Operating Systems

MODULE–5: IO and File Management

Vidyalankar School of
Information Technology
Wadala (E), Mumbai
www.vsit.edu.in
Compiled by: Bhavesh Shah
[email protected]
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Unit V- IO and File Management:

Contents:
IO and File Management: I/O Management and Disk Scheduling, File Management, Operating
System Security.

Recommended Books:

1. Operating Systems – Internals and Design Principles Willaim Stallings Pearson 9th edition 2009
2. Operating System Concepts Abraham Silberschatz, Wiley 8th edition
3. Operating Systems Godbole and Kahate McGraw Hill 3rd edition

Online Resources:
• https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc20_cs04/preview
• https://free.aicte-india.org/
• https://www.javatpoint.com/best-courses-for-the-operating-system

Prerequisites

Prerequisites Linkage
Unit III Sem. I Sem. II Sem. Sem. IV Sem. V Sem. VI
III
Concurrency Principles Object - Introductio Linux System IT
and Memory of Oriented n to Administratio Service
Programm Programm Embedded n Manage
ing ing with Systems ment
Language C++
Q. Write the categories of I/O DEVICES. List the key differences among them.
• Human readable: Suitable for communicating with the computer user. Examples
include printers and terminals, the latter consisting of video display, keyboard, and
perhaps other devices such as a mouse.
• Machine readable: Suitable for communicating with electronic equipment. Examples are
disk drives, USB keys, sensors, controllers, and actuators.
• Communication: Suitable for communicating with remote devices. Examples are digital
line drivers and modems.
The key differences are the following:
▪ Data rate: There may be differences of several orders of magnitude between the data
transfer rates.
▪ Application: The use to which a device is put has an influence on the software and
policies in the OS and supporting utilities. For example, a disk used for files
requires the support of file management software. A disk used as a backing store for
pages in a virtual memory scheme depends on the use of virtual memory hardware
and software. Furthermore, these applications have an impact on disk scheduling
algorithms (discussed later in this chapter). As another example, a terminal may be
used by an ordinary user or a system administrator. These uses imply different
privilege levels and perhaps different priorities in the OS.
▪ Complexity of control: A printer requires a relatively simple control interface. A
disk is much more complex. The effect of these differences on the OS is filtered to
some extent by the complexity of the I/O module that controls the device, as
discussed in the next section.
▪ Unit of transfer: Data may be transferred as a stream of bytes or characters (e.g.,
terminal I/O) or in larger blocks (e.g., disk I/O).
▪ Data representation: Different data encoding schemes are used by different devices,
including differences in character code and parity conventions.
▪ Error conditions: The nature of errors, the way in which they are reported, their
consequences, and the available range of responses differ widely from one device to
another.

Q. Write a short note on direct memory access (DMA).

Direct memory access (DMA): A DMA module controls the exchange of data between main
memory and an I/O module. The processor sends a request for the transfer of a block of data
to the DMA module and is interrupted only after the entire block has been transferred.
When the processor wishes to read or write a block of data, it issues a command to the DMA
module by sending to the DMA module the following information:
Whether a read or write is requested, using the read or write control line between the
processor and the DMA module r The address of the I/O device involved, communicated on
the data lines r The starting location in memory to read from or write to, communicated on
the data lines and stored by the DMA module in its address register r The number of words
to be read or written, again communicated via the data lines and stored in the data count
register
DMA permits data transfer directly between I/O device and main memory, without involvement by the CPU
transfer of data is first initiated by the CPU. During the data transfer, the CPU performs other tasks. Whe
data transfer is completed, the CPU receives an interrupt request from the DMA controller. The operating sy
can use only DMA if the hardware has a DMA controller. Consider a data transferred from disk drive to
memory with DMA as shown in fig. below
Steps
 1. CPU initiates data transfer by programming DMA controller’s registers.
• Control – transfer data from disk to main memory
• Count – n: Number of bytes to transfer
• Address – Starting address location in main memory
2. DMA controller then requests disk controller to add data byte to be transferred from
the disk to its buffer.
3. The disk controller then sends the 1 data byte from buffer to the specified memory
location in main memory.
4. When the write is complete, the disk controller sends an acknowledgement signal to
the DMA controller. DMA controller then increments the address value by 1 (next
empty location to write the data) and decrements the byte count value by one (1 byte
is sent out of n bytes). Then steps 2,3,4 are repeated till the count reaches 0.
5. When count=0, the DMA controller interrupts the CPU to let it know that the transfer
is now complete.

