TYPES OF COMPUTER / CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS OVERVIEW OF COMPUTERS FUNCTIONS / APPLICATION OF COMPUTER

We can classify the computers according to the following three criteria: Computer Functions of a Computer
1. Based on operating principles 2. Based on applications 3. Based on size and capability “A Computer is an electronic device capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations. It accepts raw data There are three basic functionalities of a Computer System and they are
Based on Applications as input and processes it according to the sequence of instructions given by the programmer/user and provides 1. Input 2. Process 3. Output
On the basis of different applications or purposes, computers can be classified into the following categories: the desired information as output. Computers also include the means for storing data” Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
General purpose computers, Special purpose computers The arrangement of the units of a computer is referred to as organization of a computer (i.e.) the arrangement of • Takes data as input.
Based on Applications its peripherals. Therefore, computer is also known by various other names such as data processing unit, data • Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.

On the basis of different applications or purposes, computers can be classifi ed into the following categories: processor and data processing system. • Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

General purpose computers, Special purpose computers A Computer System, small or big, in order to carry out its functions successfully, must essentially include the • Generates the output • Controls all the above four steps.

Based on Size and Capability following four sub-systems: Hardware,Software, Data,People.

There are three basic functionalities of a Computer System and they are: Input, Process, Output All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for
Computers differ from each other in terms of their shape, size and weights. Each type of computer performs
The Organization of Computers mainly constitute: Processor system, Central Processing Unit (CPU), Main converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
some unique functions and can be employed in the fields suited for them. These computers also differ in terms
Memory, Input / output system, Input/output devices, Secondary storage, Stored Program Design Sr.No. Operation Description
of processing speed. Some of them are of moderate speed, whereas some others operate at a very fast speed.
Digital Computer 1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
On the basis of size and capability, computers can be classifi ed into the following categories:
Digital computers are comprised of hardware (equipment) and software Computer hardware consists of the system
Microcomputers,Mini computers,Mainframe computers,Super computers
following electronic or electro-mechanical devices: 2 Store Data Saving data and instructions so that they are available for
PC - The personal computer (PC)
Memory -- a collection of registers and storage devices that store the computer's state map. processing as and when required.
The personal computer (PC) defines a computer designed for general use by a single person. While a Mac is a
Central Processing Unit (CPU) -- the "brains" of the computer, which does the work of changing the state map 3 Processing Data Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order
PC, most people relate the term with systems that run the Windows operating system. PCs were first known as
stored in memory. to convert them into useful information.
‘Microcomputers’ because they were complete computers but built on a smaller scale than the huge systems in
Input/Output (I/O) Processor -- manages and performs the work associated with reading (or writing) information 4 Output Information The process of producing useful information or
use by most businesses.
that is added to (subtracted or copied from) portions of the computer's state map. results for the user, such as a printed report or visual display.
Desktop
Peripherals -- include (a) input devices such as a keyboard, mouse or scanner, (b) output devices such as display 5 Control the workflow Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
Desktop A PC that is not designed for portability. The expectations with desktop systems are that you will set the
device (e.g., the monitor), printers and plotters and (c) devices that store ancillary software and data operations are performed.
computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost than
Block Diagram of Computer Application of Computer
their portability.
Today, computers are used in almost every sphere of life. The users from different locations can easily and
Laptop
quickly communicate with each other with the help of computers. The use of computers has reduced the paper
Laptop Also called notebooks, laptops are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a pointing
work to a large extent. Thus, computers have become a basic need to perform various tasks in our day-to-day
device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in a power operated or battery-operated package slightly
life. Some common applications of computers are discussed below.
larger than an average hardcover book.
Government
Palmtop
Computers play a crucial role in almost all government departments. Revenue, industry, census, police, defense
Palmtop More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), z. These computers usually do not have
and many other departments use computers extensively to serve the people better.The concept of ‘e-governance’
keyboards but rely on touch screen technology for user input. Palmtops are typically smaller than a paperback
is becoming popular among various government agencies.
novel, very lightweight with a reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the palmtop is the A computer accepts input in different forms such as data, programs and user reply. Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are:
handheld computer. Data refer to the raw details that need to be processed to generate some useful information. • Budgets • Computation of male/female ratio
Workstation Programs refer to the set of instructions that can be executed by the computer in sequential or non-sequential • Computerization of voters lists • Computerization of PAN card
Workstation A desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced manner. • Weather forecasting
capabilities for performing a special group of task, such as 3D Graphics or game development. User reply is the input provided by the user in response to a question asked by the computer. Business
Server The characteristics and capabilities of a modern digital computer: A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has made it an
A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a network. Servers usually have Speed integrated part in all business organizations.
powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives. Server’s acts as the gateway or junction for all the A computer is a fast electronic device that can solve large and complex problems in few seconds. The speed of Computer is used in business organizations for −
computers communicating with it in the network. a computer generally depends upon its hardware confi guration. Payroll calculations Budgeting
Mainframe Storage capacity Sales analysis Financial forecasting
In the early days of computing, mainframes were huge computers that could fill an entire room or even a whole A computer can store huge amount of data in its different storage components in many different formats. The Managing employee database Maintenance of stocks, etc.
floor! As the size of computers has diminished while the power has increased, the term mainframe has fallen out storage area of a computer system is generally divided into two categories, main memory and secondary storage. Banking
of use in favor of enterprise server. You'll still hear the term used, particularly in large companies to describe the Accuracy Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers. Banks provide the following facilities −
huge machines processing millions of transactions every day. Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking
A computer carries out calculations with great accuracy. The accuracy achieved by a computer depends upon
Minicomputer its hardware confi guration and the instructions. interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
Another term rarely used anymore, minicomputers fall in between microcomputers (PCs) and mainframes ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
(enterprise servers). Minicomputers are normally referred to as mid-range servers now.
Insurance Reliability Supercomputer
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance companies, A computer produces results with no error. Most of the errors generated in the computer are human errors that This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars. Although some
finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns. are created by the user itself. Therefore, they are very trustworthy machines. supercomputers are single computer systems, most are comprised of multiple high performance computers
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing − Versatility working in parallel as a single system.
Procedure to continue with policies Starting date of the policies Computers are versatile machines. They can perform many different tasks and can be used for many different Wearable
Next due instalment of a policy Maturity date purposes. The latest trend in computing is wearable computers. Essentially, common computer applications (e-mail,
Interests due Survival benefits Diligence database, multimedia, and calendar/scheduler) are integrated into watches, cell phones, visors, and even
Bonus clothing.
Computers can perform repetitive calculations any number of times with the same accuracy. Computers do not
Education suffer from human traits, such as tiredness, fatigue, lack of concentration, etc. Embedded
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system. The computer provides a tool in the Disadvantage of Computers computers are found in all sorts of commonly used devices like cars, televisions, and VCRs. These computers
education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education). CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation are embedded in other appliances to provide them with "intelligence".
Although computers are highly reliable and versatile machines, they do possess certain limitations. Since
of learning. Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students. There are a
computers are capable of doing only what they are instructed to do, any wrong instruction (or faulty logic) or any
number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate the students. It is used to
wrong data may result in erroneous output. This is popularly known as “ Garbage-In, Garbage-Out” (GIGO).
prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.
Computer is a dumb machine and therefore lacks “common sense”. Anything it does is a result of human
Marketing instructions. It carries out instructions as long as it can understand them, no matter whether they are right or
In marketing, uses of the computer are following − wrong. Although computers can be instructed to make certain decisions based on mathematical or logical
Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print equations, they cannot make decisions in situations where qualitative considerations are involved.
and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products. The unique capabilities and characteristics of a computer have made it very popular among its various users,
Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized catalogues that including engineers, managers, accountants, teachers, students, etc.
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers. The computers were mainly introduced to increase the speed and accuracy of information manipulation and
Healthcare calculation and to take over low-level tasks that are boring and degrading.
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals Generation Of Computers
to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, Computers are classified into the following six types based on their historical advancement and electronic
EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines. Following are some major fields components used.
of health care in which computers are used. a) First Generation Computers
Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
The first generation computers made use of Vacuum tube technology, Punched cards for data input, Punched
Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.
cards and paper tape for output, Machine Language for writing programs, Magnetic tapes and drums for external
Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality such
storage.
as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
b) Second Generation Computers
Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side
Vacuum tube technology was replaced by transistorized technology, Size of the computers started reducing,
effects, etc.
Assembly language started being used in place of machine language, Concept of stored program emerged, High
Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
level languageswere invented.
Engineering Design
c) Third Generation Computers
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
The third generation computers were characterized by: Use of Integrated circuits, Phenomenal increase in
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of images.
computation speed, Substantial reduction in size and power consumption of the machines, Use of magnetic tapes
Some of the fields are −
and drums for external storage, Design-of Operating systems and new higher level languages, Commercial
Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings,
production of computers.
budgets, airplanes, etc.
d) The Fourth Generation Computers
Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement of
The general features of the fourth generation computers were Use of Very Large Scale Integration, Invention of
integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
microcomputers, Introduction of Personal Computers, Networking, Fourth Generation Languages
Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining
a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings. e) The Fifth Generation Computers
Defining the fifth generation computers is somewhat difficult because the field is still in its infancy. The computers
Military
of tomorrow would be characterized by Artificial Intelligence (AI). An example of Al is Expert Systems. C it would
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs
be able to accept spoken words as input (voice recognition). Two advances of fifth generation are parallel
computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are −
processing where many CPUs work as one and advance in superconductor technology which allows the flow of
Missile Control Military Communication
electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.
Smart Weapons Military Operation and Planning
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and understood
clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are −
E-mail Chatting Usenet FTP Telnet Video-conferencing
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER / FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTER / CPU CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT and THE SYSTEM UNIT SUMMARY
A Computer System The CPU resides inside a box known as the system unit, along with various support devices and tools for storing Peripheral devices are devices connected to the computer but external in relation to the processing unit. If a

Any system is defined as a group of integrated parts which are designed to achieve a common objective. Thus, information. peripheral device is disconnected, the computer will still be able to work; only functions performed by this

a system is made up of more than one element or part, where each element performs a specific function and The CPU has two main components, namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit peripheral device will not be available.

where all the elements (parts) are logically related and are controlled in such a way that the goal (purpose) of the The Control Unit Hardware refers to any physical component of a computer. In today's computer industry, a wide variety of

system is achieved. The Control Unit controls the fetching of instructions from the main memory and the subsequent execution of hardware components are available for microcomputers.

