Injibara University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Information Systems

System and Network Administration (InSy3083)

Chapter Two: Fundamental Concepts

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 Contents
▪ Protocols and protocol layering (TCP/ IP)
▪ Frame, IP Packet, TCP and UDP segment
▪ Network devices
▪ IP addressing (subnetting and super netting)
▪ VLAN
▪ Routing
▪ Routing protocols
▪ Address resolution protocol (ARP)
▪ ICMP

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 Protocols and protocol layering (TCP/ IP)
❑ Network Protocols:
▪ A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications.
▪ A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
▪ To request any service or exchange any information between 2 devices there must be an
agreed set of commands and data formats.
▪ For instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the first computer
must perform the following general steps:
✓ Break the data into small sections called packets.
✓ Add addressing information to the packets identifying the source and destination
computers.
✓ Deliver the data to the network interface card for transmission over the network.

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 Cont ….
▪ The receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse order.

✓ Accept the data from the NIC.

✓ Remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting computer.

✓ Reassemble the packets of data into the original message

▪ The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

✓ Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data.

✓ Semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits.

✓ Timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

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 Protocol layering
▪ Protocol layering is a common technique to simplify networking designs by dividing them

into functional layers, and assigning protocols to perform each layer's task.

▪ For example, it is common to separate the functions of data delivery and connection

management into separate layers.

▪ Thus, one protocol is designed to perform data delivery, and another protocol layered

above the first performs connection management.

▪ The data delivery protocol is fairly simple and knows nothing of connection management.

▪ The connection management protocol is also fairly simple, since it doesn't need to
concern itself with data delivery.

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 Cont …
▪ The most important layered protocol designs are:

✓ The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model

✓ The TCP/IP Reference Model

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 OSI and TCP/IP Layers Correspondence

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 Cont …

Sending system Receiving system

7 Application 7 Application
6 Presentation 6 Presentation

5 Session 5 Session
4 Transport 4 Transport
3 Network 3 Network
2 Data Link 2 Data Link
1 Physical 1 Physical

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 OSI Model Analogy Application Layer - Source Host

After riding your new bicycle a few times in New York, you decide that you
want to give it to a friend who lives in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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 Presentation Layer - Source Host

Make sure you have the proper directions to disassemble and

reassemble the bicycle.

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 Session Layer - Source Host

Call your friend and make sure you have his correct address.

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 Transport Layer - Source Host

Disassemble the bicycle and put different pieces in different boxes.

The boxes are labeled.
“1 of 3”, “2 of 3”, and “3 of 3”.

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 Network Layer - Source Host

❑ Put your friend's complete mailing address (and yours) on each box.
❑ Since the packages are too big for your you determine that you need to
go to the post office.

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 Data Link Layer – Source Host

NewYork post office takes possession of the boxes.

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 Physical Layer - Media

The boxes are flown from USA to ETHIOPIA.

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 Data Link Layer - Destination
Ethiopia

Addis Ababa post office receives your boxes.

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 Network Layer - Destination

Upon examining the destination address, Adis Ababa post office determines
that your boxes should be delivered to your written home address.

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 Transport Layer - Destination

Your friend calls you and tells you he got all 3 boxes and he is
having another friend named BOB reassemble the bicycle.

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 Session Layer - Destination

Your friend hangs up because he is done talking to you.

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 Presentation Layer - Destination

BOB is finished and “presents” the bicycle to your friend.

Another way to say it is that your friend is finally getting him “present”.

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 Application Layer - Destination

Your friend enjoys riding his new bicycle in Addis Ababa.

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 Layer 7: The Application Layer
▪ The application layer running on the sending system (COMPUTER) is responsible

for the actual request to be made.

▪ This could be any type of networking request a web request using a web
browser (HTTP), an e-mail delivery request using SMTP, or a file system request using
FTP protocols.
▪ It represents the interface between the end-user and the network.
▪ Concerned with providing network service to applications like
✓ Email - SMTP
✓ File transfer - FTP
✓ Web services - HTTP
▪ Application layer protocols are:- HTTP, FTP, SMTP, SNMP, NFS

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 Cont …
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
Performs three major functionalities:-
✓ Translation
✓ Data compression
✓ Encryption
Layer 5: session layer
So it performs:
✓ Session management
✓ Authentication and
✓ Authorization
On layers 5-7 the data package is in the form of data stream.