Direct Memory Access (DMA) - YouTube

Q. Explain I/O Buffering.

In operating systems, buffering is a technique which is used to enhance the performance of
I/O operations of the system. It is a method of storing data in a buffer or cache temporarily,
this buffered data then can be accessed more quickly as compared to the original source of
the data. In a computer system, data is stored on several devices like hard discs, magnetic
tapes, optical discs and network devices. In the case, when a process requires to read or
write data from one of these storage devices, it has to wait while the device retrieves or
stores the data. This waiting time could be very high, especially for those devices which are
slow or have a high latency. This problem can be addressed by buffering. Buffering
provides a temporary storage area, called buffer. Buffer can store data before it is sent to or
retrieved from the storage device. When the buffer is fully occupied, then data is sent to the
storage device in a batch, this will reduce the number of access operations required and
hence improves the performance of the system.
Types of Buffering
1. Single Buffering
It is the simplest buffering that operating system can support. In the case of single buffering,
when a process issues an I/O request, the operating system assigns a buffer (or cache) in the
system potion of the main memory to the operation. Then, the input transfers are made to the
buffer and are moved to the user space when needed.

2. Double Buffering
Double buffering is an extended variant of single buffering. In this type buffering, a process
can transfer data to or from one buffer while the operating system removes or fills the other.
Therefore, double buffering has two system buffers instead of one.

3. Circular Buffering
When more than two buffers are used, then it is called circular buffering. It is used to solve
the issues associated with the double buffering technique. Sometimes, the double buffering
becomes insufficient, when the process performs rapid bursts of I/O. In the circular buffer,
each individual buffer acts as a unit.
Input/Output I/O Buffering in Operating System OS Lecture Notes Tutorial Easy by Tanvi Sharma -
YouTube

Q. Explain RAID in detail with its different levels.

Redundant Array of Independent Disk is a set of disk organization techniques developed to increase
reliability and performance of a system. Multiple disks are connected together to provide large stor
capacity, faster access to data and improved reliability. RAID should look like a single large disk to
operating system but have better performance and better reliability. In RAIDs, the data are distributed over
drives, to allow parallel operation. There are seven standard configurations – RAID level 0 to RAID level 6.
RAID 0 ‐ Striping
There is no redundant data stored here, so performance is very good. But the failure of any disk in the ar
results in loss of data. In RAID 0, a single record is divided into strips of typically 512 bytes, and it is sto
across all disks. The record can be accessed at faster speed by reading all disks simultaneously, which is cal
as striping.

The RAID 0 technique provides "n" times increase in the data transfer rate, where "n" is the number of dis
The major disadvantage of RAID 0 is that the data cannot be retrieved even if a single disk fails to work.

• It splits data among disks as shown in figure (a).

• Provides fast read-write performance and efficiency.
• There is no fail over support with this configuration.
 RAID 1 – Mirroring

RAID 1 uses disk mirroring technique, in which the similar data is stored on two separate disks. In RAID
configuration, the data in the similar data that can be accessed in less time is used and a parallel read is a
executed when there is no error. When a record is written/updated by a process, a copy of this record is writ
on each disk every time. Thus, there is always a copy of the record available to access. In this way, RAID
provides mirror protection and improves the fault tolerance.

• It duplicates all the disks, so there are four primary disks and four backup disks. It is ‘data mirroring’
• Two copies of the data are held on two physical disks, and the data is always identical.
• Twice as many disks are required to store the same data.
• Fault tolerance is excellent: if a drive crashes, the copy is simply used instead.

