human Factors: Physical Factors

severe pain because of ear blocks during descents. They

should be repeatedly reminded to swallow or yawn. Small Evolved Gases
babies are incapable of voluntarily adjusting the pressure in Nitrogen, always present in body fluids, comes out of solu-
the middle ear and should be given a bottle to suck during tion and forms bubbles as barometric pressure decreases in
descents. ascents to higher altitudes. If the bubbles lodge in small blood
vessels, they can cause circulation blockage, pain and tissue
Painful ear block generally occurs as a result of too rapid damage. Certain conditions predispose to the development of
descent. If the pilot or the passengers are unable to relieve the decompression sickness. It is more common in the elderly and
pain of ear block by the methods described, it may be neces- in females and in people who are inactive. Obese, overweight
sary to climb to altitude again and make the descent more persons are more susceptible to it as fatty tissue contains
gradually. more nitrogen.
After a flight in which 100 percent oxygen has been used, the Bends or cramps are characterized by pain in and around
valsalva procedure should be used several times to ventilate the joints and can become progressively worse during ascent
the middle ear and thus reduce the possibility of pain occur- to higher altitudes. The symptoms occur most commonly in
ring later in the day. large joints, such as the knee or shoulder, but may also occur
SINUS BLOCK in joints that have been previously injured. Exercise or move-
The sinuses are air filled, bony cavities connected with the ment will make the pain worse. The symptoms can usually be
nose by means of one or more small openings. If these open- reduced by descent to a lower altitude.
ings are obstructed by swelling of the mucous membrane Chokes are pains in the chest caused by blocking of the small-
lining of the sinuses (as during a cold), equalization of the er pulmonary blood vessels by innumerable small bubbles.
pressure is difficult. Pain, in the cheekbones on either side of In severe cases, there is a sensation of suffocation. This is a
the nose, in the upper jaw or above the eyes, will result. The serious condition and an immediate descent to lower altitudes
valsalva procedure will relieve sinus pain. must be made.
For both ear and sinus block, the prudent use of nasal inhal- Paraesthesia or Creeps is another decompression sickness
ants may be helpful. A nasal inhalant containing antihista- caused by tiny gas bubbles under the skin. Symptoms include
mine, however, should not be used for the reasons stated in tingling, itching, cold and warm sensations.
the section on drugs below. Central nervous system disturbances include visual distur-
TOOTHACHES bances, h eadache and, more rarely, paralysis and sensory
Tooth aches may occur at altitude due to abscesses, imperfect disturbances.
fillings, inadequately filled root canals. Anyone who suffers Decompression sickness is unpredictable. One of the out-
from toothache at altitude should see a dentist. However, the comes may be shock, characterized by faintness, dizziness,
pain caused by a sinus block can be mistaken for toothache. nausea, pallor, sweating and even loss of consciousness.
Collapse is possible if larger bubbles interfere with the blood
GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN supply to the brain or the spinal cord. Usually the symptoms
Gas pains are caused by the expansion of gas within the disappear when a return to the ground is made. However, the
digestive tract during ascent into the reduced pressure at sym ptoms may continue and special treatment (recompres-
altitude. Relief from pain m ay be accomplished by descent sion) may be needed.
from altitude.
Decompression sickness, caused by evolved gas, is rare below
Certain foods, such as beans, spicy food , carbonated bever- 20,000 feet. The best defence against this painful problem is a
ages, are known gas producers and should be avoided by pressurized cabin. Some protection against it can be achieved
individuals who know from personal experience that they can by breathing 100% oxygen for an hour before ascending to
cause a problem . altitudes above 20,000 feet. This action washes the nitrogen
THE COMMON COLD out of the blood. Oxygen does not come out of solution or form
Don't fly with a cold. A cold that is a mere discomfort on the bubbles. Refrain also from drinking carbonated beverages or
ground can become a serious menace to pilots and passengers eating gas-producing foods.
in the air. SCUBA DIVING & FLYING
Tiredness, irritability, drowsiness and pain are all symptoms A person that flies in an aeroplane immediately after engag-
of a cold and work together to make a pilot unsafe in the air. ing in the sport of scuba diving risks severe decompression
More insidious, however, is the effect a cold may h ave on sickness at much lower altitudes than would normally be
the sinuses and on the middle and inner ear. Swollen lymph expected from this problem . The breather tanks, used by a
tissue and mucous membranes may block the sinuses causing scuba diver to counteract the greater pressure of the water on
disabling pain and pressure vertigo during descent from alti- the body, deliver compressed air that supersaturates the body
tude. Infection of the inner ear, that is a common symptom of tissues with nitrogen even in a shallow dive. At a depth of 30
a cold, can also produce severe vertigo. The tissue around the feet, the body absorbs twice as much nitrogen as it would on
nasal end of the eustach ian tube will quite likely be swollen the ground. Ascending to 8,000 feet ASL could bring on inca-
and middle ear problems associated, under normal conditions pacitating bends.
(see above), with descent from altitude will be severely aggra- After non-decompression dives, flights up to 8,000 feet ASL
vated. A perforated eardrum is a possible result. Although a should be avoided for 12 hours. On dives where decompres-
perforated eardrum usually h eals quickly, in some cases there sion stops were required during the ascent to the surface, the
is permanent hearing impairment or prolonged infection of interval should be 24 hours. Regardless of the type of dive,
the middle ear. flights above 8,000 feet ASL should be avoided for at least 24
Cold remedies do not prevent symptoms. Th ey usually only hours even in pressurized aircraft since even pressu rized air-
bring on other problems, drowsiness being the most common. craft may lose pressurization. A good rule, if you have dived

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 Human Factors: Physical Factors

to a depth below 30 feet, is not to fly for 24 hours to permit the to block out the view of another aeroplane some distance
nitrogen content of the body to return to normal. away if the pilot is looking directly at it.
At night, it is necessary to develop the technique of using
1i.1.? Vision peripheral vision. One sees at night by means of the rods that
Good vision is of primary importance in flying, in judgment are concentrated on the edges of the eye and are responsible
of distance, depth perception, reading of charts and instru- for peripheral vision. It takes the rods about 30 minutes to
ments. It should be scrupulously protected. adjust fully to darkness . Even a small amount of white light
will destroy the dark adaptation.
Pilots are exposed to higher light levels than is the average
person. Very high light levels prevail at altitude because the You should wear sunglasses during the day but remove them
atmosphere is less dense. In addition, light is reflected back at after sunset. Avoid looking at bright lights when you propose
the pilot by cloud tops. This light contains more of the dam- to undertake a night flight. Do everything possible to adapt
aging blue and ultra-violet wavelengths than are encountered your eyes to the darkness prior to your flight. Wearing red
on the surface of the earth . Prolonged exposure can cause goggles for 30 minutes prior to a night flight helps the eyes
damage to the eye and especially to the lens. Sunglasses adapt to darkness.
should, therefore, be worn to provide protection against these Force your eyes to view off centre. To see at your best, you
dangers and to prevent eyestrain. must look off centre at about 15 to 20 degrees to be in the area
Instrument panels should be dull grey or black to harmonize of maximum rod density for both eyes. With good off-centre
with the black instruments, so that the eye does not have to vision, faint distant objects, like the dim lights on a landing
adjust its lens opening constantly as the line of vision moves strip or another aircraft, will be easily seen.
from the dark instruments to a light coloured panel. Don't use yellow or pink highlighting on flight charts. These
When flying into the sun, the eyes are so dazzled by the colours do not show up at night with the red cockpit light-
brightness that they cannot adjust quickly to the shaded ing on. Use blue highlighting instead. Always carry a quality
instrument panel. This situation causes eyestrain and is flashlight with a red night vision filter and a spare set of bat-
fatiguing to the pilot. Good quality sunglasses, with high teries and a spare bulb. Ensure that they are within easy and
definition, coated against glare and ultraviolet light help to immediate reach.
minimize the problem. Night vision is also sensitive to hypoxia. Supplementary
Atmospheric obscuring phenomena such as haze, smoke and oxygen should be used above 5,000 feet to avoid depriving the
fog have an effect on the distance the normal eye can see. The eye of oxygen. Dirt and reflection on the windshield cause
ability of the eye to maintain a distance focus is weakened. confusion at night. A very clean windshield is important.
Distant objects are not outlined sharply against the horizon
NIGHT LIGHTING OF INSTRUMENTS
and, after a short lapse of time, the eye, having no distance
Lighting of instruments is a problem in that the instruments
point to fix on, has difficulty maintaining a focus at a distance
must be well enough lit to be readable without the light
of more than a mile or two (a condition known as empty field
destroying the pilot's dark adaptation.
myopia). As a result, scanning for other aircraft becomes dif-
ficult and requires special effort on the part of the pilot. With Ultraviolet flood lighting of fluorescent instrument marking is
the pilot's focal range reduced, the span of time in which to probably the least satisfactory. The instruments are marked
perceive the danger and take evasive action is considerably with fluorescent paint that shows up under fluorescent light-
shortened. Pilots must learn to recognize the limitations of ing as a bluish green colour. The disadvantages are that the
the human eye under varying weather conditions and realize instruments can't be kept in focus, dark adaptation may be
that the see and avoid maxim has limitations under some lost, eyes are irritated, vision becomes foggy.
atmospheric conditions. Red lights. Lighting of instruments by indirect individual red
A small percentage of the general population is colour blind. lights is unsatisfactory because uniform light distribution
For the NORDO pilot who expects clearances by light signals, over all parts of the instrument cannot be achieved. There is
colour vision (especially red/green) is essential. Because no illumination of knobs and switches. Red flood lighting of
modern cathode ray tube (CRT} instruments, weather radar the whole instrument panel is more satisfactory. However,
and collision avoidance displays are introducing more com- the ability to distinguish colours one from another is lost.
plex colour displays, colour vision is important for pilots Coloration of charts is indecipherable and information printed
flying aircraft with this sophisticated equipment. in red becomes unreadable.
White lights. Low density white light is considered the best
Depth Perception cockpit lighting system. The instruments can be clearly read
Clues for accurate depth perception are often absent in the and colours recognized. Because the low density white light
air. Clouds are of varying size and there is no way to estimate can be regulated, dark adaptation is not destroyed although it
their distance. Landings on glassy water or on wet runways is somewhat impaired.
are a problem as is the condition known as white out that
occurs in blowing snow and other winter situations. Thunderstorms
It is not advisable to fly an aeroplane through or near thunder-
Night Vision storms. The blinding flashes destroy night adaptation. Turn
At night, the pilot's vision is greatly impaired. The cones that the cockpit lights full bright if you are in the vicinity of light-
are concentrated in the centre of the eye need a lot of light ning activity in order to prevent lightning blindness.
to function properly. As a result, there is a blind spot in the
centre of the eye at night. This blind spot is sufficiently large

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Human Factors: Physical Factors

Little has been done to reduce and control noise in aircraft

Anti-Collision Lights cockpits. Tests have measured the sound level in modern
When flying in the clouds, strobe lights and rotating beacons aircraft at 90 to 100 decibels. Noise levels in jets can approach
should be turned off as the reflection off the cloud of the 140 decibels.
blinking light is irritating to the eye.
With noise levels of this magnitude, hearing damage is a dis-
tinct problem unless some sort of hearing protection is used.
Design Eye Reference Point (DERP) Many pilots report temporary loss of hearing sensitivity after
In every aeroplane, there is a position at which the pilot, when flights. Still others have reported an inability to understand
seated, is assured of an optimum vision zone. The design eye radio transmissions from the ground, especially during take-
reference point (DERP) is a certain height above the cockpit off and climb when the engine is operating at full power. In
floor and a certain distance from a datum line. External vis- fact, there is documented evidence to show that continued
ibility is affected by windshield size, posts, glare shield and exposure to high levels of aircraft noise will result over the
the fore/aft position of the seat, the latter being the only vari- years in loss of hearing ability.
able in this list.
The detrimental effect of noise is not a sudden thing but
Any change in seat position will alter the external field of builds up progressively over years of exposure. Pilots of heli-
view. If, for example, a pilot has the seat positioned so that copters and aerial application aircraft are particularly suscep-
their eyes are at the DERP and then moves the seat rearward tible because of the relatively high levels of noise experienced
and downward, it will reduce the view both above and below in these cockpits and the long durations of exposure. But even
the nose of the aircraft. Vision lines inside the cockpit will pilots, who put in only three or four hours a week in their
also be altered. Any change, therefore, from the DERP is a aeroplanes, h ave been found to have slightly impaired h earing
compromise between external and internal vision and one's after several years.
ability to manipulate the controls.
Everyone experiences some hearing deterioration as the pro-
Aircraft are designed to meet certain cockpit visibility cess of growing old. Add this to a level of deafness caused by
requirements established by the aviation authorities in the exposure to noise and it becomes obvious that a pilot reaching
country of m anufacture. Some manufacturers provide refer- middle age could have a serious hearing deficiency.
ence points that the pilot is to use in making seat adjustments.
These reference points may be something as simple as two Protective devices against noise are therefore important, first
balls affixed to the glare shield which the pilot must line up of all, in helping to reduce fatigue during individual flights
visually. However, many manufacturers do not provide guid- and, secondly, in helping to minimize the possibility of h ear-
ance to pilots as to the DERP for their aircraft. As a result, ing loss or deterioration in later years.
through ignorance, pilots risk restricting their external field The best protection is a pair of properly fitting earplugs. Th ey
of view and jeopardize the safe operation of their aircraft. lower noise levels by as much as 20 to 30 decibels. The use of
Determining the DERP for the aircraft you fly is a safety pre- ear covering devices, such as headsets, can also help if they
caution that is wise to make. Write to the manufacturer and are tight fitting. If they fit poorly, they can be worse than
request the information. nothing in that they give the wearer a false sense of security.
The following guidelines sh ould be considered in locating the The use of earplugs as well as headsets is recommended.
correct seat placement (height as well as fore/aft position): The wearing of earplugs does not impair ability to hear. In fact,
(1) all flight controls must be capable of full travel and free of speech intelligibility is improved because the earplugs filter
restriction; (2) fligh t instruments and warning lights must be out the very noises that interfere with voice transmissions.
visible to the pilot; (3) forward visibility over the nose should
The regular wearing of earplugs, especially by pilots but also
not be restricted; and (4) the seat position should be comfort-
by passengers, is a good precautionary measure to ensure
able for the pilot.
continued good hearing throughout a pilot's lifetime.

1i.i.s Noise, Vibration & Temperature Vibration

The powerplant of the aeroplane is the principal source of
Noise vibration. At subsonic speeds, this vibration is responsible for
Noise is both inconvenient and annoying. It produces head- fatigue and irritability and can even cause chest and abdomi-
aches, visual and auditory fatigue, air sickness and general nal pains, backache, headaches, eyestrain and muscular
discomfort with an accompanying loss of efficiency. Even at tension. If the vibration happens to occur in the frequency of
levels which are not uncomfortable, noise has a fatiguing about 40 cycles per second, blurring of the eyes may occur. It
effect, especially when the pilot is exposed for a long period is even possible to become hypnotized as a result of rhythmic
as on a lengthy cross-country flight. To arrive at destination and monotonous vibrations.
suffering from noise induced fatigue and have to make a
Vibration can rarely be completely controlled but it can be
landing under minimum conditions is clearly an undesirable
dampened by placing a barrier between the pilot and the
situation.
source to reduce the effect. Dampening can also be accom-
Sound is measured in decibels (dB). The zero level is defined plish ed by reducing the source of the vibration or by modify-
as the weakest sound that can be heard by a person with ing the transmission pathway.
good h earing in a quiet location. The loudest sound that most
people can bear is 140 dB. High levels cause pain or n ausea.
Noise levels approaching these levels should not be experi-
Temperature
At temperatures over 30°C, discomfort, irritability and loss
enced without ear protection. In fact, ear protection should be
of efficiency are pronounced. High temperatures also reduce
used for continuous noise levels above 80 dB.
the pilot's tolerance to mental and physical stresses, such as
acceleration and hypoxia.

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 Human Factors: Physical Factors

At cold temperatures, the immediate danger is frostbite. a pilot might choose some other line as reference, such as a
Continued exposure w ill result in reduced efficiency to the sloping cloud bank. Fog and h aze greatly affect judgment of
point where safe operation of the aeroplane is impossible. distance. Lights on the ground at night are commonly con-
fused for aeroplanes. Even stars can be confused with ground
HYPOTHERMIA lights.
The most serious result of extended exposure to extremely
cold temperatures is a condition known as hypothermia. The tension of various muscles in the body assists in a small
Hypothermia is a lowering of the temperature of the body's way in determining position. The body is accustomed to the
inner core. It occurs when the amount of heat produced by pull of one G force acting in only one direction. In an aero-
the body is less than the amount being lost to the body's sur- plane, if a second force is introduced as in acceleration, decel-
roundings. As it progresses, vital organs and bodily systems eration and turns and, if there is no outside visual reference,
begin to lose their ability to fun ction. It is a condition that can illusions m ay result. For example, in a bank, centrifugal forc e
develop quickly and m ay be fa tal. directed outward and the norm al downward pull of gravity
combine to give an illusion of level flight. Acceleration gives
In the early stages, the skin becom es pale and w axy, fatigue an illusion of climbing and deceleration of diving.
and sign s of weakness begin. As the body temperature drops
farther, uncontrollable intense shivering and clumsiness The three semicircular canals of the inner ear are primarily
occur. Mental confusion and apathy, drowsiness , slurred associated with equilibrium. They are filled with fluid and
speech, slow and shallow breathing are the next stage. operate on the principle of the inertia of fluids . Each canal has
Unconsciousness and death follow rapidly. tiny hair like sensors that relate to the brain the motion of the
fluid. Rotation of the body tends to move the fluid, causing the
Hypothermia certainly can attack occupants in the aeroplane displacement of the sensors which then transmit to the brain
cockpit if there is no cabin he ating system and if they are not the message of the direction of their displacement. However,
adequately dressed to protect against very cold ambient tem- if the turn is a prolonged and constant one, the motion of
peratures. Usu ally, however, hypothermia is considered to be the fluid catches up w ith the canal walls, the sensors are no
a danger to the pilot who has been forced down and is exposed longer bent and the brain receives the incorrect message that
to the elements. Cold, wetness, wind and inadequate prepara- the turnin g has stopped. If the turn does then indeed stop, the
tion are the conditions which cause it. Wet clothing, caused movement of the fluid and the displacement of the sensors
by weather, immersion in water or condensed perspiration, w ill indicate a turn in the opposite direction. Under instru-
acts like a wick and extracts body heat at a rate many times ment conditions or at night when visual references are at a
faster than would be the case with dry clothing. Immersion in minimum, incorrect information given by the inner ear can
cold water greatly accelerates the progress into hypothermi a. produce vestibular illusions that can be dangerous.
The best protection against this condition is adequate cloth- The following factors contribute to visual illusions: optical
ing, shelter, emergency rations and, above all, knowledge of characteristics of windshields; rain on the windshield; effects
the danger. Every w intertime flier should h ave a survival of fog, h aze, dust, etc., on depth perception; the angle of the
kit that includes a lightweight tent, plastic sheet, survival glide slope makes a runway appear ne arer or farther as does a
blanket, etc., that can be used to con struct a shelter. Always very wide or very narrow runway; variations in runway light-
wear (or take along as extras) proper clothing for the worst ing system s; runway slope and terrain slope; an approach over
conditions you might encounter. Several layers of clothing w ater to the runway; the apparent motion of a fixed light at
are more effe ctive than one bulky layer. Protect high heat night (autokinetic phenomenon). The visual cues by which a
loss areas, such as the h ead, neck, underarms, sides of the pilot m akes judgm ents about the landing approach are largely
ch est. Carry effective rain gear and put it on before you get removed if the approach is over water, over snow or other
wet. High energy fo ods that produce h eat and energy should such featureless terrain or carried out at night. A particularly
be included in the survival kit. Hot fluid s help to ke ep body h az ardous situation is created if circumstances prevent him/
heat up. Guard against becoming tired and exhausted. A tired h er from appreciating ground proximity before touchdown.
person, exposed to a cold, wet and windy environment, is a
prime candidate for hypothermia. The followin g factors contribute to kinaesthetic illusions:
change in acceleration or deceleration; low level flight over
HYPERTHERMIA w ater; frequent tra nsfer from instrument to visual flight con-
Hyperthermia (or heat stroke) occurs when the body is unable ditions (choose either VFR or !FR and stick with the choice);
to dissipate heat eith er through radiation or by sweating. If the unperceived chan ges in fli ght altitude.
body core temp erature rises above 41°C, thermost atic control There is just one w ay to beat false interpretation of motion.
is mostly lost . People w ith heat stroke should seek m edical Put your faith in your instruments and not in your sen ses.
treatment as soon as possible. Refer to the attitude instruments constantly when flying at
night or in reduced visibility conditions. Always trust the atti-
1i.1.9 Sensory Illusions tude instruments no m atter wh at your senses tell you.
Under normal conditions, the kinaesthetic sensors (skeletal
muscles, bones and joints), vision (eyes) and the vestibular Spatial Disorientation
(labyrinth) organs (inner ears) provide the brain with informa- Spati al disorientation means loss of bearings or confusion
tion about the position of the body in relation to the ground. concerning one's sense of position or movement in relation to
In flying, however, conditions are sometimes encountered the surface of the earth. Disorientation rarely occurs without
which fool the senses. reduced visual references in such situations as fog, cloud,
The eyes are the prime orienting organs but are dependent snow, rain, darkness, etc.
on reference points in providing reliable spatial information. A type of spatial disorientation is caused in some individuals
Objects seen from the air often look quite different than they by flickering shadows . When, for example, letting down for a
do when seen from the ground. If the horizon is not visible, landing into the setting sun in a single-engine aeroplane, the

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Human Factors: Physical Factors

idling propeller can induce reactions that range from nausea and increases the illusion of climbing steeply. Owing to lag in
to confusion and, in rare cases, complete unconsciousness. the altimeter and vertical speed indicator, the loss of height
Other causes of this sensation are helicopter rotor blade shad- m ay go unnoticed.
ows, the flashing illumination caused by anti-collision lights
There are three situations in which the false climb illusion
when flying in cloud, and runway approach strobe lights
may occur: (1) take-off at night or in !FR conditions; (2) an
when viewed through the propeller at night. overshoot in reduced visibility or in !FR conditions; and (3) a
The term vertigo is sometimes used in relation to spatial climb from VFR into !FR conditions. During the latter situa-
disorientation. Vertigo is a sensation of rotation or spinning, tion, the illusion can be compounded by turbulence, in a turn,
an hallucination of movement of either the individual him/ or by reliance on an artificial horizon that is not quite erect.
herself or of the external world.
With deceleration, a similar illusion occurs. The activation
of speed brakes or the lowering of flaps , which both cause
Coriolis Effect sudden deceleration, swing the otoliths forward and produce
Coriolis effect is probably the most dangerous type of disori- an illusion of increased descent. This illusion most commonly
entation. The three semicircular canals of the inner ear are happens on final approach at slow speed. The pilot's reaction
interconnected. If movement is occasioned in two of them, of pulling back on the controls may cause a stall.
a sympathetic but more violent movement is induced in the
All pilots irrespective of experience or skill are susceptible
third. This is known as tumbling and causes extreme confu-
to the illusion. Pilots must learn to anticipate the illusion
sion, nausea, and even rolling of the eyeballs that prevents the and ignore it, to establish a positive climb or descent attitude
pilot from reading correctly the aeroplane instruments. This and to rely on the aircraft instruments for confirmation of
situation can occur if, when the aeroplane is in a turn, the attitude.
pilot suddenly turns his/ her head in another direction. The
rule should always be to avoid head movements, especially
quick ones, when flying under instrument conditions. Black Hole Illusion
Darkness, absence of visual cues and few ground lights com-
bine to induce a false perception of altitude and/or attitude
Sornatogravic - False Climb Illusion that is known as the black hole illusion . Under certain circum-
The otolith is a small organ which form s part of the inner ear stances, during night and in clear weather, when an aircraft
and vestibular apparatus. Its function is to sense and signal to
is on approach to land over dark terrain with no lights either
the other organs the position of the head relative to the verti-
below or to the sides of the approach path, with only the dis-
cal. This signal has a profound influence on the balance and tant airport runway lights to provide visual stimuli, even the
orientation of the body. most experienced pilots may visually overestimate altitude
The otolith, simply described, is an erect hair with a small and fly too low with the risk of landing short of the runway.
weight or mass at its tip. The base of the hair is embedded in The most relevant source of visual information is the vertical
a sensory cell which conveys to the brain information about angle, the angle subtended at the eye by the nearest and far-
the angle of the hair.
thest lights. If, during a descent, a pilot maintains this angle at
a constant value, the approach path follows the arc of a circle
··. centred above the pattern of lights towards which the aircraft
is descending, with the result that the aircraft would be flown
into the ground short of the runway threshold.
The situation can be aggravated by a long, straight-in approach
to an airport located on the near side of a small city and by
substandard runway and approach lighting.
A back up reference, such as an altitude alerter, a ground prox-
imity warning system or a radio altimeter will help pilots to
avoid being caught by this d angerous illusion.

11.uo Alcohol
Alcohol, taken even in small amounts, produces a dulling
of judgment, comprehension and attention, lessened sense
Fig.11. 2 Somatogravic - False Climb Illusion of responsibility, a slowing of reflexes and reduced co-ordi-
nation, decreases in eye efficiency, increased frequency of
When the head is tilted backward, the small mass bends the
errors, decrease of memory and reasoning ability, and fatigue.
hair and the message relayed to the brain indicates a back-
ward tilt. If the head is held vertical but is subjected to accel- When a pilot undertakes a flight along a given course from
eration, the hair bends owing to the inertia of the mass at the one airport to some landing place, hundreds of decisions must
tip of the hair. Both tilt and acceleration, therefore, produce be made relating to the operation of the aeroplane and the
the sam e response by the otolith. If there are no visual cues n avigational aspects of the flight. Proper procedures must be
to compliment the information from th e otolith, the brain is accomplished to effect the safe completion of the flight and to
unable to differentiate between tilt and acceleration. If tilt ensure that no hazard is created to other aeroplanes in nearby
and acceleration are experienced simultaneously, the inter- airspace. Obviously, anything that impairs the pilot's ability to
pretation is that of a much steeper tilt. This is known as the make decisions will increase the accident potential.
somatogravic (false climb) illusion. Alcohol is absorbed very rapidly into the blood and tissues
In such a situation, a pilot is tempted to lower the nose of the of the body. Its effects on the physiology are apparent quite
aeroplane. This increases the forward acceleration component soon after ingestion and wear off very slowly. In fact, it takes

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 Human Factors: Physical Factors

about 3 hours for the effects of 1 ounce of alcohol to wear off. Antihistamines (for allergic disorders) cause sedation with
Nothing can speed up this process. Neither coffee nor hard varying degrees of drowsiness, decreased reaction time,
exercises nor sleep will minimize the effects of alcohol. disturbances of equilibrium. Cold cures usually contain an
Scientists have recently discovered that alcohol is absorbed antihistamine. Do not pilot an aeroplane within 24 hours of
into the fluid of the inner ear and stays there after it has gone taking an antihistamine.
from the blood and brain. Since the inner ear monitors bal- Sulfonamides (found in antibiotics) cause visual disturbances,
ance, the presence of alcohol in the middle ear can be respon- dizziness, impaired reaction time, depression. Remain off
sible for incorrect balance information and possibly spatial flying for 48 hours.
disorientation. Tranquillizers affect reaction time, concentration and atten-
The presence of alcohol in the blood interferes with the tion span.
normal use of oxygen by the tissues (histotoxic hypoxia). Aspirin toxic effects are relatively rare and are almost always
Because of reduced pressure at high altitudes and the reduced associated with large doses. If you take aspirin in small
ability of the haemoglobin to absorb oxygen, the effect of dosage and have had no reactions in the past, it is probably
alcohol in the blood, during flight at high altitudes, is much safe to take it and fly.
more pronounced than at sea level. The effects of one drink
are magnified 2 to 3 times over the effects the same drink Motion Sickness Remedies cause drowsiness and depress
would have at sea level. brain function . They cause temporary deterioration of judg-
ment making skills . Do not take either prescribed or over the
A pilot should never carry a passenger that is under the influ- counter motion sickness remedies. If suffering from airsick-
ence of alcohol. Such a person's judgment is impaired. His/her ness while piloting an aircraft, open up the air vents, loosen
reactions during ascent to higher altitudes are unpredictable. the clothing, use supplemental oxygen if available and keep
He/she may become belligerent and unmanageable and a seri- the eyes on a point outside the aeroplane. Avoid unnecessary
ous hazard to the safety of the flight. head movements.
The rule for both pilot and passengers in relation to alcohol Reducing Drugs, amphetamines and other appetite sup-
quite simply should be "No alcohol in the system when you pressing drugs cause feelings of well-being that affect good
fly". The Canadian and U.S. Aviation Regulations require that
judgment.
a pilot allow at least 12 hours between the consumption of
alcohol and piloting an aeroplane. In fact, more time is prob- Barbiturates produce a marked depression of mental alert-
ably necessary. An excellent rule is to allow 24 hours between ness. Similar symptoms are attributable to nerve tonics and
the last drink and take-off time and at least 48 hours after nerve pills.
excessive drinking. The after effects (hangover) of alcohol Anaesthetics with spinal or general anaesthetics, you should
consumption also affect performance capability, causing not fly until your doctor says it is safe. With local anaesthet-
headache and impairing emotional stability and judgment. ics used in minor surgery or dental work, it is wise to wait 24
hours before flying.
1u.11 Drugs Cannabis, including cannabidiol (CBD), taken by any method
Drugs, as well as the conditions for which they are taken, can (including smoking, vaping, eating or by applying it to the skin)
interfere with the efficiency of the pilot and can be extremely for any purpose (including medical, recreational or other non-
dangerous. Even over the counter drugs such as aspirin, medical reasons) has the potential to cause impairment and
antihistamines, cold tablets, nasal decongestants, cough adversely affect aviation safety. In the short-term, its use can
mixtures, laxatives, tranquillizers and appetite suppressors create a sense of well-being and relaxation; however, nega-
impair the judgment and co-ordination. They are responsible tive short-term effects of cannabis use can include confusion,
for drowsiness, dizziness, blurred vision, confusion, vertigo fatigue, and impairments related to memory, concentration
and mental depression. The effects of some drugs are even levels and reaction time. Anxiety, fear, panic, delusions and
more pronounced at higher altitudes than on the ground. hallucinations are also consequences of short-term cannabis
Some over the counter drugs taken in combination will react use. Long-term effects of cannabis use can harm memory,
with each other resulting in a larger effect than even the sum concentration, intelligence and decision making. Owing to
of their individual effects. Some prescription drugs, such as these harmful side-effects of cannabis use, pilots must
antibiotics, are equally or more dangerous. Usually, however, abstain from cannabis use for at least 28 days before fly ing.
a person sick enough to be on antibiotics is too sick to be Notwithstanding the latter, it should go without being stated
flying. that recreational drug use has no place in aviation, and any
pilot who is found to be flying under the influence of drugs
Any use of illicit drugs is incompatible with air safety. Some
runs the risk of having their medical certificate suspended.
common over the counter drugs contain prohibited drugs.
For example, some headache remedies contain codeine, cold
symptom depressants may contain drugs that are on the 1u.12 Blood Donations
prohibited list. Check the labels carefully. Professional com- Because it takes several weeks for the blood circulation to
mercial pilots are subject to random drug testing and the pres- return to normal after a blood donation, it is recommended
ence of an illicit drug, even if taken unknowingly, may result that pilots who are actively flying refrain from volunteering as
in immediate grounding, loss of job and possible branding as blood donors . If a blood donation has been made, you should
a drug abuser. consult your doctor before flying again. It is recommended
The so-called soft drugs should be particularly avoided as that you should wait at least 48 hours.
they affect performance, mood and health.
Sedatives and tranquillizers that are prescribed for insomnia,
anxiety and depression are unacceptable for pilots.