Organization of Computers these instructions. Among other tasks carried out are the control of input and output devices and the passing of Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM.

data to the Arithmetic/Logical Unit for computation. Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM.
The Organization of Computers mainly constitute: Processor system, Central Processing Unit (CPU), Main
Some functions of control unit are: The input devices, which are not essential to operate a PC, are called special Input Devices.
Memory, Input / output system, Input/output devices, Secondary storage, Stored Program Design.
 The control unit directs the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit Output devices are hardware components, which are used to display or print the processed information.
The Central Processing Unit performs the actual processing of data. The data it processes is obtained, via the
system bus, from the main memory. Results from the CPU are then sent back to main memory via the system uses the instruction contained in the Instruction Register to decide which circuits need to be activated.
 The control unit co-ordinates the activities of the other two units as well as all peripheral and auxiliary storage The term Computer Networks can be referred to as an interconnected collection of computers for information
bus.
exchange.
I/O (input/output), pronounced "eye-oh," describes any operation, program, or device that transfers data to or devices linked to the computer.
LAN is Local Area Network. A local computer network for communication between computers; especially a
from a computer. Typical I/O devices are printers, hard disks, keyboards, and mouse. In fact, some devices are  The control unit instructs the arithmetic logic unit which arithmetic operations or logical operation is to be
network connecting computers and word processors and other electronic office equipment to create a
basically input-only devices (keyboards and mouse); others are primarily output-only devices (printers); and performed.
communication system between offices.
others provide both input and output of data (hard disks, diskettes, writable CD-ROMs).  The control unit is literally in control.
A group of LANs with high-speed, seamless interconnection within a 'metropolitan' area.
The Input Unit: The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU)
WANs are networks that span the distance between buildings, cities and even countries.
Input devices are the devices which are used to feed programs and data to the computer. The input system The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU) - carries out arithmetic operations on integer or real numbers. It can also
In any network there exists a collection of machines intended for running user or application programs. These
connects the external environment with the computer system. The input devices are the means of communication perform simple logical tests for equality and greater than and less than between operands.
machines are called host or end system
between the user and the computer system. Typical input devices include the keyboard, floppy disks, mouse, Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
A network is a logical extension of a data communication system. The term ‘Topology’, in the context of a
microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way in which the data is fed into the computer through Logical operations compare numbers, letters and special characters. Relational operations
communications network, refers to the way in which the end points or stations of a network are linked together.
each of these devices is different. However, a computer can accept data only in a specific form. Therefore these (=, <, >) are used to describe the comparison operations used by the arithmetic logic unit.
Resource sharing is the primary goal
input devices transform the data fed to them, into a form which can be accepted by the computer. These devices The arithmetic logic unit performs logic functions such as AND, OR and NOT.
High reliability can be achieved by having alternative sources of supply
are a means of communication and inter station between the user and the computer systems. The most important functions of the CPU are: -
Local Area Network is a local computer network for communication between computers
Thus the functions of the input unit are : Managing the instruction – execution cycle
Broadcast subnets can be further divided into static and dynamic, depending on how the channel is allocated
accept information (data) and programs. FETCH – DECODE – EXECUTE operations
A network is a logical extension of a data communication system
convert the data in a form which the computer can accept. Coordinates the activities of other devices
provide this converted data to the computer for further processing. To execute an instruction, the CPU performs the following 4 steps:
Operating system is a set of programs, which provides an easy to use interface between the users and the
Central Processing Unit and the System Unit 1. The control unit gets the instruction from memory.
computer system and manages the computer resources in order to achieve a maximum efficiency of the computer
Central Processing Unit (CPU) A computer needs some sort of "brain" or "calculator" in order to work. At the core 2. The control unit decides what the instruction means and directs the necessary data to be
system.
of every computer is a device roughly the size of a large postage stamp. This device is known as the central moved from the memory to the arithmetic logic unit.
Single-User Operating systems are used mainly for computers having only one terminal.
processing unit, or CPU. The CPU reads and executes program instructions, performs calculations, and makes 3. The Arithmetic Logical Unit performs the actual operation on the data.
Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports two or more simultaneous users. A
decisions. The CPU is centrally located on the motherboard. The CPU is responsible for storing and retrieving 4. The result of the operation is stored in memory or a register
network operating system implements protocol stacks as well as device drivers for networking hardware
information on disks and other media. It also handles information on from one part of the computer to another The first two instructions together are called the instruction time. The last two instructions together are called the
Multiprocessing Operating Systems refers to a computer system’s ability to support more than one process
like a central switching station that directs the flow of traffic throughout the computer system. execution time. The combination of these two is called a machine cycle.
(program) at the same time.
Functions of CPU Each central processing unit has an internal clock (or system clock), which produces pulses at a fixed rate to
Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a task being a program
synchronize all computer operations. A single machine cycle instruction is made up of a number of sub
Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute different parts of a program, called threads,
instructions, each of which must take at least one clock cycle.
simultaneously
An Address, or a number that stands for a location in the computer memory identifies the location in memory for
A browser is the computer program (Interface) used to explore the World Wide Web. Web browsers are
each instruction and each piece of data. The CPU finds the instructions and data by this Address.
applications that run on a user's personal computer to provide the interactive graphical interface for searching,
Each type of CPU is designed to understand a specific group of instruction called the instruction set.
finding, and viewing text documents, sounds, animations and other multimedia resources on the web.
Communication between units Operating system is a part of the system software
To execute an instruction, the CPU performs the following 4 steps: Communication between the units is achieved through conductor parallel lines, called buses. Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports two or more simultaneous users
The control unit gets the instruction from memory. A system board’s bus is an electronic pathway between various computer components. Multitasking and multiprocessing are often used interchangeably
The control unit decides what the instruction means and directs the necessary data to be moved from the memory Buses are etched onto the printed circuit board and connected to pins on the sides of the chips. LINUX is quote possibly the most important free software achievement since the original space war, or more
to the arithmetic logic unit. There are two types of buses: system bus and local bus. recently, emacs.
The Arithmetic Logical Unit performs the actual operation on the data. The system bus of a microcomputer connects all components of the computer system. It consists of from 50 to
The result of the operation is stored in memory or a register. 100 parallel wires. Each line is assigned a certain function. According to the function assigned the line is called
The first two instructions together are called the instruction time. The last two instructions together are called the control bus, address bus or data bus.
execution time. The combination of these two is called a machine cycle.
Summary Control bus carries control signals. For example, when a user clicks on a Print button to print a document, the Each central processing unit has an internal clock (or system clock), which produces pulses at a fixed rate to
CPU sends a control signal to the printer. When the printer is ready to print, it sends a responding control signal synchronize all computer operations.
Memory unit is that component of a computer system, which is used to store the data, instructions and information
for the CPU to pass data to the printer. A single machine cycle instruction is made up of a number of sub instructions, each of which must take at least
before, during and after processing by ALU.
Address bus carries the address of the required location, for example, port number when the CPU sends a signal one clock cycle. An Address, or a number that stands for a location in the computer memory identifies the location
Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit. The computer has no intelligence or memory
to the peripheral device, or memory address when the CPU writes data to RAM. in memory for each instruction and each piece of data. The CPU finds the instructions and data by this Address.
and requires instructions, which are given by man. Whenever the computer is switched on, it searches for the
Data bus carries data from one component to another, e.g. from keyboard to RAM. The greater the width of the Each type of CPU is designed to understand a specific group of instruction called the instruction set.
required instructions.
data bus (in bits), faster the performance of the computer. The width of the bus must be matched to the CPU. The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU)
The memory, which has these essential instructions, is known as Read Only Memory (ROM).
But some CPUs have wide main bus inside the chip and another narrow one for connecting to the bus on the The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU) - carries out arithmetic operations on integer or real numbers. It can also
RAM is temporary and is erased when the computer is switched off. RAM is a read/write type of memory and
motherboard (e.g. 386SX). These CPUs are cheaper at the expense of performance. The width of the bus is perform simple logical tests for equality and greater than and less than between operands Arithmetic operations
thus can be read and written by the user/programmer.
most important in relation to the expansion slots. include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operations compare numbers, letters and special
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store the system configuration, date,
There are several bus technologies that have been developed over years. Local buses were introduced for the characters. Relational operations (=, <, >) are used to describe the comparison operations used by the arithmetic
time and other important data.
CPUs from 80386 onwards. Any bus that runs a direct path between a peripheral device and the processor is logic unit. The arithmetic logic unit performs logic functions such as AND, OR and NOT.
There are many storage devices, which are used with microcomputers. Some of the common storage devices
called a local bus. Local bus was developed to handle high-speed video accelerator cards, but other types of Logic Unit
are floppy disk, compact disk, hard disk etc.,
cards such as networking cards or disk controllers can use it too. Cards installed on a local bus can
Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit Logic Unit (LU) is a part of the CPU that performs logical operations on the data. It performs 16 different types of
communicate with the processor at the CPU's full speed. Some devices can't use a local
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store the system configuration, date, logical operations. The various logical operations include greater than (>), less than (<), equal to (=), not equal
bus because they are slow and therefore require a slower bus (e.g. modem).
time and other important data to (≠), shift left, shift right, etc. LU makes use of various logic gates, such as AND, OR, NOR, etc for performing
Two most popular local bus technologies are VESA and PCI.
Compact Disk (CD) is the latest storage device, used to store data, information and software, which can only be the logical operations on the data.
Digital Computer Control Unit
read and not changed or erased
Digital Computer: is a finite, discrete device that stores and manipulates a Boolean state map.Digital computers
DVD ROM and DVD RAM disks are optical disks having a storage capacity of 47 GB and 5.2 GB respectively Control Unit (CU) is an important component of CPU that controls the fl ow of data and information. It maintains
are also called discrete processors because they compute over discrete sets of numbers. Because the size of a
the sequence of operations being performed by the CPU. It fetches an instruction from the storage area, decodes
digital computer memory is finite, digital computers are sometimes called finite discrete processors.
A Computer is an electronic device capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations. It accepts raw data the instruction and transmits the corresponding signals to the AU or LU and the storage registers. CU guides the
Digital computers are comprised of hardware (equipment) and software
as input and processes it according to the sequence of instructions given by the programmer/user and provides AU and LU about the operations that are to be performed and also suggests the I/O devices to which the data is
Computer hardware consists of the following electronic or electro-mechanical devices:
the desired information as output. Computers also include the means for storing data to be communicated. CU uses a program counter register for retrieving the next instruction that is to be executed.
Memory -- a collection of registers and storage devices that store the computer's state
There are many types of computer languages, which can be categorized into following four types, Low-level It also uses a status register for handling conditions such as overflow of data.
map.
languages, High-level languages, User-friendly languages, Object-oriented Languages. Main Memory Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU) -- the "brains" of the computer, which does the work of changing the state map
Assemblers translate the assembly language code (source program) into machine language code (object The main memory is referred to as the internal memory or primary memory of the computer. It is also known as
stored in memory.
program). Random Access Memory (RAM). It is a temporary storage medium that holds the data only for a short period of
Input/Output (I/O) Processor -- manages and performs the work associated with reading (or writing) information
Instructions of a high-level language are coded in many statements. At the time oftheir execution, they are time. Once the computer is switched off, the data stored in the RAM gets erased. The memory space of RAM is
that is added to (subtracted or copied from) portions of the computer's state map.
converted statement by statement into machine code, byusing system software called interpreters. limited and therefore all the fi les and instructions cannot be stored in it. These files and instructions are normally
Peripherals -- include (a) input devices such as a keyboard, mouse or scanner, (b) output devices such as display
Compilers do not translate and execute the instructions at the same time. They translate the entire program stored in a different location known as secondary storage and are copied from there to the RAM before execution.
device (e.g., the monitor), printers and plotters and (c) devices that store ancillary software and data
(source code) into machine code (object code). This technique is referred as swapping.
A typical arrangement of hardware in a personal computer or basic workstation with a sequential processor
The Central Processing Unit performs the actual processing of data. The data it processes is obtained, via the The memory space available in RAM also affects the speed of a computer system. If the memory space is more,
arrangement is frequently called a von Neumann architecture (VNA), so named for John Von Neumann, who
system bus, from the main memory. Results from the CPU are then sent back to main memory via the system more number of instructions can be copied and executed at the same time. As a result, the computer system
helped develop this method of connecting computer components. The VNA comprises over 95 percent of
bus. need not read the data from the secondary storage again and again, thus making the processing faster. The main
computer processors currently in use.
The CPU resides inside a box known as the system unit, along with various support devices and tools for storing memory is also responsible for holding intermediate data transferred between CPU and the I/O devices.
Following are some basic definitions of the most commonly used terms.
information. The CPU has two main components, namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit. Cache Memory
State Map: is a collection of values that describe the state of a process or machine at a given
The Analytical Engine had all the parts of a modern computer
Cache memory is a small, fast and expensive memory that stores the copies of data that needs to be accessed
time.
The personal computer (PC) defines a computer designed for general use by a single person
frequently from the main memory. The processor, before reading data from or writing data to the main memory,
Boolean State Map: is a state map that has Boolean values (i.e., consists of ones and zeroes)
Palmtops are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage
checks for the same data in the cache memory. If it fi nds the data in the cache memory the processor reads the
An algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions. An algorithm expressed in a programming language is called a
data from or writes the data to the cache itself because its access time is much faster than the main memory.
computer program
The cache memory is always placed between CPU and the main memory of the computer system, the transfer
The CPU has two main components, namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit
of data between the processor and the cache memory is bidirectional. The availability of data in the cache is
known as cache hit. The capability of a cache memory is measured on the basis of cache hit.
There are usually two types of cache memory found in the computer system: Primary cache, Secondary cache.
Primary cache It is also known as Level 1 (L1) cache or internal cache. The primary cache is located inside the
CPU. It is smaller but fastest type of cache that provides a quick access to the frequently accessed data by the
microprocessor.
Secondary cache It is also known as Level 2 (L2) cache or external cache. The secondary cache is located
outside the CPU. It is normally positioned on the motherboard of a computer. The secondary cache is larger but
slower than the primary cache.
INPUT DEVICES / PERIPHERAL DEVICES / POINTING DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES / PRINTERS / MONITORS STORAGE DEVICES / HARD DISK / FLOPPY DISK
Peripheral Devices Types of Printers There are many storage devices, which are used with microcomputers. Some of the common storage devices