Difference between RAID 0 and RAID 1

The following table highlights all the important differences between RAID 0 and RAID 1
Sr. RAID 0 RAID 1
No.
It stands for Redundant Array of It stands for Redundant Array of
1. Independent Disk level 0. Independent Disk level 1.
In this technology, disk stripping is This technology uses disk mirroring
2. used. technique.
3. This technology is inexpensive. It is an expensive method.
4. It doesn't have a write penalty. It comes with a write penalty.
The relative storage efficiency of this The relative storage efficiency of this
5. technology is 100%. technology is 50%.
The write performance of this The write performance of RAID 1 is
6. technology is better than RAID 1. lesser in comparison to RAID 0.
It emphasizes on the speed of data The emphasis here is on the availability
7. access. of the data.
It provides good performance for read It gives moderate performance for read
8. operation. operation.
9. It doesn't provide any protection. It provides mirror protection.

RAID 2 (Bit-level Striping)

RAID 2 records Error Correction Code (ECC) using hamming code parity. In this level each data bit in a
word is recorded on a separate disk and ECC codes of the data words are stored on a different set of
disk.
Advantages –
1. In case of Error-Correction it uses hamming code.
2. It Uses one designated drive to store parity.
Disadvantages –
1. It has a complex structure and high cost due to extra drive.
2. It requires an extra drive for error detection.
RAID 3 (Byte-level Striping)
It stripes the data onto multiple disk. The parity bit generated for each disk section and stored on a
different dedicated disk. This level overcomes the single disk failure.
Advantages –
1. Data can be transferred in bulk.
2. Data can be accessed in parallel.
Disadvantages –
1. It requires an additional drive for parity.
2. In case of small size files, it performs slowly.

RAID 4 (Block-level Striping)

In this level entire set or block of data written onto the data disk and then the parity is
generated and stored on a different set of disk. This level overcome at most one disk
failure. If more than one disk failure occur then there is no way to recover the data. Both
RAID 3 and RAID 4 require at least three disk to implement RAID.

Advantages –
1. It facilitates simultaneous I/O request because of Block striping.
2. Storage overhead is low.
Disadvantages –
1. Parity disk may lead to bottleneck.
2. Slow random writes because of separate block parity.
RAID-5 (Block-Level Stripping with Distributed Parity)
This is a slight modification of the RAID-4 system where the only difference is that
the parity rotates among the drives.
Advantages
1. Data can be reconstructed using parity bits.
2. It makes the performance better.
Disadvantages
1. Its technology is complex and extra space is required.
2. If both discs get damaged, data will be lost forever.

RAID-6 (Block-Level Stripping with two Parity Bits)

Raid-6 helps when there is more than one disk failure. Raid level 6 is similar to RAID level
5, except that an additional parity block is used. In other words, the data is striped across the
disks with two parity blocks in‐ stead of one.
Advantages
1. Very high data Accessibility.
2. Fast read data transactions.
Disadvantages
1. Due to double parity, it has slow write data transactions
2. Extra space is required.
What is RAID 0, 1, 5, & 10? - YouTube

Q. Explain Disk Scheduling Algorithms in brief.

1. First come First-Served (FCFS)
a. If the disk driver accepts requests one at a time and carries them out in that order,
that is, FCFS (First-Come, First-Served).
b. Requests are kept in a queue in FCFS manner
c. Queue- 95, 180, 34, 119, 11, 123, 62, 64
d. Seek time is more.

2. Shortest Seek time First- (SSTF)

a. This approach always handle the closest request next, to minimize seek time.
b. Cuts the total arm motion almost in half compared to FCFS.
c. Seek Time- Time to move arm to the proper cylinder/ track
d. Choose the sector with minimum seek time from current head position
e. Queue- 95, 180, 34, 119, 11, 123, 62, 64

3. SCAN algorithm
a. The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end, servicing
 requests until it gets to the other end of the disk, where the head movement is reversed,
and servicing continues.
b. It has two control variables- up and down. Sometimes called the elevator algorithm.

c. If direction is UP, the arm moves in up direction upto the maximum cylinder value
(Higher End of disk). While going up, it will serve all the requests in ascending order.
d. When the bit is set to DOWN, the arm moves in down direction upto the minimum
cylinder value (mostly 0-lower disk end). While going down, it will serve all the
requests in descending order.
e. If no request is pending, it just stops and waits.
f. Disadvantage- Goes all the way to the end of the disk even though request is not there

5. CSCAN Algorithm
a. The head moves from one end of the disk to the other servicing requests as it goes.
b. When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning of
the disk, without servicing any requests on the return trip.
c. The C-SCAN (circular SCAN) policy restricts scanning to one direction only. This reduces
the maximum delay experienced by new requests.