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 Cont …
Layer 4: The Transport Layer
▪ The transport layer is responsible for
✓ Segmentation
✓ Flow control
✓ Error correction
▪ Protocols:
✓ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – Connection Oriented
✓ User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – Connectionless.
Layer 3: The Network Layer
▪ The network layer is responsible for working with
✓ Logical addressing
✓ Path determination
✓ Routing 24
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 Cont …
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
▪ The data link layer is responsible for physical addressing.
▪ MAC addressing of the sender and receiver for each packet to form a frame.
▪ Data unit used at data link layer is called a frame.
Layer 1: The Physical Layer
▪ The bottom layer of the OSI hierarchy is concerned only with moving bits of data on
the network medium.
▪ Responsible for converting the data frame to a pattern of signals (on and off) that will
be used to send the data across the communication medium.
▪ On the receiving system, the signals will be converted to frame by the data link layer
and then passed up to the network layer for further processing.
▪ Cable, connectors, repeaters, transmitters, receivers, are associated with physical layer.

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 Cont …
Application Allows access to network resources.

Presentation Translates, encrypts and compresses data.

Session Establishes, manages and terminates sessions.

Transport Provides end-to-end message delivery & error recovery.

Network Moves packets from source to destination; Provides

internetworking.
Data Link Organizes bits into frames; Provides node-to-node delivery.

Physical Transmits bits; Provides mechanical and electrical specifications.

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 Protocols
TCP/IP layering
Application
HTTP …
FTP DNS …

SMTP SNMP

Transport
TCP UDP

Network
ICMP IP IGMP

Link
hardware
ARP RARP
interface

Media
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 Cont …
Application
Message

Presentation Applications

Session
Segment
Transport TCP UDP

Network Datagram
IP

Frame
Data Link Protocols defined by
the underlying networks Bits
Physical
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 TCP/IP and Addressing
Application Processes
layer

Transport
Port
TCP UDP
layer address

IP and other IP
Network
protocols
layer address

Data link
Underlying
layer Physical
physical
networks (MAC)
Physical address
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Networking and Internetworking Devices
▪ Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic
devices together so that they can share files or resources like printers or fax
machines.
▪ Devices used to setup a Local AreaNetwork (LAN) are the most common types of
network devices used by the public.
▪ An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate
networking devices, that functions as a single large network.
▪ An internet is an interconnection of individual networks.
▪ To create an internet, we need internetworking devices called routers and
gateways.
▪ Each of these device interact with protocols at different layers of the OSI model

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Cont…

Connecting Devices

Internetworking
Networking Devices
Devices

Repeaters Bridges Routers Gateways

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Connecting Devices and layers of OSI Model

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Repeaters

▪ As signals travel along a cable, they degrade and become distorted in a process called
"attenuation."

➢ Repeaters take a weak signal from one segment, regenerates it, and passes it to the
next segment.

➢A repeater works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the
network's signals and resend them out on other segments.

➢It connects two segments of the same network ,overcoming the distance limitations of
the transmission media.

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Repeater and OSI model
▪ A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability
▪ A repeater is a generator , not an amplifier.
▪ Repeaters can connect segments that have the same access method.(CSMA/CD ,
Token Passing, Polling , etc.).

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Cont …

Use a repeater to:

✓Connect two segments of similar or dissimilar media.

✓Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted.

✓Pass all traffic in both directions.

✓Connect two segments in the most cost-effective manner.

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Function of repeater

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Bridges

▪ Operates in both the physical and the data link layer.

▪ As a PHYSICAL layer device , it regenerates the signal it receives.

▪ As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the PHYSICAL / MAC addresses
(source and destination) contained in the frame.

▪ A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.

▪ It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame should be
forwarded or dropped.

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Cont …

▪ If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify the port.

▪ A bridge has a table that maps address to ports.

▪ Listens to all traffic.

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Cont …

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How Bridges Work

❑ Bridges Can make decisions using MAC

▪ If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the bridge blocks
the frame from going on to other segments.

✓filtering.

▪ If the destination device is on a different segment, the bridge forwards the frame
to the appropriate segment.