 Peripheral devices are devices connected to the computer but external in relation to the processing unit. If a There are many types of printers that are classified on various criteria as below are

peripheral device is disconnected, the computer will still be able to work; only functions performed by this Impact Printers – Character Printers – Daisy Wheel Printers – Dot Matrix Printers A) Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
peripheral device will not be available. Impact Printers – Line Printers – Drum Printers – Chain Printers Winchester Disk is the most common storage device of present day microcomputers. It is popularly called the
 Peripheral devices can reside inside the computer case or outside. For example, a mouse, a keyboard, a Non-Impact Printers – Laser Printers – Inkjet Printers – Thermal Printers Hard Disk Drive (HDD) or sometimes Fixed Disk Drive. Unlike a floppy disk that is flexible and removable, the
monitor is always outside the case and they are connected to the computer via ports, which are situated on the I) Impact Printers hard disk used in the PC is permanently fixed. The hard disk used in a higher end Pc can have a maximum
back of the case. Disk drives are positioned inside the case and they are connected to the motherboard via disk The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called Impact Printers. storage capacity of 17 GB (Giga Byte; 1 GB= 1024 MB = 230 bytes). Now days, hard disks capacities of 540 MB,
controller cards, which are inserted in the expansion slots on the motherboard. These printers are of two types: (i) Character and (ii) Line printers. 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB and 8 GB are quite common. The data transfer rate between the CPU and hard disk is much
Hardware Devices Character Printers higher as compared to the between the CPU and the floppy disk drive. The CPU can use the hard disk to load

Hardware refers to any physical component of a computer. In today's computer industry, a wide variety of programs and data as well as to store data. The hard disk is a very important Input/Output (I/O) device.
These printers print one character at a time. character printers are again of two types -Daisy Wheel and Dot
hardware components are available for microcomputers. The hard disk drive doesn't require any special care other than the requirement that one should operate the PC
Matrix Printers.
The hardware components of a microcomputer can be classified into the following types namely, within a dust-free and cool room (preferably air-conditioned). In summary, a computer system is organized with
Daisy Wheel Printers
Input Devices Output Devices Processor a balanced configuration of different types of memories. The main memory (RAM) is used to store program being
These printers print the characters by a mechanism that uses a plastic or metal hub with spokes called daisy
Memory Storage Devices Input Devices currently executed by the computer. Disks are used to store large data files and program files. Tapes are serial
wheel. The characters are embossed on the radiating spokes and printed by striking these spokes against the
Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM. access memories and used to backup the files form the disk. CDROMs are used to store user manuals, large
ribbon and paper.
We may classify these devices into the following two broad categories. text, audio and video data.
Dot Matrix Printers
(i) Basic Input Devices (ii) Special Input Devices B) Floppy Disk
These Printers Print the characters by putting dots onto the paper. They do not give better printing quality than
Basic Input Devices In this device, the medium used to record the data is called as floppy disk. It is a flexible circular disk of diameter
daisy wheel printers, but are faster in speed. The printing speed of a dot matrix printer can be upto 360 cps
The input devices, is one of the prerequisites for input operations, which may be called Basic Input Devices. 3.5 inches made of plastic coated with a magnetic material. This is housed in a square plastic jacket. Each floppy
(characters per second). ii. Line Printers These Printers Print one line at a time. Their printing speed is much
The chief input device such as keyboard and Mouse are used to enter any input to the computer. Today, every disk can store approximately on million characters. Data recorded on a floppy disk is read and stored in a
more than character printers. They are again of two types - Drum Printer and chain Printers
PC has a keyboard and mouse as the basic input devices. computer's memory by a device called a floppy disk is read and stored in a computer's memory by a device
II) Line Printers
Mouse and Keyboard called a floppy disk drive (FDD). A floppy disk is inserted in a slot of the FDD. The disk is rotated normally at 300
These Printers Print one line at a time. Their printing speed is much more than character printers. They are again
revolutions per minute. A reading head is positioned touching a track. A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the
a) Keyboard of two types - Drum Printer and chain Printers
head when a magnetized spot moves below the head. The polarity of the induced voltage when a 0 is read. The
Keyboard is the main input device of a computer. It contains 3 types of keysalphanumeric keys, special keys and Drum Printers voltage sensed by the head coil is amplified, converted to an appropriate signal and stored in computer's
function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols. Special keys
These printers print the line by a rotating drum having a lief of characters for each print position. The hammers memory. Floppy Disks come with various capacities as mentioned below.
such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>, <Alt>, etc are used for special functions. Function keys such as <F1>, <F2>, <F3> etc.
strike each character of the drum simultaneously so that entire line is printed for one full rotation of the drum. 1/4 drive- 360KB, 1.2MB (1 KB= 210 = 1024 bytes)
used to give special commands depending upon the software used.
These printers are also called Band Printers 1/2 drive- 1.44 Mb, 2.88 MB (1MB= 220 bytes)
b) Mouse Chain Printers The storage capacities of floppies vary from 360 KB to 1.44 B. The floppies can store data on both sides (Double-
Mouse is another important input device. It is a pointing device used to move cursor, draw sketches/diagrams,
These printers print the line by a rotating chain having ring characters for each print position. Their printing sided floppies) or on single side (Single-side floppies) depending upon the floppy device. Double-sided floppy
selecting a text/object/menu item etc. on monitor screen while working on windows. Mouse is a small, palm size
mechanism is similar to drum printers. The printouts obtained from these printers, have uneven character spacing devices are most frequently used in present day PCs. The latest floppy device that packs two high-density floppy
box containing 3 buttons and a ball underneath which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
but even line height devices (5.25 and 3.5 inch).
corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons.
III) Non-Impact Printers C) Compact Disk Drive (CDD)
Pointing Devices
The printers that print the character without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called non-impact Compact Disk (CD) is the latest storage device, used to store data, information and software, which can only be
Some of the Pointing Devices are : Mouse, Track Bal, Light Pen, Joy Stick
printers. These printers print a complete page at a time and therefore also called Page Printers. Page Printers read and not changed or erased. It is an optical read only memory made up of a resin. Therefore it is actually
a) Mouse are of three types – a) Laser Printers b) Inkjet Printers and c) Thermal Printers called Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM).CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) used a laser
Mouse is another important input device. It is a pointing device used to move cursor, draw sketches/diagrams, a) Laser Printers beam to record and read data along spiral tracks on a 5 1/4 disk. A disk can store around 650 MB of information.
selecting a text/object/menu item etc. on monitor screen while working on windows. Mouse is a small, palm size CD-ROMs are normally used to store massive text data. (Such as encyclopedias) which is permanently recorded
These printers look and work like photocopiers. They are based on laser technology, which is the latest
box containing 3 buttons and a ball underneath which senses the movement of the mouse and sends and read many times. Recently CD writers have come in the market. Using a CD writer, lot of information can be
development on high speed and high quality printing. In these printers, a laser beam is used to write the image
corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. written on CDROM and stored for future reference.
on a paper. First, the image is formed by electrically changing thousands of dots on a paper by laser beam. Then,
b) Trackball the paper is sprayed with a laser having the opposite charge and is passed over a heated roller to make the D) Magnetic Tape
A trackball works like a mouse, as the roller is on the top with selection buttons on the side. It is also a pointing image permanent. Magnetic Tape is the oldest storage device available for microcomputers. It is generally used to store a large
device used to move the cursor and works like a mouse. For moving the cursor in a particular direction, the user b) Ink Jet Printer volume of data that is needed to be sequentially accessed and processed. The tape is made up of a plastic ribbon
spins the ball in that direction. It is sometimes considered better than mouse because it requires little movement coated with an iron-oxide material, which can be magnetized. The data stored on tape can be read as well as
These printers print the characters by spraying the paper with electrically charged ink. These printers give better
and less desktop space. erased and written again. Magnetic tape is a sequential access storage device; hence it is not possible to read
quality than character printers but not better than laser printers. They are cheaper than laser printers, hence used
c) Light Pen widely in many offices. They also offer an option of using color cartridges for multi color printing. the data randomly or directly. Therefore, magnetic tapes are suitable only for storing data for backups and batch-
Light Pen (similar to a pen) is a pointing device, which is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures c) Thermal Printers made applications and not for on-line applications.
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When its tip is
These printers print the characters by melting a wax-based ink off a ribbon on to a special heat sensitive paper.
moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell-sensing element detects the screen
They give letter quality printing but are relatively expensive in maintenance than other printers.
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
E) Video Disk MONITORS – OUTPUT DEVICES d) Joystick
Video Disk is used to store text, video and audio data. It is widely used for training applications as if can be played Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. Joystick is a stick
Monitor
like a phonograph record. having a spherical ball both at its lower and upper ends. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The
Visual Display Unit (VDU) commonly called monitor is the main output device of a computer. It consists of a
F) DVD ROM / RAM Disk function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Design (CAD) and computer.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), which displays characters as an output. It forms images from tiny dots called pixels
DVD ROM and DVD RAM disks are optical disks having a storage capacity of 47 GB and 5.2 GB respectively. games.
that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image (screen resolution) depends upon the
These disks are becoming the next generation's new standard for higher capacity removable media. They are Special Input Devices
number of pixels. Some common types of monitors are CGA (Color Graphics Adapter), VGA (Video Graphics
ideal for storage of huge amount of information required for multimedia applications. The input devices, which are not essential to operate a PC, are called special Input Devices. These devices are
Adapter), MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter).
used for various special purposes and are generally not required for basic input operations.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
a) Scanner
A CRT monitor contains an empty glass tube with a phosphor coated fl uorescent screen and a source of
Scanner is widely used on DTP applications. It is used for digitizing images such as photographs, forms,
electrons known as electron gun. This glass tube containing screen and electron gun is known as a CRT. When
documents etc. into computer memory. Some scanners can also read text by converting them to digital code.
the CRT gets heated due to the current flowing through it, the electron gun present inside the CRT emits a beam
The scanners are very useful for converting the typed pages into word processing files. Graphic scanners convert
of electrons, which hits the screen comprising small dots known as pixels. The striking of electron beam on the
a printed image into video image without converting into digital code.
phosphor coated pixels results in emission of light. The intensity of light emitted at a certain point varies with the
force with which the electron beam strikes the screen. The electron beam b) Bar Code Reader
scans across the screen due to the defl ection caused to it by the electromagnetic coils present in the glass tube. Bar Code Reader is an optical scanner used for reading bar-coded data (data in form of light and dark lines). The

This scanning of screen by the electron beam produces an image on the screen and the variation in the intensity bar-coded data consists of a numbers of bars of varying thickness and spacing between them. The bar code

of emitted light enables the human eyes to see the image thus produced. reader reads the bar coded data and converts into electrical pulses, which are then processed by the computer.

