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Thomas Elmqvist Susan Parnell
Michail Fragkias Maria Schewenius
Julie Goodness Marte Sendstad
Burak Güneralp Karen C. Seto
Peter J. Marcotullio Cathy Wilkinson
Robert I. McDonald Editors

Urbanization,
Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services:
Challenges
and Opportunities
A Global Assessment
Foreword by Pavan Sukhdev
Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services: Challenges and Opportunities
Thomas Elmqvist • Michail Fragkias
Julie Goodness • Burak Güneralp
Peter J. Marcotullio • Robert I. McDonald
Susan Parnell • Maria Schewenius
Marte Sendstad • Karen C. Seto
Cathy Wilkinson
Editors

Urbanization, Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services:
Challenges and Opportunities
A Global Assessment

A Part of the Cities and Biodiversity Outlook Project

Editors
Thomas Elmqvist Michail Fragkias
Stockholm Resilience Centre Department of Economics
Stockholm University College of Business and Economics Boise
Stockholm, Sweden State University
Boise, ID, USA
Julie Goodness
Stockholm Resilience Centre Burak Güneralp
Stockholm University Department of Geography
Stockholm, Sweden Texas A&M University
College Station, TX, USA
Peter J. Marcotullio
Department of Geography Robert I. McDonald
City University of New York (CUNY) The Nature Conservancy
Hunter College Arlington, AV, USA
New York, NY, USA
Maria Schewenius
Susan Parnell Stockholm Resilience Centre
Department of Environmental Stockholm University
and Geographical Science Stockholm, Sweden
University of Cape Town
Karen C. Seto
Cape Town, South Africa
School of Forestry and Environmental
Marte Sendstad Studies
Stockholm Resilience Centre Yale University
Stockholm University New Haven, CT, USA
Stockholm, Sweden
Cathy Wilkinson
Stockholm Resilience Centre
Stockholm University
Stockholm, Sweden

ISBN 978-94-007-7087-4 ISBN 978-94-007-7088-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-7088-1
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013950081

© The Editor(s)(if applicable) and the Author(s) 2013

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Foreword

We have entered the Anthropocene – an era when humans are a dominant geological
force – and at the same time we have entered an Urban Age.1 Over half of humanity
now lives in towns and cities, and by 2030 that fraction will have increased to 60 %.2
In other words, in slightly over two decades, from 2010 to 2030, another one and an
half billion people will be added to the population of cities.
Creating healthy, habitable, urban living spaces for so many more people will be
one of the defining challenges of our time. And the quality of city environments –
both their built and natural components – will determine the quality of life for an
estimated total of five billion existing and new urban dwellers by 2030.
Much of what gets written about the challenges of urbanization tends to be about
built city infrastructure and its organization and governance: about transportation
systems, housing, water works, sanitation, slums – the hardware of cities. Less is
written about the software of cities3 as centers of creativity and lifestyle, of culture
and learning institutions that enable the creation of pools of human capital, which
gather critical mass and become drivers of innovation and prosperity. And even less
is written about the ecological infrastructure of cities: parks, gardens, open spaces,
water catchment areas, and generally their ecosystems and biodiversity. This book
Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities
and the Cities and Biodiversity Outlook project (CBO) addresses that gap admira-
bly. It brings out clearly the importance of nature for cities, making a convincing
case for internalizing ecosystem services in urban policy making.
The book not only quantifies but also lays out the complex linkages between
ecosystem services and urbanization, giving us detailed case studies of cities that

1
London School of Economics program “Urban Age” http://lsecities.net/ua/
2
Population Reference Bureau see http://www.prb.org/Articles/2007/UrbanPopToBecomeMajority.
aspx
3
A concept popularized by Sanjeev Sanyal & others, see for example http://www.business-
standard.com/article/opinion/sanjeev-sanyal-building-bostons-not-kanpurs-110051200048_1.
html

v
vi Foreword

have used an ecosystem services approach, either explicitly or implicitly, in urban

planning in order to address the many challenges that urbanization poses.
The problems caused by urbanization are enormous and varied. Over the last
century, the migration of hundreds of millions of people from rural to urban areas in
search of employment and better living conditions has not been a smooth transition.
Millions have been left to live for prolonged periods in makeshift urban slums, suf-
fering from poverty of income, health, nutrition, and safety. Constant threats of food
and water scarcity have been brought about by climate change, unsustainable
resource use, and inadequate planning. Cities are increasingly unsustainable, vul-
nerable and insecure, and therefore achieving sustainability and resilience for cities
has to be high on any government’s agenda. To support this necessary and important
focus, the book delivers key messages to policy makers and showcases many
instances of smart urban planning that have made use of nature and its services to
alleviate or solve some of these problems. In the process, this book redefines cities
from being centers of economic growth and consumption to places generating
human well-being and even creating positive externalities.
Ecosystem services can address many of the challenges that cities increasingly
face, and the false dichotomy between environment and development is nowhere as
easy to disprove as in cities. Clean air, safe drinking water, and protection from
climate change effects are all highly relevant to human development in cities, and
many forms of poverty are caused or exacerbated by a lack of access to these eco-
system services. Furthermore, cities consume tremendous amounts of resources and
thus generate large amounts of waste and emissions. These negative externalities of
urban growth are borne disproportionately by the income poor, who do not have
access (or the means) to procure clean drinking water and health services. The role
of natural areas in providing catchment for stable and cheap drinking water cannot
be overemphasized – almost a third of the 100 largest cities have proximate natural
areas that provide this service. Furthermore, green spaces in or near cities also
deliver services such as air purification, temperature regulation, groundwater
recharge, and cultural services including aesthetics and recreation, all leading to
healthier lifestyles.
Urban biodiversity and ecosystems deliver myriad other benefits, from underpin-
ning social and economic development to climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Wetlands can treat stormwater runoff and also offer biodiversity and recreational
services. Local food production in cities is an exciting and evolving dimension of
cities, and it can both decrease the emissions externality of cities and also improve
food security. Restoration and management of near shore ecosystems such as man-
groves can reduce impacts of storm surges, decrease climate change vulnerability,
and increase resilience.
It is recognized that urban consumption patterns not only adversely impact nearby
ecosystems but also ecosystems further away: urban teleconnections and the ecologi-
cal footprint of cities are geographically dispersed and indeed immense. However,
cities cannot be viewed as problematic merely because they form a large consumer
base. They also hold the key to changing production and resource use – by decreasing
waste production, increasing recycling, and moving citizens to more sustainable
Foreword vii

forms of consumption. Furthermore, energy-efficient and renewable-energy

infrastructure development through economies of scale can reduce emissions.
It the context of such a complex web of issues, problems and solutions, it is
important to examine and quantify, as this book has done, both the consequences
and future trajectories of urbanization. This can lead us to identify both challenges
and opportunities that cities must address in order to be sustainable and indeed
viable centers of human habitation and progress. The volume also addresses metrics
for urban biodiversity, an evolving space in research and practice.
The book delivers a valuable contribution to integrating knowledge about bio-
diversity and ecosystem services into urban design and planning. This is essential to
ensure both the sustainability and resilience of cities for an ‘Urban Age’ that is
human civilization’s present as well as its future.