▪ If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge forwards the
frame to all segments except the one on which it was received.

✓flooding.
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Cont …

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Function of Bridges

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Characteristics of Bridges s
❑ Routing Tables
▪ Is used to determine the network of destination station of a received
packet.
❑ Filtering
▪ Is used by bridge to allow only those packets destined to the remote
network.
▪ Packets are filtered with respect to their destination and multicast
addresses.
❑ Forwarding
▪ The process of passing a packet from one network to another.
❑ Learning Algorithm
▪ The process by which the bridge learns how to reach stations on the
internetwork.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Bridges
❑ Advantages of using a bridge
✓ Extend physical network.
✓ Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation.
✓ Creates separate collision domains.
✓ Reduce collisions.
✓ Connect different architecture.
Disadvantages of using bridges
✓ Slower than repeaters due to filtering.
✓ Do not filter broadcasts.
✓ More expensive than repeaters.

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 Hub
▪ A hub is used as a central point of connection among media segments.

▪ Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on the hub.

▪ Types of HUBS :

1. Active Hubs

✓ Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the
same way as a repeater does.

✓ They are sometimes called multiport repeaters.

✓ Active hubs require electrical power to run.

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Cont …

2 . Passive Hubs

✓ They act as connection points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal; the
signal passes through the hub.

✓ Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.

3. Intelligent

✓Sometimes called smart hubs.

✓Include a microprocessor chip and diagnostic capabilities

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Cont…
✓ The receptacles on the front of the hub are called ports.

✓ There are usually from 4 to 32 ports on a hub, depending on the size of the network.

✓ Some hubs have an additional interface port that connects to another hub, thus increasing
the size of the network.

✓ Hubs operate at the physical layer of the OSI model.

✓ Hubs propagate signals through the network

✓ They cannot filter network traffic

✓ They cannot determine best path

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IP addressing
▪ An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a
computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.

▪ An IP address serves two principal functions: Host identification and Location(Network) addressing.

▪ Each IP address includes a network ID and a host ID.

▪ The network ID identifies the systems that are located on the same subnet bounded by IP routers.

▪ All systems on the same physical network must have the same network ID.

▪ The network ID must be unique to the internetwork.

▪ The host ID identifies a workstation, server, router, or other TCP/IP host within a network.

▪ The address for each host must be unique to the network ID.

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 VLAN

▪ VLAN is a logical grouping of network users and resources connected to

administratively defined ports on a switch.

▪ It support smaller broadcast domain and is organized by location, function, department

and application or protocol.

▪ Users and resources that communicate most frequently with each other can be grouped

into common VLANs, regardless of physical location.

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 Cont …

▪ Virtual LANs (or VLANs) separate a Layer-2 switch into multiple broadcast domains.

▪ Individual ports or groups of ports can be assigned to a specific VLAN.

▪ Only ports belonging to the same VLAN can freely communicate.

▪ Ports assigned to separate VLANs require a router to communicate.

▪ Broadcasts from one VLAN will never be sent out ports belonging to another VLAN.

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 Cont …
▪ Ports (interfaces) on switches can be assigned to one or more VLANs, enabling

networks to be divided into logical groups.

▪ Based on which department they are associated with -- and establish rules about how

systems in the each groups are allowed to communicate with each other.

▪ VLAN trunks allow all VLAN traffic to propagate between switches.

▪ VLANs would not be very useful without VLAN trunks.

▪ Devices which are in the same VLAN, but connected to different switches, can

communicate without the intervention of a router.

▪ Data communications between VLANs is performed by routers.

▪ Modern switches often incorporate routing functionality and are called Layer 3 switches.
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 Cont …

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 Cont …
▪ Four computers are connected to a Layer-2 switch that supports VLANs.
▪ Computers A and B belong to VLAN 1, and Computers C and D belong to
VLAN 2.
▪ Because Computers A and B belong to the same VLAN, they belong to the same IP
subnet and broadcast domain.
▪ They will be able to communicate without the need of a router
▪ Computers C and D likewise belong to the same VLAN and IP subnet.
▪ They also can communicate without a router.
▪ However, Computers A and B will not be able to communicate with Computers C
and D, as they belong to separate VLANs, and thus separate IP subnets.
▪ Broadcasts from VLAN 1 will never go out ports configured for VLAN 2.
▪ A router will be necessary for both VLANs to communicate.