From the Ground Up · 30th Edition

Human Factors: Physical Factors

1u.13 Fatigue 1i.u4 Pregnancy

Fatigue is one of the most common physiological problems for Providing the pregnancy is normal and without complications,
air crew members and will adversely affect individuals who pilots may continue to fly up to 30 weeks into the pregnancy.
are otherwise in good health. It has repeatedly been cited as There are certain physiological changes that may affect flight
the causal factor in aeroplane accidents. Fatigue degrades per- safety. In the first trimester, nausea is common and may
formance. A tired pilot cannot carry out tasks as reliably and be worsened by motion, engine fumes and G forces. In the
accurately as required. He/she is irritable and less alert, will- second trimester, anaemia is common and may affect the
ing to accept lower standards of accuracy and performance. pilot's susceptibility to hypoxia. At 12 to 14 weeks, the fetus
may be subject to seat belt injury. The fetus may be exposed
Fatigue begins when the pilot begins a flight and increases
to potentially hazardous conditions, especially cosmic radia-
with each hour in the air. As a result, at the time of landing
tion. Cosmic radiation increases with altitude, is greater at the
when reflexes and judgment should be keenest, the pilot is
most affected by the cumulative effects of fatigue. poles than at the equator.

The biggest danger of fatigue is that an individual may not Because 6 to 10% of normal pregnancies deliver pre term, even
recognize its effects. pilots with a normal pregnancy are considered temporarily
unfit after the 30th week of the pregnancy.
The onset of fatigue is accompanied by numerous symptoms:
deterioration in timing of movements, irritability and lack of
patience, a tendency to lock the attention on individual instru-
1i.u5 Eating
ments rather than to see the instrument panel as a whole, a The stresses of flying, or indeed of any act1v1ty, consume
tendency to become forgetful and ignorant of relevant cues, a energy. This energy is derived from oxygen and from blood
tendency to overcontrol the aeroplane, an awareness of physi- sugar. The pilot is unwise to fly for too long without eating.
cal discomforts, a loss of "seat of the pants" flying ability, a His / her blood sugar will be low (hypoglycaemia); that is, his I
tendency to accept a wider margin of error than normal. her energy reserve will be low. Reactions will be sluggish and
efficiency will be impaired. It is a good precaution to carry a
Fatigue is caused by many things: lack of sleep, poor nutri-
nutritious snack on long flights.
tion, stress, prolonged and repeated flights , aircraft noise, eye
strain, vibration, wide variations in temperature and humid- Overeating is equally as unwise as not eating. Drowsiness and
ity, heavy workload and uncomfortable working conditions, excessive gas formation are the result of over indulgence at
boredom, monotony, night flights, frustrations from work and the dinner table just before a flight.
family. In fact, we should all eat three nutritious meals a day, starting
Acute fatigue is easily treated by a meal and a good sleep. with a good breakfast. A doughnut and a cup of coffee is not a
Chronic fatigue is more serious and is caused by difficult or substitute for a breakfast or lunch containing complex carbo-
stressful work with inadequate rest and is often aggravated hydrates and some protein.
by disturbed Circadian rhythms. At altitudes above 5,000 feet ASL, the body experiences a
A sound physical condition, a healthy mental attitude, proper higher loss of water through the surface area of the lungs than
diet and adequate rest are a pilot's best weapons in fighting it does at sea level. This loss occurs because the percentage of
fatigue. On very long flights where the pilot and co-pilot share water vapour in a given volume of air decreases with altitude.
the piloting duties, the advantage of taking a 15 to 20 minute Because this water loss is not accompanied by a loss of salt,
pre-planned power nap shows beneficial results in improved as occurs with perspiration, there is no accompanying sensa-
performance. Conversation and discussion help to keep us tion of thirst. Especially on long flights at higher altitudes, it is
awake. Caffeine in moderation helps. Frequent small meals to advisable to have a drink of water every hour or so to replace
keep up the blood sugar relieves fatigue. the lost body fluid .
A common cause of incapacitation in the air is gastrointesti-
Circadian Rhythm nal problems caused by stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting
Serious problems are associated with disturbed biological and diarrhoea. It is important to avoid foods that may be con-
rhythms and related sleep disturbance and deprivation. The taminated. In multicrew aircraft, pilots should not eat at the
body operates on a circadian, or 24 hour, rhythm which is same time nor eat the same food.
related to the earth's rotation time. It is maintained princi-
pally by the cycles of light and darkness, but also by meals 11.1.16 Stress
and physical and social activities. Safety, efficiency and
Flying fitness is not just a physical condition. It has a definite
well-being are affected by the disturbed pattern of biological
meaning in the psychological sense as well. It involves the
rhythms occasioned by long range flight, irregular schedules
ability of the pilot to perceive, think and act to the best of his/
and late night flights. Long distance transmeridian air travel,
her ability without the hindering effects of anger, worry and
especially, is responsible for sleep disturbance, disruption of
anxiety.
eating and elimination habits that result in lassitude, anxiety,
irritability and depression, all symptoms of what is commonly Studies have shown that emotional factors , mental upsets
called jet lag. Wide differences are found amongst individu- and psychological maladjustments are repeatedly present in
als in their ability to sleep out of phase with their biological aeroplane accidents. The ability to think clearly and act deci-
rhythms. The use of drugs or tranquillizers to induce sleep sively is greatly influenced by the feelings and emotions. In
is not recommended as they have a lasting adverse effect on fact, every individual will panic earlier than normal if they are
later performance. The use of alcohol is also not recommend- suffering from fatigue, illness, worry or anger. But, even well
ed since it is a drug, a depressant and, while it does induce away from the panic threshold, good judgment is seriously
sleep, it interferes with deep sleep. impaired under stress .

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 Human Factors: Psychosocial Factors

There are m any factors that contribute to stress in the cock- The best way to prevent panic is through training and fre-
pit. They are generally classed into three categories: physical, quent rehearsal of emergency techniques. A pilot who knows
physiological or psychological. his/ her emergency routines so well that they are automatic
Physical stressors include extreme temperature and humidity, will be less likely to panic when face d with a real emergency
noise, vibration, lack of oxygen. situation.

Physiological stressors include fatigue, poor physical condi- Lack of self-confidence is, in itself, self-defeating and an
tion, hunger, disease. open door to panic. Not that a pilot should be fearless, for the
fearless pilot has suspended reality-testing. He/sh e refuses
Psychological stressors relate to emotional factors such as a to admit that there is any situation into which he/she is not
death or illness in the family, business worries, poor interper- competent to venture. Self-confidence is quite another thin g.
sonal relationships with family or boss, financial worries, etc. The self-confident pilot can assess the reality of a situation,
It is essential that a pilot be able to recognize when stress can call on reserves of training and knowledge to cope with
levels are getting too high . If you are suffering from domes- the situation and does not permit emotion to cloud reasoning.
tic stress, if you are undergoing divorce or separation, if you
have suffered bereavement, if an argument with your spouse 1i.us Physical Fitness
or your boss is still rankling, if worries are building up to an
The purpose of this book has been to instruct pilots in what
unbearable load, if you have been despondent and moody, the
they should know to be a competent aviator. What they should
cockpit of your aeroplane is probably no place for you.
do is of equal importance. The most competent, knowledge-
Nevertheless, stress levels do naturally build up in the aero- able and experienced pilot is in business only so long as th eir
plane cockpit, when there are a multitude of decisions to medical is valid. Maintaining physical fitness is of prime
make and tasks to perform. Stress is, in effect, generated by importance.
the task itself and is not always negative. The sympathetic
Throughout the flying fraternity, there are thousands of pilots
nervous system responds to stress and provides us with the
in their senior years who are still enjoying the privileges of
resources to cope with the new sudden demands. However,
their licence and using their aeroplane for pleasure, business
the stress load may easily become unmanageable and a pilot
and travel. If you want to be flying when you are eligible for
needs to take measures to m anage the stress load so that it
the old age pension, now is the time to start looking after your
does not become so. Pilots need to learn how to reduce or pre-
health and maintaining your physical fitness.
vent in advance those stressors over which they have control.
The person who is physically active, participating in a regular
Signs of chronic stress are many and varied: loss of a sense
routine of exercise or sports, will most likely h ave a healthy
of humour, frequent anger, disturbed sleep, weight change,
h eart, lungs and not be overweight. Diet is important, not only
forgetfulness, excessive drinking, repeated mistakes, dis-
to keep weight at an acceptable level, but also in the control
traction, backaches, tense stomach, headaches, fatigue, sup-
of heart disease. The case against smoking as a contributor
pressed immune system that leaves you prey to disease.
to lung disease and heart disease is heavily documented.
Stress may make you a nag, critical, argumentative. It may
Protection of hearing by wearing earplugs has already been
erode your self image and leave you full of doubt, cynical,
mentioned as has the need to protect the eyes from undue
unconfident, directionless and pessimistic.
eyestrain.
Stress can be managed. The physiological stressors can be
controlled by maintaining good physical fitness and bodily
function, by engaging in a program of regular physical exer-
cise, by getting enough sleep to prevent fatigue, by eating
11.2 Psychosocial Factors
a well balanced diet, by learning and practicing relaxation
techniques. The physical stressors can be reduced by making 1i.2.1 Pilot Decision Making
the cockpit environment as stress free as possible. A con-
scious effort to avoid stressful situations and encounters Aeronautical knowledge, skill and judgment have been con-
h elps to minimize the psychological stressors. Support from sidered the three essential faculties that pilots must possess
family, friends, colleagues, organizations and, if necessary, to be professional in the execution of their duties. The knowl-
professional counselling help restore psychological equanim- edge and skill have been taught in ground school and flight
ity. Relaxation exercises, meditation, recreation renew and training programs but decision making skills h ave usually
recharge the psyche. been considered a trait that pilots innately possess or that are
acquired through experience. In fact, good decision m aking
skills can also be taught.
1i.u1 Panic
Training in decision making skills is now a part of the pilot
There are many things that can happen in the air that cause training program. Pilots can learn good judgment just as thor-
fear and anxiety. These are normal reactions to a predicament oughly as they learn the mechanical concepts and basic skills
that is out of the ordinary. What is to be avoided is allowing of flying. But what is good judgment? It is the ability to make
that normal anxiety to progress to panic. an instant decision which assures the safest possible continu-
Panic is a complete disregard for reason and learned respons- ation of the flight.
es, a feeling of extreme helplessness. A pilot in the grip of "Pilot judgment is the process of recognizing and analyzing all
panic will freeze at the controls, will make a totally wrong available information about oneself. the aircraft and the flying
response or succumb to completely irrational action. environment, followed by the rational evaluation of alternatives to
Fatigue, hangover, emotional stress, chronic worry, illness, all implement a timely decision which maximizes safety. Pilot judgment
substantially reduce the amount of anxiety an individual can thus involves one's attitudes toward risk-taking and one's ability to
withstand before succumbing to panic. evaluate risks and make decisions based upon one's knowledge, skills

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Human Factors: Psychosocial Factors

and experience. A judgment decision always inuolues a problem or are not planned. They h appen when you least expect them.
choice, an unknown element, usually a time constraint, and stress." Be prepared.
(Transport Canada: Judgment Training Manual).
STRESS
The causal factor in about 80% to 85% of civil aviation acci- Stress is very much a part of our daily lives. Poorly man-
dents is the human element, in other words, pilot error, a aged, it can effectively impair our ability to make good deci-
poor decision or a series of poor decisions made by the pilot- sions. Stress may be considered in terms of one's ability to
in-command. This concept is known as the poor judgment cope. Trouble arises when the demands of the task exceed
chain. One poor decision increases the probability of another the pilot's capacity to deal with them, whether because the
and as the poor judgment chain grows, the probability of a demands are overwhelming or because capacity is reduced
safe flight decreases. The judgment training program teaches for som e reason. The body reacts to this stress overload by
techniques for breaking the ch ain by teaching the pilot to increased heart beat, respiration, blood pressure and perspi-
recogn ize th e combination of events that result in an accident ration. Stress management is, therefore, an important factor
an d to deal with the situation correctly in time to prevent the in good decision making (see also Stress above).
accident from occurring.
RISK MA NAGE MENT
The Process Any human activity involves some level of risk. There are, of
Pilot decision making is a process. There must, first of all, course, risk elements in flying. Assessing that risk is part of
be situational awareness, which means you need to deter- the decision making process.
mine everything you can about a flying situation and assess Pilots need to do a preflight inspection of themselves. Are you
whether the information is important. This kind of awareness competent to undertake a flight if you are tired, on medica-
is acquired only through training, experience, practice and tion, not current, under stress? If the level of risk involved in
study. any one of such personal elements is marginal, perhaps the
The next step is to establish various courses of action. Give flight should not be undertaken.
yourself as many options as possible and consider the likely Critical decisions about the aircraft must be made on the
outcome of each one. ground during preflight planning: weight and balance, take-
Now you have to choose what action to take and do it before off and landing performance, crosswind limits and cruise
time runs out. Whatever you ch oose, be sure to leave yourself performance, condition of the aircraft. Throughout the flight,
an "out".
assessment of the operating systems must also be continually
made.
Then you must act. Carry out your decision with all your skill.
The risks inherent in the environment are an important area
Monitor the results of your action to be sure you are getting to consider. Weather is, of course, the most obvious environ-
the desired outcome. The evaluation of the results is in effect m ental concern. There is also potential risk in the selection
re-evaluating the whole situation and beginning the process of airports to use. Runway length and width, runway surface,
again. obstacles and landing aids are components of the aviation
environment.
Factors The type of operation also introduces a risk element. The risk
Many factors influence your ability to make good decisions. factor to complete a critical air ambulance mission under
Clear th inking and careful reasoning enhance the decision adverse conditions would perhaps be more acceptable than
making process. Cloudy, confused thinking hampers it. the same circumstances for a sight seeing or pleasure flight.
KNOWLEDGE Assessment of risk is assessment of probability; estimation
Every step of the decision making process requires knowl- of the "odds". Always leave yourself an "out"; have an escape
edge. Knowledge is the result of what you have learned in the plan if the situation turns too bad. This is the most important
classroom and in the briefing you received prior to the flight. tool of risk management.
It is also the result of your preflight planning and preparation An accurate assessment of the risks associated with the risk
and the details you notice from the start to the finish of your elements (pilot, aircraft, environment and operation) enable a
fligh t . pilot to arrive at decisions that ensure a safe conclusion to a
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS flight. Maybe the good decision is not to take off at all.
Situational awareness is knowing what is going on around
you. Decision making can't even begin unless you are aware Attitude
of what is happenin g. Assuming that everything is normal Your ability to make good decisions depends to a great extent
when it is not can be very dangerous. A false assumption, once on your attitude. Attitudes are learned. They can be developed
made, can be difficult to change and can generate a whole through training into a mental framework that encourages
chain of incorrect decisions - the poor judgment chain. It is good pilot judgment. The pilot decision making training pro-
very easy to shape reality to fit your expectation. You see what gram is based on recognition of five hazardous attitudes.
you expect to see, hear what you expect to hear. You focus 1. Anti-authority. This attitude is common in those
your attention on one item and something more important wh o do not like anyone telling them what to do.
goes unnoticed (known as target fixation). Sometimes your
subconscious prefers to ignore the bad news, ch anging incom- 2. Resignation. Some people do not see themselves as
ing information to provide the m essage you want to hear. making a great deal of difference in what happens to
them and will go along with anything that happens.
SKILL
Skill is an important part of the process. Skills should be prac-
ticed until they become automatic responses. Emergencies

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 Human Factors: Psychosocial Factors

3. Impulsivity. Some people need to do some- There would appear to be a direct relationship between
th ing, anything, immediately w ithout stopping workload and performance. At low levels of workload, such
to think about what is the best action to take. as during the cruise phase of long haul fligh ts, performance
4. Invulnerability. Many people feel that acci- is poor and the ability to react in an emergency is potentially
dents happen to other people but never negatively affected. The standard of performance increases as
to themselves. Pilots who think like this workload increases up to an optimum level of workload and
are more likely to take unwise risks. performance. At extremely high levels of workload (overload),
performance is again jeopardized. In the aviation industry,
5. Macho. These are the people who need to always the concept of workload is of primary importance to ensure
prove that they are better than anyone else and that the demands of the task never exceed the capabilities of
take risks to prove themselves and impress others. the pilot.
Pilots who learn to recognize these hazardous attitudes in Recognition of human factors is based on the effectiveness,
themselves can also learn how to counteract them, can learn the safety and the efficiency of the system and on the well-
to control their first instinctive response and can learn to being of crew members.
make a rational judgment based on good common sense.
The central figure in the human factors equation is the pilot,
The DECIDE acronym was developed to assist a pilot in the or other crew member, who is the most critical but also the
decision making process. most flexible component of the system. However, people
D - detect change. have limitations and are subject to considerable variations in
performance.
E - estimate the significance of the change.
Design of cockpit space is important to pilot performance.
C - choose the outcome objective. Comfortable seats designed to fit the human body, instrument
displays designed to match the sensory and information pro-
I - identify plausible action options.
cessing characteristics of the user, controls with stand ardized
D - do the best action. movement, coding and location, are recogn ized as important
factors in providing a compatible and comfortable working
E - evaluate the progress.
environment. All too often, pilot error can be attributed to
Using the DECIDE process requires the pilot to contemplate knobs and levers that are poorly located, that operate dif-
the outcome of the action taken. The successful outcome ferently from one aeroplane to another, that are improperly
should be the action that will result in no damage to the air- coded.
craft or injury to the occupants. An essential part of flying safely is proper pilot and cockpit
When a pilot receives a licence to fly, he/she is being given the organization before a flight. Before you take off on a flight,
privilege to use public airspace and air navigation facilities. it is important that you have all the necessary documents,
The new pilot is expected to adhere to the rules and to operate charts and equipment on board, properly stowed and acces-
an aircraft safely and carefully. He/she is expected to use good sible. Nothing should be stowed where it would interfere w ith
judgment and act responsibly. Decision making is a continu- the safe operation of the aeroplane. Everything should be
ous adjustive process that starts before take-off and does not organized and neatly arranged so that it is readily available
stop until after the final landing is made safely, the engine is when needed. Loose items should be secured so they will not
shut down and the aircraft is parked. Positive attitudes toward be thrown around the cockpit during sudden maneuvers.
flying, learned judgment skills, will improve a pilot's chances The non-physical aspects, such as procedures, manuals and
of having a long and safe flying career. checklists, symbology and computer programs, are respon-
sible for delays and errors if these are con fusing, m is-
1i.2.2 Human Factors leading or excessively cluttered in their presentation and
documentation.
The human factor is the most flexible, adaptable and valuable
part of the aviation system, but it is also the most vulnerable The effect of environmental factors, such as noise, heat, light-
to influences which can adversely affe ct its performance. ing and vibration, are recognized as causal factors in human
Optimizing the role of people in the aviation environment error, as are fatigue, distorted circadian rhythm, stress.
involves all aspects of human performance and behaviour:
decision making, the design of displays and controls and the Crew Resource Management (CRM)
cabin layout, and even the design of aircraft operating manu- Traditionally, crew members have been trained individu-
als, checklists and computer software. ally and it was assumed that individually proficient crew
Human factors is about people in their living and working members would be proficient and effective members of a
situations, about their relationships with machines, with crew team. However, flight crews function as groups and
procedures, with the environment about them and with other group influences play a role in deter-mining behaviour and
people. performance. Leadership, crew co-operation, teamwork and
personality interaction are vital factors in crew resource
In most cases, accidents result from performance errors made
management. Training programs aimed at increasing the co-
by healthy and properly certificated individuals. The sources
operation and communication between crew members are
of some of these errors may be traced to poor equipment
vital in ensuring efficient and safe aeroplane operation . Crew
or procedure design or to inadequate training or operating
resource management training focuses on th e functioning of
instructions. Reduced levels of human performance capabil-
the flight crew as an intact team and provides opportunities
ity and limitations in human behaviour result in less than
for crew members to practice their skills together. The pro-
optimum performance.
gram teaches crew members how to use their own personal
and leadership styles in w ays to foster crew effectiveness. Th e

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Human Factors: Psychosocial Factors

program focu ses on the importance of proper communication, you're in a Jess than ideal physical or mental state to conduct
division of responsibilities, leadership and teamwork and has a flight safely.
established five interrelated concepts to enhance crew skills. Over time and with accumulated experience, one's baseline
Attention management includes understanding how distrac- minimums can be expanded . Consider that a pilot who has
tions and error chains can be avoided. thousands of hours of bush flying experience will have con-
Crew management teaches the importance of proper com- siderably different minimums to a newly Jicenced private pilot
who has spent all of their time flying over flat terrain in VFR-
munications, division of responsibilities, leadership and
only circumstances. Minimums, thus, differ for everyone and
teamwork.
for every level of experience.
Stress management focuses on understanding the effects of
Document your personal minimums then consult them before
life stress events and provides stress coping strategies.
every flight. Anticipate issues for every planned flight that
Attitude management focuses on methods of recognizing could negatively pressure you into stretching those mini-
and controlling certain hazardous attitudes and behavioural mums. This will prepare you to say "no" if circumstances
styles. try luring you into making a bad choice. Reducing your mini-
Risk management addresses the evaluation of operational mums should come via experience and proficiency, not via
hazards. happenstance. If you stretch your minimums and get away
with it, it may not mean you're better, it may only mean you're
lucky. Minimums must always be objective. And they must
Personal Minimums always be boundaries to which you always adhere for safety's
Personal minimums are based on what a pilot should deem
sake.
to be their maximum acceptable level of risk. You establish,
objectively, what you feel your piloting skills render you
capable of doing. Thereafter, no matter what the prevailing Automation Complacency
circumstances, you never let yourself be influenced into As technology has assumed an ever-increasing presence in
exceeding your minimums. Only by means of accruing train- the cockpit, pilot complacency towards that technology has
ing, experience and objective self-assessment, should your emerged as a risk when the technology behaves in unantici-
envelope of minimums ever expand. As your flying career pated ways. Automation complacency is , thus, increasing as
continues to evolve, and no matter to what experience level a risk factor as technology takes over a variety of tasks that
you assess yourself to have risen, some level of minimums were once totally incumbent on the pilot to perform.
should always underline your aeronautical decision making. Software automation engenders significant benefits. By taking
Some regulations dictate minimums for you. VFR rules, for over repetitive, routine tasks, and by deciphering immense
instance, require that you have flight visibility of at least 1 amounts of data per second sourced from multiple sensors,
mile and that you're 500 feet vertically clear of cloud. The automated systems execute consistent, predictable and reli-
latter, therefore, are minimum regulatory standards by which able actions in response to a multitude of circumstances
to fly VFR. However, your comfort and experience levels may that they are programmed to evaluate. Ultimately, and as it
be such that three miles visibility and 1,000 feet clear of specifically relates to aircraft, automation exists to enhance
cloud is safer for you, no matter what the regulations state safety by evaluating the mess ages from data inputs, then
you can legally do. Similarly, your aircraft's Pilot's Operating react (if necessary) to those messages. The speed at which this
Handbook may dictate that your aircraft's maximum cross- evaluation takes place allows automation software to make
wind capability is 16 knots. However, you may feel that decisions and take actions that a human could not make as
12 knots is the maximum you're willing to ever attempt. quickly. Nor could a human take required actions with the
Establishing personal minimums means that you choose the same probabilities of success as the software is designed to
minimums that are right for you, and no matter what, you do. Thus, safety enhancement is foundational as the desired
never let yourself break those self-imposed limits. benefit from software automation.
A multitude of factors should be assessed when it comes to There is, however, evidence th at over-reliance on software
determining what your risk level is and what your minimums automation can cause those for whom it is designed to assist
should, thus, be. Every flight presents the opportunity to - the pilots - to disengage themselves from the tasks over
re-affirm one's minimums and/or to assess whether circum- which they once held ultimate command. Furthermore, there
stances suggest that an adjustment to one's safety baseline is are cases when automated systems have responded in incor-
in order. You should have personal minimums for the weather rect ways that system programmers never foresaw as prob-
in which you're willing to fly. You should have personal mini- able ways of responding. Such cases give way to an argument
mums for winds, turbulence, density altitude and the terrain for pilots to not cede total decision authority to automation
over which you're willing to fly. You should have personal when the latter cannot guarantee that it can achieve a state of
minimums for the runway lengths upon which you're pre- total operational perfection.
pared to take off and land. You should also have personal min- When automated aircraft systems fail to work as intended
imums for how you feel on the given day of a planned flight. during a flight, pilots are forced to take manual control. Thrust
Risk assessment requires self-assessment. The day of a flight, abruptly into such a role, mistakes run the risk of being made,
for instance, ask yourself: Did I get enough sleep? How do and accidents can be the undesirable result. Researchers
I feel today? (Am I feeling great or am I feeling tired? Is my have studied such scenarios with increasing frequency and
mind sharp or am I feeling a little bit "off"?) Subjective assess- findings are suggesting that a heavy reliance on computer
ments such as these require that one be honest and strict with automation can erode a pilot's expertise. Their attentiveness
oneself. Don't bias your answers to match the outcomes you diminishes, and their corresponding responsiveness when
want from the day. Have minimums for how you feel and don't required to assume manu al control of their aircraft runs the
push beyond them, for whatever reasons that may arise, when risk of becoming insufficient for the circumstances.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Human Factors: Psychosocial Factors

Excessive automation presents certain risks. In general terms,

complacency can settle into the mindset of humans when
they are repeatedly exposed to automated systems that never
make mistakes. This can lead towards human inattention and
resultant surprise when the automated system handles an
event incorrectly. In such cases, the automation can initiate
damaging actions for which the pilot may not have the time
to intervene.
Another risk is that data can be so excessive as to render the
human observer with oversight of the system overloaded with
its magnitude. He or she then misses meaningful information
that is undetectable within the vast flow of information col-
lected by the automated system.
Yet another risk concerns system algorithms that adapt and
learn from the constant data that they process. This can result
in the optimization of automated responses that become
constructed around incorrect interpretations of data that the
automated system assessed from its accruing experience.
Be it designed for convenience or for life-and-death action,
automation can run the risk of rendering its human benefi-
ciary complacent and detached from the tasks that once were
their domain of total oversight. It should, thus, always be at
the forefront of the thinking of any pilot to be mindful of the
risks of overreliance on automation and of algorithms that
may not be fully evolved. It may well be that a well-trained
pilot knows best, and knows that there is no reliable replace-
ment for their well-honed expertise and airmanship.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Human Factors: Psychosocial Factors

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 Air Safety: Checklists for Safety

12 Air Safety 12.1 State of Mind

Possessing the proper mental attitude towards piloting an
What do we mean by air safety? In essence, air safety is the aeroplane is the prime fac tor governing safe flying where the
putting into practice of all that knowledge on aviation and pilot is concerned. It governs all of h is/h er actions. With the
technical matters that a pilot has acquired in the course of proper state of mind, a pilot is able to m ake correct judgments
his/her aeronautical training and flying career. It is, in other as to what are and wh at are not the important considerations
words, perpetual and continued concern for the well-being of at hand, where emphasis should be placed, what are the pros
and respect for the personal property and endowed rights of and cons of various courses of action. Pilots possessing the
our fellow men and women as well as of ourselves. It is based proper state of mind are positive while being open-mind-
on sound judgmen t and a thorough knowledge of the subjects ed; they are confident in their judgment because they are
which have been dealt with between the covers of this text- aware of their own sh ortcomings, limitations of knowledge
book. However, the ultimate in flight safety is more than just and experience, and because they respect their reasonable
the possession of knowledge. It is also the exercise of common doubts. They are self-reliant but are not dogmatic in believ-
sense and, perhaps what is more important, of self-discipline, ing in their inability to be wrong. Confidence without doubt
that is, the self-discipline to apply the knowledge and the is over-confidence. Freedom from inhibitions, complexes and
common sense in a positive attempt to do the right thing or worries is the pilot's ultimate goal in achieving the ambition
make the right decision at the right tim e regardless of other of being a safe pilot. The problems of one's personal world do
distracting and prejudicial influences. The safety conscious not belong in th e cockpit of the aeroplane. If safety in fligh t
pilot bases his/ her decisions on good judgment rather than on depends on the pilot's actions in the cockpit, then it is easy
emotional or impulsive whims. to realize the importance of directing his/her whole attention
For a lifetime of pleasant and safe flying, not only must pilots and concentration, free of extraneous problems and thoughts,
have an appreciation of the foundation on which "the rules to the tasks of flying the aeroplane. A thinking and respon-
of flight " were built, but they must also practice these rules sible pilot cares about mistakes and avoids repeating them. A
at all times. pilot possessing the proper mental outlook will not hesitate
to tu rn back when encountering bad weather. He/she has no
Government aviation agencies and flight safety experts all wish to run the risk of being a statistic in the next morning's
agree that the biggest challenge they face is that of making newspaper.
pilots aware of their own limitations based on their knowl-
edge and experience or, to be more explicit, based on their The rules and maxims listed below are the product of the
lack of knowledge and inexperience. Th e conclusions reached wisdom of experienced pilots and experts in aviation safety.
by accident investigators tend very substantially to support They are not new or startling but are rules that wise pilots
the widely held opinion that almost every pilot , who has have memorized and practiced for years. If followed, they will
found him/ herself in trouble while at the controls of an aero- give you too thousands of safe flying hours and many years to
plane, got into the predicament either because of insufficient enjoy those things in life that you value and enjoy most of all.
appreciation of the degree of competence and skill required
du ring a particular flight or because of over-estimating the
limitations of their own ability to cope with the conditions 12.2 Checklists for Safety
they knew they would encounter.
It is important for pilots to realize not only the value of secur- 12.2.1 Checklist for Safe VFR Flight
ing adequate training but also how much retraining they need
and h ow frequently they need such retraining in order to Use the following checklist as a guide to good flight planning
execute their pilot-in-command responsibilities adequately, procedures.
efficiently and with the maximu m amount of safety during 1. Before flying.
flight. It is important for every pilot to review, review and
• Current on type? If not, get a checkout.
review again those basic aeronautical fundamentals to be
sure that the essentials which are important for safe flying are • Review aircraft operating manual: speeds, fuel
not forgotten . They should never give up trying to learn more consumption/ capacities, system s operation, take-
about aviation and flight safety. No one really ever graduates off and landing distances, emergency procedures.
from a course in flying. The acquisition of knowledge goes on • Weather briefing: VFR for entire flight? Forecast:
forever. The w ise pilot knows that "When you think you've 1,000 foot en route cloud clearance above
learned all that there is to know about flying, that's a sign that ground? Plan bad weather procedures.
you'd better quit flying." The pilot who flies an aeroplane as a • Prepared for forced landing? Rations ,
hobby still requires the skill of the professional pilot and must survival gear, life jackets. Wear or carry
approach flying with equal earnestness. clothing for outside conditions.
It is important that every pilot should feel a sense of respon- 2. Planning your flight.
sibility both to him/herself and to all fellow pilots. All pilots • Calculate gross weight. C.G. within limits?
share the same airspace and an error in judgment by one can
• Are VFR charts and Supplement current?
have serious detrimental effects on others. Don't be consid-
ered a hazard to yourself and to others. • NOTAMs: destination airport,
snow clearing, airports.

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Air Safety: Checklists for Safety

• Study VFR map for route, select alternate airports. 9. Shutdown.