Study Leader, TEEB Pavan Sukhdev

Mumbai, India
Preface

While there is growing awareness that cities affect almost every ecosystem on earth,
significantly contribute to the loss of biodiversity, and are increasingly vulnerable to
environmental change, a global analysis of the environmental impacts of urbaniza-
tion has been lacking. While previous studies have examined particular cities or a
particular facet of the urban environment, few attempts have been made to assess
the prospects for supporting ecosystem services on an urbanized planet. On the one
hand, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), the world’s largest assessment
of ecosystems, covered almost every ecosystem in the world but made few refer-
ences to urban areas. On the other, the World Development Report, the world’s
largest assessment of urbanization published by the World Bank annually, makes
few references to ecosystems. It is this knowledge gap we attempt to bridge by this
book and the Cities and Biodiversity Outlook (CBO) project at large.
The production of the book has been called for through paragraph six of Decision
X/22 of the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 10) to the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Nagoya 2010. The decision initiated
two publications. The first publication, Cities and Biodiversity Outlook – Action
and Policy,4 intended for policy makers, was launched at the COP11 meeting of the
CBD in Hyderabad in October 2012. The CBO – Action and Policy showcases best
practices and lessons learned from cities across the world, and provides information
on how to incorporate the topics of biodiversity and ecosystem services into urban
agendas and policies.
The current book – Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges
and Opportunities – is the more detailed scientific portion of CBO and the first assess-
ment ever conducted that addresses global urbanization and the multiple impacts on
biodiversity and ecosystem services. It has been written and edited by an international
team of scientists and includes several of the authors who previously participated in
one or both of global assessments: the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) and
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB). Urbanization, Biodiversity

4
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2012) Cities and Biodiversity Outlook.
Montreal, 64 pages. http://www.cbd.int/en/subnational/partners-and-initiatives/cbo

ix
x Preface

and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities describes and analyses

multiple dimensions of urbanization, focusing on how the processes affect patterns of
biodiversity and ecosystem services within as well as outside city boundaries. It is
therefore an assessment of the process of urbanization, rather than an assessment of
cities per se. Further, it focuses on the biosphere and analyses how the living environ-
ment is impacted in a rapidly urbanizing world, and explores connections to human
well-being and how an increasing urban population may succeed or fail to develop
mechanisms for reconnecting with the biosphere. Thus, this book is not an assessment
of all the challenges connected with urban growth, such as e.g., challenges linked to
management of waste, energy and transportation.
Our aim has been to make a thorough synthesis of current knowledge and frame
this in a policy relevant context with the intention of stimulating a vigorous debate
on how urban challenges could be addressed. However, even more importantly, we
have aimed to encourage a debate on how the many opportunities created by urban-
ization could result in innovative policy for more sustainable development on a
global scale. This book is about the imperative of reconnecting cities to the
biosphere; it explores urban areas as social-ecological systems and the social-
ecological foundation of cities and their sustainability. It details how this urban
ecological embedding may be facilitated through a new and bold urban praxis.
One challenge when starting the assessment was that the concepts of urbaniza-
tion and urban biodiversity are not well defined. There is no general agreement on
what is urban, and considerable differences in classification of urban and rural areas
exist among countries and continents. We have in the CBO used working definitions
and define urbanization as a multidimensional process that manifests itself through
rapidly changing human populations and changing land cover. Urban growth is due
to a combination of four forces: natural growth, rural to urban migration, massive
migration due to extreme events, and redefinitions of administrative boundaries.
With urban biodiversity we refer to the biological variation at all levels from genes
to species and habitats found in urban landscapes. Several aspects of biodiversity
differs compared with biodiversity in other areas, e.g., there is often an extreme
patchiness and large point-to-point variation over short distances, and composition
of species is often dominated by non-native species introduced for specific pur-
poses. Urban biodiversity therefore often represents a biodiversity intentionally
designed by humans for humans. The multiple dimensions of this have been over-
looked in both ecology and in social sciences, and contributing to bridge this knowl-
edge gap constitutes another important rationale for the CBO project.
The book has a global scope but it also makes a strong connection to the regional
and local scales. In addition to Regional Assessments of urbanization in Africa, Asia
with special focus on China and India, Latin America, Oceania, North America and
Europe, Local Assessments come from a number of cities: Bangalore, Cape Town,
Chicago, İstanbul, Melbourne, New York, Rio de Janeiro, Shanghai, Stockholm and
urban satoyama and satoumi landscapes in Japan. The regional assessments reflect
the broad scope of current and expected future urbanization trends around the world.
The cities represented in the local assessments were selected because they represent
Preface xi

areas where urbanization processes and social-ecological systems have been

established fields of research for some time.
One crucial issue apparent when starting this project was that much relevant
information on urban development, biodiversity and ecosystems, particularly at the
local scale, tend to occur in non-peer reviewed literature. We have nonetheless
excluded references to the bulk of non-peer reviewed literature such as unpublished
reports, conference abstracts and other non-peer reviewed literature, but in a few
instances included references to technical reports and policy documents when these
have been judged to be highly relevant.
The publication represents a collaborative effort among a large number of
scholars, the CBD, and Stockholm Resilience Centre (SRC) at Stockholm University,
and includes significant input from ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability.
An Inter-Agency Task Force and an Advisory Committee (see Appendix), as well as
the Global Partnership on Local and Sub-National Action for Biodiversity have pro-
vided valuable oversight of the entire process. Nearly 200 scientists and practitio-
ners have been involved as authors or reviewers in the entire CBO project and we
are very grateful for their contributions. We thank members of the pan-European
project URBES (Urban Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) for contributing with
the scientific input as well as perspectives from policy and practice. We thank Oliver
Hillel, Andre Mader, Chantal Robichaud, David Ainsworth and Fabiana Spinelli at
the Secretariat of the CBD, Elizabeth Pierson the Technical Editor of the CBO –
Action and Policy, Andrew Rudd from UN-Habitat and Russell Galt, Kobie Brand
and Georgina Avlonitis at ICLEI for their enormous contributions during the devel-
opment of the CBO project. We also want to thank Femke Reitsma at the University
of Canterbury, Jerker Lokrantz at Azote, and Félix Pharand-Deschênes at Globaïa
for excellent help with the design of figures and illustrations. We extend our grati-
tude to Audrey Noga, Katie M. Hawkes, Megan Meacham and Laia d’Armengol,
for invaluable assistance with the texts in the project’s final phase. The project has
intellectually benefitted from discussion with numerous members of DIVERSITAS,
IHDP and specifically members of the Urbanization and Global Environmental
Change Project (UGEC) at IHDP as well as with members of the research network
URBIO. The framework on cities representing complex social-ecological systems
has, over the years, developed significantly within the urban group in the Resilience
Alliance and the Urban theme at SRC, and we would like to specifically thank Carl
Folke, Johan Colding, Erik Andersson, Stephan Barthel, Guy Barnett, Sara
Borgström, Åsa Gren, Charles Redman, Brian Walker and Maria Tengö. We also
want to thank UNESCO and specifically Christine Alfsen for pioneering several
ideas and initiatives, including URBIS (the Urban Biosphere Initiative), applying
the ecosystem approach to urban landscapes. The CBO project has benefitted much
from the kind contribution by the African Center for Cities at the University of Cape
Town (UCT) in South Africa. UCT hosted an important workshop in February 2012
with participants from several African countries, which resulted in a significant
contribution to the understanding of urbanization processes in Africa. A special
thanks to Pippin Anderson for assisting with the organization of the workshop. We
also want to thank Stellenbosch Institute of Advanced Studies (STIAS) for providing a
xii Preface

fellowship to Thomas Elmqvist and generously sponsoring a meeting with the CBO
editorial team in Stellenbosch in December 2012.
The Cities and Biodiversity Outlook project has been financially supported by
the Government of Japan through the Japan Biodiversity Fund, UN-Habitat,
UNESCO, SCBD, by the European Union and several national research councils in
Europe through BiodivERsA, Formas, DIVERSITAS, SRC and by SIDA through
The Resilience and Development Program at SRC.