Q. What is File System?

The most important parts of an operating system is the file system. The file system provides
the resource abstractions typically associated with secondary storage. The file system permits
users to create data collections, called files, with desirable properties, such as the following:
• Long-term existence: Files are stored on disk or other secondary storage and do not
disappear when a user logs off.
• Sharable between processes: Files have names and can have associated access permissions
that permit controlled sharing.
• Structure: Depending on the file system, a file can have an internal structure that is convenient
for particular applications. In addition, files can be organized into hierarchical or more
complex structure to reflect the relationships among files.

Any file system provides not only a means to store data organized as files, but a collection of
functions that can be performed on files. Typical operations include the following:
• Create: A new file is defined and positioned within the structure of files. Delete: A file is
removed from the file structure and destroyed.
 • Open: An existing file is declared to be “opened” by a process, allowing the process to
perform functions on the file.
• Close: The file is closed with respect to a process, so that the process no longer may
perform functions on the file, until the process opens the file again.
• Read: A process reads all or a portion of the data in a file.
• Write: A process updates a file, either by adding new data that expands the size of the file
or by changing the values of existing data items in the file

Q. Explain File Structure.

Four terms are used for files

• Field
A field is the basic element of data. An individual field contains a single value.

• Record
A record is a collection of related fields that can be treated as a unit by some application
program.

• File
A file is a collection of similar records. The file is treated as a single entity by users and
applications and may be referenced by name. Files have file names and may be created and
deleted. Access control restrictions usually apply at the file level. A database is a collection
of related data.

• Database
Database is designed for use by a number of different applications. A database may contain
all of the information related to an organization or project, such as a business or a scientific
study. The database itself consists of one or more types of files. Usually, there is a separate
database management system that is independent of the operating system.

Q. What is File Management Systems? What are Objectives for a File Management
System?

A file management system is that set of system software that provides services to users and
applications in the use of files. Following are the objectives for a file management system.
• To meet the data management needs and requirements of the user which include storage of
data and the ability to perform the aforementioned operations.
• To guarantee, to the extent possible, that the data in the file are valid.
• To optimize performance, both from the system point of view in terms of overall
throughput.
• To provide I/O support for a variety of storage device types.
• To minimize or eliminate the potential for lost or destroyed data.
• To provide a standardized set of I/O interface routines to use processes.
• To provide I/O support for multiple users, in the case of multiple-user systems.
Q. What are Requirements for a general-purpose system?
• Each user should be able to create, delete, read, write and modify
files Each user may have controlled access to other users’ files
• Each user may control what type of accesses are allowed to the users’ files
• Each user should be able to restructure the user’s files in a form appropriate to the
problem Each user should be able to move data between files
• Each user should be able to back up and recover the user’s files in case of
damage Each user should be able to access the user’s files by using
symbolic names

Q. List and explain any five operations performed on Files

Files exist to store information and allow it to be retrieved later. Different systems provide different
operations to allow storage and retrieval.
The most common system calls relating to files.
1. Create. The file is created with no data. The purpose of the call is to announce that the file is
coming and to set some of the attributes.
2. Delete. When the file is no longer needed, it has to be deleted to free up disk space. There is always
a system call for this purpose.
3. Open. Before using a file, a process must open it. The purpose of the open call is to allow the
system to fetch the attributes and list of disk addresses into main memory for rapid access on later
calls.
4. Close. When all the accesses are finished, the attributes and disk addresses are no longer needed, so
the file should be closed to free up internal table space.
5. Read. Data are read from file. Usually, the bytes come from the current position. The caller must
specify how many data are needed and must also provide a buffer to put them in.
6. Write. Data are written to the file again, usually at the current position. If the current position is the
end of the file, the file’s size increases. If the current position is in the middle of the file, existing data
are overwritten and lost forever.
7. Append. This call is a restricted form of write. It can add data only to the end of the file. Systems
that provide a minimal set of system calls rarely have append, but many systems provide multiple
ways of doing the same thing, and these systems sometimes have append.
8. Seek. For random-access files, a method is needed to specify from where to take the data. One
common approach is a system call, seek, that repositions the file pointer to a specific place in the file.
After this call has completed, data can be read from, or written to, that position.