• Prepare chart and flight log: safety altitudes, • Passengers remain seated until prop(s) stopped.
tracks, headings, groundspeeds, times,
• Flight plan closed.
approach and departure procedures.
•Refuel.
• Sufficient daylight on arrivaP
• ELT off.
• File flight plan.
• Tie down, wheel chocks, etc.
3. Preflight.
10. Emergencies.
• Brief passengers: door, seatbelts, prop hazard, ELT.
• Engine failure on take-off: attain glide speed,
• Check you have: aircraft operating manual,
close throttle, land straight ahead, gentle turns.
all logbooks, charts, computer, EFB, pencils,
survival equipment, clothing and sunglasses. • Engine failure in cruise: attain glide
speed, close throttle, ch eck m ixture
4. Walkaround.
and fuel controls, attempt restart.
• Drain fuel: examine for water. • Rough engine: carb heat full on, check mixture,
• Dipstick fuel: enough for flight fuel. Low cloud or low visibility ahead: carburetor
plus regulated reserve. heat full on, turn around, follow bad weather plan.
• All surfaces completely free of frost/ • Uncertain of position: check time flown from
ice? (Even a little could be deadly.) last landmark for probable position , go to
• Fuel caps secured? Oil sufficient and cap secure. prominent landmark, map read ground to chart.
5. Take-off. • Lost: slow down, radio for assistance, the 4
C's (climb, confess, consult, comply). If no
• Avoid intersection take-offs: go
to the end of the runway. radio assistance: alert radar, fly 2 minute
triangles u ntil help comes, prepare for
• Mental review: lift-off speed and
forced landin g before fuel is gone.
engine failure procedures.
• Plan to abort if not airborne in first half of runway. 12.2. 2 Make These Resolutions
• Engine/prop at full power: temperatures
Before every flight, make the resolutions listed below.
and pressures in the green.
6. Inflight. 1. I shall look upon the licence to fly as a privi-
lege to which I shall be entitled only as long
• Map read. Watch chart to ground. as I execute this privilege strictly w ithin
• Visual contact at all times. the lim its of my ability and experience.
Anticipate landmarks ahead.
2. I shall conduct a thorough inspection of my aeroplane
• Fuel consumption per plan? When prior to every flight and I shall refrain from flying
3/4 fuel gone, plan to refuel. in any aeroplane with a known operational defect.
• Groundspeed per plan? Revise ETA's.
3. I shall check th e weather prior to every cross-country
• Radio flight service on flight progress and weather. flight and, when filing a flight plan , shall remem-
7. Arrival. ber to close it upon arrival at my destination .
• 20 minutes before: review Canada Flight 4. I shall carry passengers only in an aero-
Supplement or Airport/ Facility Directory, plane with which I am familiar and in which
reconfirm airport information (elevation, runway I have had adequate recent experience.
lengths and heading and circuit height).
5. I shall not plan any flight beyond the limits which
• Review approach speeds, crosswind can be reached under prevailing wind condi-
limit, flap s selection. tions with 3/4 of the fuel on board and I shall
• 10 minutes before: broadcast intentions. Get traffic. land at the nearest available airport when my
• 5 to 10 minutes before: altimeter fuel supply indicates one hour remaining.
setting, surface wind, traffic. 6. I shall fly at legal altitudes at all times and refrain
• On long descents, warm engine periodically. from making unauthorized low passes, hedge-
• Check crosswind: if over limit, land elsewhere. hopping, buzzing and similar childish stunts
• Landing lights on. which constitute a d anger to myself and others.
• Fly a circuit (avoid a straight in approach). 7. I shall report unusual weather and atmo-
Report joining. Check windsock. spheric conditions as soon as pos-
• Report and keep sharp lookout on base and final. sible to the nearest radio facility.
8. Landing. 8. I shall refrain from flying close to or enter-
ing into weather conditions considered mar-
• Recheck windsock on final. Review
ginal with reference to my capabilities, experi-
overshoot procedure.
ence and the equipment aboard the aeroplane.
• Plan touchdown 200 feet after threshold.
9. I shall offer to yield landing priority to airliners
• Have weight on wheels by first one-third
and other high-speed aeroplanes when in the traf-
of hard runway or one-quarter if grass.
fic circuit of an airport serving scheduled airlines.
• Undershooting or turbulence? Add power early.

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 Air Safety: Checklists for Safety

10. I shall personally supervise refuelling, tie-down 5. Weather - Plan ahead.

and other ground servicing activity which may • Preflight - Study the weather establishing
affect the safety of persons and equipment. en route forecast, en route conditions
11. I shall refrain from entering an aeroplane when and escape route to good weather.
recently h aving partaken of drugs, alcohol or other • lnflight - Never get even close to losing good
debilitating substances, when not having had any ground reference control. When encountering
sleep during the preceding 16 hours or when physi- cloud bases of 1,000 feet or visibility of less
cally or mentally impaired for any reason whatsoever. than 5 miles, plan to retreat to a good alternate
12. I shall conduct myself in the process of oper- airport. Execute a retreat on encountering cloud
ating an aeroplane and at all other times bases of 800 feet or under 3 miles visibility
in a manner giving a favorable impression (unless current and qualified for !FR).
of aviation and the flying community. • Night - Never, unless assured of 2,000 foot
ceiling and 5 miles visibility and assu red that no
12.2.3 Obey These Important Rules frontal or ground fog or storm conditions will be
encountered (u nless current and qualified !FR).
Obey the rules listed below wh enever you fly your aircraft. 6. Speed/ Stall Control - Plan ahead so that
1. Check Out - Plan ahead so that you never you never abruptly change attitude of aero-
attempt to exercise the privilege of your pilot plane nor allow airspeed to drop below
certificate in any aeroplane unless checked • At least 160% of stall speed when
out by a well-qualified instructor and having
maneuvering below 1,000 feet.
successfully completed a minimum of
• At least 140% of stall speed during
• One hour ground familiarization with controls/ straight approach or climb out.
systems and aeroplane operating limitations. • At least 120% of stall speed over
• 8 regular take-offs and landings (day or night). th reshold and ready for touchdown.
• 2 short field take-offs and landings. 7. Navigation - Plan ahead so that you
• 2 crosswind take-offs and landings. • Reach destination one hour before sunset
2. Preflight - Plan ahead so that you unless current and prepared for night flight.
never start the engine until • Never operate at an altitude less than 500 feet
• You h ave checked weight and balance data. above the high est obstruction (2,000 feet in
• You have made sure any objects carried mountain area) except on straight climb from
in the passenger cabin are properly take-off or straight-in approach to landing.
secured and free of the controls. • Predetermine ETA over all checkpoints.
• Prescribed walk around and preflight If lost, never deviate from original course
inspection completed. until orientated. Always hold paper chart so
• Fuel quantity double ch ecked for plotted course coincides with fligh t path.
proposed flight plan plus 15 minutes • Divert to nearest airport if periodic
for take-off plus regulated reserve. fuel check indicates you won't have
• Fuel contamination checked into required reserve at destination.
transparent container from under 8. Take-off or Landing Area - Plan ahead so that you
engine and wing tank quick drains. • Never take off or land unless on designated airports
3. Vigilance - Plan ahead so you never occupy any area with known, current runway maintenance.
on the ground or in the air without "double check- • Restrict operations to runway length equal
ing" for possible existing or potential hazards. to aeroplane manufacturer's published take-
4. Controls and Systems - Plan ahead so that you off or landing distance, plus 80% safety
margin if h ard surface, double m anual
• Never operate an aeroplane unless you are
distance if sod , and triple manual distance
familiar with the operation and correct
if wet grass (about same traction as ice).
use of all controls and systems.
• Night - Never operate except on well lit,
• Never start engine, s tart take-off, start
night operated airport, and then using steeper
landing, start cruising or start descent
approach attitude to clear unlighted obstacles.
until all prescribed procedures are
9. Take-Off or Landing Limits - Plan ahead so that you
accomplished from a written checklist.
• Never attempt to operate an aeroplane with • Always plan touchdown within the first 1/ 3 of
a known m alfunction. If malfunctionin g a runway in order to roll to a stop within the
occurs in flight, head for nearest airport. second 1/3, having the final 1/3 for spare.
• Are always alert for the formation of • Abort take-off if not solidly airborne
carburetor ice. Use full carburetor heat at in first 1/2 of runway.
the first indication of carburetor icing. • Abort landing if not solidly on in first 1/2
• Never raise flaps after landing a retractable of runway. (First 1/4 if wet grass.)
gear aeroplane until well clear of the • Never relax control until the
active runway and only after double- wheels have ceased to roll.
ch ecking the control you are activating.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Air Safety: Checklists for Safety

10. Wind Limits - Plan ahead so that you flat bases. Often they are quite ragged and irregular
• Never attempt taxiing in crosswinds or gusts w ith hills and other high ground penetrating their
low-hanging portions.
exceeding 50% of stall speed unless outside
assistance is available and used. Taxi very DO have the utmost respect for thunderstorm s. They
slowly when winds exceed 30% of stall speed. are dangerous l DON'T fly into or near them.
• Never attempt take-off or landing when 90° DO fly as a VFR pilot if you are a VFR pilot. DO exercise
cross surface winds exceed 20% of stall speed or caution when engaging in Over The Top flights. The
45° surface winds exceed 30% of stall speed. cloud deck may extend farther than you anticipate.
• Never taxi closer than 1,000 ft. from the blast Cloud tops may reach altitudes that you and your
end of powerful aeroplanes, and then only aeroplane will not be able to maintain resulting in
when headed into remaining blast effect. your becoming involved in instrument flight with
• Never get close to powerful aeroplanes on the consequent violation of safety and the Aviation
take-off, in air, on landing without allowing Regulations. Also remember you are dependent
time for wake turbulence to subside. upon an adequate oxygen intake.
11. Physical Condition - Plan ahead so that DO take the proper t raining or obtain an instrument
you never pilot an aeroplane when rating and fly an !FR equipped aeroplane if you
want, on a regular basis, to fly above cloud without
• Having less than 12 h ours from bottle
reference to the ground or h orizon.
to throttle (24 h ours preferably).
• Extremely fatigued. DO proceed with your alternate plan if you find you r
destination weather poor. DON'T hold over an air-
• Taking tranquillizing or sleep inducing drugs.
port waiting for ground fog to dissipate. Go to the
• Hypoxic from oversmoking or operating
nearest airport where weather is suitable.
above 10,000 feet (without oxygen).
DO remember that poor weather today will probably be
• When emotionally up set.
good weather tomorrow or the next day.
12. Starting Engine - Plan ahead so that you never, never
attempt to hand start an aeroplane unless a qualified DO learn to be relaxed yet alert in the cockpit. If
person is at the controls or, in an emergency, unless your mind and body are tense, fatigue w ill set in
all wheels are securely blocked and strong, tight, and before the flight is terminated and your ability may
secure tie-downs are affixed to both win gs and tail. become impaired due to such fatigue.
DON'T let anything influence your good judgment.
12.2.4 Do's & Don'ts for Safe Flight DON'T get into bad flying habits.
DO get a weather briefing before taking off on any cross-
country flight. DON'T assume that the weather will 12.2.5 Principles of Safe Take-Off
be as it usually is or recently was, or as you wish it
For a safe take-off, consider the principles listed below.
to be.
1. Always use a checklist and always com-
DO seek the advice of others who are better informed
plete the checklist prior to take-off.
about the area's weather flying. Frequently, are a
and route phenomena are known to local pilots or 2. Review the emergency checklist prior to
other individuals who may be junior to you in years take-off. You may need the emergency pro-
and overall flying experience. DON'T be too proud to cedure sooner than you think!
h eed this advice. 3. Always clear area for traffic. Don't take
DO cancel the flight that may be hazardous. DON'T off if you must hurry to avoid traffic.
becom e a pusher or you might become a statistic. 4. Never take off until you h ave fully advis ed the tower,
DO have an alternate plan of action if adverse weather unicorn, MF, ATF, etc., of your proposed operation.
is encountered. DO use it while still VFR. DON'T Don't keep it a secret. If no communication fac ility
forget the time honoured 180° method of survival. is based at the field, transmit blind your departure
runway, turn after take -off, and direction of flight.
DO remember that sucker holes are always present to
tempt the inexperienced pilot . DON'T be lured into 5. Always have an abort point on runway selected
pressing on just a little farther. and use it if all systems are not GO at that point.
DO reduce airspeed in tu rbulence. DON'T operate your 6. Don't take off at a closed field .
aeroplane at continuous maximum performance. 7. Don't attempt to take off if you don't
DO follow regularly traversed routes through moun- know runway conditions.
tains or over unfavorable terrain. 8. Don't take off when the crosswind compo-
DON'T fail to allow yourself a margin for error. Should you nent exceeds the maximum component you
be forc ed to land, be where you can land safely. have imposed on yourself or if it exceeds
the maximum for runway conditions.
DO obtain sufficient altitude b efore crossing a moun-
tain range. DON'T be caught in the turbulence or 9. Always use the centreline of the runway.
down drafts of ridge crossing.
DO allow sufficient clearance between yourself and the
bases of the clouds. DON'T expect all clouds to h ave

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 Air Safety: Checklists for Safety

10. Know the critical V-speeds for your aircraft: 6. Never land without completing your land-
stall speed (dirty and clean), best angle and best ing checklist. The item you forgot may
rate of climb. Review them prior to take-off. be your retractable landing gear.

11. Always compute density altitude when runway 7. Never land at an airport if runway
length, temperature, field elevation or obstruc- conditions are unknown.
tions ahead create doubt in your mind. Compute 8. Never land at a closed field.
it often enough to remember how to do it!
9. Clear for traffic constantly (the final approach
12. For multi-engine aircraft, all of the above is a high potential area for mid-air collision).
apply as well as the V-speeds and perfor-
10. Be prepared for an aborted landing under
mance limits of single-engine operation.
emergency circumstances. Know the proce-
13. On crosswind take-offs, start the take-off roll with dure. Review it briefly while still en route.
ailerons fully deflected in proper direction and
11. Learn to use all the aeroplane equip-
then decrease the deflection as speed builds.
ment provided for the landing operation.
14. Never become airborne, in a crosswind espe- Know how and when to use flaps.
cially, until the aileron controls are effective.
12. In a properly executed approach, you will not
15. Never take off over gross weight or out of C.G. need full flaps until on final approach.
16. Never take off with an unresolved prob- 13. Never get into the habit of dragging in low
lem, either with yourself or the aircraft. on final approach. Learn a method of gaug-
17. During take-off, devote full attention to the take-off. ing the right approach angle. Conversely, don't
develop the habit of diving on the airport. Pilots
18. With retractable gear, always have a posi- who do this may end up overshooting.
tive climb indication before retracting gear.
14. Review approach/landing type accidents.
19. Even when VFR, don't take off until your Learn from the mistakes of others. Learning
radio equipment is set up. It is much easier to about accidents first-hand is too costly.
do this on the ground than in the air, espe-
cially if an emergency comes along. 15. Recurrent dual instruction and practice provide the
only known ways of staying proficient. Stay proficient.
20. Even when VFR, if you are at a field with an omnitest
and you are going cross-country, make a VOR accu- 16. When runway length is marginal and runway surface
racy check. If there is no omni test on the field, make conditions and temperature are factors and when
the accuracy check in the air as soon as possible. landing at high elevations, compute density altitude.

21. Never take off downwind unless spe- 17. At a controlled field, make initial contact 15 miles out.
cial conditions dictate. 18. When landing at a field lacking communica-
22. Review take-off accidents for your type of aircraft. tion, transmit your position blind. Another pilot
may be arriving or departing at the same field.
23. Periodic practice and recurrent dual instruc-
tion are the ONLY ways to make sure you 19. When landing VFR at a field with one or more
are current, proficient and safe. instrument approaches, keep your approach path
well clear of the instrument approach radio aids.
24. Never exceed the maximum recommended These aids act as funnels for all landing traf-
flap setting for take-off for your aircraft. fic and have a high mid-air collision potential.
20. Use the procedures recommended for
12.2.6 Principles of Safe Landing a precautionary landing when land-
When landing, obey the principles listed below. ing at a small or unfamiliar airstrip.
1. Never land over traffic already
lined up on the runway.
2. On approach, line up with the white center-
line of the runway and stay lined up during
approach, touchdown and rollout.
3. In a crosswind landing, the slip method of alignment
with the centerline of the runway will allow you to
determine if the crosswind is too strong. If you can't
stay lined up by slipping, you cannot land safely.
4. Never land on a runway if the crosswind com-
ponent exceeds your self-imposed maxi-
mum, or the maximum for the aeroplane, or
the maximum for runway conditions.
5. Always fix a land/no land point on the runway. When
you determine you are overshooting, go around.

From the Ground Up·' 30th Edition

Air Safety: Ensuring Safe Outcomes

12.2.? I'M SAFE Checklist 12.3 Ensuring Safe

Reviewing a checklist prior to flight can help a pilot determine
their personal level of fitness to fly. The I'M SAFE checklist Outcomes
is commonly used for such a purpose. The checklist covers
the essential areas of person al fitness expected of pilots. It
n 3,1 Seatbelts &Shoulder Harnesses
is a personal self-assessment that every pilot should perform
prior to undertaking any duties related to a flight. Aircraft must be operated with a seatbelt for each person, (other
than an infant), on board the aircraft. Furthermore, general
Following through with the checklist items should provide
aviation aeroplanes built after July 17, 1978, m ay not be oper-
the pilot with the opportunity to make an informed Go/No-Go
ated without front seats that include a shoulder harness. In the
decision with respect to their personal readiness to undertake
case of aeroplanes manufactured after December 12, 1986, and
the flight that they have planned.
with less than ten passenger seats, each forward or aft-facing
I - Illness - The question to ask oneself is wheth- seat must be equipped w ith a seatbelt that includes a shoulder
er you may have any kind of illness, acute or harness.
chronic, that would, in any way, impair your abil-
Experiments carried out by government testing agencies and by
ity to adequately undertake and successfully
aeroplane m anufacturers have proved conclusively that shoul-
complete your duties as pilot-in-command.
der harnesses provide much more protection than do seatbelts
M - Medication - Be it over-the-counter, prescribed alone. In fact, it is conjectured that, had shoulder harnesses
or recreational, every pilot must ask them selves if been worn, a significant number of victims of aeroplane acci-
their taking of any m edication or drug will adverse- dents may not have been killed.
ly affect their ability to act as pilot-in-command When seatbelts only are worn, the hips becom e a pivot point.
of their aircraft. It is every pilot's obligation to When the aeroplane decelerates suddenly, the upper body
check with a physician to ensure that there are no swings like a pendulum from the hips. The head strikes the
doubts about their ability to perform their pilot- control panel, the control yoke, an instrument control knob,
in-command duties if taking any medications. the windshield or a glare shield resulting in serious and often
S - Stress - Stress, as described in the Chapter Human fatal injury, primarily to the skull and secondarily to the neck.
Factors, can h ave a debilitating effect on both physi- Properly installed shoulder harnesses will restrain the whole
cal and cognitive performance. Every pilot must ask upper torso and prevent these type of fatal injuries.
themselves, prior to undertaking pilot-in-command The pilot is responsible for showing passengers how to fasten
duties, if there are any person al, work-related or other and unfasten seatbelts and shoulder harnesses and should
issues that are causing stress, and if these stressors insist that they be secured during take-offs and landings and,
may be distracting or otherwise impairing of their preferably, throughout the flight. Severe turbulence can be
ability to act effectively as pilot of their aircraft. encountered unexpectedly at any time, even in clear air. Serious
A - Alcohol - As previously noted in the Chapter Human
injury can be prevented if the seatbelt is fastened at all times.
Factors, it is prohibited to have consumed alcohol within Seatbelts should be worn as low as possible across the hips.
12 hours of undertaking pilot-in-command duties. Single strap or double strap shoulder harnesses should be snug,
Simply put, you must never fly if under the influence but not tight, across the chest.
of alcohol. Every pilot should apply a zero-tolerance Child restraint systems can only be used when the weight and
standard to themselves with respect to this rule. height of the infant using the system are within the range speci-
F - Fatigue - Every pilot must ask themselves fied by the system's manufacturer. The system must be properly
if they h ave had sufficient rest in the previ- secured by the seatbelt of a forward-facing seat, and/or as speci-
ous 24 hours. They must ask themselves if they fied by the system's manufacturer.
feel alert. If not, they may be unfit to undertake
the flying duties that they have planned. 123.2 Airbag Restraint Systems
E - Eating and Dri nking - It is important that pilots Airbag restraint systems are certified as standard or optional
are sufficiently hydrated and nourished prior to equipment on a majority of general aviation aeroplanes. They
undertaking pilot-in-command duties. Food is are stored in the seatbelt portion of 3-point restraint systems
fuel for the body and for the brain. Proper nutri- (i.e. with one shoulder strap) and in the shoulder harness of
tion and fluids are essential for the body and 4-point systems (i.e. with two shoulder straps).
mind to operate at their maximum capacities'. When the airbag system's sensors detect an impending inci-
dent, the seatbelt airbag deploys up and away from the seated
occupant, providing protection to the occupant's head, neck
and torso. Protection is, thus, provided for forward impact.
In the case of 3-point restraint systems, the airbag slows the
occupant's forward articulation, reducing loads and forward
head excursion. In the case of 4-point restraint systems, the
airbag slows any forward motion of the occupant while the dual
shoulder harnesses pretention the restraint and stop forward
head excursion. The increased restraint surface area provided
by a 4-point restraint system and airbag also reduces internal
chest loading on the seat occupant, supporting head and neck
in forward impacts as well as side impacts.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Air Safety: Ensuring Safe Outcomes

While airbag restraint system s are typically standard equip-

ment on new aircraft, older aircraft can have such systems
retrofitted to their seatbelt and/or shoulder harness systems.
To meet regulatory requirements, airbag restraint systems
must meet a 26-G deceleration requirement in their design and
operation.
Airbag restraint systems are being incorporated by manufactur-
ers into their aircraft designs such that the airbags are being
housed, "automotive style," in the instrument panel.

12.3.3 Flight Helmets

Helmets exist for flying. Pilots who perform aerial work that
may be considered of higher risk may assess that the wear-
ing of a helmet is a worthy consideration during their piloting
operations.
Helmets serve two m ain purposes: to house communication
equipment and to provide basic head and face protection in
the case of an accident. While regulatory requirements do not
exist for their use, accident research - particularly from studies
done of accidents in the U.S. State of Alaska - has shown that
by their wearing of a helmet, pilot lives have been saved in acci-
dents that may otherwise have been fatal. Specifically, helmet
use will reduce skull and facial bone injuries that remain the
h igher percentage injuries suffered by pilots involved in avia-
tion accidents.
Helmets used in aviation are typically worn by pilots engaged
in utility flying, such as banner-towing, pipeline patrol, crop
dusting, or any type of flying that requires low-level work.
Backcountry, or bush style operations are also higher-risk
environments wherein the wearing of a helmet may confer
enhanced injury protection for pilots and cabin occupants.
A correctly fitted and secured flight helmet can significantly
reduce injuries and save lives in the event of a mishap. To be
effective, the helmet must be adjusted to fit the head, and the
chin strap must be fastened securely to prevent the helmet from
coming off during an initial impact. Flight helmets are now light
weight. They are designed with noise attenuating ear protection
or are shaped to accommodate noise cancelling headsets.

12.3.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Detectors

As described in the Chapter Human Factors, carbon monoxide
(CO) infiltrating into the cockpit will cause seriously h armful
effects on aeroplane occupants via its effective disabling of
hemoglobin and its resultant insidious depriving of the body of
oxygen. It is, therefore, highly advisable that aircraft carry CO
detectors in the cockpit to notify pilots at the earliest possible
opportunity that CO is present and that immediate action must
be taken to avoid the risk of pilot incapacitation.
It is recommended that if a CO detector shows an inflight CO
concentration of 10 parts per million (ppm), then the pilot
should take action to determine its source and eliminate it. If
the concentration level reaches 35 ppm, it is advisable that the
pilot land as soon as practicable and, if they have the benefit
of its on-board presence, th at they use supplemental oxygen
while doing so.
To facilitate the reading of a CO detector's display, a digital read-
out is beneficial combined with an aural alarm th at notifies
the pilot that a CO level of concern has been identified by the
detector. It is, thus, wise that a CO detector be placed where the
pilot can easily see its read-out, and where they can incorporate
it into their regular cockpit panel scan, and hear its auditory
alarm should it be triggered.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Air Safety: Ensuring Safe Outcomes

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

Overview of Appendices
Appendix A
Examination Guide .. 359
Study Material 359
Sample Examination Questions .361

Appendix B
Wx Chart .. . ........... 377

Appendix C
Glossary .... 379
Abbreviations .. . ................... 387
The VSpeeds.. . .............. 391
Turbine Technology... 391
Conversion Tables .. 392

Appendix D
Index .. . ....... 393

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 Appendix A

for pilots to reference on an on-going basis throughout their

Appendix A flying careers.

Canadian Examinations
Examination Guide Private Pilot Licence - Aeroplane. The written examination for
a Private Pilot's Licence in Canada consists of a single paper of
100 questions made up of 20 questions on air law, 20 questions
The sample examination questions which appear in this on navigation (which includes airways and cross-country
appendix are based on both the Private and Commercial Pilot procedures), 30 questions on meteorology and 30 questions on
Examination Guides. They are designed to assist you in pre- general knowledge (which includes theory of flight, engines,
paring for your own examination. It cannot be too strongly airframes and general airmanship).
emphasized that they are sample questions only, not the
actual questions which you will be called upon to answer - Commercial Pilot Licence - Aeroplane. The Commercial Pilot's
so do not attempt to memorize the answers. The questions examination con sists also of one paper of 100 questions on the
are offered merely as a guide to the subject matter on which following subjects: Canadian Aviation Regulations, air traffic
they are based. Study that subject matter until you know it rules and procedures, navigation, flight planning, radio aids
sufficiently well to be prepared to answer any question of to navigation, meteorology, theory of flight, aircraft operating
a similar nature which could possibly be constructed on an procedures, airframes and aero engines, airmanship.
examination paper. Readers from countries outside of Canada Recreational Pilot Permit - Aeroplane. The RPP requires that
should refer to their respective national aviation authorities the applicant complete not less than 25 hours of flight train-
or flight schools for appropriate examination and licencing ing and pass an examination composed of 80 questions, 20 on
requirements. each of the following subjects: air law, navigation, meteorolo-
Always read the statement first. Be sure you understand what gy and general knowledge (which includes airframes, engines
it means. Decide the correct answer in your own mind (or and systems, theory of flight, flight instruments, flight opera-
plot it if it is a problem) before you look at the multiple choice tions and human factors). The holder of a Recreational Pilot
answers. Then select the answer which most nearly coincides Permit is authorized to fly single-engine, piston-powered,
with your own reasoning. non-high performance aircraft with a maximum of four
seats; is authorized to fly landplanes or seaplanes, or both, as
The correct one of the four multiple choice answers is identi- endorsed, day VFR within Canada; m ay carry not more than
fied for all the questions in the table of answers following one passenger.
the final question. Mark your selection of the correct answer
before you consult the table. Ultralight Pilot Permit - Aeroplane. The applicant for an ultra-
light pilot permit must h ave at least 10 h ours of flight time
Do not be discouraged if your answer does not exactly agree including 5 hours of dual instruction and 2 hours of solo.
with the one which appears in this textbook. Every effort is The examination consists of 80 questions and includes the
made to keep this publication completely up-to-date by con- subject, emergency procedures, in addition to the subjects for
stant revision but ch anges occur so fast that it is difficult to RPP (see above).
keep pace with them all.
Student Pilot Permit or Private Pilot Licence for Foreign and
Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) are also subject to Military Applicants, Air Regulation Examination (PSTAR). All
endless change. No attempt has been made in this textbook student pilots (with the exception of ultralight and glider pilot
to reproduce these regulations in their entirety although applicants) must write the PSTAR examination before being
some of the regulations have been outlined in the Chapter issued their student pilot permits. The exam consists of 50
Aeronautical Rules & Procedures. The CAR's are divided into questions on the following subject areas: Canadian Aviation
eight Parts. Each Part incorporates all regulations relating Regulations, air traffic control clearances and instruction s,
to a particular area of aviation, as follows: Part I General air traffic control procedures as they apply to the control of
Provisions; Part II Identification, Registration and Leasing of VFR traffic, air traffic procedures at uncontrolled airports and
Aircraft; Part III Aerodromes and Airports; Part IV Personnel aerodromes, special VFR regulations, Information Circulars
Licensing and Training; Part V Airworthiness; Part VI General and NOTAM. The pass mark is 90%.
Operating and Flight Rules; Part VII Commercial Air Services;
Part VIII Air Navigation Services. It is important for a student Restricted Radio Operator's Licence. In addition to the knowl-
pilot to study the regulations, with particular reference to the edge of radio aids required to obtain either a Private or
sections which apply to the type of licence towards which he/ Commercial Pilot's Licence, a Restricted Radio Operator's
she is working (i.e. private, commercial, recreational, ultra- Licence is required to operate an aircraft radio transmitter.
light, etc.). The examination for the licence consists of a few simple
questions to ensure that you understand how to operate
A.I.M. Canada (Aeronautical Information Manual) is a receiving and transmitting equipment, th at you know the
Transport Canada publication in which all information of regulations applicable to radiotelephone communications and
interest to pilots and navigators is consolidated. Amendments procedures, and that you know the radio regulations relating
are published and distributed twice annually. The publica- to distress, urgency and safety. You are not required to know
tion contains information on aerodromes, communications, morse code or to understand electronic circuits.
meteorology, rules of the air and air traffic services, facilit a-
tion, search and rescue, aeronautical charts , licensing, regis-
tration and airworthiness and airman ship. The publication Study Material
is intended to consolidate in one publication all preflight In addition to this textbook, A.I.M. Canada, the Canadian
reference information required by pilots in planning flights. It Aviation Regulations, there are several booklets that are very
incorporates in plain language a description of the Canadian helpful in preparing for the written pilot examination.
Aviation Regulations. The A.I.M. is a very useful document

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

 Appendix A

Sample Examination for Private Pilot Licence - Aeroplane (TP

13014). A sm all booklet containing questions typical of those
found in current Transport Canada examinations. Because
this booklet is prepared by the au thorities who set the civil
pilot examinations, it is a good guide to a candidate preparing
to sit for an examination.
Study and Reference Guide for the PSTAR Examination (TP
11919E) contains over 200 questions typical of those found in
the PSTAR examination.
Study and Reference Guide for Private Pilot and Commercial
Pilot Licences (TP 12880 & TP 12881). A complete syllabus
of Canadian pilot examination requirements. Outlines the
subject m atter and degree of knowledge required to pass the
Transport Canada examinations in the following subjects:
aviation regulations, airframes and engines, theory of flight,
flight instruments, meteorology, navigation and radio aids,
and flight operations.
These publications are available from Transport Canada, and
can be downloaded from the Transport Canada website.
The Canada Air Pilot, while not a "must" for examination
requirements, contains extremely valuable information for
both VFR and !FR operations, and should be in the possession
of all Commercial and Airline Transport Pilots in Canada. It
is published in seven volumes and contains complete and
detailed data on instrument approach and landing proce-
dures. Aerodrome charts show airport runways, radio aids,
field data, ground facilities, etc.
The above publication is obtainable from NavCanada.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ,...- www.av1at1onpublishers.com

 Appendix A

10 The ratio of the lift being provided by the wings of an

Sample Examination Questions aeroplane to the weight of the aeroplane is called
1 the com pression ratio.
1 You are to make a 200 nautical mile VFR fli ght to anoth-
2 t he load factor.
er aerodrome. Which of these do cuments do you not
3 t he aspect ratio.
need to have on board the aeroplane?
4 the power load.
1 The journey log of the aeropl ane.
2 The certificate of registration of the aeropl ane.
11 VA, the design m aneuvering speed , is not indicated on
3 The certificate of liability insurance.
the airspeed indicator, but can be found in the Pilot's
4 The weight & bal ance repo rt for t he aeroplane.
Operating Handbook. This airspeed is important because
it is the recommended airspeed to be used when
2 When operating in accordance w ith VFR, aeroplanes
1 maneuveri ng wit h both the landing gear and wing fl aps
may not be flown extended.
1 inside control zones. 2 flying in extremely rough ai r or severe turbu lence.
2 over an unbroken layer of clou d. 3 flying the traffic circuit.
3 outside designated airways . 4 maxim um range (m iles per gallon of fuel) is desired.
4 in Class D Airspace .