Stockholm, Sweden Thomas Elmqvist

Boise, ID, USA Michail Fragkias
Stockholm, Sweden Julie Goodness
College Station, TX, USA Burak Güneralp
New York, NY, USA Peter J. Marcotullio
Arlington, VA, USA Robert I. McDonald
Cape Town, South Africa Susan Parnell
Stockholm, Sweden Maria Schewenius
Stockholm, Sweden Marte Sendstad
New Haven, CT, USA Karen C. Seto
Stockholm, Sweden Cathy Wilkinson
Contents

1 A Global Outlook on Urbanization ....................................................... 1

Karen C. Seto, Susan Parnell, and Thomas Elmqvist
2 History of Urbanization and the Missing Ecology ............................... 13
Thomas Elmqvist, Charles L. Redman, Stephan Barthel,
and Robert Costanza
3 Urbanization and Global Trends in Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services .......................................................................... 31
Robert I. McDonald, Peter J. Marcotullio, and Burak Güneralp
4 Regional Assessment of Asia .................................................................. 53
Karen C. Seto
5 Sub-regional Assessment of China: Urbanization
in Biodiversity Hotspots.......................................................................... 57
Burak Güneralp and Karen C. Seto
6 Sub-regional Assessment of India: Effects of Urbanization
on Land Use, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services ............................. 65
Harini Nagendra, H.S. Sudhira, Madhusudan Katti,
and Maria Schewenius
7 Local Assessment of Bangalore: Graying and Greening
in Bangalore – Impacts of Urbanization on Ecosystems,
Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity..................................................... 75
H.S. Sudhira and Harini Nagendra
8 Local Assessment of Tokyo: Satoyama and Satoumi –
Traditional Landscapes and Management Practices
in a Contemporary Urban Environment .............................................. 93
Ryo Kohsaka, Wanyu Shih, Osamu Saito, and Satoru Sadohara

xiii
xiv Contents

9 Local Assessment of Shanghai: Effects of Urbanization

on the Diversity of Macrobenthic Invertebrates .................................. 107
Wenliang Liu, Xiaohua Chen, and Qiang Wang
10 Patterns and Trends in Urban Biodiversity
and Landscape Design ............................................................................ 123
Norbert Müller, Maria Ignatieva, Charles H. Nilon,
Peter Werner, and Wayne C. Zipperer
11 Urban Ecosystem Services ..................................................................... 175
Erik Gómez-Baggethun, Åsa Gren, David N. Barton,
Johannes Langemeyer, Timon McPhearson, Patrick O’Farrell,
Erik Andersson, Zoé Hamstead, and Peleg Kremer
12 Shrinking Cities, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services ...................... 253
Dagmar Haase
13 Regional Assessment of Europe ............................................................. 275
Jakub Kronenberg, Azime Tezer, Dagmar Haase, and Johan Colding
14 Regional Assessment of North America: Urbanization
Trends, Biodiversity Patterns, and Ecosystem Services ...................... 279
Timon McPhearson, Roger Auch, and Marina Alberti
15 Regional Assessment of Oceania............................................................ 287
Robert Dyball, Christopher D. Ives, and Ian White
16 Local Assessment of İstanbul: Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services .......................................................................... 291
Burak Güneralp, Azime Tezer, and İlke Albayrak
17 Local Assessment of Stockholm: Revisiting
the Stockholm Urban Assessment ......................................................... 313
Johan Colding
18 Local Assessment of Chicago: From Wild Chicago to Chicago
Wilderness – Chicago’s Ecological Setting and Recent
Efforts to Protect and Restore Nature in the Region ........................... 337
Liam Heneghan, Christopher Mulvaney, Kristen Ross,
Susan Stewart, Lauren Umek, Cristy Watkins, Alaka Wali,
Lynne M. Westphal, and David H. Wise
19 Local Assessment of New York City: Biodiversity,
Green Space, and Ecosystem Services................................................... 355
Timon McPhearson, David Maddox, Bram Gunther,
and David Bragdon
20 Local Assessment of Melbourne: The Biodiversity
and Social-Ecological Dynamics of Melbourne, Australia .................. 385
Christopher D. Ives, Ruth Beilin, Ascelin Gordon, Dave Kendal,
Amy K. Hahs, and Mark J. McDonnell
Contents xv

21 A Synthesis of Global Urbanization Projections .................................. 409

Michail Fragkias, Burak Güneralp, Karen C. Seto,
and Julie Goodness
22 Urbanization Forecasts, Effects on Land Use, Biodiversity,
and Ecosystem Services .......................................................................... 437
Burak Güneralp, Robert I. McDonald, Michail Fragkias,
Julie Goodness, Peter J. Marcotullio, and Karen C. Seto
23 Regional Assessment of Africa............................................................... 453
Pippin M.L. Anderson, Chukwumerije Okereke, Andrew Rudd,
and Susan Parnell
24 Local Assessment of Cape Town: Navigating
the Management Complexities of Urbanization,
Biodiversity, and Ecosystem Services
in the Cape Floristic Region ................................................................... 461
Julie Goodness and Pippin M.L. Anderson
25 Climate Change and Urban Biodiversity Vulnerability ...................... 485
William Solecki and Peter J. Marcotullio
26 Feeding Cities: Food Security and Ecosystem Support
in an Urbanizing World .......................................................................... 505
Lisa Deutsch, Robert Dyball, and Will Steffen
27 Urban Governance of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services............... 539
Cathy Wilkinson, Marte Sendstad, Susan Parnell,
and Maria Schewenius
28 Regional Assessment of Latin America: Rapid Urban
Development and Social Economic Inequity Threaten
Biodiversity Hotspots .............................................................................. 589
Aníbal Pauchard and Olga Barbosa
29 Local Assessment of Rio de Janeiro City: Two Case Studies
of Urbanization Trends and Ecological Impacts .................................. 609
Cecilia P. Herzog and Ricardo Finotti
30 Urban Landscapes as Learning Arenas
for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Management ....................... 629
Marianne E. Krasny, Cecilia Lundholm, Soul Shava,
Eunju Lee, and Hiromi Kobori
31 Restoration Ecology in an Urbanizing World ...................................... 665
Steven N. Handel, Osamu Saito, and Kazuhiko Takeuchi
xvi Contents

32 Indicators for Management of Urban Biodiversity

and Ecosystem Services: City Biodiversity Index ................................ 699
Ryo Kohsaka, Henrique M. Pereira, Thomas Elmqvist, Lena Chan,
Raquel Moreno-Peñaranda, Yukihiro Morimoto, Takashi Inoue,
Mari Iwata, Maiko Nishi, Maria da Luz Mathias, Carlos Souto Cruz,
Mariana Cabral, Minna Brunfeldt, Anni Parkkinen, Jari Niemelä,
Yashada Kulkarni-Kawli, and Grant Pearsell
33 Stewardship of the Biosphere in the Urban Era .................................. 719
Thomas Elmqvist, Michail Fragkias, Julie Goodness,
Burak Güneralp, Peter J. Marcotullio, Robert I. McDonald,
Susan Parnell, Maria Schewenius, Marte Sendstad,
Karen C. Seto, Cathy Wilkinson, Marina Alberti, Carl Folke,
Niki Frantzeskaki, Dagmar Haase, Madhusudan Katti,
Harini Nagendra, Jari Niemelä, Steward T.A. Pickett,
Charles L. Redman, and Keith Tidball

CBO Inter-Agency Task-Force and Advisory Committee Members ......... 747

Glossary ........................................................................................................... 749

Contributors

İlke Albayrak Planning and Project Department, Küçükçekmece Municipality,

İstanbul, Turkey
Marina Alberti Department of Urban Design and Planning, University of
Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Pippin M.L. Anderson African Centre for Cities and Department of Environ-
mental and Geographical Science, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South
Africa
Erik Andersson Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Sweden
Gloria Aponte Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellín, Colombia
Roger Auch Earth Resources Observation and Science Center, U.S. Geological
Survey, the Earth Resources Observation and Science Center (EROS), Sioux Falls,
SD, USA
Olga Barbosa Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de
Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Casilla, Valdivia, Chile
Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Santiago, Chile
Stephan Barthel Department of History, Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Sweden
Stockholm Resilience Center, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
David N. Barton Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), Oslo Centre
for Interdisciplinary Environmental and Social Research (CIENS), Oslo, Norway
Ruth Beilin Melbourne School of Land and Environment, The University of
Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
David Bragdon New York City Mayor’s Office of Long-term Planning and
Sustainability, New York, NY, USA
xvii
xviii Contributors

Minna Brunfeldt Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki,

Helsinki, Finland
Mariana Cabral Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências da
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Lena Chan National Biodiversity Centre, National Parks Board, Singapore
Xiaohua Chen Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences, Shanghai, China
Johan Colding Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Robert Costanza Crawford School of Public Policy, The Australian National
University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Carlos Souto Cruz Camara Municipal de Lisboa, Cruz das Oliveiras, Lisbon,
Portugal
Lisa Deutsch Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Sweden
Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University,
Canberra, ACT, Australia
Robert Dyball Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian
National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Thomas Elmqvist Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University,
Stockholm, Sweden
Ana Faggi CONICET-Universidad de Flores, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Ricardo Finotti Department of Environmental and Sanitary Engineering,
Universidade Estácio de Sá, Nova Friburgo, Brazil
Carl Folke Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Sweden
Michail Fragkias Department of Economics, College of Business and Economics,
Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
Niki Frantzeskaki Governance of Sustainability Transitions, Dutch Research
Institute For Transitions (DRIFT), Faculty of Social Sciences, Erasmus University
Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Erik Gómez-Baggethun Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Environmental Science
and Technology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallés,
Barcelona, Spain
Social-Ecological Systems Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Autonomous
University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Contributors xix