A CRT monitor has many advantages, such as a high contrast ratio and colour depth because of which many c) Voice-Input Devices
graphic designers prefer this type of display monitors. It also provides a change in the resolution without affecting Voice-Input devices are the latest input devices that can recognize the human voice. They are very useful but
the clarity of the picture. Though CRT monitor has many advantages, there are some are not popular due to storage of limited vocabularies and variations in the way of pronouncing words by different
disadvantages associated with it. It is very bulky and occupies a lot of space on the desk. It also consumes a lot persons.
of power and produces a large amount of heat.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor
An LCD monitor uses liquid crystals technology to display the images. The liquid crystals are actually
the molecules of the liquid fi lled in the LCD. These molecules easily fl ow in different directions and
have the capability to bend a beam of light. Each pixel on the LCD screen contains a number of liquid molecules
layered between two transparent electrodes and crossed polarising fi lters. The liquid molecules uphold their
directions and remain in the same position with respect to each other. As the light falls on the molecules, they
bend the light and direct them towards a polarising filter. The polarising fi lter absorbs the light making the
polariser appear dark for the display of images. An LCD monitor is small in size and light in weight so it occupies
less space on the desk. Also, the power consumption by an LCD monitor is very less as liquid molecules need
less power to bend light. There are a few disadvantages of using an LCD monitor. It has a fi xed resolution due
to which the images on an LCD monitor become blurred when the resolution is changed. The clarity of the images
also gets reduced when the images on an LCD monitor move at a fast rate or, say, when the rate of change of
images on the screen is high. Moreover, it has a weak colour quality as compared to a CRT monitor
Thin Film Transistor (TFT) Monitor
A TFT monitor is similar to an LCD monitor except for one difference that it uses thin fi lm transistor
technology along with liquid crystal technology to improve the quality of the image (unlike LCD, which
uses only the liquid crystal technology). For each pixel on the screen, a small transistor switch as well
as a capacitor is used and each pixel is controlled separately. A row scan driver turns on the transistor
switch to charge the capacitors of all the pixels in a particular row. The transistor is switched off as soon
as the capacitors get charged. When the transistor is switched off, the capacitor maintains the same voltage of
the pixels till the transistor is switched on again by the row scan driver.
b) Printer
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper. Printers are essential for
getting output of any computer-based application.
TYPES OF MEMORY and STORAGE DEVICES OPERATING SYSTEMS - SINGLE / MULTI-USER / KINDS of OS NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
Memory. Operating system Network operating system
Memory unit is that component of a computer system, which is used to store the data, instructions and information Operating system is a set of programs, which provides an easy to use interface between the users and the A NOS is a network operating system. A network operating system implements protocol stacks as well as device
before, during and after processing by ALU. It is actually a work area (physically a collection of integrated circuits) computer system and manages the computer resources in order to achieve a maximum efficiency of the computer drivers for networking hardware. Some network operating systems, like Windows 98 Second Edition, also add
within the computer, where the CPU stores the data and instructions. It is also known as a Main/Primary/Internal system. An operating system is a part of the system software and has become an integral part of a computer custom networking features like Internet Connection Sharing (ICS).
Memory. system. Multiprocessing Operating Systems
Types Of Memory Types pf Operating Systems are Multiprocessing Operating Systems refers to a computer system’s ability to support more than one process
a) Read Only Memory (ROM) Single user system Multi user system Network operating system (program) at the same time. Multiprocessing Operating Systems enable several programs to run concurrently.
b) Random Access Memory (RAM) Functions of an Operating System UNIX is one of the most widely used multiprocessing system, but there are many others, including OS/2 for high-
c) Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory (CMOS) 1. Command Interpreter 2. Memory Manager end PCs. Multiprocessing systems are much more complicated than single-process systems because the
Read Only Memory 3. Process Manager 4. Peripherals Manager operating system must allocate resources to competing processes in a reasonable manner. Multiprocessing
Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit. The computer has no intelligence or memory Single-User Operating Systems Operating Systems also refers to the utilization of multiple CPUs in a single computer system. This is also called
and requires instructions, which are given by man. These operating systems are used mainly for computers having only one terminal (stand-alone PCs). MS-DOS parallel processing, which is defined as the simultaneous use of more than one CPU to execute a program.
Whenever the computer is switched on, it searches for the required instructions. The memory, which has these (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and PC DOS (Personal Computer Disk Operating System) are the two Ideally, parallel processing makes a program run faster because there are more CPUs functioning. In practice, it
essential instructions, is known as Read Only Memory (ROM). important single user operating systems. Both systems are almost identical and are simply called DOS. OS/2 and is often difficult to divide a program in such a way that separate CPUs can execute different portions without
The memory is permanent and is not erased when the system is switched off. ROM contains a number of Windows NT are other popular single-user multi-tasking operating systems for microcomputers. interfering with each other.
programs (set of instructions). Multi-User Operating Systems With single-CPU computers, it is possible to perform parallel processing by connecting the computers in a
The most important program of ROM is the Basic Input Output System (BIOS), which activates the hardware Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports two or more simultaneous users. All network. Parallel processing differs from multitasking, in which a single CPU executes several programs at once.
such as keyboard, monitor, floppy disk etc in communicating with the system and application software. mainframes and minicomputers are multi-user systems. Parallel processing is also called parallel computing.
There are many types of ROM available for microcomputers like Mask ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and Another term for multi-user is time-sharing, which refers to the concurrent use of a computer by more than one Multitasking
EAPROM. user where users share the computer's time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a task being a program. The terms
i.Mask ROM: Mask ROM is the basic ROM chip. In this type of ROM, the information is stored at the time of its concurrent users. multitasking and multiprocessing are often used interchangeably, although multiprocessing sometimes implies
manufacturing. Kinds of operating systems that more than one CPU is involved. In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it switches from one program
ii.PROM: PROM stands for the Programmable Information and it is stored by programmers after it’s to another so quickly that it gives the appearance of executing all of the programs at the same time.
Functionality
manufacturing. It also cannot be altered or erased later on. There are two basic types of multitasking: pre-emptive and co-operative. In preemptive multitasking, the operating
Operating systems can be grouped according to functionality: operating systems for supercomputing, render
iii.EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is similar to PROM, but its system allocates CPU time slices to each program. In co-operative multitasking, each program can control the
farms, mainframes, servers, workstations, desktops, handheld devices, real time systems, or embedded systems.
information can be erased later on by ultra violet and it can be reprogrammed. CPU for as long as it needs it. If a program is not using the CPU, however, it can allow another program to use it
Supercomputing
iv.EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is similar to temporarily. OS/2, Windows 95, Windows NT, and UNIX use pre-emptive multitasking, whereas Microsoft
Supercomputing is primarily scientific computing, usually modeling real systems in nature. Render farms are
EPROM, but using a high voltage current can erase its information. Windows 3.x and the MultiFinder (for Macintosh computers) use cooperative multitasking.
collections of computers that work together to render animations and special effects. Work that previously
v.EAPROM: EAPROM stands for Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory. As compared to EPROM and Multithreading
required supercomputers could be done with the equivalent of a render farm.
EEPROM, the information stored in EAPROM can be altered later.
Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute different parts of a program, called threads,
Mainframes
Random Access Memory (RAM) simultaneously. A thread is a logical part of a program, which can run as a separate process. The programmer
Mainframes used to be the primary form of computer. Mainframes are large centralized computers. At one time
Random Access Memory (RAM) is another important component of the Memory Unit. It is used to store data and must carefully design the program in such a way that all the threads can run at the same time without interfering
they provided the bulk of business computing through time-sharing. Mainframes and mainframe replacements
instructions during the execution of programs. with each other
(powerful computers or clusters of computers) are still useful for some large-scale tasks, such as centralized
Contrary to ROM, RAM is temporary and is erased when the computer is switched off. The Real time OS responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are
billing systems, inventory systems, database operations, etc. When mainframes were in widespread use, there
RAM is a read/write type of memory and thus can be read and written by the user/programmer. As it is possible not real-time.
was also a class of computers known as minicomputers, which were smaller, less expensive versions of
to randomly use any location of this memory it is known as Random Access Memory. Example of Operationg Systems
mainframes for businesses that couldn’t afford true mainframes.
There are two types of RAM used in PCs - Dynamic and Static RAM.
LINUX Operating System
i. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): The information stored in Dynamic RAM has to be refreshed every few milliseconds, Servers
LINUX is quote possibly the most important free software achievement since the original space war, or more
otherwise it is erased. DRAM has a higher storage capacity and is cheaper than static RAM. Servers are computers or groups of computers used for Internet serving, intranet serving, print serving, file