3 A private pilot m ay conduct a fli gh t without visu al refer-

9-~
ence to the ground or water if
1 endorsed for instrument f light. 8 ,___ ~

2 the fli ght is conducted in Class B airspace.

3 outs ide of controlled airspace . 7
4 cleared for Special VFR.
'5
,t"'
(> 6 I
,_o~
4 Except when taking off or landing, an aeroplane m ay not
be flown lower than _ _ over an aerodrome, unless ~.,.v s
J
'11"0
otherw ise directed by the ATC unit . ...,o
4
J
1
2
1,000 feet.
500 feet. I
3 2,000 feet.
4 3,000 feet. /
i..-- v
5 You are flying at night at 3,000 ft and observe the white
light of an aeropl ane at approximately your altitude
at your 12 o'clock position. If there is a possibility of 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
collision BANK- IN DEGREES

1 you must alter course to the ri ght. Appx. 1 Load Factors at Different Angles of Bank
2 the ot her pilot must climb at least 500 ft.
3 you must alter course to the left. 12 Referring to the Load Factor Chart in Appx.1 , if the max-
4 the other pi lot mu st alter course to hi s or he r left. imum fli ght load fac tor permitted for an aeroplane is 3.8,
wh at is the maximum bank at constant altitude and at
6 When approaching to land, the right-of-way is given to m aximum gross weight which could be made without
1 faster aeroplanes . exceeding this load factor?
2 ae rop lanes at lowe r altitude. 1 About 67°.
3 slower ae ropl anes. 2 Less than 50°.
4 jet aeroplanes . 3 Abou t 76°.
4 Not over 7.6G.
7 All facts relating to m aintenance, repairs, new installa-
tions and m odifications mus t be recorded in the
13 A torsion stress is caused by
1 Certificate of Ai rwort hiness.
1 bending.
2 Pilot 's Operating Handbook .
2 stretch ing.
3 Aircra ft Jou rn ey Log.
3 corrosio n.
4 Aircra ft Technica l Log.
4 twist ing.

8 A crack in the skin of a m onocoque fu selage

14 The five principal fac tors which affect the magnitude of
1 might affect the stress ca pability of th e structure.
lift and drag of an aeroplane wing are
2 will not affect the stress ca pability of th e st ructure.
1 angle of attac k, thru st , gross weight, airspeed, air density.
3 increases the load factor.
2 angle of att ack , gro ss weight, lift coeffi cient, shape of the
4 will cause flutter.
airfo il, wind veloci ty.
3 angle of attack , shape of t he airfoil , aspect ratio, coeffi cient
9 A device fitt ed to a control surfa ce to relieve control of lift , gro ss weight.
pressure on that control sur face is called a/an 4 angle of att ack, shape of the airfoil , wing area, ai rspeed , air
1 trim tab. density.
2 rudder.
3 mass ba lance.
4 adjustable stab il izer.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

 Appendix A

15 When an aircraft is flying in straight-and-level flight, at 24 An aeroplane that exhibits positive stability on the lon-
a constant airspeed, gitudinal axis and neutral stability on the lateral axis
1 weight and thrust equal lift. would correct
2 drag equals lift and weight equals thrust. 1 a pitch displacement, but would require positive correction
3 weight equals drag and thrust equals lift. of a roll.
4 lift equals weight and drag equals thrust. 2 a roll displacement, but would require positive correction of
a pitch.
3 a yaw displacement, but would require positive correction
16 The relative wind affects an aeroplane's of a pitch.
1 angle of incidence. 4 a pitch displacement, but would require positive correction
2 dihedral angle. of a yaw.
3 coefficient of drag.
4 angle of attack. 25 Lateral stability is improved by
1 a positive dihedral angle of the wings.
17 When the angle of attack of the wing is in creased to the 2 balanced controls.
point where the w ing stalls, the centre of pressure will 3 offsetting the vertical fin.
1 move forward and then rearward. 4 a high aspect ratio wing.
2 move forward.
3 remain stationary. 26 In comparison with a take-off and climb under calm
4 move rearward and then forward. conditions, climbing at the same airspeed into a head
wind
18 What is profile drag? 1 lowers the angle of attack.

1 Form drag plus skin friction.

2 increases the rate of climb.
2 Drag produced by a positive angle of attack. 3 requires more power from the engine.
3 Drag produced by wing tip vortices. 4 increases the angle of climb.
4 Drag produced by the generation of lift.
27 Three aeroplanes are making co-ordinated, 40° banked
turns at a constant altitude. Aeroplane A is flying at 100
19 The best lift/drag ratio is achieved when knots, B at 150 knots and C at 200 knots. Which of the
1 gliding for maximum endurance. following statements is correct?
2 gliding for maximum range. 1 C has the greatest rate and largest radius of turn.
3 climbing at best rate of climb airspeed. 2 A has the greatest rate and smallest radius of turn .
4 climbing at best angle of climb airspeed.
3 B's rate of turn and radius of turn is the same as A's and
C's.
20 When an aeroplane is flying very near the ground and 4 A, Band C have the same rate of turn, but C has the largest
influenced by ground effect, radius of turn.
1 wing tip vortices are strengthened.
2 skin friction is reduced. 28 An aeroplane which has a straight-and-level stalling
3 induced drag is reduced. speed of 70 knots is in a 60° banked turn. The stalling
4 parasite drag is reduced. speed in the turn is
1 70 knots.
21 On certain aeroplanes, the manufacturer recommends 2 75 knots.
the use of flaps during take-off. Flaps, under these 3 99 knots.
circumstances,
4 140 knots.
1 increase the upper camber of the wing and produce more lift.
2 decrease the upper camber of the wing and produce more 29 If a thin coating of frost or light snow has formed on
lift.
the wings of an aeroplane, the take-off should not be
3 permit a better angle of climb.
attempted until it has been removed because
4 permit a higher take-off speed.
1 the coating will disturb the airflow over the wings and
destroy some of the lifting capability.
22 The motion of an aeroplane about its normal axis is
2 the cold air has contracted the covering of the wings, thus
known as changing the airfoil section.
1 yawing. 3 the added weight could have overloaded the aeroplane.
2 looping. 4 the cold could have increased the density of the fuel and oil,
3 rolling. making the engine less powerful.
4 pitching.

30 An aeroplane stalls at an indicated airspeed of 60 knots

23 A mass of streamlined shape fitted in front of the hinge at sea level. At 10,000 ft ASL, the aeroplane, at the same
of a control surface is incorporated to weight, stalls at
1 reduce the force needed to move the control surface. 1 an indicated airspeed of 60 knots.
2 counteract adverse yaw. 2 a true airspeed of 60 knots.
3 reduce the effect of fu ll deflection of the control surface. 3 an indicated airspeed of 70 knots.
4 counteract flutter. 4 a true airspeed lower than the indicated airs peed.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited _.......- www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix A

31 When an aeroplane is in a spin (autorotation), the down- 38 In a piston engine, the camshaft
going wing 1 rotates at half the speed of the crankshaft.
1 is more affected by the angle of incidence. 2 rotates at twice the speed of the crankshaft.
2 has a lesser angle of attack than the upgoing wing. 3 rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft.
3 has the same angle of attack as the upgoing wing. 4 is independent of the crankshaft.
4 has a greater angle of attack than the upgoing wi ng.
39 The volume of the cylinder at the bottom of the com-
32 An aeroplane flying at 10,000 ft ASL in the Altimeter pression stroke compared to the volume at the top of the
Setting Region should have its altimeter set to stroke is called
1 29.92 inches of mercury. 1 the compression ratio .
2 the altimeter setting of the nearest aerodrome. 2 the piston displacement.
3 the altimeter setting of the destination aerodrome . 3 the volumetric efficiency.
4 the altimeter setting of the departure aerodrome. 4 the mean effective pressure .

33 If a pitot pressure source becomes blocked by dirt, water 40 When a check of the dip stick indicates the need for two
or ice, inaccurate readings will occur in the litres of oil, the attendant tells you that only detergent
1 attitude indicator. type oil is available. This means that
2 vertica l speed indicator. 1 it can be used only in engines with su itable filters and flex-
3 altimeter. ible oi l lines.
4 airspeed ind icator. 2 it is the latest type of oi l and should always be used when
available.
3 it shou ld never be used in engines over 125 hp.
4 the oil contains additives and should be added only to the
same type of oil.

w x y z 41 Which of the following is not a purpose of oil in a piston

engine on an aeroplane?
Appx.2 Altimeters 1 Producing fluid drag to increase the output power of the
engine.

34 Of the four altimeters illustrated in Appx.2, select the 2 Sealing between the piston rings and the cylinder wall.
one that indicates an altitude of 880 feet. 3 Separating moving parts within the engine.
1 y 4 Cooling the engine by carrying away heat.

2 w
3 z 42 Using gasoline with a lower octane rating than that rec -
4 x ommended for a reciprocating engine may cause
1 detonation.
2 rough operation and lower manifold pressure .
COLOUR CODE 3 pre-ignition and increased output.
~WHITE 4 the spark plugs to foul.

~YELLOW
43 In a four-stroke, reciprocating engine, fuel is drawn from
- GREEN the carburetor float chamber into the engine by means
- RED of
1 a Venturi effect.
2 an acceleration pump.
Appx.3 Airspeed Indicator 3 a turbocharger.
4 a fuel pump.
35 For the airspeed indicator in Appx.3, VNo is
1 the upper lim it of the yellow arc. 44 At cruise power, above 5,000 ft, it is generally advisable
2 38 knots less than V"' . to lean the engine to "lean best power" to
3 the upper lim it of the white arc . 1 achieve economy of fuel consumption.
4 140 knots (the midpoint of the yellow arc). 2 prevent carburetor icing.
3 prevent detonation.
36 The airspeed indicator in Appx.3 indicates that full flaps 4 cool the engine.
may be deployed at speeds below
1 88 knots. 45 An exhaust gas temperature (EGT) display for a piston
2 100 knots. engine allows the pilot to
3 122 knots. 1 detect whether ca rbon monoxide is leaking from the exhaust
4 160 knots. gases into the cockpit.
2 detect icing in the fuel lines.
37 In a reciprocating engine operating on a four-stroke 3 adjust the fueljair mixture accurately.
cycle, during the compression stroke, 4 check for the presence of carburetor icing.

1 both valves are closed.

2 the intake valve is closed and the exhaust valve is open.
46 Carburetor ice may be detected by
3 both valves are open. 1 an increase in rpm.
4 the exhaust valve is closed and the intake valve is open. 2 a decrease in manifold pressure.
3 a decrease in exhaust gas temperature.
4 an increase in cylinder head temperatures.

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

 Appendix A

47 If carburetor ice is present, the restriction to airflow 55 If your aeroplane has a maximum angle of climb at a
frequently causes the mixture to become rich and some speed of 82 knots but the manufacturer recommends
power is lost. Applying carburetor heat w ill sometimes climbing at 87 knots, the most probable reason for the
cause a further loss of power. If this happens, you higher recommended airspeed would be
should 1 danger of stalling in a climb at the lower airspeed.
1 leave full carburetor heat applied until all ice is dissipated. 2 to maintain a higher head temperature at the higher
2 turn carburetor heat off and adjust the mixture control to airspeed.
obtain maximum rpm. 3 to obtain better visibility with the nose lowered.
3 turn carburetor heat off and open the throttle to obtain 4 to obtain better cooling of the engine.
desired power.
4 decrease the amount of carburetor heat until the rpm 56 What is the most commonly recommended practice for
increases.
preventing condensation in the fuel tanks ?
1 Drain a half litre of fuel from t he tank sumps each night.
48 One of the principal advantages of the fuel injection
2 Fill each fuel tank after every flight.
system is
3 Strain all fuel put into the tanks.
1 better general performance.
4 Install a quick drain gascolator.
2 higher horsepower.
3 impossibility of carburetor icing.
57 A layer of dark grey cloud from which continuous rain or
4 economy of fuel consumption.
snow falls is called
1 cirrostratus.
49 A device that uses the energy of the hot exhaust gases
2 nimbostratus.
to supply the engine with dense air at high altitude is
3 altostratus.
called
4 cumulonimbus.
1 a turbocharger.
2 a supercharger.
58 When flying through a layer of nimbostratus, an instru-
3 an augmentor system.
ment-rated pilot encounters sudden severe turbulence.
4 a carburetor.
The most probable cause is
1 embedded altocumulus.
50 When the magneto switch is in the OFF position,
2 embedded cirrocumulus.
1 the electrical components installed in the aeroplane will not
3 embedded stratocumulus.
operate .
4 embedded towering cumulus or cumulonimbus.
2 the contact breaker points are closed.
3 the primary circuit of the magneto is grounded to the
airframe. 59 The tropopause is lower
4 the current in the magneto's secondary circuit is directed to 1 over the north pole than over the equator.
the battery. 2 in summer than in winter.
3 over the equator than over the north pole.
51 During a flight at normal cruising speed, if one magneto 4 south of the j et stream than north of it.
of a dual ignition system failed completely, it would nor-
mally cause 60 The clouds which appear, in sequence, in advance of an
1 a small decrease in engine rpm. approaching warm front are
2 excessive vibration of the engine. 1 altostratus, cumulus, cumulonimbus and nimbostratus.
3 considerable extra load on the other magneto. 2 cumulus, cumulonimbus, and nimbostratus.
4 the engine to overheat. 3 cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus and nimbostratus.
4 cirrus, cumulonimbus and nimbostratus.
52 Coarse pitch of a constant-speed propeller
1 should be selected for landing. 61 A low pressure area in the Northern Hemisphere is
2 is used for take-off. 1 a region of relatively low pressure with the lowest pressure
3 is used when flying at high altitudes. at the centre.
4 is used for cruise. 2 a region of relatively low pressure with t he highest pressure
at the centre.
3 also called an anticyclone.
53 For taking off and landing in an aeroplane with a con-
4 a region in which the winds blow clockwise.
stant speed propeller, the propeller is set to full
1 coarse pitch which provides the maximum rpm.
62 A steep pressure gradient indicates
2 coarse pitch which provides the minimum rpm.
1 rising pressure.
3 fine pitch which provides the maximum rpm.
2 calm air.
4 fine pitch which provides the minimum rpm.
3 light winds.
4 strong winds.
54 Before starting a cold piston engine, the handbook may
recommend pulling the propeller through manually sev-
eral times. This is normally to 63 An aeroplane is flying in the Northern Hemisphere at
10,000 ft ASL on a track of 200°. To maintain this track,
1 allow fuel to rea ch the carburetor, to prevent the engine
"kicking-back" when starting. the pilot is holding a heading of 185°. An area of low
2 build up adequate compression for starting. pressure exists
3 pull fuel into the engine, to break any seal created by water 1 behind the aeroplane.
having frozen in the fuel lines. 2 ahead of the aeroplane .
4 loosen congealed oil and partially to prime the engine. 3 to the right of track.
4 to the left of the track.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix A

64 At night, as the sides of the hills or mountains cool, t he 73 A front is

a ir in contact w ith them t ends to become de n ser a nd 1 a line of thunde rstorms.
blows d own the slope into the valley. This w ind is calle d 2 a narrow transition zone between a cyclone and an
1 a mountain wave. anticyclone.
2 a katabatic wind. 3 a mass of layer cloud which is very thick and which covers a
wide area.
3 an anabatic wind.
4 a land breeze.
4 a narrow transition zone between two air masses.

65 You a re flying on a westerly h eading and encounte r a 74 Th e cloud a nd p recipitation that ofte n develop at a cold
range of mountain s lying in a north to south line. If you front are cau sed by
atte mpt to fly through a saddle on a westerly heading 1 cold air being heated as it moves over the warm ground.

with the wind from the west, you would expect 2 convergence.
3 warm air being forced aloft by the advancing cold air.
1 to lose altitude rapidly on the west side of the saddle .
2 to gain altitude rapidly on the east side of the saddle . 4 cold air climbing over the warm air.
3 to lose altitude rapidly on the east side of the saddle.
4 to lose altitude rapidly while in the saddle. 75 In order for clouds to form in the atmosphere, relative
humidity must be _ _, there must b e _ _ of the air
66 Lenticular clouds are usually associated with and__ must be pre sent.
1 a warm front. 1 low, cooling, coalescence.
2 a cold front. 2 low, heating, coalesce nce.
3 a mountain wave. 3 high, cooli ng, condensation nuclei.
4 an inversion. 4 high, heating, condensation nuclei.

67 A sudden, violent change in the speed or d irection of the 76 Which type of fog is being described here? "It forms
w ind that can severely change an aeroplane's perfor- overnight as t h e a ir near the ground cools and stabilizes.
mance is called W h en this cooling causes the air to reach saturation, fog
1 wind shear. for ms, initially a t or near the surface, t h ickening as the
2 wind tip vortices. air continues to cool."
3 clear air turbulence. 1 Radiation fog.
4 diurnal variation. 2 Advection fog.
3 Steam fog.
68 W h e n unsatura ted a ir is forced to r ise, the exp a n s io n 4 Upslope fog.
of the r ising air cau ses it to cool. The r at e of cooling is
called 77 Th e 11:002 METAR for an airport included the term "FG".
1 the environmental lapse rate and is 1.98°C per 1,000 ft. A SPEC! was issued at 11:052 and the term had changed
2 the dry adiabatic lapse rate and is approximately 3°C per to "BR". This indicates that, between the two reports,
1,000 ft. 1 visibility had become limited by drifting snow.
3 radiation cooling and is 3°C per 1 ,000 ft. 2 the fog had dissipated and snow pellets were now fal ling.
4 the wet adiabatic lapse rate and is approximately 2°C per 3 visibility had reduced significantly.
1,000 ft.
4 the visibility had increased to at least 1 km.

69 The amount of water vapour that a given volume of air

78 Hoar frost forms on an aeroplane as a result of
can hold at a given pressure is governed by
1 freezing rain striking the aeroplane.
1 the environmental lapse rate.
2 supercooled water droplets freezing on impact.
2 its relative humidity.
3 water vapour condensing on the aeroplane and then
3 its stability. freezing.
4 its temperature. 4 water vapour turning directly into ice crystals.

70 In certain circumstances, air at higher altitudes may be 79 As a thunderstorm mature s, strong downdr afts develop
warmer tha n t h e air below it. This is calle d and cold air rush ing downwards from t h e cloud spreads
1 convection. along the surface well in advance of t h e st orm it self.
2 a lapse rate reversal. This is calle d
3 radiation. 1 a microburst.
4 an inversion. 2 the gust front.
3 thunderstorm turbulence.
71 Select t h e correct statement from t he followin g. 4 virga.
1 Visibility is always good in stable air.
2 An isothermal layer favours vertical motion. 80 Mechanical turbulence is the result of
3 A shallow lapse rate indicates unstable air. 1 diurnal variation of wind.
4 Vertical currents develop readily in unstable air. 2 friction between the air and objects on the ground.
3 orographic lift.
72 An a ir mass may be defined as a large section of the _ _ 4 convection.
w ith u n ifor m prope r ties of _ _ a n d _ _ .
1 troposphere; temperature; moisture.
2 troposphere; stability; moisture.
3 tropopause; stability; pressure.
4 stratosphere; temperature; pressure.

From the Ground Up 30th Edition

 Appendix A

81 The contour lines drawn on a 700 hPa upper air analysis for use 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000
ch art join places h aving the same
17-21 2 9 22-25 2523-25 2329-28 1336-37
1 temperature.
21-06 3231-24 3127-29 3029-32 2 944-36
2 wind direction.
3 pressure. 06-17 3435-23 3441-27 3364-26 3 2 86-34
4 altitude.
Appx.6 Upper Wind Foreca st (Schefferville, Quebec)

-2q'i 853 86 Referring to the upper winds forecast (FD) in Appx.6 , t h e

wind direction and speed above Schefferville at 9,000 ft

24*~ +28 ./
ASL at 23:00Z is forecast to be approximately
1 31 knots blowing towards 270°.
2 27 knots blowing from 310°.
3 31 knots blowing from 270°.
-6 --- 6 • 4 4 27 knots blowing towards 310°.

3 .45 87 Why does the upper wind forecast for Schefferville in

Appx.6 have no entry for 3,000 ft?
Appx.4 Sample Station Model 1 Because there is expected to be no difference in wind
speeds and direction between 3,000 ft and 6,000 ft .
82 Referring to th e station model in Appx.4 , the tempera - 2 Because winds close to the ground are affected by fri ction
and their direction cannot be forecast.
ture of the station is _ , the dewpoint is _ , the wind
3 Because Schefferville is higher than 1,500 ft ASL.
is from _ and the barometric pressure is _ .
4 Because winds at 3,000 ft are not included in upper wind
1 24, 6, NE, 853.0 hPa. forecast.
2 -6, 3, NW, 1028.0"Hg.
3 -2, -6, NW, 985.3 hPa. 88 Using the information in App x.6 , what is the forecas t
4 -6, 02, W, 985.3 hPa. environmental lapse rate between 6,000 ft and 12,000 ft
over Schefferville at 08:00Z?
Sample METARs 1 About half a degree per thousand feet.
CYYC 071300 36020KT 15SM SKC 09/02 A3012 2 3° per 1,000 ft.
CYQL 071300 36010KT 8SM OVC250 09/02 A3003 3 26° per 1,000 ft.
4 Just over 2° per 1,000 ft.
CYXH 071300 0202SG30KT 10SM FEW020 OVC090 10/06 A2992
CYQR 071300 31020G2SKT 4SM -RA BKN015 OVC850 09/08 A2976
89 Using the information in Appx.6 , which of the following
CYYC: Calgary CYQL: Lethbridge CYXH: Medicine Hat CYQR: Regina statements is true for the Schefferville area at 08:00Z?
1 The atmosphere over Scheffervill e is stable.
Appx.5 Sample METARs 2 The wind veers at increasing altitudes .
3 The atmosphere over Schefferville is unstab le.
83 In METARs, cloud heights a re reported in h undreds of 4 There is a temperature inversion up to 9,000
feet above
1 MSL (mean sea level). The following aerodrome forecasts were issued at 1040Z
2 the surface at the observation station. and are valid from 1100Z on the date of issue to 1100Z on
3 the highest obstruction within 5 statute miles of the perim- the followi n g day.
eter of the airport.
4 the highest terrain within a radius of 25 statute miles of the TAF CYYC 02015KT P6SM SKC
observation station.
TAF CYQL 36025KT P6SM OVC030 FM071600 31010KT P6SM
SCT020 BKN060
84 Consider the METARs in Appx.5. In Calgary's METAR, the
terms SKC and A3012 mean TAF CYXH 36020KT SSM OVC030 FM071400 01015G25KT
1 there are no clouds and the sea-level pressure at CYYC is SSM SCT040 BKN080
30.12 inches of mercury.
2 there are no clouds below 12,000 ft AGL and the altimeter TAF CYQR 31025KT 4SM -TSRA OVC015 FM071800
setting is 30.12 inches of mercury. 36015G25KT SSM SCT0030 BKN090
3 there are no clouds below 12,000 ft ASL and the altimeter CYYC: Calgary CYQL: Lethbridge CYX H: Medic ine Hat CYQR: Reg in a
setting is 30.12 inches of mercury.
4 there are no cloud s and the station pressure at CYYC is Appx.7 Sample TAFs
30.12 inches of mercury.

85 Consider the METARs in Appx.S. The reported weather 90 In Appx.7, the TAF for Medicine Hat predicts surface
condition at Regina is winds with the sky_ __ .
1 very light freezing rain . 1 from 200° at 36 knots; overcast at 300 ft AGL.
2 light rain. 2 from the north at 20 knots; overcast at 3,000 ft AGL.
3 moderate rain. 3 from the south at 25 knots ; overcast at 3,000 ft AG L.
4 light snow showers. 4 from 020° at 20 knots ; overcast at 3,000 ft ASL.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix A

91 Consider Appx.5 and Appx.7 which are for the same day. 98 Associate the following terms with the appropriate
How does the actual weather at 13:002 at Medicine Hat definitions.
compare with that forecast for that time? A line connecting points of equal
1 The forecast thunderstorms have not occurred. A Isogonic Line w pressure on a surface analysis
2 The ceiling is lower than was forecast. chart.
3 The temperature is higher than was forecast. A line on a chart joining points
4 The change in the winds and cloud layers has occurred ear-
B Isobar x of zero variation.
lier than was forecast.
A line on a chart joining points
c Agonic Line y
of equal variation.
92 By referring to the 1:500,000 chart at the back of the
book, identify the geographical co-ordinates for Orillia A line on a chart joining
Airport.
D Isother z places or points having equal
temperatures.
1 44°41'N, 079°19' E.
2 45°20' N, 078°49 'W.
1 A-Y, 8-W, C-X, D-Z.
3 44°41'N, 079°39'W.
2 A-X , 8-W, C-X, D-Z .
4 44°41' N, 079°19'W.
3 A-W, 8-X , C-Z, D-Y.
4 A-Y, 8-Z , C-W, D-X.
93 The CFS entry for Vancouver International Airport notes
that the time in CYVR is "UTC-8(7)". In the summer,
99 In the vicinity of each magnetic pole there is an area
what is the Zulu time when the clocks in Van couver read
1 in which all aeroplanes must be under positive control.
10:45?
2 in which you must reset the heading indicator every 3
1 17:45Z.
minutes.
2 18:45Z. 3 in which the compass is unreliable.
3 02:45Z. 4 in which GPS position readings are inaccurate.
4 03:45Z.

100 Which of the following are true for a Lambert Conformal

94 A curved line on the surface of the earth that cuts all Conical chart projection as used for VNCs?
meridians at the same angle is called a/an
A Lines of latitude and longitude are straight and cross each
1 grivation. other at right angles.
2 azimuth line. B Lines of longitude are converging lines crossing the curved
3 rhumb line. lines of latitude at right angles.
4 great circle. c A straight line on the chart approximately represents a great
circle.
95 Magnetic variation is D A straight line on the chart represents a rhumb line.
1 errors in the compass caused by the magnetic field from Scale errors are small, and so the sca le may be considered
metal in the aeroplane frame and engine. constant over a single VNC sheet.
1 A- C-D
2 the angle between true north and magnetic north at any
given point on the earth. 2 8-C-E
3 the difference between true track and magnetic track. 3 A-D-E
4 the difference between the magnetic track and the mag- 4 8-D - E
netic heading of the aeroplane.
101 A chart scale is 1:500,000. This means that 1 cm on the
96 In the Northern Hemisphere, if your aeroplane is on a chart is equivalent to
northerly heading and if you turn towards the east or 1 500 km on the ground.
the west, the compass reading 2 50 nautical miles on the ground.
1 will initially lead or indicate a turn in the opposite direction. 3 5 nautical miles on the ground.
2 is inversely proportional to the magnetic variation for the 4 5 km on the ground .
particular area.
3 will initially lag or indicate a turn in the opposite direction. 102 Which of these statements is true?
4 will be correct if the turn is perfectly co-ordinated.
1 The reciprocal of 115° is 225°.
2 The direction NE is 090°.
97 In an aeroplane flying straight-and-level, the magnetic 3 To turn right 90° from a heading of 145° would be a turn to
compass will indicate a turn to the left when 235°.
1 accelerating on a heading of 270°. 4 The reciprocal of 267° is 117°.
2 accelerating on a heading of 000°.
3 decelerating on a heading of 270°. 103 You plan to conduct a flight from Lindsay (N44° 22'
4 decelerating on a heading of 090°. W78°47') to Collingwood (N44° 27' W80° 09') at an air-
speed of 120 kts . The wind is forecast to be from 300° at
20 knots. Referring to the 1:500,000 map in the back of
the book, calculate the magnetic heading to steer and
the anticipated groundspeed.
1 279°M and 139 knots.
2 271°M and 101 knots.
3 281°M and 139 knots.
4 289°M and 101 knots.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

 Appendix A

104 What is the distance from Lindsay to Collingwood? 112 Runways are lighted at night by two parallel lines of __
1 118 statute miles. lights; taxiways by two parallel lines of _ lights.
2 59 nautical miles. 1 white; blue.
3 59 statute miles. 2 white; green.
4 68 nautical miles. 3 green; white.
4 white; red.
105 Based on the distance and anticipated groundspeed
from previous questions, how long should the flight to 113 Where taxiway holding positions have not been estab-
Collingwood take? lished, an aeroplane waiting to enter an active runway
1 70 minutes. should hold
2 35 minutes. 1 at the edge of the runway.
3 30 minutes. 2 at least 200 feet from the edge of the runway.
4 41 minutes. 3 behind the threshold line.
4 at least 100 feet from the edge of the runway.
106 You are on a flight between Peterborough (N44° 13'
W78°21') and Edenvale (N44°26' W79°57'). At 10:15 you 114 You are well advanced on final approach at a controlled
cross the eastern shore of Lake Simcoe on track. At 10:25 airport. You have not received landing clearance and
you see Barrie's Royal Victoria Hospital helipad immedi- are unable to make contact with the tower controller
ately below you. Using the 1:500,000 map in the back of because another pilot is talking on the tower frequency.
the book, calculate your groundspeed. You should
1 140 knots. 1 fly low over the runway and climb at the departure end.
2 90 mph. 2 pull up and make another approach.
3 120 mph. 3 continue and land if you are sure that the runway is clear.
4 120 knots. 4 change direction to fly towards the tower and rock the aero-
plane wings gently.
107 Based on the groundspeed from the previous question,
when do you a nticipate arriving over Edenvale? 115 You are making a d ay VFR flight to an aerodrome in
1 10:41. Class G airspace. The circuit height at your destination
2 10:35. is 1,500 ft ASL , and the airport elevation is 200 ft ASL.
3 10:31. As you arrive, there is an overcast ceiling at 1,200 ft AGL
4 10:45. a nd the visibility is 2 miles. Under these circumstances
1 you should fly the circuit at 700 ft AGL (900 ft ASL) to
remain 500 ft below the cloud.
108 You are planning a 243 n.m. flight from Calgary to Swift
2 you should fly the circuit as high as possible while remaining
Current at an estimated groundspeed of 140 knots .
clear of cloud.
Your aeroplane's average fuel consumption is 12 gal-
3 you are not permitted to enter the circuit because the visibil-
lons U.S. p er hour. Its usable fuel capacity is 48 gallons ity is less than 3 miles.
U.S. Allowing for a 45 minute fuel reserve, what should 4 you are not permitted to enter the circuit because the cloud
be the safe fuel hours available when you land at Swift height does not allow the circuit to be flown at the given
Current? height.
1 1 hr. 30 min.
2 1 hr. 116 The lowest altitude at which an aeroplane may overfly
3 45 minutes. an aerodrome when neither landing nor taking off is
4 1 hr. 15 min. 1 3,000 ft AGL.
2 2,000 ft AGL.
109 You are to fly between Huronia (N44° 41' W79° 55') and 3 the circuit height at the aerodrome.
Oshawa (N43° 55' W78° 53'). Using the 1:500,000 m ap in 4 500 ft above the circuit height at the aerodrome.
the back of this book, select some useful waypoints.
1 Hwy 400 - Victor Airway V216 - the town of Uxbridge - 117 You have been authorized to taxi to the runway in
Hwy 401. use. To get there you must cross two taxiways and one
2 Hwy 400 - Victor Airway V37 - the east shore of Lake runway. Your authorization allows you to
Simcoe - the town of Uxbridge. 1 taxi to, but hold short of the runway in use without further
3 Hwy 400 - the east shore of Lake Simcoe - Alert Area clearances.
CYA 503 - the town of Uxbridge. 2 taxi to hold short of the runway in use, but you need to get
4 Hwy 400 - the west shore of Lake Simcoe - the railroad another clearance to cross the other runway.
running north from Toronto to Beaverton - the town of 3 taxi to hold short of the runway in use, but you need to get
Uxbridge. further clearances to cross each taxiway and runway.
4 taxi to position on the runway in use without further
110 An airport is clearances.
1 an aerodrome with paved runways.
2 an aerodrome in respect of which a certificate is in force . 118 Accepting a clear ance for an "immediate take-off"
3 a registered aerodrome. allows the pilot to
4 an aerodrome with a control tower. 1 complete the run-up and pre-take-off check on the runway.
2 taxi to a full stop in position on the runway and take off with-
111 The west end of a runway oriented east and west in out further clearance.
Canada is numbered 3 back track on the live runway to use the maximum available
length for take-off.
1 270.
4 taxi onto the runway and take off in one continuous
2 90.
movement.
3 09.
4 27.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix A

119 A departing VFR aeroplane will normally clear tower fre- 127 A low-level airway consists of Class __ airspace and a
quency when VFR flight _ .
1 the flight is clear of the control zone. 1 F; requires a clearance to enter.
2 the flight is 15 miles from the airport. 2 E; must establish two-way radio communication with the con-
3 an altitude of 2,000 feet above the ground has been trolling ATC before entering.
reached. 3 F; requires no permission to enter, but should be alert for
4 the flight is 10 minutes flying time from the airport. other a ircraft.
4 E; requires no permission to enter.
120 If you are flyi n g through an MF area, you must report
your position and intentions before entering the zone 128 An airspace classified as Class F and indicated on an
and aeronautical chart by the code CYA(S} denotes
1 when having entered the zone , when overhead the aero- 1 a restricted area with surveillance activity.
drome and immediately before leaving the zone. 2 a restricted area with blasting activities.
2 when leaving the zone. 3 a danger area with artillery activity.
3 when overhead the aerodrome in the zone and leaving the 4 an advisory area with soaring activity.
zone.
4 when overhead the aerodrome in the zone and when 5 min- 129 Which of the following extends upwards from the sur-
utes away from leaving the zone.
face of the earth?
1 A Low Level Airway.
121 Pilots flying VFR and intending to land a t an aerodrome
2 A Terminal Control Area.
where no mandatory frequency, aerodrome traffic fre-
3 A Control Zone.
quency or ground station exists, should broadcast their
4 A Control Area Extension.
intentions on
1 122.8 MHz.
130 The airspace in a terminal control area around a major
2 121.5 MHz.
airport is normally Class
3 126.7 MHz.
1 F
4 123 .2 MHz.
2 D
3 G
4 A
122 A series of red flashes directed to an aeroplane
approaching an airport for landing means
131 A flight plan must be filed for all VFR flights
1 give way to other aircraft and continue circling.
1 to be flown along low-level airways.
2 you are in a prohibited area, alter course.
2 to be flown at night.
3 cleared to land.
3 to an international destination.
4 airport unsafe, do not land.
4 to be flown above 3,000 feet AGL.