Julie Goodness Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm,

Sweden
Ascelin Gordon School of Global, Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Åsa Gren The Beijer Institute of Ecological Economics, The Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
Burak Güneralp Department of Geography, Texas A&M University, College
Station, TX, USA
Bram Gunther Forestry & Horticulture, and Natural Resources Group
Natural Areas Conservancy, New York City Parks & Recreation, Olmsted Center,
Flushing, NY
Dagmar Haase Department of Geography, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin,
Berlin, Germany
Department of Computational Landscape Ecology, UFZ Centre for Environmental
Research – UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
Amy K. Hahs Australian Research Centre for Urban Ecology (ARCUE), Royal
Botanic Gardens Melbourne, School of Botany, The University of Melbourne,
Parkville, VIC, Australia
Zoé Hamstead Milano School of International Affairs, Management and Urban
Policy, The New School, New York, NY, USA
Steven N. Handel Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources,
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Liam Heneghan Department of Environmental Science and Studies, DePaul
University, Chicago, IL, USA
Cecilia P. Herzog INVERDE – Instituto de Estudos, Pesquisas e Projetos em
Infraestrutura Verde e Ecologia Urbana, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Department of
Architecture and Urbanism, Rua Nina Rodrigues, Brazil
Maria Ignatieva Division of Landscape Architecture, Department of Urban and
Rural Development, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Takashi Inoue Recruit Sumai Company, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
Christopher D. Ives School of Global, Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Mari Iwata Mitsubishi Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan
Madhusudan Katti Department of Biology, California State University, Fresno,
CA, USA
xx Contributors

Dave Kendal Australian Research Centre for Urban Ecology (ARCUE), Royal
Botanic Gardens Melbourne, School of Botany, The University of Melbourne,
Parkville, VIC, Australia
Hiromi Kobori Faculty of Environmental and Information Studies, Tokyo City
University, Yokohama, Japan
Ryo Kohsaka Graduate School of Human and Socio- Environmental Studies,
Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
Marianne E. Krasny Department of Natural Resources, Civic Ecology Lab,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Peleg Kremer Tishman Environment and Design Center, The New School, New
York, NY, USA
Jakub Kronenberg Department of International Economics, Faculty of Economics
and Sociology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
Yashada Kulkarni-Kawli Terracon Ecotech Pvt Ltd., Mumbai, India
Johannes Langemeyer Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Environmental Science
and Technology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallés,
Barcelona, Spain
Stephen Lansing School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ,
USA
Eunju Lee Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Wenliang Liu Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-
Restoration, College of Resources and Environmental Science, East China Normal
University, Shanghai, China
Cecilia Lundholm Centre for Teaching and Learning in the Social Sciences,
Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Ian MacGregor-Fors Red de Ambiente y Sustentabilidad, Instituto de Ecología,
A.C., Veracruz, México
David Maddox Sound-Science LLC, New York, NY, USA
Javiera Maira Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
Peter J. Marcotullio Department of Geography, Hunter College, City University
of New York (CUNY), New York, NY, USA
Fabio Márquez Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Maria da Luz Mathias Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar – CESAM,
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Robert I. McDonald The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA
Contributors xxi

Mark J. McDonnell Australian Research Centre for Urban Ecology (ARCUE),

Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, School of Botany, The University of Melbourne,
Parkville, VIC, Australia
Timon McPhearson Tishman Environment and Design Center, The New School,
New York, NY, USA
Raquel Moreno-Peñaranda United Nations University – Institute of Advanced
Studies – Operating Unit Ishikawa/Kanazawa (UNU-IAS/OUIK), Yokohama, Japan
Yukihiro Morimoto Faculty of Bio-Environmental Science, Kyoto Gakuen
University, Kyoto, Japan
Norbert Müller Department of Landscape Management and Restoration Ecology,
Headquarters URBIO, University of Applied Sciences Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
Christopher Mulvaney Chicago Wilderness, Chicago, IL, USA
Harini Nagendra Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment
(ATREE), Bangalore, India
Center for the Study of Institutions, Population, and Environmental Change
(CIPEC), Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
Jari Niemelä Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki,
Helsinki, Finland
Charles H. Nilon Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, University of
Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
Maiko Nishi Program in Urban Planning, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences,
Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Patrick O’Farrell Natural Resources and the Environment, Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research, Stellenbosch, South Africa
Chukwumerije Okereke Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences,
School of Human and Environmental Sciences (SHES), University of Reading,
Reading, UK
Anni Parkkinen Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki,
Helsinki, Finland
Susan Parnell Department of Environmental and Geographical Science,
University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
Aníbal Pauchard Ciencias Forestales, Facultad de Ciencias Fores, Universidad de
Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Santiago, Chile
Grant Pearsell Office of Biodiversity, Urban Planning and Environment,
Sustainable Development, Edmonton, AB, Canada
xxii Contributors

Henrique M. Pereira Centro de Biologia Ambiental, Faculdade de Ciências da

Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Steward T.A. Pickett Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY, USA
Charles L. Redman School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe,
AZ, USA
Carolina Rojas Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Kristen Ross Department of Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
Andrew Rudd Urban Environment, Urban Planning and Design Branch,
UN-HABITAT, New York, NY, USA
Satoru Sadohara Graduate School of Urban Innovation, Yokohama National
University, Yokohama, Japan
Osamu Saito Institute for Sustainability and Peace (UNU-ISP), United Nations
University, Tokyo, Japan
The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Maria Schewenius Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University,
Stockholm, Sweden
Marte Sendstad Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Sweden
Karen C. Seto School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University,
New Haven, CT, USA
Soul Shava Department of Science and Technology Education, University of
South Africa (UNISA), City of Tswane, South Africa
Wanyu Shih United Nations University-Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-
IAS), Yokohama, Japan
William Solecki Institute for Sustainable Cities, Hunter College, City University
of New York (CUNY), New York, NY, USA
Will Steffen Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National
University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Susan Stewart USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station, Evanston,
IL, USA
H.S. Sudhira Gubbi Labs, Gubbi, India
Kazuhiko Takeuchi Institute for Sustainability and Peace (UNU-ISP), United
Nations University, Tokyo, Japan
Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science, The University of Tokyo,
Tokyo, Japan
Contributors xxiii

Azime Tezer Urban and Regional Planning Department, İstanbul Technical

University (İTU), İstanbul, Turkey
Keith Tidball Department of Natural Resources, College of Agriculture and Life
Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Lauren Umek Department of Environmental Science and Studies, DePaul
University, Chicago, IL, USA
Paula Villagra Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
Alaka Wali The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, USA
Qiang Wang Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-
Restoration, College of Resources and Environmental Science, East China Normal
University, Shanghai, China
Cristy Watkins The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, USA
Peter Werner Institute for Housing and Environment, Research Institution of the
State of Hesse and the City of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
Lynne M. Westphal USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station, Evanston,
IL, USA
Ian White Fenner School of Environment and Society, ANU College of Medicine,
Biology and Environment, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT,
Australia
Cathy Wilkinson Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Sweden
David H. Wise Department of Biological Sciences, Institute for Environmental
Science & Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Wayne C. Zipperer USDA Forest Service, Gainesville, FL, USA
Reviewers