recently, emacs. It has developed into an OS for business education and personal productivity. Linux is no longer
ii. Static RAM (SRAM): The information stored on Static RAM need not be refreshed, but it remains stable as serving, and/or application serving. Servers are also sometimes used as mainframe replacements.
meant only for UNIX wizards who sit for hours in front of a glowing console. Linux is a Unix operating system
long as power supply is provided. SRAM is costlier but has higher speed than DRAM. Desktop
clone that runs on a variety of platforms especially personal computers with Intel 80386 or better processor. It
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory Desktop operating systems are used for personal computers.
supports a wide range of software, from Tex, to the X window system, to the GNU C/C++ compiler, to TCP/IP. It
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store the system configuration, date, Workstations
is a versatile bona fide implementation of Unix, freely distributed under the terms of GNU General Public License.
time and other important data. Workstations are more powerful versions of personal computers. Often only one person uses a particular
What makes Linux so different is that it is a free implementation of Unix. It was and still is developed cooperatively
When the computer is switched on, BIOS matches the information of CMOS with the peripheral devices and workstation (like desktops) and workstations often run a more powerful version of a desktop operating system,
by a group of volunteers, primarily on the Internet who exchange code, report bugs and fix problems in an open-
displays error in case of mismatching. but workstations run on more powerful hardware and often have software associated with larger computer
ended environment.
systems.
Windows Operating System Handheld operating systems STORAGE DEVICES
Windows is the most popular system software that provides graphical user interface. Windows provides an Handheld operating systems are much smaller and less capable than desktop operating systems, so that they
There are many storage devices, which are used with microcomputers. Some of the common storage devices
interface, which is similar to Macintosh user interface. In such interface, each active application is displayed in can fit into the limited memory of handheld devices.
are
windows on the screen. The application window can be opened, hidden, closed, moved, resized, minimized or Real time operating systems (RTOS) A) Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
maximized. The user can run several applications simultaneously, each in its own window. Windows allow the Real time operating systems (RTOS) are specifically designed to respond to events that happen in real time. This
Winchester Disk is the most common storage device of present day microcomputers. It is popularly called the
user to share data among different applications. Windows provides an interactive environment, where the user is can include computer systems that run factory floors, computer systems for emergency room or intensive care
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) or sometimes Fixed Disk Drive. Unlike a floppy disk that is flexible and removable, the
engaged in continuous dialog with the computer. In windows, although both keyboard and mouse are used as unit equipment (or even the entire ICU), computer systems for air traffic control, or embedded systems. RTOSs
hard disk used in the PC is permanently fixed. The hard disk used in a higher end Pc can have a maximum
input device, the mouse is the primary tool for selecting and running window applications. are grouped according to the response time that is acceptable (seconds, milliseconds, microseconds) and
storage capacity of 17 GB (Giga Byte; 1 GB= 1024 MB = 230 bytes). Now days, hard disks capacities of 540 MB,
Windows 98 according to whether or not they involve systems where failure can result in loss of life.
1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB and 8 GB are quite common. The data transfer rate between the CPU and hard disk is much
Windows 98 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family Embedded systems higher as compared to the between the CPU and the floppy disk drive. The CPU can use the hard disk to load
of Microsoft Windows operating systems. It was the second operating system in the 9x line, as the successor to Embedded systems are combinations of processors and special software that are inside of another device, such programs and data as well as to store data. The hard disk is a very important Input/Output (I/O) device.
Windows 95. It was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998, and generally to retail on June 25, 1998. Like as the electronic ignition system on cars. The hard disk drive doesn't require any special care other than the requirement that one should operate the PC
its predecessor, it is a hybrid 16-bit and 32-bit[3] monolithic product with the boot stage based on MS-DOS.
within a dust-free and cool room (preferably air-conditioned). In summary, a computer system is organized with
Windows 98 is web-integrated and bears numerous similarities to its predecessor. Most of its improvements were
a balanced configuration of different types of memories. The main memory (RAM) is used to store program being
cosmetic or designed to improve the user experience, but there were also a handful of features introduced to
currently executed by the computer. Disks are used to store large data files and program files. Tapes are serial
enhance system functionality and capabilities, including improved USB support and accessibility, and support for
access memories and used to backup the files form the disk. CDROMs are used to store user manuals, large
hardware advancements such as DVD players. Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the
text, audio and video data.
Windows Driver Model, and introduced features that would become standard in future generations of Windows,
B) Floppy Disk
such as Disk Cleanup, Windows Update, multi-monitor support, and Internet Connection Sharing.
In this device, the medium used to record the data is called as floppy disk. It is a flexible circular disk of diameter
Windows 98 Features
3.5 inches made of plastic coated with a magnetic material. This is housed in a square plastic jacket. Each floppy
Desktop: The desktop was the main feature of Windows 98, and it appeared on the screen when the computer
disk can store approximately on million characters. Data recorded on a floppy disk is read and stored in a
was started. The desktop was customizable, and users could add shortcuts to their favorite programs and
computer's memory by a device called a floppy disk is read and stored in a computer's memory by a device
documents.
called a floppy disk drive (FDD). A floppy disk is inserted in a slot of the FDD. The disk is rotated normally at 300
Start menu: Windows 98 introduced the Start menu.
revolutions per minute. A reading head is positioned touching a track. A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the
Plug-and-play support: Windows 98 had improved plug-and-play support.
head when a magnetized spot moves below the head. The polarity of the induced voltage when a 0 is read. The
USB device compatibility: Windows 98 had better universal serial bus (USB) device compatibility.
voltage sensed by the head coil is amplified, converted to an appropriate signal and stored in computer's
Internet Explorer 4.0: Windows 98 came with Internet Explorer 4.0.
memory. Floppy Disks come with various capacities as mentioned below.
Active Desktop: Windows 98 included Active Desktop.
1/4 drive- 360KB, 1.2MB (1 KB= 210 = 1024 bytes)
Dial-up networking: Windows 98 had built-in support for dial-up networking.
1/2 drive- 1.44 Mb, 2.88 MB (1MB= 220 bytes)
Ethernet: Windows 98 supported networking technologies like ethernet.
The storage capacities of floppies vary from 360 KB to 1.44 B. The floppies can store data on both sides (Double-
Windows Driver Model: Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the Windows Driver Model.
sided floppies) or on single side (Single-side floppies) depending upon the floppy device. Double-sided floppy
Disk Cleanup: Windows 98 introduced Disk Cleanup.
devices are most frequently used in present day PCs. The latest floppy device that packs two high-density floppy
Windows Update: Windows 98 introduced Windows Update.
devices (5.25 and 3.5 inch).
Multi-monitor support: Windows 98 supported multiple monitors.
C) Compact Disk Drive (CDD)
Internet Connection Sharing: Windows 98 introduced Internet Connection Sharing.
Compact Disk (CD) is the latest storage device, used to store data, information and software, which can only be
ActiveMovie: ActiveMovie allowed users to view media streams from the internet, intranet, or CD-ROMs.
read and not changed or erased. It is an optical read only memory made up of a resin. Therefore it is actually
Windows 98 is outdated and lacks modern security features, so it's best to use a more recent and supported
called Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM).CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) used a laser
operating system.
beam to record and read data along spiral tracks on a 5 1/4 disk. A disk can store around 650 MB of information.
Windows 95
CD-ROMs are normally used to store massive text data. (Such as encyclopedias) which is permanently recorded
Windows 95 is a new 32-bit operating system, released in 1995. Windows 95 important features are
and read many times. Recently CD writers have come in the market. Using a CD writer, lot of information can be
i. Built in Networking: Windows 95 has sophisticated 32-bit built-in network components, that allow operating both
written on CDROM and stored for future reference.
as a client-server network and peer-topeer network operating system. In client-server approach, there is a central
D) Magnetic Tape
computer acting as a file server, with which workstations called clients are attached.
Magnetic Tape is the oldest storage device available for microcomputers. It is generally used to store a large
ii. Multimedia functions: Windows 95 provides all multimedia controls and functions. Multimedia is the way of
volume of data that is needed to be sequentially accessed and processed. The tape is made up of a plastic ribbon
disseminating information in form of text, audio, graphics/animated graphics and full motion video.
coated with an iron-oxide material, which can be magnetized. The data stored on tape can be read as well as
iii. Memory Protection: Memory protection feature of Windows 95 ensures that one application do not crash other
erased and written again. Magnetic tape is a sequential access storage device; hence it is not possible to read
applications in memory.
the data randomly or directly. Therefore, magnetic tapes are suitable only for storing data for backups and batch-
iv. Plug and Play: Windows 95 automatic does the hardware configuration process, by knowing the kind of
made applications and not for on-line applications.
printers, mouse and other peripherals. This feature is known as 'Plug and Play'.v. OLE (Object Linking and
Embedding): OLE is the key technology for Windows 95. It is the Microsoft's standard for creating compound
documents (compound document is a document made from different programs) in windows.
INTERNET EXPLORER / WORKING WITH INTERNET EXPLORER WINDOWS APPLICATIONS / ACCESSORIES WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEMS
Browser Windows Accessories Windows is the most popular system software that provides graphical user interface. Windows provides an