123 A flashing white light from the control tower to an aero- 132 When a VFR flight plan has been filed with a Flight
Service Station, the pilot-in-command must report the
plane taxiing or about to take off means
arrival within
1 return to the ramp or hangar.
1 24 hours after landing.
2 clear the runway.
2 1 hour after landing.
3 be on the alert for debris on the runway.
3 30 minutes after landing.
4 delay your take-off.
4 12 hours after landing.

124 When in VFR flight in the Northern Domestic Airspace, 133 In which of the following ways does a VFR flight itiner-
the altimeter should be set to and the direc- ary differ from a VFR flight plan?
tion of flight should be determined by _______ t rack 1 An aircraft flying on a VFR flight itinerary is not declared to be
overdue until 2 hours after the estimated time of arriva l.
calculations.
2 A flight itinerary may be filed with a FSS, ATC or a respon-
1 29.92"Hg; true sible person.
2 the altimeter setting of the nearest station along the route 3 A flight itinerary does not specify a search-and-rescue time.
of flight; true
4 A flight itinerary may only be filed with a responsible person:
3 29.92"Hg; magnetic it cannot be fi led through an FSS.
4 the altimeter setting of the nearest station along the route of
flight; magnetic
134 Using the following data, which time should be entered
in the "Elapsed Time" section of the flight plan form?
125 To transit VFR t h rough any part of Class C Airspace,
Estimated e lapsed time A to B - 1hour10 minutes.
pilots must
Estimated stopover time at B - 45 minutes.
1 obtain prior permission in writing from the ATC unit.
Estimated elapsed time B to C - 1 hour 30 minutes.
2 advise ATC of their intentions and obtain a clearance.
1 4 hours 10 minutes (to include fuel reserve).
3 establi sh two-way radio communication on 126.7 MHz.
2 3 hours 25 minutes.
4 have a special Class C endorsement to their licences.
3 2 hours 40 minutes .
4 1 hour 10 minutes.
126 To conduct a VFR flight in Class B Airspace, you must
1 advise ATC of your intentions and obtain a clearance.
2 be flying an aeroplane equipped with a full IFR instrument
panel.
3 squawk code 1200 on the transponder.
4 have a Class B licence endorsement.

From the Ground Up<30th Edition

 Appendix A

135 An Air Traffic Cont rol "Instruct ion" 143 An aeroplane flying in accordance with Special VFR
1 is the same as an Air Traffic Control "Clearance". would b e flying with in a
2 must be complied with unless it is unsafe to do so. 1 control zone.
3 is advice provided by ATC and does not require acceptance 2 aerodrome t raffic zone.
or formal acknowledgement by the pilot concerned. 3 terminal control area.
4 must be "read back" in full to the controller and confirmed 4 Class G airspace.
before becoming effective.
144 A pilot has a Special VFR clearance and h as been cleared
136 You accep t a clearance and then find that you cannot to t he circuit. Ahead and below the flight path there is a
comply with it because of s afety con cerns. You sh ould solid layer of stratus cloud. The responsibility of remain-
1 comply with only that pa rt that does not bring you into a dan- ing clea r of cloud
gerous situation.
1 lies with ATC if the weather is below VFR minima.
2 comply as best you can under the circumstances to carry out
2 is shared equally by the pilot and ATC.
the clearance and say nothing to ATC.
3 lies with the pilot.
3 disregard the cleara nce.
4 lies with the tower controller because Special VFR only
4 comply as best you can and advise ATC as soon as possible .
occurs in a control zone.

137 You are flying an aeropla n e ou tside of a co ntrol a rea on a

145 ADIZ rules apply
VFR cross-country flight o n a m agnetic track of 155°. An
1 only to aeroplanes flying above Flight Level 180.
a ppropria t e alt itude for this flight would b e
2 only to aeroplanes flying at a true airspeed of 180 kts or
1 7,000 ft ASL. more.
2 8,000 ft ASL. 3 only to commercially-registered aeroplanes.
3 7,500 ft ASL. 4 to all aeroplanes.
4 8,500 ft ASL
146 A VOR transmitter is at sea level. If there are no obstruc-
138 What is the minimum height AGL above which an aero- tion s, t hen an ae roplane flying at 10,000 ft ASL should
plane should comply w ith the Cruising Altitude Orde r? be able to receive the VOR signals at a distan ce of
1 2,200 feet. approximately
2 3 ,000 feet. 1 150 nautical miles.
3 700 feet. 2 75 nautical miles.
4 3 ,5 00 feet. 3 1 20 nautical miles.
4 90 nautical miles .
139 In Can ada, flights con ducted VFR Over-the-Top are not
permitted 147 The long range cap abilities of HF radio are attributable
1 unless the destination aerodrome issues a TAF. t o the b ehaviour of
2 if t here is any cloud cover at the de parture aerodrome. 1 ground waves.
3 between two solid layers of cloud. 2 line-of-sight trans mission.
4 to e nter cloud. 3 sky waves.
4 phase differential.
140 The min imum flight visibility for ae ropla nes under VFR
outside con trolled airspace i s _ . Within control zones, 148 Which of the following statements correctly characterize
unless a Special VFR clearance is issued, t h e minimum VHF radio?
flight vis ibility is _ . A One of the disadvantages of VHF is its susceptibility to
1 500 feet; 1 mile atmospheric and precipitation static.
2 1 mile; 3 miles B VHF is relatively free from atmospheric a nd precipitation
3 3 miles; 3 miles
static.
c Reception distance for usable service is based on
4 1 mile; 1 mile
"line-of-sight".
D Reception distance remains constant rega rdless of the
141 The pilot of a fixed-wi n g aeroplane taking off on a day altitude.
VFR flight must have sufficient fuel to comp lete the
flight with forecast weathe r conditions, plus rese r ve fuel 1 B and C.
to travel 2 Band D.
1 150 nautical miles at normal cruise speed. 3 A and D.
2 100 nautical miles at normal cruise speed. 4 A and C.
3 for 1 hour at normal cruise s peed.
4 for 30 minutes at normal cruise speed. 149 Your aircraft is fitte d w ith ADS-B In. Th is allows you to
1 receive wide-area augmentation s ignals (WAAS) to improve
142 Special VFR may be authorized by the appropriate ATC the accuracy of the GPS display.
unit to an aeroplane with a function ing t wo-way radio 2 see the position of nearby aircraft equipped with ADS-B Out.
w hen flight a nd ground v isibility are n ot less t h a n 3 transmit the position of your aircraft to ATC more accurately
than with a mode C transponder.
1 5 miles.
4 se nd weather information (including temperature and air
2 1/2 miles.
pressure) to Flight Services automatical ly.
3 1 mile.
4 2 miles.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ ww w.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix A

150 ATIS information for an airport gives information relat- 157 The label for Lake Simcoe aerodrome on the chart
ing to included with thi s book includes the letter L in a box.
1 ceiling, wind , altimeter setting, runway in use, traffic density. This means that
2 ceiling, visibil ity, wind, runway in use, landing clearance. 1 runway lighting is availab le at the aerodrome, but is oper-
3 ceiling, visibility, wind, altimeter setti ng, runway in use. ated only by the UNICOM operator.
4 ceiling, wind, altimeter setting, time of next ATIS update, 2 ARCAL lighting is ava ila ble at the aerodrome.
runway in use. 3 the aerodrome is only ava ilabl e during li mited hours .
4 there is a rotating beacon at t he aerodrome.
151 You sh ould m ake radio contact with th e control tower
1 upon entering the aerodrom e traffic zone. 158 A communication station that provides airp ort and
2 before entering the control zone. vehicle advisory service, assists pilots in planning their
3 immediately before joining the circuit. flights by providing weather and other information and
4 immediately after entering the control zone. accepts and relays flight plans is called a
1 commet.
152 The minimum content of an initial radio call-up to 2 flight service station.
Winnipeg tower by the pilot of C-GULT is "Winnipeg 3 control tower.
Tower, Piper Warrior ... 4 flight information office.
1 Charlie, Golf, Uniform, Lima , Tango at 3,000 ft."
2 Lima , Tango at 3,000 ft." 159 You are flyin g VFR and ATC has instructed you to "main-
3 Golf, Un ifo rm, Lima, Tango at 3,000 ft." tain 3,500 ft and fly h eading 170". After flying for some
4 Uniform , Lima, Tango at 3,000 ft." m inutes, you realize th at ahead an d b elow you is solid
cloud over which you will lose visual contact with the
153 As you leave Ottawa International airport , t h e tower ground. You sh ould
controller han ds you over to the terminal controller. 1 sq uawk 7700 on your transponder and wait for ATC to con-
What would be an appropriate call to make to the termi- t act you.
nal controller? "Ottawa Terminal, 2 alter course as necessary to remain VFR and advise ATC.
1 this is Charlie , Golf, Uniform , Lima , Tango at 1,800 feet 3 wait until you have lost contact with the ground and then ask
climbing to 5 ,500 feet. " ATC for assistance.

2 Ottawa tower has handed us ove r to you. We're Golf, 4 maintain heading and altitude to follow the instruction
Uniform, Lima , Tango." issued by ATC.
3 Golf, Uniform, Lim a, Tango, passing 1 ,800 for 5,500 feet. "
4 Golf, Uniform , Li ma , Tango is depa rting Ottawa Intern ationa l 160 When calling th e London Flight Service Station on the
to the south east. We're at 1,800 feet." radio, you sh ould start the transmission w ith
1 " London Radio, t his is ... "
154 You are approaching a controlled airport and the tower 2 " London Flight Service Station, thi s is ..
controller answers your initial transmission as follows: 3 " London Centre , thi s is ... "
"Foxtrot Papa Tango November - Runway Two Five - 4 " London Advisory, this is ... "
Wind One Eight Zero at One Zero - Altimeter Three Zero
Zero Three - Report Five Miles North." From this, you 161 A radio -equipped aeroplane has been cleared to land at
know that a controlled airport. The pilot should acknowledge the
1 there is a low pressure system affecting the airport. clearance by
2 you will have a crosswinds from the right while on final 1 repl ying "Wilco ".
approach. 2 clicking the microphone button .
3 your downwind magnetic heading will be approximate ly 070°. 3 replying " Roger".
4 the wind is blowing in a southerly di rection. 4 t ran smitting the aeroplane's call sign.

155 Use t h e ch art included at the back of this book to deter- 162 In addition to 121.5 MHz, pilots flying VFR in uncon-
mine the ATF for Lake Simcoe aerodrome (close to the trolled airspace should monitor
western shore of Lake Simcoe) . It is 1 122.2 MHz.
1 122.7 kHz. 2 123.2 MH z.
2 122.7 MH z. 3 243 .0 MH z
3 122.8 MH z. 4 126.7 MH z.
4 972 MHz.
163 The emergency VHF frequency is
156 The name of Lake Simcoe aerodrome on the ch art 1 121.5 MHz.
included with this book is enclosed in a dashed box. This 2 122 .1 MHz.
dashed box means that 3 118 .3 MHz.
1 it does not have a ha rd-surface runway. 4 5280 MHz.
2 it is not avai lable for all 12 months of the year: it is closed
duri ng the winter.
164 A single -engined aeroplane has an engine on fire over a
3 Canadian customs service is avai labl e at this aerodrome .
remote area. What radiotelephony call-up signal would
4 a pilot must obtain permission from the owner to land there
the pilot transmit three times?
(known as PPR).
1 Urgency.
2 Pan Pan.
3 S.O .S.
4 Mayday.

From the Ground Up ·• 30th Edition

 Appendix A

165 You are instructed to fly the 260° radial outbound from a 171 Refer to the 1:500,000 chart included with this book. The
VOR. You would set navigational aid located at Midland (N44° 41' W 79° 55') is
1 260 on the OBS and expect a FROM reading with the needle 1 an NDB transmitting on 112.8 kHz.
centred. 2 a VOR/ DME transmitting on 112.8 MHz.
2 260 on t he OBS and expect a TO reading wit h the needle 3 a VORTAC t ransmitting on 122.8 MHz.
centred.
4 an ILS and t ransmitt ing on 112.8 MHz.
3 080 on the OBS and expect a FROM reading with t he needle
centred.
4 026 on the OBS and expect a TO reading with the needle
172 A DME displays the distance between the aeroplane and
centred. the ground transmitting station as
1 ground distance.
166 You are flying inbound to a VOR and the bearing selector 2 a DM E arc.
is set to 090. Flying a magnetic heading of 090°, you note 3 slant distance.
that th e CD! needle starts to move to the left. This indi- 4 altitude plus ground distance.
cates that the wind is from your
1 right and you should turn to 060° to intercept t he radial.
2 left and you should turn to 120° to intercept the radial.
3 right and you should turn to 120° to intercept the radial.
4 left and you should turn to 060° to intercept the radial

Appx.9 !LS Display

·--+ -----------· ··-----~--------· 173 The !LS indicator in Appx.9 shows the aeroplane to be off
the localizer beam and off the glide path. The pilot must

+.'*
fly _ to intercept the glide path and correct to the _ _
to intercept the localizer.
1 upwards; right
2 upwards; left
3 downwards; right
4 downwards; left
Appx.8 Aeroplanes around a VOR

174 The glide path of an !LS

167 With the bearing selector set to 270, which VOR receiv-
1 is normally set at an angle of 8°.
ers in the aeroplanes in Appx.8 would display a TO read-
2 is normally set at an angle of 3°.
ing on the TO/ FROM indicator?
3 is normally also usable on the back course.
1 E, F, G and H.
4 activates the localizer indicator of the course deviation
2 F, G and H. indicator.
3 A, D and G.
4 G and B. 175 A GPS receiver in an aeroplane
1 cannot be jammed by ground-based devices.
168 What is one of the indications you observe when you fly 2 determines position and altit ude from signals transmitted by
directly over a VOR/ DME? orbit ing satellites.
1 The needle will swing through 180°. 3 does not provide position information above 80° nort h or
2 The DME reading will remain at 0 . below 80° south.
3 The bearing selector will return to 0°. 4 determines position from signals propagated by geostation·
4 The TO/ FROM indication will indicate OFF and t hen display ary satellites and ground stations.
the other value.
176 Wh ich statement is not true regarding the GPS system ?
169 Which of the follow ing is not a VOR frequency? 1 Small devices can be bought that j am GPS signals within a
1 115.2 MHz. 10 mile radius.
2 126.7 MHz. 2 The GPS satellites transmit the t ime from an accurate clock
source.
3 117.5 MHz.
3 Signals from ground stations transmitted t hrough satell ites
4 113.4 MHz.
can improve the accuracy displayed by a GPS receiver in an
aeroplane.
170 If the aeroplane is equipped w ith both _ , a pilot is 4 The GPS satellites are in geostationary orbit.
able to derive both azimuth or directional information
and dist ance information from a VORTAC transmitter. 177 Th e Wide -Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
1 a VOR receiver and an ADF. 1 displays information for a pilot about suitably-equipped aero-
2 a VOR receiver and a DME. planes in the vicinity.
3 an ADF and a DME. 2 uses error signals from ground stations to allow a GPS
4 a VOR receiver and a marker beacon receiver. receiver to calculate position more accurately.
3 receives the transponder signals from aeroplanes and
retransmit s t his information t hrough satellites.
4 consists of a number of ground stations broadca sting clock
signals to allow a Loran receiver to determine its posit ion.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix A

178 Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is 186 Which of the following statements is correct?
important in a GPS receiver in an aeroplane because it 1 An aeroplane's gross weight is also called its "Actual Zero
1 allows the receiver to use not only the GPS, but also the Fuel Weight" (AZFW).
GLONASS and Galileo satellites. 2 The gross weight of an aeroplane changes during flight.
2 provides a map display visible to the pilot. 3 The maximum gross weight of an aeroplane is the maximum
3 detects when a GPS satellite is transmitting incorrect permitted weight, excluding fuel and oil.
information. 4 An aeroplane can land and take off if loaded below its maxi-
4 improves the accuracy of the position that the receiver mum gross weight.
displays.
187 If an aeroplane is improperly loaded and the aft Centre
179 You are homing directly to an NOB by keeping the AOF of Gravity limit is exceeded, it w ill be
needle pointing directly ahead. You notice that your 1 difficult to put into a stall and spin.
heading indicator is changing. This indicates that 2 difficult to get off the ground.
1 you are receiving a false NDB signal caused by reflection off 3 easy to stall and spin and recovery would be more difficult
a nearby mountain range. than under conditions of proper loading.
2 your heading indicator needs to be reset to the compass 4 nose heavy.
value.
3 you have passed over the NDB and are now heading away 188 Your Pilot's Operating Handbook specifies a basic empty
from it.
w eight of 1,640 lbs. and a maximum gross weight of
4 your aeroplane is subject to drift by a wind from the side.
2,550 lbs. You are planning a flight with two friends who
weigh 172 lbs. and 195 lbs. respectively. You weigh 179
180 You are flying a magnetic heading of 350° and your lbs. You have three pieces of baggage weighing 30, 24
fixed-card AOF is reading 300°. The magnetic bearing to and 17 lbs. You have full fuel tanks giving you 48 U.S.
the NOB is Gallons of usable fuel. The take-off weight of the aero-
1 110°. plane would be
2 290°.
1 the same as the maximum gross weight.
3 300°.
2 56 lbs less than the maximum gross weight.
4 050°.
3 5 lbs less than the maximum gross weight.
4 slightly more than the maximum gross weight.
181 Your heading is 180° and your fixed-card AOF reading is
090°. If you turn to a magnetic heading of 150°, the AOF 189 You are planning a trip with three friends. The front seat
will read
passenger weighs 200 lbs. You weigh 180 lbs. The back
1 240°. seat passengers weigh 145 lbs. and 125 lbs. respectively.
2 060°. You have baggage that weighs 100 lbs. Assume a basic
3 030°.
empty weight of 1,507 lbs. for the aeroplane and a full
4 120°.
fuel load of 41.5 U.S. gallons. Maximum gross weight for
this aeroplane is 2,500 lbs. Use the three charts within
182 A transponder transmitting on Mode C the sub-section "Finding Balance by Graph Method" in
1 reports the aeroplane's altitude to the ATC radar operator. the Chapter Airmanship to do the calculations for this
2 causes the target representing the aeroplane on ATC's radar problem and determine which of the followin g state-
screen to brighten.
ments is accurate.
3 identifies the aeroplane as being a VFR flight below 10,000
ft ASL. 1 The total weight is equal to the maximum gross weight and
the C.G. is within permissible limits.
4 allows the aeroplane's position to be picked up by aero-
planes with ADS-B (In) receivers. 2 The total weight is 25 lbs. less than the maximum gross
weight but the C.G. is outside permissible limits.
3 The total weight is 25 lbs. less than the maximum gross
183 For VFR flight at 8,500 ft ASL, unless you have been weight and the C.G. is within permissible limits.
assigned a code by ATC, you should squawk 4 The total weight is 25 lbs. over the maximum gross weight
1 1400. and the C.G. is outside permissible limits.
2 0600.
3 1200. 190 You sit in your aircraft at an aerodrome and adjust the
4 7700. altimeter pressure setting to 29.92"Hg. The altimeter
reads 3,000 ft ASL. The air temperature is 25°C. The den-
184 A pilot experiencing communication failure may alert sity altitude of the aerodrome is approximately
ATC to the problem by selecting transponder code 1 1,370 ft below sea level.
1 4700. 2 4,828 ft ASL.
2 1400. 3 5,610 ft ASL.
3 7600. 4 1 ,172 ft ASL.
4 7700.

185 To minimize the danger of static electricity starting a

fire during refuelling, the aeroplane should be
1 bonded.
2 grounded.
3 fitted with static discharge wicks.
4 refuelled immediately after landing.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

 Appendix A

196 "Daylight" in Canada, at any place where the sun rises

TAKE-OFF DISTSANCE and sets daily, is defined as that period of time
Flaps Up 1 starting ha lf an hou r before su nrise and ending half an hour
T/ O Distance (Feet) to clear 50 ft. obstacle at 80 mph after sunset.
(70 kts) Ground run 40% of distance shown.
2 when the centre of the sun's disc is not more than 12°
Outside Air Temperature below the horizon.
4°C 16°C 28°C 40°C
3 st arting one hour before sunrise and ending one hour after
Pressure Altitude Distance sunset.
Sea Level 1590 1700 1800 1920 4 between su nrise and sunset.
2000 Feet 1920 1950 2190 2340
4000 Feet 2290 2450 2610 2800 197 An aeroplane flying at night must display on its right
6000 Feet 2740 2940 3140 3380 (starboard) wing tip a
7000 Feet 3050 3280 3510 3770 1 red light.
2 white light.
Landing and take-off correction: Reduce distances by 3 stead y green light.
approximately 10 percent for each 5 knots windspeed.
4 flashing green light

Appx.10 Sample Take-Off Distance Table

198 Which statement concerning wing tip vortices is false ?
1 \tJrtices are caused directly by jet wash.
191 You are going to take off under the following conditions:
2 Latera l movem ent of vorti ces, even when there is no wind,
Airport - 5,000 feet above sea level. may place a vortex over a para llel runway.
Temperature - 28°C 3 \Ortices normally settle below and behind the aeroplane.
Airspeed - 70 knots. 4 With a light crosswind, a vortex can remain stationary over
Altimeter setting - 29.92"Hg. the ground for some time.
Airspeed - 70 knots.
199 You are a pilot of a light aeroplane on final approach
Using the values in Appx.10, if you take off directly into to land following an airliner. You should plan your
a surface wind of 10 knots with your flap s up, your dis- approach (other circumstances permitting) to remain
tance to clear a 50 foot obstacle will be approximately 1 below the approach path of the large aeroplane and land
1 2,876 feet. just prior to its touchdown point.
2 3,130 feet. 2 above the approach path of the large aeroplane and land
3 2,610 feet. beyond its touchdown point.
4 2 ,300 feet. 3 on the upwi nd side of the large aeropl ane's approac h path
and land on the upwind side of the runway.
4 on the normal approach path for your aeroplane but at
192 In the example given in the previous question, your
higher speed than normal.
ground run will be approximately
1 1,150 feet.
200 A helicopter in forward flight produces
2 1,044 feet.
1 turbulence ahead of the helicopter.
3 1,380 feet.
2 turbulence whi ch remains at th e same leve l as the
4 920 feet. helicopter.
3 rotary blade vortices which rise above the helicopter.
193 If the surface wind is gusting, causing turbulence as you 4 trailing vortices similar to wing tip vortices.
approach to land, it is important to
1 carry excess airspeed to assure positive control. 201 Wing tip vortices generated by a departing aeroplane are
2 land as slowly as possi ble. most severe
3 use full flaps. 1 immediately following the application of take-off power.
4 keep directional control with the ailerons and not use any 2 during cruise climb configuration.
rudder control. 3 at lift-off.
4 before rotation.
194 You have been cleared to land at a controlled airport in
a gusty wind condition. You are concerned by the wind 202 You are approaching an aerodrome from the west to land
angle as indicated by the windso ck at the approach straight-in on runway 09. There is an isolated thunder-
end of the runway, which you feel now favours another storm a few miles east of the field . Given that you will
runway. You should land before reaching the thunderstorm, is it safe to land?
1 use full fl aps and approach at a reduced approac h speed. 1 Yes, unless the thunderstorm is moving towards the
2 alter heading and land on another runway which is more into aerodrom e.
wind. 2 No, because the ri si ng ai r at the core of the thunderstorm
3 continue to land as you must obey t he landing clearance. may cause stru ctural damage to your aircraft.
4 overshoot and request an into-wind runway. 3 No, because the gust front from the thunderstorm may cause
severe windshear at the aerodrome .
195 The wind is blowing at 90° to the runway. The aeroplane 4 Yes, as long as you do not approach within 2 statute miles of
the thunderstorm .
you are flying has a stalling speed of 50 knots. What is
the guaranteed crosswind component that the aeroplane
can handle? (See "Crosswinds" in Chapter Airmanship.)
1 10 knots.
2 15 knots.
3 20 knots.
4 5 knots.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix A

203 In an unpre ssurised aeroplane at high altit u de, a pilot is

susceptible to hypoxi a. Hypoxia is
1 lack of sufficient oxygen in the body cells.
2 imbalance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body system .
3 spatial disorientation.
4 excess carbon monoxide in the hae moglobin.

204 To prevent hypoxia, a pilot should

1 open t he wi ndows and air vents on t he aeroplane.
2 use oxygen above 5,000 feet ASL at night.
3 use oxygen above 5,000 feet ASL at all times.
4 breathe into a paper bag.

205 Decompression sickness

1 is caused when dissolved gases come out of solution and
form bubbles in the body tissues.
2 is aggravated by smoki ng.
3 is caused by breathing ozone when flying at high altitudes .
4 causes severe equilibrium problems.

206 An alcoholic drink taken at 5,000 ft as compared to the

same drink t aken as sea level
1 has no appreciable difference in effect on the body.
2 has a lesser effect on the body.
3 increa ses the chance of Corioli s effect.
4 has a greater effect on the body.

207 Which of the following statements pertaining to the use

of alcohol is true?
1 Blood alcohol concentration below 0.04% will not affect a
pilot 's judgement.
2 Coffee accelerates the body's abi lity to recover f rom the
effect s of alcohol.
3 The effect s of alcohol reduce at higher altitudes.
4 Small amounts of alcohol significantly decrease a pilot's
to lerance to hypoxia.

208 Which statement best describes fatigue?

1 A fatigued pilot recuperates more quickly at higher altitudes.
2 Fatigue is a physical, not a mental, condition.
3 Fatigue can be overcome by eating a sugar-rich meal imme-
diately before a flight.
4 Fatigue slows reaction time and contributes to errors.

209 You h ave taken several alcoholic drinks. You may fly as
a crew m ember
1 when your blood alcohol co ntent (BAC) has dropped be low
0.08%.
2 when al l effects of the alcohol have worn off.
3 8 hours after the last drink.
4 when all effects of the alcohol have worn off, but not within
12 hours of taking the last drink.

210 A condition in which there is a lowering of the tempera-

ture of the body's core is called
1 hyperventilation.
2 Coriolis effect.
3 hypoglycem ia.
4 hypothermia.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

 Appendix A

Practice Examination Answers

1 4 43 1 85 2 127 4 169 2
2 2 44 1 86 2 128 4 170 2
3 1 45 3 87 3 129 3 171 2
4 3 46 2 88 1 130 2 172 3
5 1 47 1 89 1 131 3 173 4
6 2 48 3 90 2 132 2 174 2
7 4 49 1 91 4 133 2 175 2
8 1 50 3 92 4 134 2 176 4
9 1 51 1 93 1 135 2 177 2
10 2 52 4 94 3 136 4 178 3
- --
11 2 53 3 95 2 137 3 179 4
--
12 3 54 4 96 3 138 2 180 2
13 4 55 4 97 3 139 4 181 4
14 4 56 2 98 1 140 2 182 1
15 4 57 2 99 3 141 4 183 3
16 4 58 4 100 2 142 3 184 3
17 1 59 1 101 4 143 1 185 2
18 1 60 3 102 3 144 3 186 2
19 2 61 1 103 4 145 4 187 3
20 3 62 4 104 2 146 3 188 3
21 1 63 2 105 2 147 3 189 4
22 1 64 2 106 4 148 1 190 2
23 4 65 3 107 3 149 2 191 4
24 2 66 3 108 1 150 3 192 4
25 1 67 1 109 4 151 2 193 1
26 4 68 2 110 2 152 3 194 4
27 2 69 4 111 3 153 3 195 1
28 3 70 4 112 1 154 3 196 1
29 1 71 4 113 2 155 2 197 3
30 1 72 1 114 2 156 3 198 1
31 4 73 4 115 2 157 2 199 2
32 2 74 3 116 2 158 2 200 4
33 4 75 3 117 2 159 2 201 3
34 2 76 1 118 4 160 1 202 3
35 2 77 4 119 1 161 4 203 1
36 1 78 4 120 2 162 4 204 2
37 1 79 2 121 4 163 1 205 1
38 1 80 2 122 4 164 4 206 4
39 1 81 4 123 1 165 1 207 4
40 4 82 3 124 1 166 4 208 4
41 1 83 2 125 2 167 2 209 4
42 1 84 1 126 1 168 4 210 4

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited __............. www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix B

AppendixB
Wx Chart
ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRO NM ENT SER VICE
ENVIRO NM EN T CA NA DA

WEATHER MAP

' -' :J
8 149
+dr C•tY

Albuqu0<que y II 128
+3
'

15 180
18 109
n_o;;3 _ ~3 ©130 14 ll +14
I 7 +3

110"

From the Ground Up" 30th Edition

Appendix B

STATION MODEL PRECIPITATION & OBSTRUCTIONS TO

Weather stations are indicated on weather charts by a ball VISION ON SURFACE WEATHER MAPS
or circle, called the Station Circle. This circle is also used to
indicate the cloudiness of the sky: black being completely
Because surface weather maps provide a complete picture of
overcast, white being clear, and the percentage of cloudiness
actual surface conditions, they must, in addition to indicating
between these two extremes being represented by a corre-
pressure patterns, air masses and frontal systems, show areas
sponding percentage of black and white.
and types of precipitation and obstructions to vision. These
The letter "M" in the Station Circle means that the weather features, like those already described, are depicted symboli-
report for the station is missing that day. The direction of the cally. To fully interpret surface weather maps, you must be
wind is indicated by a line radiating from th e ball, and the able to recognize and decode the symbols. Be sure to study
force of the wind is indicated by "barbs" or "feathers." them carefully and learn each symbol.
Around the Station Circle, numbers and symbols are arranged
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION OF SYMBOL TRAN SLATION
to indicate all the various elements of the weather which have
been observed at the station at chart-making time. The com -
plete diagram is known as a Station Model. green shading continuous rein

Ll II 2. ~ green hatching intermittent

.-.-----12 rain

2--2 LL. 853- 1 3 3 . 9 green comma drizzle

3 /' 14
4-24*1* +28/-15 4 .
A green triangle w ith green ice pellets

~
period in centre
\ 16
7--6 ---6 •4-11
8~ \ 18
5
* green star snow

'~ _......3 .45 19 6 .

r'-.,J
green c urved line (used with
comma or period
freezing rain
(with period)
Station Model freezing drizzle
(with c omma)
I Wind Force (23 to 27 kts.). 2. Temperature in degrees Cels ius . 3.

v•
'.)irection of Wind (320°). 4. Visibility in code (24 = I V, mi/es ). 5 .
7 . green period over green rain shower
>resent State of Weather (Continuous light snow). 6. Cloudiness of
inverted triangle
iky (completely overcas t). 7. Dewpoint. in degrees Celsius . 8 . Low
:louds (Froctocumulus) •. 9. Amount of Cloud. in code (6 = 7 or 8

v*
tenths ). 10. Height of Lower Cloud, in code (3 = 600 - 999 feet). I I. B. green star over green snow shower
Yigh Cloud (Cirrostrotus ) • . I 2 . Middle Cloud (A/tos trotus) '. I 3. Boro- inverted triangle

11etric Pressure MSL (985.3 mb.) See "Seo Level Pressure". I 4 .