Jack Ahern
Vice Provost for International Programs
Professor of Landscape Architecture
University of Massachusetts
Muslim Anshari bin Rahman
National Biodiversity Centre
National Parks Board, Singapore
Meral Avcı
İstanbul University
Faculty of Letters
Department of Geography – İstanbul
Geography Department
İstanbul University
Laleli/İstanbul Turkey
Xuemei Bai
Fenner School of Environment and Society
College of Medicine, Biology and Environment
The Australian National University
Deborah Balk
CUNY Institute for Demographic Research
Baruch College
City University of New York
Guy Barnett
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)
Ecosystem Sciences

xxv
xxvi Reviewers

Jennie Barron
Stockholm Environment Institute/SEI and Stockholm Resilience Centre
Stockholm University
Jane Battersby
African Centre for Cities
University of Cape Town
Jürgen Breuste
IALE Centre for Landscape Research (CeLaRe)
Department of Geography/Geology
University of Salzburg
Julien Custot and colleagues
Food for the Cities
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
George Davis
South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI)
Abigail Derby
Environment, Culture and Conservation
The Field Museum
Chicago
Stanley Faeth
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Bruce Frayne
School of Environment, Enterprise and Development (SEED)
Faculty of Environment
University of Waterloo
Stephen Granger
Environmental Resource Management Department
City of Cape Town
Haripriya Gundimeda
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Patrica M. Holmes
Biodiversity Management Branch
Environmental Resource Management Department
City of Cape Town
Margareta Ihse
Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology
Stockholm University
Reviewers xxvii

Kazu Kogure
Center for Earth Surface System Dynamics
Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute
University of Tokyo
Roy Kropp
Marine Sciences Laboratory
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Juana Mariño
Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos
Alexander von Humboldt Colombia
Stephan Pauleit
Technical University of Munich
Mitchell Pavao-Zuckerman
Biosphere 2
University of Arizona
Charles Perrings
School of Life Sciences
Arizona State University
Stephanie Pincetl
California Center for Sustainable Communities
Institute of the Environment and Sustainability
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
Joan Pino
Centre for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF)
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Gary Presland
Melbourne School of Land & Environment
The University of Melbourne
Bob Prezant
College of Science and Mathematics
Montclair State University
Jose A. Puppim de Oliveira
United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS)
Irene Ring
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ
Jonathan Sadler
School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences
The University of Birmingham
xxviii Reviewers

David Simon
Department of Geography
Royal Holloway
University of London
Michelle D. Staudinger
DOI Northeast Climate Science Center
University of Missouri Columbia
USGS National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center
Jim Taylor
Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA)
Maria Tengö
Stockholm Resilience Centre
Stockholm University
Handan Türkoglu
Istanbul Technical University
Faculty of Architecture
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Urban and Regional Planning Department
İstanbul Technical University (İTU)
İstanbul Turkey
Nicholas Williams
Department of Resource Management and Geography
The University of Melbourne
Jianguo Wu
School of Life Sciences and School of Sustainability
Arizona State University
Cheri Young
Department of Private Law – Faculty of Law
University of Cape Town
Tingwei Zhang
Department of Urban Planning and Policy
University of Illinois at Chicago
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Cook Room.—The cook room should be provided with vats of
various types, usually of iron plate on account of
ease in cleaning. A later type is provided with a hood, the apparatus
looks like a piano box, a lifting cover being provided which permits it
to be raised and lowered at will. Permanent ventilating spouts are
attached to the top to dispose of the steam—something that must be
contended with in the cook room. The vats are usually arranged in
pairs and are accessible from three sides.
In some large institutions cook tanks are set in the floor and the
sausage cage submerged with the sausage hanging thereon. This is
not advisable as there is sure to be a discoloration from the cages.
Sausage upon removal from the cook tanks should be drenched
with cold water, preferably sprayed on from the top. This washes the
sausage and cools it, preparatory to hanging in the sales or packing
department.
Smoking Temperatures.—The smoking of sausage is a very
important factor, and in the different formulas given in the
instructions for handling, reference has been made to the “Smoking
Schedule.” This schedule has been carefully compiled and the time
and temperatures given should be closely followed in order to get the
best results.

SMOKING TEMPERATURES FOR SAUSAGE.

Temperature
Time degrees
Kind of sausage hours Fahrenheit
Long Bologna 3 145 to 150
Large Bologna 3 145 to 150
Round Bologna 2 135 to 140
Bag Bologna 1 140 to 145
Bologna in weasands 4 185
Knoblauch 1¹⁄₂ 130
Leona Bologna long 3 145
Leona Bologna large 3 145
Regular Frankfurts 2¹⁄₂ to 3 130 to 135
Vienna Frankfurts 3 140 to 145
High grade Frankfurts 3 to 3¹⁄₂ 150 to 160
 Blood 12 65 to 70
Tongue 12 65 to 70
Liver 1 to 1¹⁄₂ 110 to 120
Polish 3 to 3¹⁄₂ 150 to 160
Minced ham 3 to 3¹⁄₂ 135
Berlin 5 130 to 140
Cooked pressed ham 5 130 to 140
Cottage ham 32 120
Boneless ham 48 80

A thermometer in a smoke house is a necessity—not an

ornament. A clock is of the same consequence.
Dry Hanging Room.—A well ventilated room with all the light
possible should be provided for storage of smoked sausage awaiting
shipment. This should not be a cooler. Sixty degree Fahr. is amply
low, and in summer a higher temperature is advisable. If smoked
sausage is placed in a cooler it condenses moisture on the surface
and becomes slimy, mouldy and rotten in rapid succession.
Shrinkages of Domestic Sausage.—As is known to all sausage
makers it is in very rare cases that 100 pounds of meat makes 100
pounds of finished sausage; there is always a shrinkage and before
the cost of the finished sausage can be determined one must know
the shrinkage from original weights of raw materials.
The following tabulated statement is compiled from experience
with very large amounts of the different kinds of sausage, extended
over a year and a half of actual manufacture. The mean average of
shrinkage is accurate information and may safely be used as a
guide. The cost of the formulas is not given as there is such a
variation in prices of ingredients induced by market prices that any
figures would be misleading. To find out the cost of the formulas,
figure the given weights at market value, shrinking them according to
the table below, adding cost for labor and supplies, and a very close
approximate cost of the manufactured article will be obtained.

Per cent
of
Kind of Sausage. Shrinkage.
 Long Bologna 8¹⁄₂ to 11
Large Bologna 7¹⁄₄ to 10
Round Bologna 8¹⁄₂ to 11
Bag Bologna 6 to 9
Bologna in weasands 6 to 9
Knoblauch 10 to 11
Leona, long 10 to 13
Leona, large 10 to 12
Regular Frankfurts 11 to 13¹⁄₂
Vienna Frankfurts 19 to 22
High grade Frankfurts 18 to 20
Regular pork 2 to 4
Little pig pork 2 to 4
High grade breakfast 1¹⁄₂ to 3
Blood 31 to 36
Liver 12 to 14
Tongue 38 to 40
Polish 12 to 14
Head cheese 39 to 42
Luncheon beef 47 to 50
Boneless pigs feet 22 to 25
Minced ham 6 to 9
Berlin ham 22 to 27
Cooked pressed ham 15 to 17

Cooler for Fresh Sausage.—Fresh pork sausage tongue and

other varieties of cooked sausage are usually placed in a cooler.
Dryness in this cooler is a first and prime essential. Likewise a
spreading of the product so as to give it opportunity to dry. Moisture
in this department creates a bad condition in the product. Fans are
an assistance in that they produce a circulation which adds to
dryness.
Pickle-Cured Product.—The following products are used in
sausage making. They are of little value except in the cured
condition:
 Pork snouts,
Pork hearts,
Pork cheeks,
Pork skins,
Pork heads,
Pork hocks,
Pork ears,
Pork tails,
Beef hearts,
Beef cheeks,
Ox lips,
Sheep hearts.

These products should be thoroughly chilled by spreading them

out on racks and placing them in a chill room having a temperature
of from 34° to 36° F. They should be turned while being chilled. After
being thoroughly chilled for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, they
should be put into vats or tierces with an eighty-degree plain pickle,
using eight ounces of saltpetre to the one-hundred pounds of meat.
A wooden frame and weight is placed on the product in order to
keep it immersed in the pickle. To cure these meats in vats use the
following quantities of pickle:

1,400 pounds of meat will require 54 gallons of pickle.

1,000 pounds of meat will require 42 gallons of pickle.
800 pounds of meat will require 36 gallons of pickle.