A browser is the computer program (Interface) used to explore the World Wide Web. Web browsers are Calculating with Calculator interface, which is similar to Macintosh user interface. In such interface, each active application is displayed in

applications that run on a user's personal computer to provide the interactive graphical interface for searching, windows on the screen. The application window can be opened, hidden, closed, moved, resized, minimized or
Like a calculator you keep in a desk drawer, the Windows Calculator is small but saves you time by performing
finding, and viewing text documents, sounds, animations and other multimedia resources on the web. The maximized. The user can run several applications simultaneously, each in its own window. Windows allow the
all the calculations common to a standard calculator. The Windows Calculator, however, has added advantages:
browser program translates documents containing the HTML language into words and images on the screen. user to share data among different applications. Windows provides an interactive environment, where the user is
You can keep this calculator onscreen alongside other applications, and you can copy numbers between the
Browsers are the "window to the web" for Internet users around the world. The different classes of browsers are engaged in continuous dialog with the computer. In windows, although both keyboard and mouse are used as
Calculator and other applications.
given below: input device, the mouse is the primary tool for selecting and running window applications.
Operating the Calculator
Graphical Browsers The different versions of windows are Windows 1.x, Windows 2-x, Windows 3.0, Windows 3.1, Windows 3.11,
To use the Calculator with the mouse, just click the appropriate numbers and sign keys, like you would press
and Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows NT.
Graphical browsers display pictures, play sounds and show animations. They are multimedia presentation tools. buttons on a desk calculator. Numbers appear in the display window as you select them, and the results appear
Multimedia features place high demands on data transmission and storage hardware. It takes a lot of transmission Windows 98
after the calculations are performed.
time as well as disk space to utilize video and high fidelity sound. Internet Explorer is also a Graphical Browser. Windows 98 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family
To enter numbers from the keyboard, use either the numbers across the top of the keyboard or those on the
1. If you have the URL (address) of a Web page of Microsoft Windows operating systems. It was the second operating system in the 9x line, as the successor to
numeric keypad (you must first press the NumLock key if the NumLock feature is not enabled). To calculate,
Windows 95. It was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998, and generally to retail on June 25, 1998. Like
- Type the URL to go directly to the page. IE 6 gives you two ways of doing this. press the keys on the keyboard that matches the Calculator keys.
its predecessor, it is a hybrid 16-bit and 32-bit[3] monolithic product with the boot stage based on MS-DOS.
-Type the URL in the Address bar at the top of the screen. To accomplish this, click on the Address bar to Keyboard Equivalents for the Calculator
Windows 98 is web-integrated and bears numerous similarities to its predecessor. Most of its improvements were
highlight the current URL. Then type in the new URL and press the Enter key. Calculator Key Function Keyboard Key
cosmetic or designed to improve the user experience, but there were also a handful of features introduced to
- Click on File/Open at the top left of the screen. A pop-up window will appear with a text entry window. Within MC Clear memory Ctrl+L
enhance system functionality and capabilities, including improved USB support and accessibility, and support for
that window, type the URL of the file you wish to retrieve. Press the Enter key. MR Display memory Ctrl+R
hardware advancements such as DVD players. Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the
2. If you are on a Web page M+ Add to memory Ctrl+P
Windows Driver Model, and introduced features that would become standard in future generations of Windows,
Click on: MS Store value in memory Ctrl+M
such as Disk Cleanup, Windows Update, multi-monitor support, and Internet Connection Sharing.
- words or images which change the shape of the mouse pointer from an arrow to a hand and display a URL on CE Delete displayed value Del
Windows 98 Features
the bottom of the screen when the mouse pointer is placed over it Back Delete last digit in displayed value Backspace
Desktop: The desktop was the main feature of Windows 98, and it appeared on the screen when the computer
- the blue words on the display screen +/- Change sign F9
was started. The desktop was customizable, and users could add shortcuts to their favorite programs and
- the purple words on the display screen (the purple color indicates that the resource has been recently accessed / Divide /
documents.
on your terminal) * Multiply *
Start menu: Windows 98 introduced the Start menu.
Note: The color blue is generally the default color for text that contains a link, and purple is the default color for - Subtract -
Plug-and-play support: Windows 98 had improved plug-and-play support.
text representing a link that has been visited in the recent past. + Add +
USB device compatibility: Windows 98 had better universal serial bus (USB) device compatibility.
Nowadays, Web page creators are coloring their links in all sorts of ways. The best way to figure out which text sqrt Square root @
Internet Explorer 4.0: Windows 98 came with Internet Explorer 4.0.
represents a link is to position your mouse over the words and see if the pointer shape changes from an arrow % Percent %
Active Desktop: Windows 98 included Active Desktop.
to a hand. The hand represents a link. 1/x Calculate reciprocal R
Dial-up networking: Windows 98 had built-in support for dial-up networking.
3. If you want to use pre-installed links C Clear Esc
Ethernet: Windows 98 supported networking technologies like ethernet.
IE 6 offers a collection of Web sites in its Favorites collection. Click on Favorites on either the text bar or the tool = Equals = or Enter
Windows Driver Model: Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the Windows Driver Model.
bar at the top of the screen to access these resources. Using HyperTerminal
Disk Cleanup: Windows 98 introduced Disk Cleanup.
To go back to previous sites: HyperTerminal is a Windows accessory that enables you to connect your computer to another PC or online
Windows Update: Windows 98 introduced Windows Update.
Click on the small Back left arrow on the navigation bar near the top left corner of your screen. Each time you service. HyperTerminal is a full-featured communications tool that greatly simplifies getting online. With
Multi-monitor support: Windows 98 supported multiple monitors.
click on this arrow, you will return to the next previous site that you visited. If you hold your mouse over the Back HyperTerminal, you can connect to a friend's computer, a university, an Internet service provider, or even
Internet Connection Sharing: Windows 98 introduced Internet Connection Sharing.
arrow, the title of the upcoming page will briefly appear. CompuServe.
ActiveMovie: ActiveMovie allowed users to view media streams from the internet, intranet, or CD-ROMs.
To move forward: Before the existence of graphical interfaces to online services such as CompuServe and The Microsoft Network,
Windows 98 is outdated and lacks modern security features, so it's best to use a more recent and supported
most communications tools were character oriented. For example, students all over the world used terminal
To move farther ahead; click on the small black triangle to the right of the Forward arrow in the menu bar at the operating system.
emulation programs to connect to their schools' computers. They typically used VT100 terminal emulation, to
top of the screen. This presents a list of several sites you have visited. Click on any of the choices to return to Windows 95
make their PCs behave like any other display terminal on the system.
the desired site. This is the equivalent of clicking on the Forward arrow several times.
Windows 95 is a new 32-bit operating system, released in 1995. Windows 95 important features are
If you can use the graphical communications tools mentioned here, why do you need a character-oriented tool
Additional Tool Bar Options i. Built in Networking: Windows 95 has sophisticated 32-bit built-in network components, that allow operating both
such as HyperTerminal? The reason is that most bulletin boards, Internet shell accounts, and university
Stop: as a client-server network and peer-topeer network operating system. In client-server approach, there is a central
connections are still character oriented. Most bulletin boards do not provide a graphical interface like The
The circle containing the X will stop a page while it is in the process of loading. This is useful if a page is not computer acting as a file server, with which workstations called clients are attached.
Microsoft Network.
successfully or speedily retrieving. ii. Multimedia functions: Windows 95 provides all multimedia controls and functions. Multimedia is the way of
HyperTerminal does the following:
Refresh: disseminating information in form of text, audio, graphics/animated graphics and full motion video.
Makes the focal point of your activities the connections you create (documents), which allows you to dial or
the Square containing the two curved arrows re-retrieves the page you are currently viewing. This is useful if the iii. Memory Protection: Memory protection feature of Windows 95 ensures that one application do not crash other
configure a connection without loading HyperTerminal first.
page does not load successfully or completely. applications in memory.
Automatically detects the terminal-emulation mode and communications parameters of the remote computer.
iv. Plug and Play: Windows 95 automatic does the hardware configuration process, by knowing the kind of Fully integrates with TAPI and the centralized modem configuration, which provides Windows 98 applications, a Home:
printers, mouse and other peripherals. This feature is known as 'Plug and Play'.v. OLE (Object Linking and single interface to your modem for dialing,answering, configuration, and more. The home icon takes you back to the page that was on the screen when you first started IE 6. You can customize
Embedding): OLE is the key technology for Windows 95. It is the Microsoft's standard for creating compound Supports several popular terminal-emulation modes and file transfer protocols, such as VT100, VT52, and Kermit. your selection. See below under "Customizing Internet Explorer."
documents (compound document is a document made from different programs) in windows. Enables you to greatly customize each of your connections. Search:
Windows NT What You Can and Can't Do with HyperTerminal The search button opens up a function that uses one or more Web search tools. You can choose the search
The Microsoft Windows NT operating system is a 32-bit pre-emptive multitasking operating system for modern HyperTerminal is a communications tool with many uses. The following list describes many tasks you can perform tool(s) you want as your default.
microprocessors. NT is portable to a variety of processor architectures. One or more versions of NT have been with HyperTerminal: Favorites:
ported to Intel 386 and higher, MIPS R4000, and Power PC. Key goals for the system are portability, security, Connect to another computer and exchange files.
Favorites are Web sites you have visited that you would like to store for easy access. You can add, delete and
compliance, multiprocessor support, extensibility, international support and compatibility with MS-DOS and MS- Connect to an online service (such as CompuServe) that supports one of
organize your Favorites To add the current Web page as a favorite, click on Favorites and then Add. To choose
Windows applications. NT uses micro-Kernel architecture, so enhancements can be made to one part of the HyperTerminal's terminal-emulation modes.
the folder where you want to store this listing, click on Create in and choose the folder you want. At this point,
operating system without greatly affecting other parts of the system. NT is not a multi-user operating system. Connect to a school's computer using VT100.
you also have the option to create a new folder.
Some of the key features of Windows NT are as follows. Connect to an Internet service provider using a shell account and even access the World Wide Web using Lynx.
To delete a Favorite, simply right click on the item and choose Delete. Or, you can choose Organize Favorites
i. Extensibility: Extensibility is an important property of any operating system that hopes to keep up with Working with Phone Dialer select the desired item, and click on the Delete button.
advancements in computing technology so that changes are facilitated over time; NT is implemented using a Phone Dialer is a handy accessory built into Windows 98 that remembers up to eight phone numbers and that To move a favorite to another folder, click on Organize Favorites, select the desired item, and click on Move to
layered architecture. The programs written for MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, can all run on NT on the appropriate you can use as a speed dialer. Although this may seem a bit redundant if you already have a speed dialer built folder. In the pop-up window, select the folder where you would like to store this listing.
environment. Because of the modular structure, additional environmental subsystems can be added without any into your existing phone, this one is very easy to program and change, and it can do the more intricate dialing History:
adverse effect. needed to navigate voice-mail systems and make credit card calls. It can even keep a log of your outgoing and
The history function allows you to view and select Web pages you have recently visited. You can sort your items
ii. Portable: An operating system is portable if it can be moved from one hardware architecture to another with incoming calls. To access the Phone Dialer, open the Start menu and choose Programs, Accessories, Phone
by clicking on the black triangle to the right of the word View. You can sort by size, date, the number of times
relatively few changes. NT is designed to be portable. Dialer
visited, and the order you have visited today.
iii. Reliability: Reliability is the ability to handle error conditions, including the ability of the operating system to Adding Phone Dialer Entries
Mail:
protect itself and its users from defective or malicious software. NT is designed to resist defects and attacks by
When you first start Phone Dialer, it doesn't have any speed dial entries set. Your first task is to add names and
You can read email from this window. Choose the email software you wish to use by going back to the Menu Bar
using hardware protection for virtual memory and software protection mechanisms for operating system
phone numbers to the eight blank dial memories. Choose any blank entry and enter the name and number you
and choosing Tools/Internet Options/Programs.
resources. Also, NT comes with a file system called the native NT file system (NTFs) that recovers automatically
would like to save .You can choose a button by clicking it or by pressing Alt+ the number that appears next to the
from many kinds of file system errors after a system crash. Print:
button.
iv. Compatibility: Windows NT provides source-level compatibility to applications that follow the IEEE standard. Allows you to print the current page. This option will be explained in more detail below under Printing
Using the Phone Dialer Log
They can be compiled to been on NT without changing the source code. Edit:
The Phone Dialer comes with a log in which it keeps a record of your outgoing and incoming calls. Each time you
v. Performance: NT is designed to afford good performance. The subsystems that comprise NT can communicate You may edit the current page in the HTML editor of your choice. Choose the editor by going back to the Menu
connect a phone call, an entry is placed in this text file. You can cut, copy, and delete from this log using the Edit
with one another efficiently by a localprocedure-call facility that provides high-performance message passing. Bar and choosing Tools/Internet Options/Programs.
menu commands, and you can redial an entry in your Log by double-clicking it or by selecting Log, Dial.
Windows 3.1 / 3.11 and Windows for Workgroups 3.11 Discuss:
Playing Games
Windows 3.1 is generally misunderstood as an operating system, but actually it is not an operating system You may set a default Usenet newsgroup server.
Windows 98 includes four games for your diversionary pleasure: FreeCell, Hearts, Minesweeper, and the classic
Windows 3.1 is a graphic based operating environment that replaces the DOS interface. In order to run Windows
Solitaire. To start a game, open the Start Menu and choose Programs, Accessories, Games. Then select the
3.1, DOS must be installed on the computer. It also provides non-preemptive multitasking features, which allow
game you want to play from the Games submenu.
users to run several programs at one. Windows 3.11 is the successor of Win 3.1 with a trivial difference
If you don't see any games, they weren't installed when you installed Windows. See "Adding Windows
Accessories" to find out how to add the games using your Windows 98 installation CD-ROM or disks.
After you open a game, use the Help topics to learn about the objective and rules of the games and to get some
tips on strategy. If you are connected to a network, check out Hearts, which you can play with other players who
are connected to your network.
COMPUTER NETWORK - USES / OBJECTIVES / APPLICATIONS / ADVANTAGES TYPES OF NETWORKS OSI REFERENCE MODEL
Computer Networks Computer Networks This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step
The term Computer Networks can be referred to as an interconnected collection of computers for information towards International Standardization of the various protocols that has seven layers. The model is called the ISO
The term Computer Networks can be referred to as an interconnected collection of computers for information
exchange. One or more transmission paths, often the universally present telephone lines, can establish the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model), because it deals with connecting open systems – that is,
exchange. One or more transmission paths, often the universally present telephone lines, can establish the
interconnection. systems that are open for communication with other systems. But according to OSI reference model, the
interconnection.
The Uses of Computer Network A computer network are connected together to share resources and communicate with one another, either principles used to arrive at the layers can be noted as below:
1. Resource Sharing: through physical cables or wireless connections. 1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.

Resource sharing is the primary goal, which makes all programs, data and equipment available to everyone on They are used for sharing files, accessing the internet, and enabling communication between devices. 2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

the network regardless of the physical location of the resource and the users. A network of computers can provide Types of Networks 3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye towards defining internationally standardized

a powerful communication medium among widely separated people. protocols.