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 Benefits of VLANs
❑ Simplified administration for the network manager.

▪ One of the best things about virtualization is that it simplifies management.

▪ By logically grouping users into the same virtual networks, you make it easy to set up

and control your policies at a group level.

▪ When users physically move workstations, you can keep them on the same network with

different equipment.

▪ If someone changes teams but not workstations, they can easily be given access to

whatever new VLANs they need.

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 Cont …
❑ Improved security:

▪ Using VLANs improves security by reducing both internal and external threats.

▪ Internally, separating users improves security and privacy by ensuring that users can

only access the networks that apply to their responsibilities.

▪ External threats are also minimized.

▪ If an outside attacker is able to gain access to one VLAN, they’ll be contained to that

network.

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 Cont …
❑ Easier fault management

▪ Troubleshooting problems on the network can be simpler and faster when your different

user groups are segmented and isolated from one another.

▪ If you know that complaints are only coming from a certain subset of users, you’ll be

able to quickly narrow down where to look to find the issue.

❑ Improved quality of service

▪ VLANs manage traffic more efficiently so that your end users experience better

performance.

▪ Fewer latency problems will be there on the network and more reliability for critical

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 Routing and Routing Protocols
▪ The main function of the network layer is routing packets from the source machine to the

destination machine.

▪ Routing is the concept of sending data from one network to another.

▪ Packets will require multiple hops to make the journey.

▪ The algorithms that choose the routes and the data structures that they use are a major area

of network layer design.

▪ The routing algorithm is that part of the network layer software responsible for deciding

which output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on.

▪ The routing algorithm determines the path for a packet.

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 Cont …
▪ Routing requires a host or a router to have a routing table which is constructed by the
routing algorithm.

▪ constructed by the routing algorithm

▪ A routing table is a list of destination networks that resides in memory on the
router, and the router uses this to identify where to send data to reach the destination.

▪ Given big internetworks such as the Internet, the number of entries in the routing table
becomes large and table look ups become inefficient; methods for reducing its size
required.

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 Cont …
▪ Next-hop routing.
▪ The routing table holds only the information that leads to the next hop.

▪ Network-specific routing
▪ Instead of having an entry for every host connected to the same physical network, there
is only one entry to define the address of the network itself.

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 Cont …
▪ A routing algorithm must have the following properties in order to be an efficient one:

✓ Correctness

✓ Simplicity

✓ Robustness

✓ Optimality

✓ Stability

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 Address resolution protocol
▪ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a procedure for mapping a dynamic IP address to a
permanent physical machine address in a local area network (LAN).

▪ The job of ARP is essentially to translate 32-bit addresses to 48-bit addresses and vice
versa.

▪ This is necessary because IP addresses in IPv4 are 32 bits, but MAC addresses are 48 bits.

▪ ARP works between Layers 2 and 3 of the OSI model.

▪ The MAC address exists on Layer 2 of the OSI model, the data link layer.

▪ The IP address exists on Layer 3, the network layer.

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 Cont …
▪ Most of the computer programs/applications use logical address (IP address) to
send/receive messages.

▪ The actual communication happens over the physical address (MAC address) i.e from
layer 2 of the OSI model.

▪ So, the main attempt is to get the destination MAC address which helps in
communicating with other devices.

▪ This is where ARP comes into the picture, its functionality is to translate IP address to
physical address.

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 ICMP
▪ The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used by
network devices to diagnose network communication issues.

▪ ICMP is mainly used to determine whether or not data is reaching its intended
destination in a timely manner.

▪ Commonly, the ICMP protocol is used on network devices, such as routers.

▪ ICMP is crucial for error reporting and testing.

▪ It can also be used in distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks.

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 What is ICMP used for?
▪ The primary purpose of ICMP is for error reporting.

▪ When two devices connect over the Internet, the ICMP generates errors to share with
the sending device in the event that any of the data did not get to its intended destination.

▪ A secondary use of ICMP protocol is to perform network diagnostics; the commonly used
terminal utilities traceroute and ping both operate using ICMP.

▪ The traceroute utility is used to display the routing path between two internet devices.

▪ The routing path is the actual physical path of connected routers that a request must
pass through before it reaches its destination.

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