The meats should be kept in a cellar during the pickling process,

with the temperature ranging from 38° to 40° F., and overhauled
every five, ten and fifteen days in order that all the pickle may
thoroughly penetrate the meats. The different kinds of meats will be
found to be sufficiently cured after being in pickle the following
number of days:

Pork snouts 25 to 30 days

Pork hearts 25 to 30 days
Pork cheeks 25 to 30 days
Pork skins 10 to 15 days
Pork heads 35 days
Pork ears 10 days
 Pork hocks 25 days
Pork tails 10 days
Beef hearts 25 to 30 days
Beef cheeks 25 to 30 days
Ox lips 20 days
Sheep hearts 25 to 30 days

Dry Cured Meats.—For some classes of sausage dry-cured

meats are used. This consists of a process of curing meat in tierces,
the meat packed closely and curing product interspersed. For this
product a formula made from the following serves. For one tierce of
400 pounds use the following mixture:

16 pounds salt,
4 pounds sugar,
1¹⁄₂ pounds saltpetre,
2 quarts old ham pickle, which must be sweet and in good condition.

Pork and beef trimmings should be fresh, and if they have been
packed in barrels for transport the blood should be allowed to drain
off before being packed in the preservative. They should not be
washed in pickle before being used, but should be handled dry. The
two quarts of old ham pickle mentioned in the above formula should
be sprinkled through as uniformly as possible when pounding the
trimmings down into the tierce.
If packing fresh beef and pork hearts, head meat, beef and pork
cheek meat, giblet and weasand meat, they should be thoroughly
washed in a mild pickle so as to remove the blood and slime before
packing in the tierce. Head, cheek, and giblet meat should not be put
into ice water when cut off on the killing floor, but should be promptly
removed to a cooler where the temperature is 33° to 36° F., and
spread or hung up on racks to refrigerate.
Care must be taken not to allow these meats to accumulate in any
bulk while warm. Hearts and large pieces should be split to reduce
their size and make accessible to the curing ingredient. In the
packing of these meats the pickle used with dry trimming is omitted.
 Packing.—After the trimmings are properly prepared they are to
be mixed with the curing ingredients. This is best
accomplished by the use of a tumbler churn, weighing a given
amount of the trimmings and placing with the allotted proportion of
curing materials into the churn.
When mixed with the preservative, the trimmings should be put in
a tierce, in layers, and pounded down as tightly as possible with a
maul, and the operation continued until the tierce is as full as
possible, allowing for the head to be put on. Before heading up
spread a cheese cloth or thin cotton cloth over the top to protect the
trimmings from the head. The tierce when headed up is removed to
cold storage, where the temperature must be kept as near 38° F. as
possible from thirty to forty-five days, when the trimmings are ready
for use. If it is desired to keep the product sixty days, after it has
been in the temperature above mentioned for thirty to forty-five days,
remove to a lower temperature, 32° to 34° F.; and for more than sixty
days to a temperature of 20° F.
Casings and Spices.—All classes of beef casings, namely,
rounds, bungs, middles and weasands, as well as hog bungs, hog
casings and sheep casings are used in the Sausage Department.
There is perhaps more chicanery used in Sausage Room supplies
than in any other one department, consequently care in purchase of
these supplies is worthy of attention. In sheep casings it is a matter
of grading as to width, pieces and yardage per bundle; in hog
casings, a matter of salt per pound purchased, and grading as to
width and pieces; in rounds and middles one of holes, pieces and
measurement per set.
Spices should so far as possible be bought in the natural state and
mixed on the premises. Pure Food laws pretty well take care of the
purity of the spice in most states.
Sausage Cereals.—This is a very important factor in the
manufacture of sausage. The province of “fillers” is to absorb water,
preventing shrinkage, and while this is advisable to an extent, if
overdone, it detracts from the quality of the product. The main base
ingredients for fillers are rice flour, corn flour and potato flour. There
are many sausage fillers on the market but the foregoing ingredients
are most frequently used.
 Potato flour or starch is not used to any extent today,
manufacturers finding that there is a great deal of trouble attached to
the manufacture of sausage containing these ingredients, on
account of the liability to sour and spoil. Corn flour is the best filler
that can be used, being less liable to ferment, while it absorbs the
water quickly. While fillers are used to a great extent, the sausage
manufacturer should remember that the quality of sausage is
deteriorated proportionately to the amount of water that is worked in.
Hence fillers should be used with discretion, and manufacturers who
aim to make a name for their goods, are frugal with fillers.
Sausage Formulas.—The following methods are tried and used
for the manufacture of various kinds of sausage. Sausage makers
vary procedure according to stocks on hand. However, for uniformity,
it is best to conform to a standard so far as possible.
Pork Sausage.—This is produced in various grades, from a fancy
breakfast quality to a substance whose chief claim to the name is the
form. A good pork sausage can be made as follows:

100 lb. pork trimmings, preferably shoulder trimmings, about one-third fat.
3 pounds salt.
8 ounces pepper.
3 ounces sage.
¹⁄₄ ounce ginger.
¹⁄₂ ounce mace.

This should be chopped by passing through a ⁵⁄₃₂ “Enterprise”

plate. Mix in an arm type mixer, rather than the blade type. Mix as
little as possible but sufficiently to get spice evenly distributed; stuff
in medium sheep casing, 5 inch links. The matter of spicing is one of
taste and can be varied. Note the absence of water and filler in the
formula.
Some makers prefer to “rock” their fancy breakfast sausage. This
produces good results but is unnecessary. It is possible to use many
meats in the making of this sausage and still have it passably good,
but generally speaking, there is less chance for manipulation of this
sort in this kind of sausage than in many of the others. The following
formulas make a cheap and palatable pork sausage:

FORMULA A.
75 pounds pork trimmings,
25 pounds tripe,
8 pounds water,
3 pounds salt,
4 ounces sage,
10 ounces white pepper,
3 ounces saltpetre,
10 pounds corn flour.

FORMULA B.
90 pounds regular pork trimmings,
10 pounds tripe,
6 pounds corn flour,
10 pounds water,
2 pounds, 8 ounces salt,
4 ounces sage,
10 ounces white pepper,
3 ounces sugar,
1 pound, 8 ounces color water.

The preceding formulas are for sausage meat, often sold loose or
without stuffing, also for sausage stuffed in hog casings. Stuff in
medium or narrow hog casings. “Tripe” is the source of refuge to
produce cheap pork sausage.
Bologna Style.—This is one of the most common and generally
used type of sausage manufactured. It is in demand in nearly every
locality. In the manufacture of Bologna, ingredients are used which
are not in themselves palatable, but are nutritious. The seasoning
makes it palatable.
The formulas which are given below, if they are accurately
followed and fresh and wholesome material carefully prepared is
used, will make a sausage which is very acceptable to the consumer.
This is the product that is usually made from the tougher meats such
as cheeks and hearts. For a good bologna use:
 25 pounds beef trimmings,
50 pounds pork cheeks,
7 pounds corn flour,
1¹⁄₈ pounds pepper,
4 ounces coriander,
70 pounds pork trimmings,
30 pounds beef cheeks,
5 pounds salt,
2 ounces allspice,
4 ounces saltpetre,
25 pounds water.

A cheaper product can be made as follows:

45 pounds hearts (pork),

20 pounds sheep cheek meat,
65 pounds beef cheeks,
7 pounds corn flour,
4 ounces coriander (ground),
4 ounces saltpetre (ground),
20 pounds pork cellar fat trimmings,
25 pounds weasand meat,
5 pounds salt,
18 ounces pepper (ground),
2 ounces allspice (ground),
25 pounds water.