There are different types of networks which vary in terms of their size and the types of devices that are connected
2. High Reliability: 4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information across the interfaces.
to them. They are
5. The number of layers should be large enough that the distinct functions need not be thrown together in the
High reliability can be achieved by having alternative sources of supply. Since all information can be replicated Local area networks (LANs), Metropolitan area networks (MAN),
same layer and small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.
on more than one machine, if one of them is unavailable due to a failure, the other copies could be used. The Wide area networks (WANs), Wireless networks,
presence of multiple CPUs means that if one goes down, the others may be able to take over its work, although PAN (Personal Area Network) SAN (Storage Area Network) The Physical Layer
at reduced performance. The ability to continue to work even during a hardware failure is of great importance. EPN (Enterprise Private Network) VPN (Virtual Private Network) The Physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. Efforts should be made

3. Economical: LAN - Local Area Network to see that, when a 1 bit is sent, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. The design issues here
largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission medium.
Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better price and performance ratio than large ones. LAN is Local Area Network. A local computer network for communication between computers; especially a
A network of small powerful personal computers can achieve almost the same performance as that of larger network connecting computers and word processors and other electronic office equipment to create a The Data Link Layer
mainframes. communication system between offices, school, hospital or home. The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission facility and transform it into a line that appears

4. Communication Medium: A LAN typically consists of a group of interconnected computers, servers, printers, and other devices that are free of transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break the input

connected to a common communication medium, such as Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi. This can include sharing data into data frames (typically a few hundred bytes), transmit the frames sequentially, and process the
A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among widely separated people. Using a
internet connections, storage devices, files and documents, accessing shared printers and other hardware acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. Frame boundary identification is
network a report can be prepared by two or more people together living far apart. Changes made to a document
devices, and communicating with other users on the network. Some common LAN topologies include bus, star, taken care of by this layer. In case of information frame loss, this layer retransmits the same frame in a controlled
kept online will be reflected to everyone on the network. This speedup makes cooperation among people easy.
and ring configurations. manner. It handles flow control and uses the channel bandwidth efficiently (piggy backing).
In the long run, the use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication may prove more important than
technical goals. The devices on a LAN can be connected directly to one another, or they can be connected through a central hub The Network Layer
Network Objectives or switch, which enables them to communicate with one another more efficiently. A network which consists of The Network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the subnet and the number of packets routed
less than 500 interconnected devices across several buildings, is still recognised as a LAN. LAN is very high from the source to destination is also determined. This layer is concerned with finding a path (routing) for
1. To provide sharing of resources such as information or processors.
speed network (10 Mbps to 100 Mbps) which is faster than MAN and WAN. LANs cover a smaller geographical communication along with congestion control mechanisms. It also takes care of the problems that will arise when
2. To provide interprocess communication such as among users and processors.
area (Size is limited to heterogeneous networks are interconnected. In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network
3. To improve reliability of the networks through backup and recovery.
Merits of LAN layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
4. To provide distribution of processing functions.
5. To furnish centralized control for a geographically distributed system. 1. Increased Productivity: LANs allow for the sharing of resources such as printers, scanners, and data storage The Transport Layer
6. To provide centralized management and allocation of network resources. devices, which can increase efficiency and productivity. Instead of having to It accepts data from the session layer, splits it into small units if needed, and passes it to the network layer and

7. To provide compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software. purchase multiple devices for each workstation, LANs allow for centralization and sharing. ensures that all the pieces arrive correctly at the other end. It also determines what type of service needs to be

8. To provide network users with maximum performance at minimum cost. 2. Cost Savings: As mentioned above, LANs can save costs by reducing the need for multiple devices and the provided to the session layer and the users of the network. The transport layer is a true source-to-destination or

Applications of Networks associated maintenance costs. Additionally, LANs can reduce the need for paper-based communication by end-to-end layer. In addition to multiplexing several message streams into one channel, the transport layer, must
allowing for electronic communication and file sharing. take care of establishing and deleting connections across the network.
1. Access to Remote Programs:
3. Improved Collaboration: LANs facilitate collaboration between individuals and teams by allowing for the easy The Session Layer
Programs residing on various remote terminals could be executed or used for various purposes like gathering
sharing of information and resources. This can lead to increased innovation and problem-solving within The Session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. A session allows
statistical information. A company that has produced a model simulating the world economy may allow its clients
organizations. ordinary data transport and might be used to allow a user to log into a remote time-sharing system or to transfer
to log in over the network and run the program to see how various projected inflation rates, interest rates, and
4. Enhanced Security: LANs can be secured with passwords and other security measures to prevent a file between two machines.
currency fluctuations might affect their businesses
unauthorized access to information. This can be particularly important for organizations that handle sensitive One of the services of the session layers is to manage dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to go in both
2. Access to Remote Databases:
information. directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a time. If traffic can only go one way at a time the session
Another major area of network use is access to remote databases. A centralized database is maintained to
5. Scalability: LANs can be easily scaled to accommodate the changing needs of an organization. New devices layer can help keep track of whose turn it is Another service provided is the token management. This service
provide various services. With the help of this database, a person sitting at home can make reservations for
and users can be added to the network without the need for significant infrastructure changes. prevents both the sides from performing the same operation at the same time. Session layer provides tokens.
airplanes, trains, buses, hotels, restaurants, theaters, and so on, anywhere in the world with instant confirmation.
Demerits of LAN Only the side holding the token can perform the critical operation. Yet another service is Synchronization. This
Home banking and the automated newspaper also fall in this category.
High Implementation Costs: The initial setup cost for a LAN can be quite high, particularly for small businesses service attempts to solve problems that might arise during long duration file transfer between machines on the
3. Communication Medium:
or organizations. This includes the cost of hardware, software, and the expertise required to set up and maintain network.
A third category of potential widespread network use is as a communication medium. One can send electronic
the network.
mail from one terminal to another anywhere in the world. The mail can contain digitized voice, still pictures and
Technical Complexity: LANs can be complex to set up and maintain, requiring specialized technical expertise.
even moving television and video images.
This can be a challenge for smaller organizations that do not have the resources to hire dedicated IT staff.
The Presentation Layer Security Risks: LANs can be vulnerable to security breaches, particularly if they are not properly secured. Hackers Advantages of Networks
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. A typical e.g. is encoding can gain access to sensitive information or even take control of the entire network, causing significant damage. 1. Modern organizations today are widely dispersed, with offices located in diverse parts of a country and the
data in a standard agreed way (i.e., from one format to another format which is suitable for the users machine). Dependence on Centralized Resources: LANs rely on centralized resources such as servers and storage devices. world. Many of the computers and terminals at the sites need to exchange information and data. A network
Converting from the representation used inside the computer to the network standard this layer handles If these resources fail, the entire network can be affected. provides the means to exchange data and to make programs and data available to all the people of the enterprise.
representation. This layer handles data compression and cryptography. Limited Range: LANs are designed for use within a limited geographical area, typically a single building or 2. The networking of computers permits the sharing of resources. Such load sharing permits a better, more even
The Application Layer campus. This can be a limitation for organizations with multiple locations or remote workers. utilization of resources.
Bandwidth Limitations: LANs can be limited in terms of bandwidth, particularly if they are not properly configured. 3. Networking also supports the critical function of backup.
The Application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed. One way to solve the problem
This can result in slow data transfer speeds and decreased productivity. 4. The use of networking allows a very flexible working environment. Employees can work at home by using
of incompatible terminal types is to define an abstract network virtual terminal. To handle each terminal type, a
piece of software must be written to map the functions of the network’s virtual terminal onto the real terminal. All MAN - Metropolitan area Network terminals tied through networks to the computer at the

virtual terminal software is in this layer. Another important function is file transfer. Different file systems have A group of LANs with high-speed, seamless interconnection within a 'metropolitan' area. The latter is not office.

different file naming conventions and different ways of representing text lines. Transferring file between two necessarily a city; it normally means any area, which is spread out but in some sense a single entity: for instance, Types of Networks
different systems requires handling these and other incompatibilities. two company buildings on Opposite sides of the road or on a large site MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers There are 3 types of Networks
Data Transmission in the OSI Model a larger area than that covered by a LAN and a smaller area as compared to WAN. It Is collection of LANs with LAN MAN WAN
the same geographical area, for instance a city. Is a network of computers located at different sites within a large LAN
The sending process has some data it wants to send to the receiving process. It gives the data to the application
physical area, such as a city. MAN often acts as a high speed network (although not as fast as LAN) to allow
layer, which attaches an application header to the front of presentation layer. The presentation layer, not aware LAN is Local Area Network. A local computer network for communication between computers; especially a
sharing of regional resources. Companies that have several branches within the city such as banks, might find
of what data has been received, transforms it in various ways, adds a header to the front of it and gives the result network connecting computers and word processors and other electronic office equipment to create a
a MAN useful to them. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an
to the session layer. This process is repeated till the data reaches the physical layer, where the actual communication system between offices.
ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is basically a bigger version of LAN. MAN used similar technology of LAN
transmission of data to receiving machine takes places. On the receiving machine, as the data moves up the MAN
It is a high speed network in cheaper cost It bigger than LAN AND smaller than WAN. It is designed to extend
layers, the various headers are removed before the message arrives at the receiving process. A group of LANs with high-speed, seamless interconnection within a 'metropolitan' area. The latter is not
over a larger area such as an entire city. In this 2 or more than 2 LAN network with each other
necessarily a city; it normally means any area, which is spread out but in some sense a single entity: for instance,
Example- cable tv network, telephone networks, DSL line.
two company buildings on Opposite sides of the road or on a large site
Merits of MAN
WAN
Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.
WANs are networks that span the distance between buildings, cities and even countries. WANs are LANs
Can be used as an
connected together using wide area network services from telecommunications carriers and typically use
Demerits of MAN
technologies such as standard phone lines (called POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) or PSTN (Public
Switched Telephone Network)), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous
increasedusage. May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
Transfer Mode) or other high speed services.
WAN - Wide Area Network
WANs are networks that span the distance between buildings, cities and even countries. WANs are LANs
connected together using wide area network services from telecommunications carriers and typically use
technologies such as standard phone lines (called POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) or PSTN (Public
Switched Telephone Network)), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) or other high speed services
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a type of network that covers a large geographic area, such as a city, country, or
even the entire world. WAN is a wide area network that consisting of two or more LANs or MANs.
A WAN is typically used to connect devices and networks that are separated by long distances, such as different
offices of a company or different cities. WANs use a variety of technologies to transmit data over long distances,
including leased lines, satellite links. WANs are typically slower than Local Area Networks (LANs) due to the
longer distances in transmitting data over long distances. WANs often use protocols such as the Internet Protocol
(IP) to enable devices to communicate with each other over the network.
Some examples of WAN are Internet, Airline companies, Stock brokerages. Railway reservations counter,
Satellite systems
Merits of WAN
WAN facilitates a centralized data process. That means all workstations can share the data through the main
server. In WAN, the process of data transfer is quick and affordable because it covers a large geographical area.
WAN enables a user or workstation to unite with the world and allows them to transfer data and do business at a
global level.
Demerits of WAN
Wide Area Networks can face traffic blockage. When it comes to security aspects, WAN is less secure as
compared to the LAN and MAN. WAN has very low fault tolerance ability. The setup cost in WAN is high. In
WAN, you might feel the server issue. The data transfer rate is slower than LAN.
Network Architecture and Structure Network Topology Summary
Network Architecture A network is a logical extension of a data communication system. The term ‘Topology’, in the context of a Computer Networks
To reduce the network design complexities, most networks are organized as a series of layers or levels, each communications network, refers to the way in which the end points or stations of a network are linked together. The term Computer Networks can be referred to as an interconnected collection of computers for information
one built upon its protocol predecessor. The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer It determines the data paths that may be used between any pair of stations of the network. exchange.
and the function of the layer differ from network to network. Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation The network designer has three major goals when establishing the topology of a network: LAN is Local Area Network. A local computer network for communication between computers; especially a
with layer n on another machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively called layer 1. Provide maximum possible reliability to assure proper receipt of all traffic (alternate routing) network connecting computers and word processors and other electronic office equipment to create a
n Protocols. The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peer processes. 2. Route the traffic across the least-cost path within the network between the sending and receiving host (although communication system between offices.
In reality, no data is directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on the other machine. Each layer the least-cost route may not be chosen if other factors, such as reliability, are more important). A group of LANs with high-speed, seamless interconnection within a 'metropolitan' area.
passes data to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. The lowest layer is the Physical 3. Give the end user the best possible response time and throughput. WANs are networks that span the distance between buildings, cities and even countries.
medium, through which the communication occurs. Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface The more common network topologies are: In any network there exists a collection of machines intended for running user or application programs. These
that defines primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one. The hierarchical topology (tree) The horizontal topology (bus) machines are called host or end system
Network Structures The star topology The ring topology (hub) A network is a logical extension of a data communication system. The term ‘Topology’, in the context of a
The completely connected topology The mesh topology communications network, refers to the way in which the end points or stations of a network are linked together.
In any network there exists a collection of machines intended for running user or application programs. These
machines are called host or end system. The hosts are connected by the communication subnet. The job of the Hierarchical Topology Resource sharing is the primary goal