._mount of Barometric Change in post 3 hrs .. in /O ths of milllbors (2.8 9 . green T with gl"een lightnin g t hunderstorm
Tib.). 15. Barometric Tendency in post 3 hrs. (Foiling or steady. then R symbol
·ising - or. rising, then rising more quickly)•. I 6. Plus or Minus indi-
yellO'IN shading fog
:o tes Pressure higher or lower thon 3 hrs. ogo. 17. Time precipitation
oegon or ended. in code (4 =
3 to 4 hrs . ogo) •. 18 . Post Weather
(Rain). 19. Precipitation in hundredths of in ches (.45 inches). SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
• Omitted when not observed or recorded. WEATHER SYMBOLS
~ ~y of an Area
r.:....._;..J of Significant WeatM-r () Boundary of an Area
of Clear Air Turbulence
WEATHER MAP SYMBOLS
The various symbols and code figures which are grouped --{;:-- Modera te Turbulencit 1\ Thunderstorm (j"V Frttzlng R~n

around the Station Model are shown in the following tables:

__ffi_Severe Turbulence -v- Severe Line SquaJ § TroplcAI Revolving Storm
y Moder-atelcillg ... Hall f :.S--Oust or Wld Storm
SK Y COVER
\w' Severe Icing fJJ1> Marked Mountain Waves • Rain

,,.-
s
Frontogenesls
- \l shower ~s1~~!:~!f pe • Snow Drizzle
oo Ab,.,lutdynocloodt s IEt Sy.U./J

I <D l /8011"1!1 6 j'I ,,. On Printd cMrts OnWtalllcrMap Hurricane

2 ~ ,,. 7 • ,,.
--
•••• :;st~~::t~~~~~~::,r: Feet v~ ~~e;:e~~~ 3000 Peet
3 ~
4 ()
)/8

.,. ~re•® ·
9
1/lfo>'el~IJ
-
U;yobl.cured
..... SfCoj-.c>ry " " "'
0
e
0 0 0
0 e 0
••,
..... ol'l<I l.d NOTE: I.
2. R
Light turbulence and light icing conditions are not indicated.
or CB a.ssumu moderate or heavier turbulence and icing.
- Frontotysls
s,-.u CLOUD
Oii WHIMr Mop
o I l'-- ILILl'- I //////////
Clouc! types are repre1ented by the conventiona.I
abbreviation, cloud atncu'lt in oktu (eiihths)
O I 2 3 4 5 and height of b&sit and tops by t~ convention illustn.ted:
l/l/llllll
1._ILl"-l'-l"-I.__ I • _ ... _ a _ .... O<ctr..'-' Ft-.... ////////// ~~
6 7 8 9 10 11 ., _ _.. _ • _.a. s._,. ,,..,, !/////II/I .._ _, 1..i A88REVIATIONS
11.._IL__ I l ~ l 11o__ l ~I Squall Une CAT Clear Air Tu.-bulence LYR
FRQ l a yers TURS - Tur bul ence
12 13 14 15 16 17 Frl!Quent TEMPO Temporar y
GRAOU - Gradually OCNL Occasional
0 '""" J IHI> 1 J-1k" J llJbt ~ IJ -Jn.. j ,,n ...
6
nu~ .. r ,.,,.,, 1 11:11 k11 • U -·' 1•,. 10 ...,_., kll 11 Trowal(l'rough
•IH•11 11 '3H~ ro ll )1·'1~1l i . U·47•" Ii 61-71 ~"
FRONTS ANO OTHER CONVENTIONS
14 7l I 7 ~" r1 101 101 kt1
Symbols 1ndica1e 1he pos111on ofa trough of warm air alofl.
A A A Warm Front &..A..& Occlusion --..,. ~ Trough of Warm Air aloft
FRONT SYMBOLS

011 Prin!td (~ortJ o.i Wtolhu Mop

""''"
Ridge
4 Cold Front
~ ~:stationary ~ Gonvergence Line
1020 Mean Se8: level_!$Oba.rs, ---,0--- o•c Isother m height
pressure m Millibars in Hundreds o f Feet
~ Col~''°""!olohl

Centres of Lo• and High Pressure respectively

c~trf or Prenu~ )fovemu1t.s

Symbob nxl1c1ce thl! posmon of high or low cen~s of

L.'" Pressure in Miiiibars
~ Slo-1"""' All~Kl....d J)<'C»Ure JCl*erally1112hr tntel"'ah
~ s. __ ,,,_(...,,i "";:''~
,.ti..."tw
AlrMaMH
~ O«i...ied'1- C-pW;o&o._ cA-Cl'.)lllll*CM.llAKIK mP-Ml.nt1me Polar
mA \.1anneArc1i< mT-Mant1111C Tropitli
~ Ou"'6or4,,._loWtl ........ _p&o i....

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix C

AIRMET {Airmen's Meteorological Advisory). A weather advi-

AppendixC sory issued to aircraft having limited capability. It advises of

weather significant to the safety of the aircraft.

Glossary Aeroplane. Power driven heavier than air aircraft, deriving its
lift in flight from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces that
remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
Airport. An aerodrome in respect of which a certificate is in
Absolute Altitude. Actual height above the earth 's surface.
force.
Active Runway. Any runway or runways currently being used
Airport and Airways Surveillance Radar {AASR). A medium
for take-off or landing. When multiple runways are used, they
range radar designed for both airway and airport surveil-
are all considered active runways. When an aircraft is land-
lance applications.
ing or taking off on an airport surface other than a runway,
the direction of flight will determine the active runway. Airport Surface Detection Equipment. Radar equipment
Advisory Airspace. Class F airspace of defined dimensions designed to detect all principal features of an airport includ-
ing all aircraft and vehicle traffic.
within which an activity such as pilot training, soaring, etc.
is carried out and of which non-participating pilots should be Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR). Relatively short range radar
aware. Non-participating pilots may enter advisory airspace intended for surveillance of airport and terminal areas.
at their own discretion but extra vigilance is essential. Airport Traffic. All traffic on the maneuvering area of an air-
Advisory Service. Advice and information provided by a facil- port and all aircraft flying in the vicinity of a n airport
ity to assist pilots in the safe conduct of flight and aircraft Airspeed Indicator. An instrument th at indicates the speed
movement. that an aeroplane is travelling through the air.
Aerodrome. Any area of land or water (including the frozen Air Time. The period of time commencing when the aeroplane
surface) or other supporting surface used or designed, pre- leaves the supporting surface and terminating when it
pared, equipped or set apart for the arrival and departure, touches the supporting surface at the next point of landing.
movement or servicing of aircraft. It includes any buildings,
Air Traffic. All aircraft in flight and all aircraft operating on the
installations and equipment in connection therewith.
maneuvering area of an aerodrome.
Aerodrome Elevation (or Field Elevation). Elevation of the high-
Air Traffic Control Clearance. Authorization by an air traffic
est point of the landing area.
control unit for an aircraft to proceed within controlled air-
Aerodrome Traffic. All traffic on the maneuvering area of an space under specified conditions.
aerodrome and all traffic flying in, entering or leaving an
Air Traffic Control Instruction. A directive issued by an air traf-
aerodrome circuit.
fic control unit for traffic control purposes.
Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF). A VHF frequency des-
Air Traffic Control Service. A service provided for the purpose
ignated for use of radio equipped aircraft operating on the
of preventing collisions between aircraft and, on the maneu-
surface or in the vicinity of certain specified uncontrolled
vering area, between aircraft and obstructions and of expe-
airports.
diting and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic.
Aerodrome Traffic Zone. Class G Airspace of defined dimen-
Air Traffic Control Unit. An area control centre established to
sions extending upwards from the surface of the earth.
provide air traffic control service to !FR flights and to VFR
Aerodynamic Coefficients. Nondimensional coefficients flights that are subject to control; a terminal control unit
for aerodynamic forces and moments (i.e. drag and lift established to provide air traffic control service to !FR flights
coefficients). and to VFR flights that are subject to control when operating
Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS). An aircraft within a terminal control area; an airport control tower unit
system based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) tran- established to provide air traffic control service to airport
sponder signals which operates independently of ground- traffic.
based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential Airway. A control area or portion thereof established in the
conflicting aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders. form of a corridor equipped with radio navigation aids.
ACAS equipment designed and m anufactured in the U.S. is
Airworthy. In respect to an aeronautical product, in a fit and
called Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS).
safe state for flight and in conformity with the applicable
Air Carrier. A person who operates a commercial air service. standards of airworthiness.
Aircraft. Any machine capable of deriving support in the atmo- Alerting Service. Service provided by ATS units to notify appro-
sphere from the reactions of the air. priate organizations regarding aircraft in need of search and
Aircraft Engine. An engine used for propelling an aircraft. rescue aid.
It includes turbochargers, appurtena nces and accessories Alternate Airport. An aerodrome specified in a flight plan to
necessary for its functioning, but does not include propellers. which a flight may proceed when landing at the intended
Air Defence Identification Zone. Airspace of defined dimen- destination becomes inadvisable.
sions within which the ready identification, location and Altimeter. An instrument that, by measuring the pressure of
control of aircraft is required. the atmosphere, displays altitude information.
Airframe. Includes fu selage, booms, nacelles, cowlings, fair- Altimeter Setting. The barometric pressure reading used to
ings, airfoil surfaces and landing gear of an aircraft and their adjust a pressure altimeter for variations in existing atmo-
accessories and controls. spheric pressure or to the standard altimeter setting (29.92"
Hg).

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Appendix C

Altitude. The height of a level, point or object measured in feet be established but where it is believed that the called station
above ground level (AGL) or from mean sea le.vel (MSL) . is able to receive the transmission.
Altitude Reservation. Airspace of defined dimensions in con- Brake Horsepower (BHP). The power delivered at the propeller
trolled airspace reserved for the use of a specific agency shaft of an aircraft engine.
during a specified time. Broadcast. A radio transmission that originates from an aircraft
Angle of Attack Indicator. An instrument that indicates a con- and that is not directed to any particular receiving station.
tinuous readout of the margin above the stall. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS). Indicated airspeed corrected for
Approach/Arrival Control. An ATC service provided to expedite position and instrument error.
the flow of !FR flights inbound within a terminal control area. Call Up. Initial voice contact between a facility and an aircraft
Apron. That part of an aerodrome, other than the maneuvering using the identification of the unit being called and the unit
area, intended to accommodate the loading and unloading of initiating the call.
passengers and cargo; the refuelling, servicing, maintenance Canadian Domestic Airspace. All navigable airspace of Canada .
and parking of aircraft; the movement of aircraft, vehicles
Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications.
and pedestrians necessary for such purposes.
Specifications relative to the navigation performance capa-
Area Control Centre {ACC). A unit located within a control area bility of aircraft operating in a specified portion of the
which provides supervision of !FR en route air traffic within Canadian Domestic Airspace.
the area. In the U.S., it is called an air route traffic control
Canard. A control surface incorporating a horizontal stabilizer
centre (ARTCC).
and elevator attached to the forward part of the aeroplane.
Area Navigation (RNAV). A navigation system that permits air-
CAVOK. A term used to indicate no cloud below 5,000 feet, vis-
craft operation on any desired course within an area serviced
ibility 6 miles or more and no precipitation or thunderstorm
by ground based navigation signals or within the capabilities
activity or fog or drifting snow.
of a self-contained airborne system.
Ceiling. The lowest height at which a broken or overcast condi-
Arrival Report. A report containing the aircraft registration,
tion exists, or the vertical visibility when an obscured condi-
the aerodrome of departure, the time of arrival and the aero -
tion such as snow, smoke or fog exists.
drome of arrival.
Celestial Navigation. The determination of geographical posi-
Attitude Indicator. An instrument designed to provide an arti-
tion by reference to celestial bodies.
ficial horizon as a means of reference for judging attitude of
an aeroplane. Centre. A unit located within a control area which provides
supervision of !FR en route traffic within the area .
Automated Data Interchange System. An aeronautical fixed
telecommunications network to ensu re the safety of air navi- Certificate of Airworthiness. A conditional certificate of fitness
gation and the regular, efficient and economical operation of for flight issued in respect of a particular aircraft.
air services. Certificate of Registration. A certificate issued to the owner of
Automatic Altitude Reporting. The funct ion of a transponder an aircraft with respect to the registration and the registra-
which responds to Mode C interrogations by transmitting the tion markings for th at aircraft.
aircraft's altitude in 100 foot increments. Classification of Airspace. A, B, C, D, E, F and G.
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF). An aircraft radio navigation Clear Air Turbulence. Turbulence encountered in air where no
system which senses and indicates the direction to a L/MF clouds are present.
directional radio beacon ground transmitter. Clearance Limit. The fix, point or location to which an aircraft
Automatic Terminal Information Service {ATIS). The con- is cleared when issued an air traffic control clearance.
tinuous broadcast of recorded non -control information in
Climb (or Climb-out). The portion of flight operation between
selected terminal areas .
take-off and the initial cruising altitude.
Backtrack . The taxiing of an aircraft on an active runway in a
Climb, Best Angle of. The angle which will gain the most alti-
direction opposite to the landing or take-off direction.
tude in a given distance.
Balanced Field Length. The field length where the distance
Climb, Best Rate of. The angle which will gain the most altitude
to accelerate and stop is equal to the take-off distance of
in the least time.
an aeroplane experiencing an engine failure at the critical
engine failure recognition speed (Vl). Codes/Transponder Codes. The number assigned to a particu-
lar multiple pulse reply signal transmitted by a transponder.
Ballistic Recovery System. A parachute system designed to
lower an entire aircraft with occupants to the ground m Commercial Air Service. Any use of aircraft for hire or reward .
emergency situations. Community Aerodrome Radio Station (CARS). An air/ground
Bearing. The horizontal direction to or from any point, usu- radio station operated by the Territorial Government at air-
ally measured clockwise from true north, magnetic north, or ports in the northern areas of Canada.
some other reference point, through 360 degrees. Compass Rose. A circle graduated in degrees printed on some
Below Minimums. Weather conditions below the minimums charts as a reference to true or magnetic direction.
prescribed by regulation. Composite Flight Plan. A flight plan which speci fies VFR opera -
Blind Spot (or Blind Zone). An area from which radio transmis- tion for one portion of flight and !FR for another portion.
sions and /or radar echoes cannot be received. Compulsory Reporting Point. A reporting point over which an
Blind Transmission. A transmission from one station to anoth- aircraft must report to ATC.
er in circumstances where two-way communication cannot Contact Approach. An approach wherein an aircraft on an !FR
flight plan, having an ATC authorization, operating clear of

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix C

cloud and with at least 1 mile flight visibility and a reason- Dead Reckoning. Navigation by use of predetermined vectors of
able expectation of continuing to the destination airport in wind and true airspeed, precalculated heading, groundspeed
those conditions, may deviate from the instrument approach and estimated time of arrival.
procedure and proceed to the destination airport by visual Decision Height {DH). A specified height at which a missed
reference to the surface of the earth. approach must be initiated during a precision approach if the
Contrails (also Vapour Trails). Line-shaped clouds produced by required visual reference to continue the approach to land
high-altitude aircraft resulting from water being exhausted has not been established.
in the form of ice crystals when combined with changes in Defence VFR (DVFR). Flight. A flight conducted in accordance
air pressure and low ambient temperature. with visual flight rules within an Air Defence Identification
Control Area. A controlled airspace extending upwards from a Zone.
specified height above the surface of the earth in which air Density Altitude. Pressure altitude corrected for temperature.
traffic control is provided.
Departure Control. An ATC service for departing !FR, and under
Control Area Extension. Controlled airspace of defined dimen- certain conditions, VFR aircraft.
sions within the low level airspace extending upwards from
Designated Intersection. A point on the surface of the earth
2,200 feet above the surface of the earth.
over which two or more designated position lines intersect.
Controlled Airport. An airport at which an ATC unit is provided. The position lines may be magnetic bearings from NDBs,
Controlled Airspace. An airspace of defined dimensions within radials from VHF/UHF aids, centrelines of designated air-
which ATC service is provided. ways, air routes, localizers and DME distances.
Control Tower. A unit established to provide air traffic control Deviation. The angle through which the compass needle is
service to aerodrome traffic. deflected from magnetic north due to the influence of mag-
Control Zone. Controlled airspace of defined dimensions netic fields in the aeroplane.
extending upwards from the surface of the earth up to 3,000 Discrete Frequency. A separate radio frequency for use in
feet above airport evaluation unless otherwise specified. direct pilot/controller communications in ATC which reduces
Co-ordinates. Intersections of lines of reference usually frequency congestion by controlling the number of aircraft
expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds of latitude and operating on the frequency at any one time.
longitude used to determine position. Displaced Threshold. A threshold that is located at a point
Course. The intended direction of flight in the horizontal plane on the runway other than the designated beginning of the
measured in degrees from north. (U.S term. In Canada, runway.
called "track") Also, an omni bearing towards a VOR, VORTAC Distance Measuring Equipment {DME). Equipment used to
or TACAN navigational facility. measure in nautical miles the slant range distance of an air-
Course Deviation Indicator. A vertical needle incorporated into craft from the DME navigation aid.
an OMNl/ILS indicator to show deviation from the selected Electronic Flight Bag (EFB). An electronic information manage-
VOR course or radial. ment device used by pilots to conduct flight management
Critical Altitude. The maximum altitude at which it is possible tasks more easily and efficiently and which eliminates the
to maintain a rated power or specified manifold pressure. equivalent documents previously produced in paper form.
Critical Engine. The engine which, should it fail, will have the Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT). A radio transmitter
most adverse effect on the aircraft flight characteristics. which operates from its own power source on 121.5 MHz, or
on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz, and is activated automatically
Critical Field Length. The balanced field length as it applies to a
by the G forces experienced in a crash landing.
particular aeroplane. The critical field length is calculated for
each individual aeroplane to meet the balanced field length Empennage. The tail section of an aeroplane (vertical stabilizer,
criteria. or fin, horizontal stabilizer or tailplane, rudder, elevators, and
all trimming and control devices).
Crosswind. A wind not parallel to the runway or to the path of
an aircraft. Equivalent Airspeed (EAS). Calibrated airspeed corrected for
compressibility factor.
Cruising Altitude/Level. An altitude or flight level, as shown
by a constant altimeter indication, maintained during level Expected Approach Time. The time at which ATC expects that
flight. an arriving aircraft, following a delay, will leave the holding
fix to complete its approach for a la nding.
Customs Notification Service (ADCUS). A service provided, by
ATC units, for advance notification to Customs officials for Expected Further Clearance Time. The time at which it is
transborder flights at specified Ports of Entry expected that further clearance will be issued to an aircraft.

Danger Area. Class F Restricted Airspace of defined dimensions Expedite. An expression used by ATC when prompt compli-
established over international waters. ance is required to avoid the development of an imminent
situation.
Daylight. The period of time in any day when the centre of the
sun's disc is less than 6 degrees below the horizon, and, in Fan Marker Beacon. A type of radio beacon, the emissions of
any place where the sun rises and sets daily, may be con- which radiate in a vertical fan-shaped pattern.
sidered to be the period commencing one half hour before Feathered Propeller. A propeller whose blades have been rotat-
sunrise and ending one half hour after sunset. ed so that the leading and trailing edges are nearly parallel
Day VFR. A flight conducted in accordance with VFR during the with the aircraft flight path to minimize drag and engine
hours of daylight. rotation.
Final. Commonly used to mean an aircraft is on the final
approach course or is aligned with a landing area.

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Appendix C

Final Approach. That segment of an instrument approach the horsepower of the engine will be less than the rated
between the final approach fix or point and the runway, air- horsepower.
port or missed approach point, whichever is encountered last, General Aviation . That portion of civil aviation which encom-
wherein alignment and descent for landing are accomplished. passes all facets of aviation except scheduled air services and
Final Approach Area. That area within which the final approach nonscheduled air transport operations for remuneration or
portion of an instrument approach procedure is carried out. hire and military aviation.
Fix. A geographical position determined by visual reference to Glide Path/Glide Slope. A descent profile determined for verti-
the surface, or by reference to one or more radio navaids, or cal guidance during a final approach.
by celestial plotting, or by another navigational device. Glide Speed for Endurance. The airspeed that gives, with no
Flag/ Flag Alarm. A warning device incorporated in certain power, minimum sink.
airborne navigation and flight instruments to indicate that Glide Speed for Range . The airspeed that results in an angle of
the instrument is inoperative or that signal strength is below attack that gives the maximum lift/drag ratio.
acceptable values.
Global Positioning System (GPS) . A precise navigation system
Flaps Down Speed. The maximum speed at which the aero- based on satellites orbiting the earth at very high altitude.
plane may be f1own with the f1aps lowered. Position in 3 dimensions is calculated by triangulation.
Flameout. Unintended loss of combustion in turbine engines Grid Navigation. A navigation system devised for use in areas
resulting in the loss of engine power. in close proximity to the north pole.
Flight Information Centre (FIC) . A centralized ATS unit that Gross Weight . The maximum permissible weight of the
provides services pertinent to pre-f1ight and en route phases aeroplane.
of f1ight
Ground Control. The operating position in the control tower
Flight Information Service En Route (FISE) . The provision and that provides clearances and instructions for the movement
receipt by a FIC of information pertinent to the en route of airport traffic and the pertinent information to all traffic
phase of flight. within the airport perimeter.
Flight Information Region (FIR) . An airspace of defined dimen- Groundspeed. The speed of an aircraft relative to the surface
sions extending upwards from the surface of the earth of the ground.
within which f1ight information service and alerting service
Ground Visibility. The visibility at an aerodrome as reported by
is provided.
an ATC unit, an FSS, a CARS, a Commet station or a ground
Flight Itinerary. Specified information relating to the intended based radio station operated by an air carrier.
flight of an aircraft, that is filed with either ATC or a respon-
Hang Glider. A motorless heavier-than-air aircraft deriving its
sible person.
lift from surfaces that remain fixed in flight, designed to
Flight Level (FL) . An altitude expressed in hundreds of feet indi- carry not more than two persons and having a launch weight
cated on an altimeter set to 29.92" Hg or 1013.2 hectopascals. of 45 kg or less.
Flight Path. A line, course or track along which an aeroplane is Heading. The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an
flying or intended to be f1own aircraft is pointed, usually expressed in degrees from north
Flight Permit. A permit issued to an amateur built aircraft or (true, magnetic or compass).
to a private aircraft, that does not qualify for a certificate of Heading Indicator. An instrument designed to indicate the
airworthiness, for purposes of experiment, test, demonstra- heading of an aeroplane.
tion or other special flight.
Height Above Aerodrome (HAA) . The height in feet of the mini-
Flight Plan/ Notification. Specified information, relating to the mum descent altitude above the published aerodrome eleva-
intended f1ight of an aircraft, that is filed with ATC. tion. HAA is published for all circling minima.
Flight Service Station (FSS) . An aeronautical facility providing Height Above Touchdown Zone Elevation (HAT) . The height in
mobile and fixed communications, f1ight information, search feet of the decision height or the minimum descent altitude
and rescue alerting and weather and flight planning services above the touchdown zone elevation.
to pilots and other users.
Hertz (Hz) . The standard radio equivalent of frequency in cycles
Flight Time. The time from the moment the aircraft first per second of an electromagnetic wave. Kilohertz (kHz) is a
moves under its own power for the purpose of flight until the frequency of 1,000 cycles per second. Megahertz (MHz) is a
moment it comes to rest at the next point of landing. frequency of one million cycles per second.
Flight Visibility. The average range of visibility at any given High Frequency (HF). The frequency band between 3 and 30
time forward from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight. MHz.
Flight Watch . An en route flight advisory service provided by High Level Air Route . In the High Level Airspace, a prescribed
Flight Service Stations in the U.S. on frequency 122.0 MHz. track between specified radio aids to navigation along which
Fuel Remaining. The amount of fuel remaining on board until ATC service is not provided.
actual fuel exhaustion. It should be expressed in the approxi- High Level Airspace. All airspace that is within the Canadian
mate number of minutes the flight can continue with the fuel Domestic Airspace at or above 18,000 feet ASL.
remaining. All reserve fuel should be included in the time
High Level Airway. In the controlled high level airspace, a pre-
stated, as should an allowance for established fuel gauge
scribed track between specified radio aids to navigation and
system error.
designated'']", along which ATC service is provided.
Full Throttle Altitude. The maximum altitude at which maxi-
Holding Fix/ Holding Point. A specified location, identified by
mum engine power output is available. Above that altitude,
visual or other means in the vicinity of which the position

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 Appendix C

of an aircraft in flight is maintained in accordance with an Jet Stream. A migrating stream of high speed winds present at
ATC clearance. high altitude.
Hold Short. Instructions to hold at least 200 feet from the edge Joint En Route Terminal System (JETS). An automated ATC
of a runway while awaiting permission to cross or proceed system that displays digitally on a radar console alti-
onto that runway. tude information on aeroplanes with Mode C transponder
Homing. Flight toward a navaid, without correcting for wind, by capability.
adjusting the aircraft heading to maintain a rel ative bearing Known Aircraft. Aircraft of whose movements ATS has been
of zero degrees. informed.
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). A navigational instrument Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) . A concept which
that combines the display of a heading indicator with the incorporates the use of ground-based transmitters to broad-
display of an omni indicator. cast precision approach information via VHF radio datalink
Identification Zone. An airspace of defined dimensions extend- to aircraft.
ing upwards from the surface of the ea rth within which cer- Landing Gear Extended Speed. The maximum speed at which
tain rules apply for the security control of air traffic. an aircraft can be safely flown with the landing gear
!FR Aircraft/Flight. An aircraft conducting flight in accordance extended.
with instrument flight rules. Landing Gear Operating Speed. The maximum speed at which
!FR Conditions. Weather conditions below the minimum for the landing gear can be safely extended or retracted .
flight under visual flight rules . Landing Run/Roll. The distance from the point of touchdown
Indicated Airspeed (!AS). The uncorrected speed of the aircraft to the point where the aircraft can be brought to a stop or
read from the airspeed indicator. It is the measurement of the exit the runway.
difference between impact and static pressure. Landing Sequence. The order in which aircraft are positioned
Indicated Altitude. The reading on the altimeter when it is set for landing.
to the current barometric pressure. Launch Weight. The total weight of a hang glider or an ultra-
Inertial Navigation System (INS). A selfcontained long range light aeroplane when it is ready for flight . It includes any
navigation system which by means of computers, preci- equipment, instruments and the maximum quantity of
sion gyros and sensitive accelerometers provides guidance fuel and oil that it is designed to carry but does not include
and steering information and accurately displays position, the weight of any float equipment (to a maximum of 34 kg),
groundspeed and heading. the weight of the occupant or the weight of any parachute
ins tallation.
Initial Approach. That segment of an instrument approach
between the initial approach fix or point and the interme- Load Factor. The ratio of a specified load to the total weight of
diate fix or point wherein the aircraft departs the en route the aircraft.
phase of the flight and maneuvers to enter the intermediate Local Traffic. Aircraft operating in the traffic circuit or within
segment. sight of the tower.
Inner Marker. A marker beacon used with an !LS , located Localizer. The component of an !LS which provides course guid-
between the middle marker and the threshold of the !LS ance to the runway.
runway. Low Approach. An approach over an airport or runway follow-
Instrument Flight Rules (!FR). Rules governing the conduct of ing an instrument or VFR approach, including the go-around
flight under instrument meteorological conditions. maneuver, where the pilot intentionally does not intend to
Instrument Landing System (!LS). A precision instrument land.
approach system consisting of a localizer, glide path, outer Low Frequency (LF). The frequency ba nd between 30 and 300
and middle markers and approach lights. kHz.
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). Meteorological Low Level Air Route. In the low level airspace, a route extend-
conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from ing upwards from the surface of the earth and within which
cloud and ceiling less than the minima specified for visual ATC service is not provided.
meteorological conditions. Low Level Airspace. All airspace within the Canadian Domestic
Instrument Runway. A runway equipped with electronic and Airspace below 18,000 feet ASL.
visual navigation aids for which a precision or nonprecision Low Level Airway. In the low level airspace, a prescribed track
approach procedure has been approved. between specified radio aids to navigation along which ATC
Intermediate Approach. That segment of an instrument service is provided. It extends upwards from 2,200 feet above
approach between the intermediate fix or point and the fina l the surface up to, but not including 18,000 fee t ASL.
approach fix or point wherein the aircraft configuration, Mach Indicator. An instrument that provides a continuous
speed and positioning adjustments are made in preparation indication of the ratio of airspeed to the local speed of sound.
for the final approach.
Mach Number. The ratio of true airspeed to the speed of sound.
International Civil Aviation Organization (!CAO). A specialized
Mandatory Frequency (MF). A VHF frequency designated for
agency of the United Nations whose objective is to develop
use of radio equipped aircraft operating on the surface or in
the principles and techniques of international air navigation
the vicinity of certain specified uncontrolled airports.
and to foster planning and development of international civil
air transport. Maneuvering Area. That part of an aerodrome intended for
the taking off and landing of aircraft and for the movement
Intersection. (1) A point defined by any combination of courses,
of aircraft associated with take-off and landing. It excludes
radials or bearings of two or more navigation aids. (2) The
the aprons.
point where two runways cross or meet within their length .

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Appendix C

Maneuvering Speed. The maximum speed at which the flight Minimum Sector Altitude. The lowest altitude which will
controls can be fully deflected without damage to the aero- provide a minimum clearance of 1,000 feet above all objects
plane structure. located in an area contained within a sector of a circle of 25
Manifold Pressure. Absolute pressure measured at the appro- NM radius centred on a radio aid to navigation.
priate point in the induction system, expressed in inches of Minimum Sink Speed. The airspeed that gives, with no power,
mercury. minimum sink.
Manifold Pressure Gauge. An instrument th at indicates in Minimums/Minima. Weather condition requirements estab-
inches of mercury the pressure of the fuel/a ir mixture in the lished for a particular operation or type of operation.
engine intake manifold. Missed Approach. A maneuver conducted by a pilot when an
Marker Beacon. An electronic navigation facility transmitting a instrument approach cannot be completed to a landing.
75 MHz vertical fan or bone-shaped radiation pattern. Mode. The letter or number assigned to a specific pulse spacing
Mayday. The international radio distress signal. of radio signals transmitted and received by ground interro-
Mean Wind. Wind direction and speed as determined from a gator and airborne transponders. Mode C is used for altitude
sample reading every second over the last two minutes. reporting.