To manufacture, the product should be passed through an

“Enterprise” type of grinder, using ⁷⁄₆₄th plate. Transfer to silent cutter
and chop for full five minutes, adding spice and water as the mixture
is cut and turned. Transfer to shelving room and allow to lay for
twenty-four hours. Stuff in casings as required, put in smoke house
at a temperature of 120° F. for one and one-half hours, raise
temperature to 135° F. and carry for another one and one-half hours.
Cook in water at 155° F. for thirty minutes; rinse with hot water after
removal, then chill with cold water and hang in shipping room.
The length of cooking and smoking varies with the weight and
thickness of the package. See schedule. This recipe is for wide
middle casings.
Frankfurt Style.—This popular sausage is made from a variety of
formulas. Perhaps there is no one piece of sausage as susceptible
of being made so excellent or so tasteless, it being entirely a matter
of what it is made from. The better grades are made from freshly
killed bull beef, hashed warm. The process consists in boning bull
beef and opening the meats along the seams, so to speak, skinning
each bundle of muscle to remove the wrapping and cutting out all
ligaments. Fresh pork, preferably, shoulder meat is treated in the
same manner. The meats are then passed through a ⁷⁄₆₄ “Enterprise”
plate, and passed to a silent cutter. Here cracked ice is added in
quantity and the meats cut until they are a light fluffy pulp. The
spices are added during the last five minutes of cutting, and the
whole mass transferred to a shelving room for twenty-four hours,
when it is ready to stuff, smoke, cook, cool and sell. Wide sheep
casings are used for stuffing. Make the links uniform. The
proportions of meat used should be as follows:

60 pounds bull beef,

40 pounds pork shoulder (fat),
35 pounds ice,
10 pounds corn flour,
4 pounds salt,
12 ounces pepper,
3 ounces saltpetre,
3 ounces mace,
6 ounces sugar.

The following formulas are for less costly products and provide a
means for disposing of some by-products:

FORMULA NO. 1.
57 pounds regular pork trimmings,
65 pounds beef cheek meat,
15 pounds cooked tripe,
25 pounds pork kidneys,
20 pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings,
 9 pounds corn flour,
45 pounds water,
1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper,
3 pounds salt,
2 pounds color water,
4 ounces saltpetre,
3 ounces allspice,
3 ounces mace,
3 ounces coriander,
1¹⁄₂ ounces cloves.

FORMULA NO. 2.
90 pounds lean pork cheek meat,
60 pounds regular pork trimmings,
9 pounds corn flour,
60 pounds water,
5 pounds salt,
2 pounds, 7 ounces color water,
12 ounces sugar,
3 ounces saltpetre,
1 pound black pepper,
2 ounces mace.

The use of a mixer is unnecessary with this sausage since the

silent cutter will perform this work. It should take about ten minutes
to do the cutting. Smoke at 110° F. for one and one-half hours, then
at 135° F. for one hour. Cook at 155° F. for eight to ten minutes, rinse
and cool.
In medium and low priced frankfurts, cattle lights are used in
moderate proportion, say, 10 per cent. Tripe can also be used in
increased quantity.
Leona Style Sausage.—The following formula will be found
acceptable for this variety of sausage:

30 pounds pork knuckle meat,

65 pounds lean pork trimmings,
50 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings,
22 pounds pork neck fat,
 8¹⁄₂ pounds corn flour,
55 pounds water,
5 pounds salt,
1 pound white pepper,
3 ounces mace,
2¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre,
12 ounces sugar,
2 ounces grated onions,
¹⁄₂ ounce garlic.

Knuckle meat to be ground through a moderately fine plate.

Balance of pork should be chopped in the “silent cutter.” Corn flour
and seasoning should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put
into the Buffalo chopper and the machine has made two or three
revolutions. Chop for four minutes, stuff in eighteen-inch pieces, beef
middle casings or beef bung casings. Smoke, cook as per schedule.
Cool and send to hanging room.
Knoblauch Style Sausage.—Following are two formulas for
Knoblauch sausage:

30 pounds pork knuckle meat,

65 pounds very lean pork trimmings,
50 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings,
22 pounds pork neck fat,
8¹⁄₂ pounds corn flour,
55 pounds water,
5 pounds salt,
1 pound white pepper,
3 ounces mace,
2¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre,
12 ounces sugar,
2 ounces grated onions,
3 ounces garlic,
8 ounces color water.

Stuff in beef rounds and tie with twine every five inches. Knuckle
meat may be ground through a moderately fine plate. Balance of
pork should be chopped in a “Buffalo Silent Cutter.” Corn flour and
seasoning should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put into the
Buffalo chopper and the machine has made two or three revolutions.

SECOND METHOD.
50 pounds pork cheeks,
10 pounds tripe,
40 pounds standard pork trimmings,
5 pounds salt,
3 ounces mace,
9 ounces sugar,
3 ounces garlic,
35 pounds pork trimmings (lean),
15 pounds D. T. or S. P. trimmings,
9 pounds corn flour,
¹⁄₈ ounce pepper,
4 ounces coriander,
3 ounces saltpetre,
30 pounds water.

Grind pork cheeks through ⁷⁄₆₄ plate “Enterprise” cutter. Transfer to

silent cutter, add water and chop one minute, add balance of
trimmings and chop five minutes, then pass to shelving room, stuff in
beef round casings, tie with No. 12 twine in four-inch links. Smoke at
110° for one hour and increase temperature to 135° for one and one-
half hours. Cook twenty minutes at 155° and chill after cooking, draw
and pass to hanging room.
Polish Style Sausage.—Formula for making this sausage is as
follows:

100 pounds beef cheek meat, or shank meat,

50 pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings,
50 pounds pork trimmings,
9 pounds corn flour,
30 pounds water,
1 pound white pepper,
5 pounds salt,
6 ounces saltpetre,
 6 ounces coriander,
3 ounces garlic.

Grind the beef cheek meat through a ⁷⁄₆₄th plate, add corn flour
and seasoning, work in as much water as possible and then add the
pork trimmings. This is a very coarse chopped sausage and the pork
trimmings should be chopped about as fine as small dice. Beef is the
binder of this sausage, and must be handled according to
instructions. The meat, after it is chopped, can be handled the same
as Bologna and Frankfurt meat by putting in a cooler for a few hours
before stuffing. After the sausage is stuffed, it can also be handled
as Bologna and Frankfurts, if desired, before smoking.
This sausage should be smoked carefully and strictly in
accordance with the smoking schedule, as it is not cooked, this
being done practically in the smoke house, during the process of
smoking. After it is smoked it has a very wrinkled appearance, which
is essential for this article. In fact, it is not Polish sausage unless it
has this appearance.
The dicing of the meat other than the beef can be done with a
rocker. Note that a “silent cutter” is not used in this manufacture. The
sausage is stuffed in beef round casings.
Blood Sausage.—This sausage is made as follows:

205 pounds shoulder fat,

54 pounds pig skins,
47 pounds beef blood,
5 pounds onions,
7 pounds salt,
1 pound white pepper,
3 pounds corn flour,
8 ounces marjoram,
4 ounces cloves.

Use pickled shoulder fat and skins, cook for one hour at a
temperature of 210° F. and run through fat cutting machine or cut
into size of small dice. Pass the beef blood through a fine sieve in
order to separate foreign matter. Cook pig skins for about two hours
at a temperature of 210° F. and grind through a ⁷⁄₆₄th plate. Mix the
shoulder fat, skins, blood and seasoning thoroughly together and
stuff in cap end bungs. Smoking and cooking as indicated in
schedules.
Tongue Sausage.—For Tongue Sausage the following formula is
given:

50 pounds hog or sheep tongue,

130 pounds shoulder fat,
34 pounds hog skins,
30 pounds blood,
8 pounds salt,
1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper,
2 pounds onions,
10 ounces marjoram,
4 ounces cloves.

Use pickled shoulder fat, skin and cook for one hour at a
temperature of 210° F. and run through fat cutting machine or cut
into size of small dice. Use beef blood, passed through a fine sieve
in order to separate any foreign material. Cook hog skins for about
two hours at a temperature of 210° F. and grind through a ⁷⁄₆₄th inch
plate. Pickled sheep tongues are preferable to pickled hog tongues,
as they are smaller and make a better appearing sausage when cut.
The tongue should be cooked one and three-quarter hours at a
temperature of 210° F.
Before mixing the above ingredients, rinse the fat off the tongues
with hot water in order to remove as much grease as possible. Mix
the ingredients thoroughly with the seasoning by hand. When
stuffing put about four pieces of tongue to each bung. However, this
varies according to the size of the bungs used. Cap end bungs
should be used in all cases. Smoking and cooking to be done as
indicated in schedule.
Minced Ham.—The following formula for Minced Ham is given:

50 pounds beef trimmings,

20 pounds pork cheek meat,
 80 pounds regular pork trimmings,
5 pounds corn flour,
20 pounds water,
5 pounds salt,
8 ounces sugar,
3¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
3¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre.