subnet is to carry messages from host to host. The subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission The Hierarchical topology is also called a tree topology or a tree network. It is one of the common networks found High reliability can be achieved by having alternative sources of supply

lines and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. The switching elements are today. The host at the highest order of the hierarchy is in control of the network. The host at the root initiates Local Area Network is a local computer network for communication between computers

specialized computers used to connect two or more transmission lines. traffic flows among and between the hosts. A distributed aspect can be implemented by providing methods for Broadcast subnets can be further divided into static and dynamic, depending on how the channel is allocated

When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element will choose one of them and place it on the output the sub-ordinate hosts to directly control the hosts below them in the hierarchy. This reduces the workload of the A network is a logical extension of a data communication system

line, called IMPs (Interface Message Processors). central host at the root. Operating system
There are two types of communication subnet; Advantage: Operating system is a set of programs, which provides an easy to use interface between the users and the
1. Point-to-Point Channel: 1. The topology is attractive because of simplicity of control. computer system and manages the computer resources in order to achieve a maximum efficiency of the computer
2. Since sub-ordinate hosts can be added easily to the network, complex networks can be evolved. system.
When a message called packet is sent from one IMP to another, the packet is received at every intermediate
Disadvantage: Single-User Operating systems are used mainly for computers having only one terminal.
IMP, stored there until the required output line is free and then forwarded towards the destination. Here the
1. As the host at root controls all traffic between and among the host, it presents reliability problems. Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports two or more simultaneous users. A
network contains numerous cables or leased telephone lines each connecting a pair of IMPs. This principle is
2. If the upper-most machine fails, the network capabilities are lost completely, if the others are not backed up. network operating system implements protocol stacks as well as device drivers for networking hardware
also called store-and forward or packet-switched subnet. Almost all wide area networks use this kind of subnets.
When point-to-point subnet is used, the design of IMP interconnection topology is important. The following figure Horizontal Topology (BUS) Multiprocessing Operating Systems refers to a computer system’s ability to support more than one process

shows the several topologies available. Local area networks have a symmetric topology, whereas wide area This arrangement is quite popular in local area networks. It is relatively simple to control traffic flow between and (program) at the same time.

network have irregular topologies. among the DTEs (Data Transmission Equipments) because the bus permits all stations to receive every Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a task being a program

2. Broadcast Channel: transmission. That is, a single station broadcasts to multiple stations. Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute different parts of a program, called threads,
Advantage: simultaneously
Most local area networks and a small number of wide area networks are of this type. In a local area network, the
1. Easy to construct the network. A browser is the computer program (Interface) used to explore the World Wide Web. Web browsers are
IMP is reduced to a single chip embedded inside the host, so there is always one host per IMP, whereas in a
2. Simplicity in traffic control between and among hosts. applications that run on a user's personal computer to provide the interactive graphical interface for searching,
wide area network there may be many hosts per IMP.
3. All stations receive every transmission. finding, and viewing text documents, sounds, animations and other multimedia resources on the web.
Broadcast systems have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the network.
Disadvantage: Operating system is a part of the system software
Packets sent by any machine are received by all the others. An address field within the packet specifies for whom
1. Only one-communication channel exists to service all the devices on the network. Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports two or more simultaneous users
it is intended. Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for some
2. The entire network is lost, in the event of communication channel failure. Multitasking and multiprocessing are often used interchangeably
other machine, it is just ignored.
Star Topology LINUX is quote possibly the most important free software achievement since the original space war, or more
Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all destinations by using a special
In a star configuration of computer network, there is a host computer which is attached to local computers through recently, emacs.
code in the address field. When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and processed by every
machine on the network. Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines, known multiple communication lines. The local computers are not linked directly to each other and can communicate Memory unit
as multicasting only via the host computer. The routing function is performed by the host computer, which centrally controls Memory unit is that component of a computer system, which is used to store the data, instructions and information

In a bus or cable network, at any instant one machine is master and is allowed to transmit. All other machines communication between any two local computers by establishing a logical path between them. before, during and after processing by ALU.

should not send the messages. An arbitration mechanism is needed to resolve conflicts when two or more Advantage: Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit. The computer has no intelligence or memory

machines want to transmit simultaneously. This mechanism may be centralized or decentralized. 1. Traffic flow is simple and easy to control and requires instructions, which are given by man. Whenever the computer is switched on, it searches for the

A second possibility is a satellite or ground radio system. Each IMP has an antenna through which they can send 2. Star topology has minimal line cost because only n-1 lines are required for connecting n nodes. required instructions.

and receive. All IMPs can hear the output from the satellite, and in some cases they can also hear the upwards 3. Transmission delays between two nodes do not increase by adding new nodes to the network because any The memory, which has these essential instructions, is known as Read Only Memory (ROM).

transmissions of their fellow IMPs to the satellite as well. two nodes may be connected via two links only. RAM is temporary and is erased when the computer is switched off. RAM is a read/write type of memory and

A third broadcast system is ring in which each bit propagates around on its own, not waiting for the rest of the 4. If any of the local computers fail, the remaining portion of the network is unaffected. thus can be read and written by the user/programmer.

packet to which it belongs. Typically, each bit circumnavigates the entire ring in the time it takes to transmit a few Disadvantage: Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store the system configuration, date,

bits, often even before the complete packet has been transmitted. The system crucially depends on the central node. If the host computer fails, the entire network fails. time and other important data.
There are many storage devices, which are used with microcomputers. Some of the common storage devices
are floppy disk, compact disk, hard disk etc.,
Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit Ring Topology Broadcast subnets can be further divided into static and dynamic, depending on how the channel is allocated. A
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store the system configuration, date, The Ring topology is so named because of the circular aspect of the data flow. In most instances, data flows in typical static allocation would be to divide uptime into discrete intervals, and run a round robin, allowing each Mac
time and other important data one direction only, with one single station receiving the signal and relaying it to the next station on the ring. The machine to broadcast only when its time slot comes up. Static allocation wastes channel capacity when a machine
Compact Disk (CD) is the latest storage device, used to store data, information and software, which can only be logic to implement a ring network is relatively simple. Each component is tasked with a straightforward job of has nothing to say during its allocated slot.
read and not changed or erased accepting the data, sending it to the host, attached to it, or sending it out on the ring to the next intermediate Dynamic allocation methods for a common channel are either centralized or decentralized. In the centralized
DVD ROM and DVD RAM disks are optical disks having a storage capacity of 47 GB and 5.2 GB respectively component. channel allocation method, there is a single entity, which determines who goes next. It might do this by accepting
Peripheral devices Advantage: requests and making a decision according to some internal algorithm. In the decentralized channel allocation

Peripheral devices are devices connected to the computer but external in relation to the processing unit. If a The ring network works well where there is no central-site computer system. It is a truly distributed data method, there is no central entity; each machine must decide for itself whether or not to transmit.

peripheral device is disconnected, the computer will still be able to work; only functions performed by this processing system.
peripheral device will not be available. It is more reliable because communication is not dependent on a single host computer. If one line between any
Hardware refers to any physical component of a computer. In today's computer industry, a wide variety of two computers breaks down, or if one of the computers breaks down, alternate routing is possible.
hardware components are available for microcomputers. Disadvantage:
Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM. In a ring network, communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes in the network. Hence
Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM. addition of new nodes in the network increases the communication delays. If a channel between two nodes fails,
The input devices, which are not essential to operate a PC, are called special Input Devices. the entire network is lost.
Output devices are hardware components, which are used to display or print the processed information. Completely Connected Topology
Computer A completely connected network has a separate physical link for connecting each node to any other node. Thus,
A Computer is an electronic device capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations. It accepts raw data each computer of such network has a direct dedicated link, called a point-to-point link with all other computers of
as input and processes it according to the sequence of instructions given by the programmer/user and provides the network. The control is distributed with each computer deciding its communication priorities.
the desired information as output. Computers also include the means for storing data Advantage:
There are many types of computer languages, which can be categorized into following four types, Low-level 1. This type of network is very reliable, as any line breakdown will affect only communication between the
languages, High-level languages, User-friendly languages, Object-oriented Languages. connected computers.
Assemblers translate the assembly language code (source program) into machine language code (object 2. Each node of the network need not have individual routing capability.
program). 3. Communication is very fast between any two nodes.
Instructions of a high-level language are coded in many statements. At the time oftheir execution, they are Disadvantage:
converted statement by statement into machine code, byusing system software called interpreters. 1. It is the most expensive system from the point of view of line costs.
Compilers do not translate and execute the instructions at the same time. They translate the entire program Mesh Topology
(source code) into machine code (object code). The Mesh topology has been used in the last few years. Its attraction is its relative immunity to bottleneck and
The Central Processing Unit performs the actual processing of data. The data it processes is obtained, via the failure problems. Due to the multiplicity of paths from the DTEs and DSEs (Data Switching Equipment), traffic
system bus, from the main memory. Results from the CPU are then sent back to main memory via the system can be routed around failed components or busy nodes. Even though this approach is an expensive undertaking,
bus. some users prefer the reliability of the mesh network to that of the others, especially for networks with only a few
The CPU resides inside a box known as the system unit, along with various support devices and tools for storing nodes that need to be connected.
information. The CPU has two main components, namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit.
The Analytical Engine had all the parts of a modern computer
The personal computer (PC) defines a computer designed for general use by a single person
Palmtops are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage
An algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions. An algorithm expressed in a programming language is called a
computer program
The CPU has two main components, namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit
Keywords
IC – Integrated Circuits. ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and CalculatorROM –
Read Only Memory EDSAC - Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration. EDVAC - Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
ULSI – Ultra Large Scale Integration RAM – Random Access Memory or Read/write memory
SPARC - Scalable Processor Architecture RISC – Reduced Instruction Set Computer
CISC – Complex Instruction Set Computer CPU – Central Processing Unit
DOS – Disk Operating System UI – User Interface
VDU – Visual Display Unit CGA – Color Graphics Adapter
VGA – Video Graphics Adapter DTP - DeskTop Publishing
CAD – Computer Aided Design BCR – Bar Code Reader
MICR – Magnetic Ink Character Recognition MDA – Monochrome Display Adapter