Q. Explain File Organization.

File Organization is the logical structuring of the records as determined by the way in which
they are accessed. The physical organization of the file on secondary storage depends on the
blocking strategy and the file allocation strategy, issues dealt with later in this chapter.
In choosing a file organization, several criteria are important:
1. Short access time
2. Ease of update
3. Economy of storage
4. Simple maintenance
5. Reliability
The Following are the File Organization

A. The pile
• Least complicated form of file organization
 • Data are collected in the order they arrive
• Each record consists of one burst of data
• Purpose is simply to accumulate the mass of data and save it
• Record access is by exhaustive search

B. The sequential file

Most common form of file structure

• A fixed format is used for records
• Key field uniquely identifies the record
• Typically used in batch applications
• Only organization that is easily stored on tape as well as dis

C. The indexed sequential file

• Adds an index to the file to support random access

• Adds an overflow file
• Greatly reduces the time required to access a single record
• Multiple levels of indexing can be used to provide greater efficiency in access
 D. The indexed file

Records are accessed only through their indexes

• Variable-length records can be employed
• Exhaustive index contains one entry for every record in the main file
• Partial index contains entries to records where the field of interest exists
• Used mostly in applications where timeliness of information is critical
• Examples would be airline reservation systems and inventory control systems

E Direct or Hashed File

Access directly any block of a known address

• Makes use of hashing on the key value
• Often used where:
– Very rapid access is required
 – Fixed-length records are used
– Records are always accessed one at a time

Q. What are the issues related to file management?

• Two issues arise when allowing files to be shared among a number of users:
– Access rights
– Management of simultaneous access

o None - The user would not be allowed to read the user directory that includes
the file
o Knowledge - The user can determine that the file exists and who its owner is
and can then petition the owner for additional access rights
o Execution - The user can load and execute a program but cannot copy it
o Reading - The user can read the file for any purpose, including copying and
execution
o Appending - The user can add data to the file but cannot modify or delete any
of the file’s contents
o Updating - The user can modify, delete, and add to the file’s data
o Changing protection - The user can change the access rights granted to other
users
o Deletion - The user can delete the file from the file system

Q. What are Operations Performed on a Directory?

• A directory system should support a number of operations including:
– Search
– Create files
– Deleting files
– Listing directory
– Updating directory

Q. What is Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)

A system called an intrusion detection system (IDS) observes network traffic for malicious
transactions and sends immediate alerts when it is observed. It is software that checks a
network or system for malicious activities or policy violations. IDS monitors a network or
system for malicious activity and protects a computer network from unauthorized access
from users, including perhaps insiders.

How does an IDS work?

• An IDS (Intrusion Detection System) monitors the traffic on a computer network to detect
any suspicious activity.
• It analyzes the data flowing through the network to look for patterns and signs of
abnormal behavior.
• The IDS compares the network activity to a set of predefined rules and patterns to identify
any activity that might indicate an attack or intrusion.
• If the IDS detects something that matches one of these rules or patterns, it sends an alert
to the system administrator.
• The system administrator can then investigate the alert and take action to prevent any
damage or further intrusion.

IDS are classified into 5 types:

• Host-based
– Monitors a single host
• Network-based
– Centrally monitors networks traffic, devices
• Sensors
– Collect data and forward to the analyzer.
• Analyzers
– Determines if an intrusion has occurred
• User interface

Benefits of IDS
• Detects malicious activity: IDS can detect any suspicious activities and alert the system
administrator before any significant damage is done.
• Improves network performance: IDS can identify any performance issues on the
network, which can be addressed to improve network performance.
• Compliance requirements: IDS can help in meeting compliance requirements by
monitoring network activity and generating reports.
• Provides insights: IDS generates valuable insights into network traffic, which can be
used to identify any weaknesses and improve network security.