MEDEVAC. A term used to request ATS priority handling for Mountainous Area/ Region. An area of defined lateral dimen-
a medical evacuation flight based on a medical emergency sions above which special rules concerning minimum en
in the transport of patients, organ donors, organs or other route altitudes apply.
urgently needed life-saving medical material. Movement Area. That part of an aerodrome intended for the
Medium Frequency (MF). The frequency band between 300 and surface movement of aircraft, including maneuvering areas
3,000 kHz. and aprons.

Middle Marker. A marker beacon that defines a point along Navigational Aid/Navaid. Any visual or electronic device air-
the glide path of an !LS, normally located at or near decision borne or on the surface which provides point to point guid-
height. ance information or position data to aircraft in flight.
Military Operations Area. An airspace of defined dimensions Never Exceed Speed. The maximum speed at which the aero-
established to segregate certain military activities from !FR plane can be operated in smooth air.
traffic and to identify for VFR traffic where these activities Night. The period of time when the centre of the sun's disc is
are conducted. more than 6 degrees below the horizon or the period of time
Military Terminal Control Area (MTCA). Controlled airspace of commencing one half hour after sunset and ending one half
defined dimensions designed to serve arriving, departing and hour before sunrise, in any place where the sun rises and
en route aircraft and within which special procedures and sets daily.
exemptions exist for military aircraft. Night VFR. A flight conducted in accordance with VFR during
Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA). The lowest altitude at cer- hours of night.
tain fixes at which an aircraft must cross. Nondirectional Beacon (NDB). An L/MF radio beacon transmit-
Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA). A specified height refer- ting nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of an aircraft
enced to sea level for a nonprecision approach below which equipped with ADF can determine the bearing to or from the
descent must not be made until the required visual reference radio beacon and "home" on or track to or from the station.
to continue the approach to land has been established. Nonprecision Approach Procedure. A standard instrument
Minimum En Route Altitude (MEA). The published altitude approach procedure in which no electronic guide path is
above sea level between specified fixes on airways or air provided.
routes which assures acceptable navigational signal coverage NORDO. Aircraft in which no radio equipment is installed.
and which meets the !FR obstruction clearance requirements. Normal Operating Limit Speed. The maximum safe speed at
Minimum Fuel. An aircraft's fuel supply has reached a state which the aeroplane should be operated; the cruise speed for
where, upon reaching the destination, it can accept little or which it was designed.
no delay. Northern Domestic Airspace (NOA). All airspace within the
Minimum Holding Altitude. The lowest altitude prescribed for Canadian Domestic Airspace that lies north of a line that,
a holding pattern which assures navigational signal coverage, specifically defined by regulation, begins at the Alaska/
communications and meets obstacle clearance requirements. Canada border on the Arctic Ocean and, more or less, extends
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA). The alti- southward through Yellowknife to Churchill and thence
tude above sea level in effect between radio fixes on a VHF/ northeast to Frobisher and the Atlantic Ocean.
UHF low level airway which meets the !FR obstruction clear- NOTAM. Notices to airmen are transmitted on the telecommu-
ance requirements for the route segment. nication networks and are also published in printed form and
Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA). At a specific VHF/UHF convey information of special import regarding the facilities
intersection, the lowest altitude above sea level at which in their respective areas.
acceptable navigation signal coverage is received to deter- Now Wind. Wind direction and speed as determined from a
mine the intersection. sample reading every second and averaged over the last five
Minimum Safe Altitude. Altitudes depicted on approach charts seconds.
which provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance for use Obstacle Clearance Altitude/Height.The lowest altitude above
within a specified distance from the navigation facility upon the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or above the
which a procedure is predicated. aerodrome elevation used in establishing compliance with
appropriate obstacle clearance criteria.

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 Appendix C

Omega Navigation System. A long range navigation system Radial. A magnetic bearing extending from a VOR, VORTAC
based on very low frequency navigation signals transmitted or TACAN navigation facility, except for facilities in the
by 8 world wide stations. Northern Domestic Airspace which may be oriented on true
Omni. The commonly used shortened name for the very high north.
frequency omnidirectional navigation system. Radio. (1) A device used for communication. (2) Used to refer to
Outer Marker. A marker beacon at or near the glide path inter- a flight service station.
cept altitude of an !LS approach. Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). A navigational instrument
Overshoot. A phase of flight wherein a landing approach of an coupled with a gyro compass that indicates the direction to
aircraft is not continued to touchdown. a selected navaid and indicates bearing with respect to the
heading of the aircraft.
Pilotage. Navigation by visual reference to landmarks.
Rate-One-Turn. The turn rate of three degrees per second nor-
Pan Pan.The international radio urgency signal.
mally used by aircraft operating at Jess than 250 kt.
Pilot-In-command. The pilot responsible for the operation and
Rating. A statement that, as a part of a pilot licence, sets forth
safety of an aircraft during flight time.
special conditions, privileges or limitations.
PlREP (Pilot Weather Report) . A report of meteorological phe-
Readback. Procedure whereby the receiving station repeats a
nomena encountered by aircraft in flight
received message back to the transmitting station so as to
Pitch Setting. The propeller blade setting as determined by the obtain confirmation of correct reception.
blade angle.
Remote Communications Outlet (RCO). An unmanned air/
Position Report. A report over a known location as transmitted ground communications station remotely controlled by an
by an aircraft to ATC. FSS or CARS.
Positive Control. Control of all air traffic within designated Reporting Point. A geographical location in relation to which
airspace by air traffic control. the position of an aircraft is reported.
Precipitation. Any or all forms of water particles (rain, sleet, Required Visual Reference. In respect of an aircraft on an
hail or snow) that fall from the atmosphere and reach the approach to a runway, that section of the approach area of
surface. the runway or those visual aids that, when viewed by the
Precision Approach Radar (PAR). A high definition, short range pilot of the aircraft, enable the pilot to make an assessment
radar approach aid. It provides altitude, azimuth and range of the aircraft position and the rate of change of position rela-
information. tive to the nominal flight path.
Preferred Runway. When there is no active runway, the Responsible Person. An individual who has agreed with the
preferred runway is considered to be the most suitable person who intends to commence a flight that he/she will
operational runway taking into account such factors as: the notify ATC of the non -arrival of the flight at the ETA specified
runway most nearly aligned with the wind; noise abatement in the flight itinerary.
or other restrictions which prohibit the use of certain run- Restricted Area. Class F Airspace of defined dimensions above
ways; ground traffic and runway conditions. the land areas or territorial waters within which the flight
Pressure Altitude. The reading on the altimeter when it is set to of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain specified
standard barometric pressure (29.92" Hg). conditions.
Prevailing Visibility. The maximum visibility value common RONLY. An aeroplane equipped with a radio receiver only
to sectors comprising onehalf or more of the horizon circle. Rotate. A word used to indicate one of several take-off sequenc-
Primary Frequency. The radio frequency assigned to an aircraft es. The term stems from "rotate about the lateral axis of an
as a first choice for air-ground communication. aeroplane" and applies to a change of attitude during take-off
Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR). A radar system that com- Runway. A defined rectangular area, on a land aerodrome,
putes target positions by determining the range and azimuth prepared for the landing and take-off run of aircraft along
of transmitted and reflected radio frequency energy. its length.
Procedure Turn. A maneuver in which a turn is made away Runway Heading. The magnetic or true direction that corre-
from a designated track followed by a turn in the opposite sponds with the runway centreline.
direction, both turns being executed so as to permit the Runway Visual Range (RVR). For a particular runway, the
aircraft to intercept and proceed along the reciprocal of the maximum distance in the direction of take-off or landing a
designated track. pilot will be able to see the lights or other delineating markers
Propeller. A device for propelling an aeroplane by its action on along the runway from a specified point above the centreline
the air. It comprises two or more blades on an engine driven that corresponds to the average eye level at the moment of
shaft for the purpose of producing thrust approximately per- touchdown.
pendicular to its plane of rotation. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) . A radar system that
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) . A device which, by requires complementary aircraft equipment (transponder).
measuring the time interval between transmission and Separation. In ATC, the spacing of aircraft to achieve their
reception of radio pulses and correlating the angular orienta- safe and orderly movement in flight and while landing and
tion of the radiated antenna beam, provides information on taking off
range, azimuth and/or elevation of objects in the path of the SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Information). A weather
transmitted pulses.
advisory issued concerning weather significant to the safety
Radar Altimeter/Radio Altimeter. Airborne equipment which of aircraft (e.g. tornadoes, thunderstorms, severe turbulence,
makes use of the reflection of radio waves from the ground icing, etc.)
to determine the height of that aircraft above the ground.

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Appendix C

Southern Domestic Airspace (SDA). All airspace within the Touchdown Zone Elevation (TDZE). The highest runway cen-
Canadian Domestic Airspace that lies south of a line, that, treline elevation in the touchdown zone.
specifically defined by regulation, begins at the Alaska/ Tower. A terminal facility which through use of air/ground
Canada border on the Arctic Ocean and, more or less, extends communications, visual signalling, provides ATC services to
southward through Yellowknife to Churchill and thence airborne aircraft operating in the vicinity of the airport and
northeast to Frobisher and the Atlantic Ocean. to aircraft operating on the movement area of the airport.
Special VFR Conditions. Weather conditions in a control zone Track. The projection on the earth's surface of the path of
which are less than basic VFR and in which some aircraft are an aircraft, the direction of which at any point is usually
permitted f1ight under visual f1ight rules. expressed in degrees from north (true, magnetic or grid).
Specified Area. An area in the vicinity of an uncontrolled aero- Traffic Circuit/Pattern. The traffic flow that is prescribed for
drome for which a mandatory frequency or an aerodrome aircraft landing at, taxiing on or taking off from an airport.
traffic frequency has been designated and within which
Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWB). A continuous recording
MF or ATF procedures apply. Usually a circle with a S nauti-
cal mile radius extending up to 3,000 feet above aerodrome of meteorological a nd aeronautical information that is broad-
elevation. cast on L/MF and/or VOR facilities .

Speed Brake. Moveable aerodynamic devices on aircraft that Transponder. A receiver/transmitter which will generate a
reply signal upon proper interrogation (SSR).
reduce airspeed.
True Altitude. Exact height above mean sea level.
Squawk. Activate specific mode, codes or function on an air-
craft transponder. True Airspeed. Calibrated airspeed (or equivalent airspeed)
corrected for air density error.
Standard Atmosphere. A standard unit of atmospheric pres-
sure, 29.92 inches of mercury at 15°C at sea level, as defined Turn and Slip Indicator/Turn Co-ordinator. An instrument
by !CAO. designed to indicate the direction and rate of turn of an
aircraft and the amount of slipping or skidding in the turn.
Standard Rate Turn. A turn of three degrees per second.
Ultrahigh Frequency. The frequency band between 300 and
Stop and Go. A procedure in which an aircraft lands, makes a
3,000 MHz.
complete stop on the runway and then commences a take-off
from that point. Ultralight Aircraft. A power driven heavier-than-air aircraft
Stopover Flight Plan. A f1ight plan which in- eludes two or more designed to carry not more than one person (in the case of a
single place) and not more than two persons (in the case of a
separate en route f1ight segments with an intermediate stop
two place) with restrictions as to launch weight.
at one or more airports.
Uncontrolled Aerodrome/Airport. An aerodrome or airport
Straight-In Approach. Entry into the traffic circuit by intercep-
without an air traffic control tower in operation.
tion of the fin al approach leg without executing any other
portion of the traffic circuit. Uncontrolled Airspace. Airspace within which ATC has neither
TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation). An ultrahigh frequency air the authority nor the responsibility to exercise control over
air traffic.
navigation aid which provides suitably equipped aircraft a
continuous indication of bearing and distance to a Tacan UNICOM. Universal Communications. An air/ground communi-
station. cation facility operated by a private agency to provide private
advisory station service at uncontrolled aerodromes and air-
Tachometer. An instrument that indicates the speed at which
ports with no ATS air/ground communications.
the engine crankshaft is turning.
Variation. The angle between the true meridian and the mag-
Target. The indication shown on a radar display resulting from
netic meridian.
a primary radar return on a radar beacon reply.
Vector. A heading issued to an aircraft to provide navigational
Terminal Control Area (TCA). An airspace of defined dimen-
guidance by radar.
sions extending upwards from a defined base AGL within
which a terminal control unit provides ATC services designed Vertical Speed Indicator. An instrument that indicates the
to serve arriving, departing and en route aircraft. rate, in feet per minute, at which an aeroplane is ascending
Tetrahedron. A device located on the airport which is used as a or descending.
landing/wind direction indicator. Very High Frequency (VHF). The frequency band between 30
and 300 MHz.
Threshold. The beginning of that portion of the runway usable
for landing. Very Low Frequency (VLF). The frequency band between 2 and
30 kHz.
Threshold Crossing Height (TCH). The height of the glide slope
above the runway threshold. VFR Aircraft/Flight. An aircraft conducting flight in accordance
with visual f1ight rules.
Touch and Go. An operation by an aircraft that lands and
departs on a runway without stopping or exiting the runway. VFR Over The Top. Authorization for flight above an en route
cloud layer providing certain conditions exist.
Touchdown. (1) The point at which an aircraft first makes con-
tact with the landing surface. (2) In !LS, the point where the Visibility. The ability, as determined by atmospheric condi-
glide path intercepts the landing surface. tions and expressed in units of distance, to see and identify
prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent lighted
Touchdown Zone (TDZ). The first 3,000 feet of runway or the
first third of the runway, whichever is less, from the thresh- objects by night.
old in the direction of landing.

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix C

Visual Approach. An approach wherein an aircraft on an !FR Wind Direction Indicator. A device which visually indicates the
flight plan, operating in VFR weather conditions under the wind direction for the purpose of determining the direction
control of an ATC facility and having an ATC authorization, in which landings and take-offs should be made.
may proceed to the airport of destination in VFR weather Wind Shear. A change, either vertically or horizontally, in wind
conditions. speed and/or direction in a short distance resulting in a tear-
Visual Flight Rules. Rules that govern the procedures for con- ing or shearing effect.
ducting flight under visual conditions.
Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Meteorological condi- Abbreviations
tions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud and
A or AST - Atlantic Standard Time
ceiling equal to or better than specified minima.
AAE - Above Aerodrome Elevation
VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range) Station.
AAS - Airport Advisory Service
A grou nd based navigation aid transmitting VHF navigation
signals 360° in azimuth oriented from m agnetic nor th. AASR - Airport and Airways Surveillance Rad ar
VORTAC (VOR/TACAN). A navigation aid providing VOR azi- AAU - Authori zed Approach UNICOM
muth, TACAN azimu th and TACAN DME at one site. A/C - Aircraft
Vortices/Wing Tip Vortices. Circular patterns of air created by ACA - Arctic Control Area
the movement of an airfoil through the air when generating ACAS - Airborne Collision Avoidance System
flight. ACC - Area Control Centre
VOT (VOR Test Signal). A ground facility which emits a test AI D - Aerodrome
signal to check VOR receiver accuracy. AD - Airworthiness Directive
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). A concept which ADCUS - Advise Customs
incorporates the use of ground-based stations receiving GPS ADF - Automatic Direction Finder
satellite signals to broadcast navigation information via GPS
AFM - Pilot's Operating Handbook
frequencies to receivers on board aircraft.
ADI - Attitude Direction Indicator
Wake Turbulence. The turbulence associated with the pair of
ADIS - Automatic Data Interchange System
counter-rotating vortices trailing from the wing tips of an
aeroplane in flight. ADIZ - Air Defence Identification Zone
Waypoint (RNAV). A predetermined geographical position used ADS - Automatic Dependent Surveillance
for route or progress reporting purposes that is defined as AFTN - Aeronautical Fixed Communication Network
relative to a VORTAC station position. AES - Atmospheric Environment Service
A/G - Air/Ground
AGL - Above Ground Level
Al - Attitude Indicator
AIC - Aeronautical Information Circular
AIM - Aeron autical Infor mation Manual
AIREP - Meteorological Report
AIRMET - Airmen's Meteorological Advisory
Alt - Altitude
Altn - Alternate
AM - Amplitude Modulation
AME - Aircraft Maintenance Engineer
ANAL - Analyzed Charts (Weather)
ANO - Air Naviga tion Order
AOA - Angle of Attack
AOE - Airport of Entry
ARCAL - Aircraft Radio Control of Aerodrome Lighting
ARTCC - Air Route Traffic Control Center
ARU - Altitude Reservation Unit
ARV - Air Recreational Vehicle
ASDA - Accelerate Stop Distance Available
ASDE - Airport Surface Detection Equipment
ASL - Above Sea Level
ASR - Airport Surveillance Radar
ATC - Air Traffic Control
ATCRBS - ATC Radar Beacon System
ATF - Aerodrome Traffic Frequency
ATIS - Automatic Terminal Information Service

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Appendix C

ATM - Air Traffic Management DCS - Double Channel Simplex

ATS - Air Traffic Services dB - Decibel
ATZ - Aerodrome Traffic Zone DERP - Design Eye Reference Point
AUW - All-up-weight DEW - Distant Early Warning
AWBS - Aviation Weather Briefing Service DF - Direction Finding
AWIS - Aviation Weather Information Service DG - Directional Gyro
AWOS - Automated Weather Observation System DGPS - Differential GPS
BBS - Bulletin Board Service DH - Decision Height
BC - Back Course DME - Distance Measuring Equipment
BOC - Bottom Dead Centre (Engine) DND - Department of National Defence
BFO - Beat Frequency Oscillator DOC - Department of Communications
BHP - Brake Horsepower DOT - Department of Transport
BM - Back Marker DIR - Dead Reckoning
BMEP - Brake Mean Effective Pressure DRCO - Dial Up Remote Communication Outlet
BRG - Bearing DT - Daylight Time
C or CST - Central Standard Time DVFR - Defence Visual Flight Rules
C - Celsius E or EST - Eastern Standard Time
CA - Conflict Alert (ACAS) eAPIS - Electronic Advance Passenger Inform ation
cA - Continental Arctic (Air Mass) System
CAE - Control Area Extension EAS - Equivalent Airspeed
Can. - Canada EAT - Expected Approach Time
CAP - Canada Air Pilot EFB - Electronic Flight Bag
CAR - Canadian Aviation Regulations EFIS - Electronic Flight Instrument System
CARS - Community Aerodrome Radio Station EGT - Exhaust Gas Temperature
CAS - Calibrated Airspeed EHF - Extremely High Frequency
CASRP - Confidential Aviation Safety Reporting Program ELT - Emergency Locator Transmitter
CAT - Civil Aviation Tribunal EPR - Engine Pressure Ratio
CAT - Clear Air Turbulence ETA - Estimated Time of Arrival
CAT I - Category I ETD - Expected Time of Departure
CAT II - Category II ETE - Expected Time En Route
CAVOK - Ceiling and Visibility OK F- Fahrenheit
CAVU - Ceiling and Visibility Unlimited FA - Aviation Area Forecast
CBP - Custom and Border Protection FAA - Federal Aviation Admin istration (U.S.)
CCI - Condition and Conformity Inspection FAF - Final Approach Fix
CDA - Canadian Domestic Airspace FANS - Future Air Navigation System
CD! - Course Deviation Indicator FAR - Federal Air Regulations (U.S.)
CFB - Canadian Forces Base FD - Upper Winds and Temperature Forecast
CFS - Canada Flight Supplement FIC - Flight Information Centre
CG - Centre of Gravity FIR - Flight Information Region
CMNPS - Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance FISE - Flight Information Service En Route
Specifications FL - Flight Level
CNS - Communication. Navigation and Surveillance FLT PLN - Flight Plan
C of A - Certificate of Airworthiness FM - Frequency Modulation
C of R - Certificate of Registration FMS - Flight Management Systems
COM - Communication FP - Flight Plan
cP - Continental Polar (Air Mass) FPM - Feet Per Minute
CP - Centre of Pressure FPO - Freezing Point Depressant
CRT - Cathode Ray Tube FSS - Flight Service Station
CTA - Control Area FT - Aerodrome Forecast
CVFR - Controlled VFR FVFR - VFR Flight Following Service
CW - Continuous Wave (Wireless Key) GA - General Aviation
CZ - Control Zone GASA - Geographic Area Safe Altitude
DADS - Digital Altimeter Display System GCA - Ground Controlled Approach
DAH - Designated Airspace Handbook GOOP - Geometric Dilution of Precision (GPS)
DCD - Double Channel Duplex GFA - Graphic Area Forecast

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix C

GHA - Greenwich Hour Angle LVL -Level

GMT - Greenwich Mean Time LWIS - Limited Weather Information System
GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite System M - Mach Number
GP - Glide Path or Glide Slope M or Mag - Magnetic
GPS - Global Positioning System M or MST - Mountain Standard Time
GS - Glide Slope mA - Maritime Arctic (Air Mass)
GPWS - Ground Proximity Warning System MAC - Mean Aerodynamic Chord
GR! - Group Repetition Interval MANOT - Missing Aircraft Notice
HAA - Height Above Aerodrome MAP - Missed Approach Point
HAT - Height Above Touchdown Zone Elevation Mb - Millibar
HE - High Level Enroute Char t MCA - Minimum Crossing Altitude
HF - High Frequency MOA - Minimum Descent Altitude
Hg. - Inches of Mercury MEA - Minimum En Route Altitude
HI - Heading Indicator MEOEVAC - Medical Evacuation Flight
HIAL - High Intensity Approach Lighting MEP - Mean Effective Pressure
HLA - High Level Airspace Met. - Meteorology
HP - Horsepower METAR - Aviation Routine Weather Report
hPa - Hectopascal METO - Maximum Except Take-Off Power
HR - High Level Air Route MF - Mandatory Frequency
Hrs. - Hours MF - Medium Frequency
HSI - Horizontal Situation Indicator MFO - Multifunction Display
Hz - Hertz MHA - Minimum Holding Altitude
H24 - Continuous Operation MHz - Megahertz
!AF - Initial Approach Fix Min. - Minutes
!AS - Indicated Airspeed MLS - Microwave Landing System
!CAO - International Civil Aviation Organization MM - Middle Marker
IF - Intermediate Fix MNPS - Minimum Navigation Performance
!FR - Instrument Flight Rules Specifications
!LS - Instrument Landing System MOA - Military Operations Area
IMC - Instrument Meteorological Conditions MOCA - Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude
INS - Inertial Navigation System mP - Maritime Polar (Air Mass)
IRS - Inertial Reference System MP - Manifold Pressure
ISA - International Standard Atmosphere Mph - Miles per Hour
J or JET - High Level Airway MPS - Meters Per Second
JBI - James Brake Indicator MRA - Minimum Reception Altitude
JETS - Joint En Route Terminal System MSA - Minimum Sector Altitude
kHz - Kilohertz MSL - Mean Sea Level
km - Kilometer mT - Maritime Tropic (Air Mass)
KMH - Kilometers Per Hour MTCA - Military Terminal Control Area
kPa - Kilopascal MVFR - Marginal Visual Flight Rules
kts - knots N. miles - Nautical Miles
L - Litre Nav. - Navigation
LAAS - Local Area Augmentation System Navaid - Navigation Aid
LAHSO - Land and Hold Short Operation NAVSTAR - Global Positioning System
Lat. - Latitude NCA - Northern Control Area
LOA - Landing Distance Available NOA - Northern Domestic Airspace
LOA - Localizer Type Directional Aid NOB - Non Directional Beacon
LHA - Local Hour Angle NM - Nautical Mile
LIAL - Low Intensity Approach Lighting NOROO - No Radio
LLA - Low Level Airspace NOTAM - Notices to Airmen
L/MF - Low/Medium Frequency NT Error - Northerly Turning Error
LO - Low Level Enroute Chart NWS - North Warning System
LOC - Localizer OAT - Outside Air Temperature
Long. - Longitude OBS - Omni Bearing Selector
LSB - Lower Side Band OCL - Obstacle Clearance Limit

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Appendix C

OIDS - Operational Information Display System SCS - Single Channel Simplex

OKTAS - Eighths SD - Radar Report
OM - Outer Marker SDA - Southern Domestic Airspace
ONS - Omega Navigation System SHA - Sidereal Hour Angle
0/R - On Request SID -Standard Instrument Departure
0 /T- On Time SIGMET - Significant Meteorological Information
P or PST - Pacific Standard Time SIRO - Simultaneous Intersecting Runway Operations
PAL - Peripheral Station SM - Statute Mile
PAPI - Precision Approach Path Indicator SPS - Standard Position Service (GPS)
PAR - Precision Approach Radar SSB -Single Side Band (HF Radio)
PAS - Private Advisory Station SSR - Secondary Surveillance Radar
PCZ - Positive Control Zone SST - Supersonic Transport
PFD - Primary Flight Display STAR - Standard Terminal Arrival Route
PIREP - Pilot Report STOL - Short Take-Off and Landing
PNI - Pictorial Navigation Indicator SVFR -Special VFR
POH - Pilots Operating Handbook T - True
PPS - Precise Position Service (GPS) TA - Traffic Alert (ACAS)
PROG - Prognostic Chart (Weather) TACAN - Tactical Air Navigation
psi - Pounds Per Square Inch TAF - Aerodrome Forecast
PSID - Design Limited Maximum Allowable Pressure TAS - True Airspeed
Differential TAT - True Air Temperature
PSR - Primary Surveillance Radar TB - Track Bar Indicator
PSTAR - Student Pilot Permit Exam TC - Transport Canada
QNH - Altimeter Setting TCA - Terminal Control Area
RA -Resolution Advisory (ACAS) TCAS - Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System
R/A - Radius of Action (U.S.)
RAAS - Remote Aerodrome Advisory Service TCH - Threshold Crossing Height
RADAR - Radio Detection and Ranging TCU - Terminal Control Unit
RAIM -Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring TDC - Top Dead Centre (Engine)
(GPS) TDZ - Touchdown Zone
RAMP - Radar Modernization Project TDZE - Touchdown Zone Elevation
RAPCON - Radar Approach Control T IO - Take-Off
RAREPS - Weather Radar Reports TSB - Transportation Safety Board
RASO - Regional Aviation Safety Officer TWB - Transcribed Weather Broadcast
RAT - Rectified Air Temperature Twr- Tower
RCO - Remote Communications Outlet U DF - UHF Direction Finder
RCR - Runway Condition Report UHF - Ultra High Frequency
RDD-1 - Radar Digitized Display UNICOM - Universal Communication, Private Advisory
RFSS - Remote Flight Service Station Station
RMI - Radio Magnetic Indicator US - United States
RNAV - Area Navigation USB - Upper Side Band (HF Radio)
RONLY - Receiver Only UTC - Co-ordinated Universal Time
RPM - Rotations per Minute V - Victor Airway (VOR)
RSC - Runway Surface Condition VASIS - Visual Approach Slope Indicator System
RTF - Radiotelephony Frequencies VCS - Vehicle Control Service
RVCS - Remote Vehicle Control Service VFR - Visual Flight Rules
RVR - Runway Visual Range VFR OTT - VFR Over The Top
Rwy- Runway VHF - Very High Frequency
S.miles - Statute Miles VLF - Very Low Frequency
SA - Aviation Weather Report VMC - Visual Meteorological Conditions
SAR - Search and Rescue VNC - VFR Navigation Chart
SARSAT - Search and Rescue Satellite VOLMET - Inf1ight Meteorological Information
SATCOM - Satellite Communications VOR - VHF Omni-directional Range
SAWR - Supplemental Aviation Weather Report VORTAC - VOR/TACAN
SCA - Southern Control Area VOT - VOR Receiver Test Facility

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix C

VS! - Vertical Speed Indicator V5 - stall speed. The minimum steady flight speed
VTA - VFR Terminal Area Chart at which the air plane is controllable.
VTOL - Vertical Take-off and Landing V5L- stall speed obtained in a specified configura-
VTPC - VFR Terminal Procedure Chart tion. Power-off stall speed ("Clean").
WAAS - Wide Area Augmentation System V50 - stall speed in landing configuration.
WAC - World Aeronautical Chart Vx - speed for best angle of climb.
WAS - Water Aerodrome Supplement Vv - speed for best rate of climb.
WL - Wavelength v, - critical engine failure speed. Take-off decision
speed. The speed above which the take-off is
WP - Waypoint
continued, and below which the take-off is
WS - Airmet Message abandoned in the event of an engine fa ilu re.
Wx - Weather v, - take-off safety speed. Take-off and climb
XC - Cross-country speed.
Z or ZULU - Co-ordinated Universal Time V,min - minimum take-off safety speed.
Z - VHF Station Location Marker V3 - flap retraction speed.

TheVSpeeds Turbine Technology

VA- design maneuvering speed. Pilots of turbine aeroplanes should be familiar with the fol-
V8 - design speed for maximum gust intensity. lowing terms:
V0 - design cruising speed. N numbers refer to speeds of various components.
VD - design diving speed. Ng - gas generator speed.
VD,! MD, - demonstrated flight diving speed. NP - power turbine speed.
v , - design flap speed. Nh - high rotor speed.
V , 0 ! M, 0 - maximum speed for stability characteristics. N - Compressor speed (rpm or percent) for a single
V,E - maximum flap extended speed. compressor engine.
VH - maximum speed in level flight with rated rpm N, - Speed of the low pressure compressor of a
and power. dual compressor engine, or the speed of a
VLE - maximum landing gear extended speed. single compressor engine equipped with a free
VLw - landing light operation speed. turbine.
VL0 - maximum landing gear operating speed. N2 - Speed of the high pressure compressor of a
dual compressor engine, or the free turbine
Vcor - lift-off speed.
speed of a single compressor engine equipped
VMc - minimum control speed. The minimum speed with a free turbine.
at which it is possible to control the aeroplane
Free turbine speed of a dual compressor engine
N3 -
in the air, with the critical engine inoperative.
equipped with a free turbine.
VMCA - minimum control speed in the air in a take-off
Beta Range - the ground range of operation of the propel-
configuration.
ler in a turboprop configuration. For ground
VMee - minimum control speed on the ground. The operation, controllable thrust can be obtained
minimum speed at which it is possible to suffer by scheduling and co-ordinating fuel flow and
an engine fa ilure on take-off and maintain blade angle according to the dictates of the
control of the aeroplane. power lever. The beta range refers to the angle
VMcL - minimum control speed in the air in an of travel of the propeller from fine pitch up to
approach or landing configuration with an the point of reverse propeller angle.
engine inoperative.
VMo I MM0 - maximum operating speed. The maximu m
permitted speed for all operations.
VMu - m inimum unstick speed. The minimum speed
at which the aeroplane can be lifted off the
runway without displaying any hazardous
flight characteristics.
VNE - never exceed speed.
VNo - maximum permitted speed for normal
operations.
v.D- maximum speed for airframe parachute
deployment.
VRA - rough air speed. The recommended speed for
flight in turbulence.
v. - rotation speed.
VREF - landing reference speed.