Grind meats through a ⁷⁄₆₄th plate; pass to “Silent Cutter,” add

water and spices; chop three minutes and shelve for curing. Stuff in
calf bladders if available, otherwise small beef bladders.
In tying the bladders, it is best to use a wooden skewer and twine
and it is preferable to use small calf bladders in place of large ones,
as the time required for smoking and cooling is so long that if large
bladders are used the weight of them would break the bladders
where they are skewered or tied and would result in shrinkage or
loss.
New England or Pressed Ham.—This ham is made from dry cured
pork trimmings put down under the formula given. The best and
leanest trimmings obtainable are cured for this purpose. Shoulder
blade trimmings or lean shoulder trimmings are more desirable than
any other kind.
After the trimmings have been cured sufficiently, which is when
they show a bright cured color throughout and are without dark spots
in the center of the meat, the trimmings are weighed up in 100-
pound batches, and about ten per cent of lean beef trimmings,
ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate, is mixed thoroughly. Immediately
after the trimmings are mixed the mass should be stuffed into large
beef bung ends, usually from fourteen to sixteen inches long. To
obtain the best results a stuffer arranged with a large sized filler is
necessary. However, a hand stuffer arranged with a large sized filler,
about three inches at the small end, or opening, can be used. Care
should be taken to stuff the bungs as tightly as possible. They should
be skewered instead of tied at the ends and should be wrapped with
heavy twine, each piece having from four to six wrappings of the
twine, which should terminate with a hanger for the ham. The pieces
are very heavy and will break during the processes of smoking and
cooking unless they are properly wrapped or tied.
This ham is smoked five hours at a temperature of from 130° to
140° F. and the house should be moderately warm before the ham is
hung in the smoke. A small fire should be started to dry off the
casings, after which the meat should be smoked the same as
Bologna. Cook at least three hours at a temperature of 160° F. After
it has been cooked it is taken immediately to a cooler, where the
temperature is from 38° to 40° F., and put under a press. If no press
is obtainable place the ham in layers, putting a board between each
layer with a weight on top. Place the hams in a pile or under the
press so that they can be picked with a long, thin skewer about one-
half the thickness of a ham tryer in order to permit the water which is
in the ham to escape. After pressure for twelve hours, take them out
and hang up so that boiling hot water can be thrown on them to
wash off the grease; thoroughly washed in this manner remove to a
dry cooler.
New Jersey Ham.—New Jersey ham is made according to the
following formula:

60 pounds lean ham trimmings

80 pounds lean back trimmings,
10 pounds lean beef chucks or shank meat,
4 pounds, salt,
3¹⁄₂ pounds cracker meal,
4 ounces formula saltpetre,
12 ounces sugar,
³⁄₄ ounce red pepper.

Beef is ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and rocked

about five minutes, when the pork trimmings are added with the
seasoning. The seasoning should all be mixed thoroughly and added
to the meat. The whole is then chopped about as coarse as summer
sausage, or about twenty to twenty-five minutes. It is taken to a
cooler after being rocked and spread about six or eight inches thick
on a table, where it is allowed to remain about three days at a
temperature of from 38° to 40° F.
 It is then stuffed by hand stuffers into bags, which will weigh after
being stuffed and dried about five pounds. These bags are made of
heavy drilled cloth and should be stuffed as tightly as possible. They
should be kept very clean during the process of stuffing, as any
sausage meat which may stick to the cloth will leave a bad
appearance after the sausage has been smoked.
After the ham has been stuffed, it should be taken to the dry room,
where the temperature can be kept at all times between 46° and 55°
F., 50° being preferable. The room must be airy and dry and it will
take at least ten days under favorable circumstances to get the ham
in proper condition to smoke. It should be smoked about four hours
in as cold a smoke as possible, 70° to 75° F. being as hot as it is
safe to smoke it, 60° F. being nearer the proper temperature. After it
has been smoked, it should be again hung in a cool temperature for
three days, when it will be ready for shipment. This sausage is
manufactured extensively in New Jersey and the east.
Head Cheese.—Head cheese is made as follows:

44 pounds cooked pig skins,

55 pounds cooked pig snouts,
33 pounds cooked pig ears,
55 pounds cooked beef hearts,
51 pounds cooked neck fat,
20 pounds water in which the meat has been cooked,
1 pound white pepper,
10 pounds onions,
4 ounces allspice,
2 ounces cloves,
3 ounces marjoram,
3 ounces carroway seeds.

The cooked meats are chopped by hand with a knife until reduced
to the proper size, except the skins, which are ground through a
⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate after being cooked. The mass usually is mixed by
hand and stuffed into cured hog paunches or beef bungs and cooked
as per cooking schedule appended hereto. After the sausage is
cooked, it is taken to a cooler and usually pressed by laying the
paunches or bungs side by side with a board between each layer
and a moderate weight on top of the last board. However, if properly
made this is unnecessary as the gelatine from the skins and the
water in which the meat has been cooked will bind the other
ingredients together sufficiently without much, if any, pressing.
Boneless Pigs Feet.—This product is prepared as follows:

25 pounds fresh pigs feet,

30 pounds fresh pigs skins,
15 pounds fresh pigs snouts,
15 pounds fresh pigs ears,
20 pounds fresh pork trimmings,
15 pounds fresh beef trimmings,
10 pounds white pepper,
50 pounds water in which meat has been cooked,
4 pounds, 1 ounce salt,
4 ounces cloves.

Use one gallon (45-grain) vinegar to five-hundred pounds of the

above mass. Cook all of the meats in one vat, thoroughly, in pudding
nets, and chop same as headcheese, mix seasoning, water and
vinegar with the meat in a large tub or tight-bottom truck.
It is necessary to use tin moulds for this sausage and they are
generally of one size, shaped as a ten-pound wooden bucket or
other sized packages which may be intended to be used for shipping
purposes. Fill these molds with the mixed mass and put on top of
each a wooden block the size of the mold and about three inches
thick. Then remove to a cooler and press tightly by placing on top a
board with a weight. In order to obtain the best results, the molds or
cans should be cooled quickly, therefore a temperature of about 36°
F. is desirable. To remove the contents from the cans or molds,
submerge in hot water for a few seconds, when the meat will loosen
from the sides of the molds and can be turned out readily.
After the product has been removed from the molds allow it to
stand for a short while in the cooler before placing in shipping
packages.
 This sausage can be made without using wooden tops on the cans
or molds and without pressing it. If the pig skins, after they are
cooked, are ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and then mixed with
the mass, more of a jelly will be produced and they will not require
pressing. In preparing meats be particular to remove all bone, gristle
or cartilage.
Liver Sausage.—The following formula is for Liver Sausage:

20 pounds cooked lean pork trimmings,

20 pounds cooked pork cheek meat,
20 pounds cooked pork skins,
10 pounds cooked hog livers,
50 pounds cooked tripe,
6 pounds cooked shoulder fat,
3 pounds salt,
3 pounds onions,
9 ounces white pepper,
2 ounces marjoram,
2 ounces cloves,
1¹⁄₂ ounces allspice.

Above is all ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate except the shoulder

fat, which is run through a fat cutting machine or cut into size of
small dice. It is necessary to mix this sausage in a sausage mixer.
The seasoning should be put into the mixer when starting to mix, but
the shoulder fat should not be put in until about half through. Stuff
immediately into hog bungs, or beef middles, as desired. Cook
immediately as per cooking table and then place in cooler, at a
temperature of 36° to 40° F. until thoroughly chilled, when it is ready
for shipping.
Boneless Ham.—This is made from pork shoulder butts, cured in
sweet pickle and stuffed in small No. 2 beef bungs. Smoke forty-
eight hours at a temperature of 120° F. The bungs may be slightly
colored, the same as Polish sausage casings, before stuffing, if
desired. Not cooked.
Cottage Ham.
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