From the Ground Up' 30th Edition

Appendix C

Conversion Tables
LITRES/IMPERIAL GALLONS UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
DIMENSIONS CANADA

Distance Nautical Miles and Tenths

Altitudes, Heights, Elevations, and Dimensions

Feet
on Aerodomes and short distances
.66 33 7.26 63 13.86 93 20.46
.88 34 7.48 64 14.08 94 20.68 Horizontal Speed Knots
1.10 35 7.70 65 14.30 gs 20.90 Vertical Speed Feet Per Minute
1.32 36 7.92 66 14.52 96 21.12
Wind Speed Knots
1.54 37 8.14 67 14.74 97 21.34
Degrees Magnetic in Southern Domestic Airspace
1.76 38 8.36 68 14.96 98 21.56 Wind Direction for landing and Taking Off
Degrees True in Northern Domestic Airspace
1.98 39 8.58 69 15.18 99 21.78
10 2.20 40 8.80 70 15.40 100 22.00 Wind Direction for all other purposes Degrees True
11 2.42 41 9.02 71 15.62 200 44.00 Cloud Altitude and Height Feet
12 2.64 42 9 .24 72 15.84 300 66.00
Visibility Statute Miles
13 2.86 43 9.46 73 16.06 400 88.00
Altimeter Setting Inches of Me rcury and Millibars
14 3.08 44 9.68 74 16.28 500 110.00
15 3.30 45 9.90 75 16.50 600 132.00 Temperature Surface Upper Air Celsius
16 3.52 46 10.12 76 16.72 700 154.00 Weight Pounds
17 3.74 47 10.34 77 16.94 800 176.00
Hours and Minutes in the day of 24 Hours
18 3.96 48 10.56 78 17.16 900 198.00 Time
Beginning at Midnight Greenwich Mean Time
19 4.18 49 10.78 79 17.38 1000 220.00
20 4.40 50 11.00 80 17.60 2000 440.00
21 4.62 51 11.22 81 17.82 3000 660.00
22 4.84 52 11.44 82 18.04 4000 880.00
23 5.05 53 11.66 83 18.26 5000 1100.00
CONVERSION TABLE & FACTORS
24 5. 28 54 11.88 84 18.48 6000 1320.00 Multiply By To Obtain
25 5.50 55 12.10 85 18.70 7000 1540.00
Celsius 9/ 5 then add 32 Fahrenheit
26 5.72 56 12.32 86 18.92 8000 1760.00
Centimetres 0.3937 Inches
27 5.94 57 12.54 87 19.14 9000 1980.00
28 6.16 58 12.76 88 19.36 10000 2200.00 Fahrenheit subtract 32 then x 5/ 9 Celsius
29 6.38 59 12.98 89 19.58 fathoms Feet
30 6.60 60 13.20 90 19.80
Feet 0.30481 Metres

LITRES/U.S. GALLONS 1.20095 Gallons (U.S.)

Gallons (Imp.)
4.54597 Litres
.26 31 8.19 61 16.12 91 24.04 0.83268 Gallons (Imp.)
.53 32 8.1+5 62 16.38 92 24.31 Gallon (U.S.)
3.785332 Litres
.79 33 8.72 63 16.65 93 24.57
24.84 33.86395 Millibars
1.06 34 8.98 64 16.91 94
Inches of Hg.
1.32 35 9.25 65 17.17 95 25.10 0.491174 Lbs.sq.inch
1.59 36 9.51 66 17.44 96 25.36 Inches 25.4 Millimetres
1.85 37 9.78 67 17.70 97 25.63
Kilograms 2.20462 Pounds
2.11 38 10.04 68 17.97 98 25.89
2.38 39 10.30 69 18.23 99 26.16 Kilometres 0.62137 Miles (Statute)
10 2.64 40 10.57 70 18.49 100 26.42 Kilometers 0.539553 (Nautical)
11 2.91 41 10.83 71 18.76 200 52.84 Lbs. sq. inch 2.036 Inches of Hg.
12 3.17 42 11.10 72 19.02 300 79.26
litres 0.219975 Gallons (Imp)
13 3.44 43 11.36 73 19.29 400 105.68
14 3.70 44 11.63 74 19.55 500 132.10 litres 0.264178 (U.S.)

15 3.95 45 11.89 75 19.82 600 158.52 Metres 3.28083 Feet

16 4.23 46 12.15 76 20.08 700 184.94
76/ 66 Miles (Statute)
17 4 .49 47 12.42 77 20.34 800 211.36 Miles (Nautical)
1.853249 Kilometers
18 4.76 48 12.68 78 20.59 900 237.78
19 5.02 49 12.95 79 20.87 1000 264.0 66/76 Miles (Nautical)
Miles (Statute)
20 5.28 50 13.21 80 21.14 2000 528.4 1.609347 Kilometers
21 5.55 51 13.47 81 21.40 3000 792.6
0.029531 Inches of Hg.
22 5.81 52 13.74 82 21.66 4000 1056.8 Millibars
0.7501 Millimeters of Hg.
23 6.08 53 14.00 83 21.93 5000 1321.0
24 6.34 54 14.27 84 22.19 6000 1585.2 Millimeters 0.03937 Inches
25 6.61 55 14.53 85 22.46 7000 1848.4 Millimeters of Hg. 1.33315 Millibars
26 6.87 56 14.80 86 22.72 8000 211 3.6
Pounds 0.453592 Kilograms
27 7.13 57 15.06 87 22.99 9000 2377.8
28 7.40 58 15.32 88 23.23 10000 2642.0
29 7.66 59 15.59 89 23.51
30 7.93 60 15.85 90 23.78
AVIATION GASOLINE

TEMPERATURE 10 15.8 45 71 .1 75 118.5

20 31.6 50 79.0 80 126.4
25 39. 5 55 86.9 85 134.3
225 437 155 311 85 185 15 59
30 47.4 60 94.8 90 142.2
220 428 150 302 80 176 10 50
35 55.3 65 102.7 95 150.1
215 419 145 293 75 167 05 41
40 63.2 70 110.6 100 158.0
210 410 140 284 70 158 00 32
205 401 135 275 65 149 -05 23
200 392 130 266 60 140 -10 14
195 383 125 257 55 131 -15 -05 EQUIVALENTS
190 374 120 248 50 122 - 20

~ 20.3
185 365 115 239 45 113 - 25 -13
180 356 110 230 40 104 -30 -22

--::--+---::-----::--+-- -::----:-:--+---.9--
35 .6 50.8
175
170
347
338
105
100
221
212
35
30
95
86
-35
- 40
-31
-40
~
165 329 95 203 25 77 -45 -49
160 320 90 194 20 68 -50 -58

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix D

air traffic rules and procedures .. . 108 avionics . . 232

Appendix D AWBS
Alerting service .... 122, 235 235
alpha range . . 79 AWOS . .176
ALSF-2 .101 AWWS .. 190
... 73 azimuth

Index alternalor
altimeter error
106
. 75
146
azimuth card
azimuth card knob
. 257
257

.142
.122
B
A .139
.139
265
.147
AAIR .. 117 altostratus. .139 back suction system .. . 66
AAS 235 ambient temperature 285 baffles .. .. 59
AAU 229 AMIS . .122 .. 288
abbreviated PAPI . 101 ammeter 76 . 288
abbreviated VASI anabatic wind .145 barbiturates .. . .... . ..341
. 333, 334 . 165
AnaesthetJCs . .341 .. ... 40
.151 angle. 32 barotrauma 335
.. 152 angle of at tack . 20 base leg ..102
.139 angle of incidence . 25 basic empty weight 286
... 109 angle of interception .. 255 basic ultralight aircraft
273 anhedral 30 battery
.. 274 Annual A1rworthiness Information Report (AAIR) .117 beam 269
....274 annual change .198
... 274 ant i-authority 344
Ace .139 anti-drag w ires .5
acceleration ...14, 19, 202 antihistam ines 341 20
.66 12 . 32
.117 anvil 9 299
ADI . .275 AOE 298
adiabatic process .. 152 APAPI . 32
ADIZ .132 .46 beta range . 79
adjustable pitc h propellers . . .77 196 BFO 259
ADS . 267, 273 266 BHP
ADS-B 273 266 .. 340
ADS-B In 273 334
ADS-BOut 273 101
advanced ult ralight aircraft 330 apron 97
advection . .151 ARC AL .99 boil-off .
advec tion cooling. .152 109 boost
advection fog 162 area .. . 53
adverse yaw .. ..... .... ..... .. 28 .122
aerodrome . ... 97 .130 . 53
aerodrome forecast . . 187 .. 73 Brake Mean Effective Pressure 54
aerodrome standards and recommended practices 98 arrival 106 9
aerodynamic chord .. 5 .125 .. 9
aerodynamic response ... 276 .139
.. . 117, 359 270 .93
256 25
agonic .198 aspirin . 341 bungees 11
aileron drag .. 23 asymmetric thrust 31 burner section . 91
A.1.M. Canada 117, 359 ATIS .. 105, 236 bus bar
aircraft configuration and surface roughness . 285 ATM 267 Buys Ballot's Law . 144
Aircraft movement information servtee . .. 122 attention management 346 by-pass .60
aircraft radio control of aerodrom e lig hting .. 99 attenuation 168
aircraft surface temperature
Air Defence Identification Zones
285
.132 attitude managem ent
..275
346
c
airframe augmento r system .... . 73 cA. .. .155
Airframe icing . .181 59 cabin 305
air inlet duct 91 .. 229 cabin b riefing . 307
.....154 autokinet1c phenomenon 339 C/A code. 268
.....165 Automated Weather Observation System .. 176 .44
airport .97 automatic collision avoidance system 273 .. . 118
235 automatic dependent surveillance 108
airport beacon 100 Auto matic dependent surveillance-broadcast . 273 Canadian Aviation Regulations.
Airport control service .122 automatic terminal information service . 105, 236 Canadian Border Services Agency
airport/facility directory .97 automobile gasoline ...... 64 Canadian Runway Friction Index ....183
Airport of Entry .126 autopilot 171 ..341
.. . 270 autorotation . 37
. 111 auxiliary gears. 55 cantilever .
.. 16 AVASI .101 cap cloud
.122 ...... 117 CARs .
air traffic control instruc tio n .122 . 235 CARS .
air traffic management . 267 .176 CAS
Aviation Weather Web Site . 190

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Appendix D

CAT ... 181 contact breaker . .. 73 DGPS 268

266 continental air .154 dial up remote communications outlet 236
.. 266 continental arctic .......... 155 differential ailerons
.. 266 continental polar .155 differential GPS 268
266 contouring 168 diffraction 230
266 contour lines 175 diffu ser 91
266 contours . .145 diffusion .316
... 179 controllable pitch propeller . 78 dihedral 30
.. 140 controllable pitch propellers 78 dip
... 126 controlled high level airspace . 109 directional
...... 126 controlled low level airspace . . . 109
Cc .139 convec t ion 141 , 151
CDI convective instability 164 disc
.. 152 convergence . 144 8
336 convergency 204
centre of gravity cooling ... 60
centre of gravity range 288 cooling fans 59
centre of pressure ....... ... 20 co·ordmated universal time 196 distress.
centrifugal force .. . 33 Coriolis effect . 340 distributor . . 73
ce ntripetal force . . 33 ....... 143
Cf .. 140 ...... 273
(FPS .. 124 corridors . . .. 168
C.G. .. 14
196 143
196 . 24
check valve .66 course 257 8
Ch.Lat. . 196 257 downburst.
Ch.Long . . 196 . .... 254
chokes 336 co urse line computer . 267 .102
Ci .139 courses 252 drag
342 254 ..... 22
. 76 course set knob 257 236
circuit joining crosswind .102 cowl flaps 6, 59 drift ..... 215
cirrocumulus . .... 139 cP .155 .... 216
ci rrostratu s. .139 crab ...... 212 .161
.139 cramps. 336 . 26
.118 .276 . 25
. 93 creeps. .. 336 .. 152
.. 36 .. 346 dry vertical card compass . 202
... 181 183 during landing 301
131 222 during take-off. 301
.. 105 . 41 dynamic hydroplaning .313
... 212 139 dynamic stability . . 29
.151 Cu dynamic yaw .. . 28
CNS 267 dysbarisms 335
.161 .. 140, 164, 170
.... 77
306
cumulus clouds
cumulus fractus
....... 139
....... 140
E
.. 271 cycle . 227 eAPIS. .126
156 cyl inders . . 53 EAS .. 44
.157 echo .. .51 , 269
cold occ lu sion
cold soaking
. 158
285
D . . 66
.141
cold stream reverser system .93 danger area . ... 113 . 77
Collaborative Flight Planning System 124 Daylight saving lime .. 197 eight-stage axial flow compressor . 91
combined effect . 296 dead load ... 14 electrical controllable pitch propeller 79
commercial pilot - aeroplane . 359 Dead reckoning ... .195 Electronic Advance Passenger Information System .126
. 267 decelerate .. . 19 emergencies 350
199 DECIDE 345 Emergency ass istance service 235
compass ca rd . 199 de cision height .. 51 emergency loca to r tra nsm itte r type A or AD 277
co m pass devia t ion card . 200 decompression sickness 336 emergency locator transmitter type AP 277
compass heading .215 decreased 31 emergency locator transmitter type For AF .. 277
compass locators 258 degrees magnetic .. 147 emergency locator transmitter type P . 277
compass north . 200, 215 degrees true .147 emergency locator transmitter type W or S 277
compass rose .. 216 density. 152 emergency security control of air traffic plan .132
co mpos ites 4 density altitude . 305
co mpress io n .151 140, 150
55 338 engine 306
descriptor .178 .. 6
compressor . 91 design eye reference point . 338 ..... 271
condensation . 140, 150 design limited maximum allowable pressure differential 12 enroute high altitude charts .... 206
.171 destination signs .98 206
condensation nuclei developed stage .. 37 Ephemeris errors
condenser devia tion 200 equator .195
co nstant pressure . .150 deviation indicator 257 equil ibrium 19
constant speed propeller . 78 dew .151 Equiva lent Ai rspeed.
constant speed propellers . . 78 dewpoint .150 ESCAT

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix D

EWH .101 front course . . ... 265 hydro meteors . ... 162
exhaust cone . 91 frontogenesis . .159 hypoglycaemia 342
exhaust duct . .. 91 frontolys1s .159 hypoxia .333
exhaust nozzle . 91 frost . . . 151 hypoxic hypoxi ..333
exhaust temperature measurement systems ... ......... . 67 fuel additives .64

extra equipment . . . 286

fuel and oil . . . 287
. 72
I
eye-to-wheel height .. 101 91 IAS . 42, 44
fuel reservoir 72 ICAO standard atmosphere . . . 138
F fuel tank
fuel vapourization ice
. 72, 305, 306
69
ice fog .163
.... 328
FAA ... 117 Full Authority Digital Engine Control 75 . . ...162
FA DEC .... 75 fuselage . 305 ice prisms . .162
Fahrenheit scale . . .152 icing
false climb illusion
false ribs
.. . .... .. . 340
4
G idle jet
IFR
FAR . . .. 117 gas generator 91 ..... 91
feather . . 79 GDOP 268 ... .197
feathering lever . . 79 gearbox . SS .163
feathering switch . 79 generator . 75 . 70
Federal Aviation Administration .117 . 76 .74
Federal Aviation Regulations . . 117 geometric dilution of precision . 268 impulses . . 53
Ferrel's Law . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .143 geometric pitch 77 impulsiv1ty 345
Fl( 235 glassy water . 327 .. 5
field inspection 322 glide path 265 ... .. . 37
field level pressure . 41 glideslope indicator . 258
filter. .60 global navigation satellite system .231
final approach .102 global positioning system indicated altitude . . 42
fine pitch . . 77 Global Reporting Format .183 . . .40
... . 59 GMT 196 . . 53
6 GNSS 231 induced .. .. 73
. . 235 GNSS navigation . .... 267 inertia . .. 202
fix .. 224 golf courses and race tracks Inert ial navigation . . .195
fixed shaft . .. . . 92 graticule inertial reference system . . . 267
flaps .. . ... . .. 26 greenwrch mean t ime inflight . . 350
flashing green light .. 106 grey-out .117
flashing red light 106 GRF . 91
flashing white light 106 grommet .. 54
flexible sealing rings . 9 gross weight 14 . 29
flight command indicator . . .275 ground 73
flight control system . . . ...275 ground fog instrument meteorological conditions .163
flight information centres ...... 235 groundspeed intensity. .178
Flight Information Service ... ... 122 ground station error intercept . . 255
Flig ht information service en route .. . 235 ground visibility intercepting the radial . 255
flig ht instructor rating - glider .... . ... ... 331 g-switch internal transmission of loads .. .. 5
flight instructor rating - ultralight aeroplane . . 330 gust international date line . . . ..195
flight levels . . . . .41, 127 gust front . 148, 165 mvers1on .... 153
Flight Management Systems .275 gust load 15 invulnerability . 345
flight time .. .. 16 gyroscopic inertia . .45 mward . 21
flight visibil ity .163 IRS .. .. 267
float
float buoyancy
65
287
H Isaac Newton
isobars . ..142
19

float chamber .. 65 hail. 165, 166 isogonals . .198

fluids . . 170 half-time shaft . 55 isogonic lines .198
flutter ... 14 head .. 256 isothermal layer . . 153
flying and landing wires isotherms .152
FMS . ..275 257
forced induction .
forced landing . 323
58
headwind
258
296
J
force feed . .60 .171 jet lag . . 342
.... 175 . . 179 jet streams .148
. 55 .. 212

free turbine
. ... 285
. ...... . . 92 high level air routes
206
109
K
freezing drizzle . 161, 170 high level airways 109 .. .145
freezing point depressant 285 high oil pressure . 61 227
freezing rain 161 , 170 high tension 73 kilohertz
frequency 227 histotoxic hypoxia kilometer
frequency allocation . 229 holding . . 99 kinaesthetic illusions
frise . . 23 holding position sign .99 kinaesthetic sensors
front 156, 159 homing assistance 236 knot .. 203
frontal fog .163 horizontally opposed . 54 knowledge
frontal lift .154 .275 Kreuger flap . . 26
frontal surface 156, 159 .169
fro ntal thund erstorms
frontal turbulence
.165
.172 hydraulic piston
.275
9
L
frontal wind shear . .147 hydromatic constant speed propeller . 78 LAAS . 269

From the Ground Up• 30th Edition

Appendix D

339 mainframe section 91 multipath error 268

... 106 maintenance check .. 87 multispar. 4
... 204 MALS . 100 must . 282
.24, 25 MALSF 100
23
106
MALSR
mandatory frequencies
100
235
N
landing area ... 322 mandatory instruction signs . ... 99 narrow field of vision 317
landing compass 200 maneuvering area . ... 97 nautical mile . 203
landing gear maneuvering speed nav warning sign 258
landing load factor 15 maritime air ..154 NCA 109
landing/master compass. 200 maritime arctic .155 needle 65
lapse rate .152 maritime polar . .155 needle valve 66
latent heat of fusion . .150 maritime tropical . . . ... .155 negative .. . 29
....150 marker beacons . 265 neutral 29
. 29 mass ..152 Night . .120
lateral axis .28 mass balance . 28 nimbostratus . .139
.... 5 master compass 200 nimbus clouds . .139
master switch . 75 NORDO departures 106
mat ure 164 normal axis . . 28
... 154 maximum endurance speed 298 normal climb . . 32
179 maximum flap extended speed 27 normal needle sensing 255
268 maximum gross weight 287 north .. 73
....... 67 maximum landing weight .. .. . 287 northeast trade winds 144
lean mix ture ....... .. 63 maximum parachute deployment speed, VPD . . 324 northern cont rol area 109
leanness . 66 maximum ramp weight 287 nose landing gear . 306
leans the mixture 66 maximum range speed 298 NOTAM 359
left/right needle ..... 254 maximum take-off weight 287 nowwmd .176
lens-shaped clouds ... ...145 maximum weight - zero fuel .. 287 nozzle . .65
lenticular clo uds .145 mayday . . 249 nozzle guide vanes . . 91
LF/MF airways 109 MEA. .128 nozzles .. 72
LIAL 100 mean aerodynamic chord 25 Ns 139
lift 15, 19 Mean Effective Pressure . 53
lift coefficient
lift-drag ratio
..... 22
... 22
mean sea level .
mean solar day
. ... .142
196
0
lightning . mean sun .. 196 OBS . 254
Limited Weather Information System 176 mean time ... 196 obscuration . 178
limit load factors 15 mean wind . .. 176 obstruction lights . . 100
line-of-sight 230 mechanical turbulence .... 141 occluded cold front .158
lines ...198 Medium Intensity Approach Lighting Systems ... 100 occluded front . . . .158
lithometeors .163 Medium Intensity Approach Lighting Systems . 158
live load 14 with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights ..... 100 occlusion. 158
LMT ... 196 Medium Intensity Approach Lighting Systems octane rating 63
LO .... 206 with Sequenced Flashing Lights . . 100 ODA LS .. 100
load factor .... 14 Medium Intensity Approach Lig hting System OIDS .176
w ith Runway Alignm ent Indicator Lights (MALSR) .. .. 100
LOC. . . . 266 oil cooler . . . .60
megahertz . 227
local area augmentation system 269 okta . .. 179
M.E.P. 53
local area differential 268 omni bearing .. 256
Mercator projection 204
localizer . omni bearing selector 254
mercury barometer .. . . 141
local mean time Omnidirectional Approach Lighting Systems 100
meridians of longitude .195
location sign . 98 ondensat ion level . 140
mesopause 138
longerons. 3 one horsepower 53
METAR 176, 179
longitudinal . .29 opening ang le ... 212
metering valve .. 72
longitudinal axis .28 operationa empty weight 287
MF . . 235
loop antenna 259 operat ional gross weight 287
MHz ... 227
loss of control . 323 operational guidance signs . 98
microbursts . 165, 166
low engine speeds . 75 operational information display system .. ... 176
microsecond . . 269
Low Intensity Approach Lighting Systems 100 operation 1n close proximity to other aircraft 285
low level nocturnal Jet stream
. . 323
.148 operation on snowy, slushy or wet surfaces . 285
.97
low level wind shear 148 optimum cruise speed 299
low o il pressu re
.97
.. 61 optional . . 286
lubber line .128
199 orbit visually .131
LWIS .176 . .. 128 Other Phenomena 178
mixed icing . .. 170
otollth. 340
MOCA .. . . . .128
M moded .....271
outward .
overlap
. . . 21
. . 58
mode s . ..231
mA . . .155 oxidation . .. 13
MOGAS .64
MAC 5, 25, 288 oxidation stabihty . 61
moment arm 288
mach number. . .... 38
macho .. 345
moment index
monocoque
288
4
p
macroburst(s)
monospar 4
magnetic bearing ... 252 pan pan . 250
motion sickness remedies 341
magnetic declination 198 PAPI 101
mountain breeze 145
magnetic field 73 PAR. 270
mountain wave 145, 331
magnetic heading .215 paraesthesia 336
movement area . . . 97
magnetic meridian .215 parallels of latitude . .195
magnetic variation
mP . .155
198 PAS. . . . . 229
magneto switch .
MSL 142
74 passenger weights 287
mT 155

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix D

payload 286 pub .97 roll . 28

P code 268 .97 . 29
performance number .63 pucks 8 . 73
permanent change 188 pushers .77 91
P factor . . . 31 Pvt . ... 97 .. 145
.251
352 Q
343 8
343 quadrantal error 262 rudder
.275 qualifiers .178
.195
.119
323
R
.331 RA 273
Pilot monitoring/pilot-not-flying time RAAS
pilot permit - ultralight aeroplane . 51
PIREPs 234

radar mile
... 271
. 269
s
radial. . 54 SA . 268
pi tot radials .251 SAE. Number ... 61
.167 safe flight time limit 85
.152 safety spark gap . ... 74
.. 162 sample examination for private pilot licence
.275 227 - aeroplane . ...... 360
.. 144 .195 SATCOM .. 231
168 231
... 156 .212 .195
344 268
.43 rain ...... 152
position line 224 ramjet .90 .... 61
.122 299 139
positive . 29 168 108
.45 . 32 .60
. 91 235 ....... 151
. 61 .90 . 271
. 33 268 security 250
14 .. 268
268 336 4
77 37 ..... 259
precession .45 359 separation point .... 34
servo motors ... 276
servo tabs . 12
precipitation rate 285 334 shadowing 9
precipitation static 166 red pyrotechnical light .. 106 shock cords 8
285 reducing drugs .. 341 197
268 reference phase .251 shrouds . . 59
.101 refraction .316 sideslip ... 28
270 Reg .97 significant weather prognostic {forecast) charts . . 175
pressure registered ... 97 Simplified Short Approach Lighting Systems 100
pressure altitude . .20 Simplified Short Approach Lighting Systems
pressure bag 9 259 wlth Runway Alignment Indicator Lights

pressure pump 98
pressure ratio 235 6
pressure ratios remote communication outlets ... 235
remote communications outlets ... 235
reporting point .122
98 required track .212
prevailing visibility .163 resignation . 344 344
144 ... 273 264
273 . 21 .163
270 .117 26
73 ... 359 slots 26
prime meridian .195 .215 .162
pnvate advisory station 229 .261 .. 170
private pilot - aeroplane 359 255 .... 162
private pilot licence for fore ign and military applicants, .313 .162
air regulation examination .162
.97 ... 66 151
projections . .63 .. 75
propeller ...... 331 . 74
propeller slip 14 340
proxim ity qualifier . 31 southern control area 108
PSID south pole ..... 73
PSTAR .212 span loading ....... 14
psychological stressors 343 ROC-A .... 117 spars 4

From the Ground Up ' 30th Edition

Appendix D

special VFR .. 129 supercooled water droplets . .. 140 transponder 271

specified area . . . .103 supply pump . .......... 72 Transport Canada Civil Aviation . .118
speed lines .... 216 surface . 296 transverse mercator projection ..... 204, 205
speed of slowest descent . ... 298 surface attenuation . 230 triangle of velocities .. 215
speed of sound 38 surface friction 144 tripod .6, 7
spin 323 surface obstructions 148 tropopause .137
spinning 37 surface of discontinuity 156 trowal ... 158
splash .60 surface prognostic charts ... 175 true airspeed . . 44, 214
split axle .6, 7 surface wind .. ..... 159 true altitude ... . 41 , 42
SPS. 268 survival .. 323 true heading .. . 197, 215
squall .146 swinging the compass 200 true index .216
squall line 160 true meridian .215
SSALR
SSALS
.101
100
T TSR
tunnel vision .
270
.317
SSR .. .271 TA . 273 turbine nozzle . . 91
St .. 139 tail pipe . .. 91 turbine wheel
stability . 29 tailwind 296 turbocharger(s)
stability characteristics .. 29 take-off . 322, 350 turboprop .. 92
stable ..153 taking off 327 turboshaft .. 92
stage 164 taking off 327 turbulence . . 146, 151, 160, 166, 327
stagnant hypoxia 334 tappet clearance . 59 turbulent layer . . 23
stall condition .. .. 34 target 269 turnaround bay . 98
standard air conditions ....... 39 target fixation . . 344 t urning moment . 24, 202
standard empty weig ht . 286 TAS. .44 type of approach 322
standard position service ...... 268 taxiing .... 327
standard pressure region
Standard time .
41
........197
taxiways
TB .
... 99
.... 254
u
starter motor .. 75 TCAS. ultralight aeroplane pilot permit . .. 359
static balance ... 29 TCCA ultraviolet flood lighting of fluorescent
static discharge w icks 232 TCu. instrument marking . 337
static pressure source . . 39 temperature umulus clouds .. 170
static stability 29 temperature inversions unfamiliar area 327
static yaw ..... 28 temporary fluctuation ..... 188 UNICOM . 229, 236
station indicator .. 258 tempo rary remedy .64 Universal communications 236
statio n model .... 175 temporary restricted areas .... 114 Unpopulated/Open Water Areas .. .130
station pressure 142 terminal area charts . ..... 206 unstable . ...153
stator vanes . . 91 Terminal control .271 unstable approach . .. 311
statu te mile . ... . 203 Terminal Radar Service . .122 unusable fuel . .. 287
steady green light . .. 106 Terminal Surveillance Radar .... 270 upper cold front 159
steady red light .... 106 terrain effect error .. 253 upper level prognost ic charts . 175
steam fog .. .163 terrestrial radiation . .. .... 151 upper level wind and temperature prognostic charts 175
steel 12 tetrahedron 99 upper warm front 159
... 168 theoretical pitch 77 upper winds and temperature forecast .. . . 188
.. 166 thermal .331 upslope fog . .163
stopways. .... 98 threshold . ....... 98 upwind side. .. 102
storage battery .. 75 throttle . 72 Urgency . 320
strain .. . ... 14 throttle ice .. 69 U.S. Custom and Border Protect ion . .126
strained .... 14 throttle valve . ... 65 useful load . 286
. 139 thrust .. 76, 91 User Fee Airport . .. 126
stratopause ...138 thrust reac tion 90 UTC. 196
stratus. thunder . .165
stratus cloud
stratus clouds
... 170
... 139
thunderstorm cell
Time (Zulu) .
164
196
v
stratus frac tus ....139 TO/FROM indicator . ........ ..... 254 VA. 15, 16
stress. .. 14, 344 too lean .65 valley breeze ..145
stress analysis . .... . 14 .. . . 65 valsalva technique .. 335
stressed skin 4 .. 151 valve . . .. 65
stress management . topsails . . . 25 valve clearance . .. 59
stringers 4 tornado 166 valve lag .. 58
stroke . 53 torque ....... . 31 valve lead . .. 58
structural failure . . 323 .140 Valve overlap . .. 58
struts 5 towns. .212 variable phase .251
student pilot permit . 359 TP 11919E 360 VASI .101
Study and Reference Guide for Private Pilot TP 12880 . 360 VASIS .101
and Commercial Pilot Licences . . .... 360 TP 12881 . 360 vcs . . . 235
Study and Reference Guide for the PSTAR Examination 360 TP 13014 360 VDF 236
sublimation . 150 trace ... 269 vector . . 215
subsidence . 151, 152 track ... 215 veers .. .147
suction method . 23 track bar indicator 254 vehicle control service . 235
Sulfonamides ...... 341 track error . ... 212 Venturi 65
sun .. ...... 151 track line computer . . 267 vertical . 28
Sunrise ......... 120 track made good . .. 212, 215 vertical currents. . . . .146
Sunset .. 120 tractors 76 vertigo .. 340
supercharger . 58 traffic alert and collision avoidance system 273 vestibular illusions 339
supercharging ..... 58 traffic alerts . .. .... 273 vestibular organs. 339
supercooled .161 tranquillizers . ......... 341 VFE . . . 27
supercooled warm rain process . .171 transition point 23 VFR . 122, 163

©Aviation Publishers Co. Limited ~ www.aviationpublishers.com

 Appendix D

VFR Terminal Area Charts 205

VHF data link .231

109
.165
.313
.160, 161 , 163
vision 339
visual approach slope indicator .101
Vi sual Approach Slope Indicator System .101

vi sual illu sions 339

163
163
181
. 75
.76
109
254
. 24
.32
.32

w
WAAS 269
157
.158
.. 25
. 25
water 212
water aderodrome supplement .97
wavelength 227
WCA 216
268
.189
.185
.142
236
weather phenomena .178
Weather Radar 270
weather radar network .176
weight ......... 15, 39, 296
328
.315
. 337
327
269
268

wind shear
Wind shear PtREP .
windshift.
windsock.

14

wing tip tanks

y
yaw 11 , 28
yawing .29

z
Ztime 196
Zulu time 196

From the Ground Up·• 30th Edition

FROM THE GROUND UP WORKBOOK
The perfect companion to From the Ground Up, the From the Ground Up Workbook accurately reflects its status
as a significant value-added partner to its source reference namesake. Each chapter of th is publication refers to a
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FLIGHT TEST NOTES

Written for all flight test prospects, Flight Test Notes takes readers step-by-step through the flight test exercises
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 Essential reading for the professional pilots
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Flying Beyond: Instrument Procedures

The Canadian Commercial Manual, 6 1h Edition
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Canadian Private Pilot Answer Guide ,

th e Canadian Commercial Pilot Answer

lt'vs new 11dtl!onot the OrNd\al') Jl\strumel1f P'lklt Al'lSWC'I" GU/do cater s. tot"- 1oU1rubrds required o.t students seekU'"if
tM .. .,s:rrument ra trig.. With mOl"'I' 1han GOO questions and a5socu1tfll mult1ci,. · c'1aoc• a1UV11C1r5, .an an~ !try, .and.,. final
:Hm~ 1111111TW"1a t10I\ tlrlls t nl• cCN11rs a a rc.a:! sp•c1rwn of subje-ct m.111_,,.. s.ucl\ .as A.1r l aw and P rocedures , Meteorology, Guide, and th e Canadian Instrum ent
lnstr...-ne nt.atr.on, N a1.119a110n .-,d Ra tt>o Al1u Hum.an Fac tors. .and A.1rm.a1is:h1p

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