Q. What Is a Firewall?
A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic
and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined set of security rules.
They establish a barrier between secured and controlled internal networks that can be trusted
and untrusted outside networks, such as the Internet. A firewall can be hardware, software,
software-as-a service (SaaS), public cloud, or private cloud (virtual).

Types of Firewalls
Packet filtering
A small amount of data is analyzed and distributed according to the filter’s standards.

Proxy service
Network security system that protects while filtering messages at the application layer.

Stateful inspection
Dynamic packet filtering that monitors active connections to determine which network
packets to allow through the Firewall.

Next Generation Firewall (NGFW)

Deep packet inspection Firewall with application-level inspection.
A Firewall is a necessary part of any security architecture and takes the guesswork out of host
level protections and entrusts them to your network security device. Firewalls, and especially
Next Generation Firewalls, focus on blocking malware and application-layer attacks, along
with an integrated intrusion prevention system (IPS), these Next Generation Firewalls can
react quickly and seamlessly to detect and react to outside attacks across the whole network.
They can set policies to better defend your network and carry out quick assessments to detect
invasive or suspicious activity, like malware, and shut it down.

FILE MANAGEMENT | File Protection and Security - YouTube

Graded Questions
1) A disk has 200 cylinders numbered 0 to 199. The disk arm starts at cylinder 53 and the
direction of movement is toward the outer tracks. If the sequence of disk requests is as
follows: 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67, Evaluate the total seek time using the FCFS disk
scheduling algorithm.
2) Explain intruders and malicious software in detail.
3) Mention and explain the different file operations performed on the files.
4) Explain the concept of RAID 3 with the help of diagram.
5) Discuss the concept of Contiguous File Allocation method in file management.
6) List and explain the access rights that can be assigned to a particular user for a particular
file.
7) A disk has 200 cylinders numbered 0 to 199. The disk arm starts at cylinder 53 and the
direction of movement is toward the outer tracks. If the sequence of disk requests is as
follows: 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67, Evaluate the total seek time using the SSTF disk scheduling
algorithm.

8) What are IDSs and mention the three logical components of IDS?
9) Define File and mention the desirable properties of files.
10) Explain I/O buffering? List and explain its types.
11) Explain the concept of RAID 0 with the help of diagram.
12) What is Indexed Allocation method in file management?
13) A disk has 200 cylinders numbered 0 to 199. The disk arm starts at cylinder 53 and the
direction of movement is toward the outer tracks. If the sequence of disk requests is as
follows: 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67, Solve and calculate the total seek time using the
SCAN disk scheduling algorithm.
14) Explain Firewall in detail and list the design goals for firewall.
15) Explain the following terms related to file: Field Record File Database
16) Explain the concept of RAID 1 with the help of diagram.
17) Elaborate Chained Allocation method in file management?
18) List and explain the Access Rights for files that can be assigned to a particular user for a
particular file?

Multiple choice questions:

1) RAID level is also known as block interleaved parity organisation and uses block
level striping and keeps a parity block on a seperate disk.
a) A. 1
b) B. 2
c) C. 3
d) D. 4

2) RAID level ...... refers to disk arrays with striping at the level of blocks, but without any
redundancy.
a) A 0
b) B 1
c) C 2
d) D 3

3) RAID level 0+1 is used because, RAID level 0 provides whereas RAID level 1
provides
a. performance, redundancy
b. performance, reliability
c. redundancy, performance
d. none of the mentioned

4) A large number of disks in a system improves the rate at which data can be read or written:
a. if the disks are operated on sequentially
b. if the disks are operated on selectively
c. if the disks are operated in parallel
d. all of the mentioned

5) RAID stands for :

a. Redundant Allocation of Inexpensive Disks
b. Redundant Array of Important Disks
c. Redundant Allocation of Independent Disks
d. Redundant Array of Independent Disks

6) The solution to the problem of reliability is the introduction of

a. aging
b. scheduling
c. redundancy
d. disks

7) refers to identifying each user of the system and associating the executing
programs with those users.
A. One Time passwords
B. Authentication
C. Program Threats
D. Security

8) is a situation when a program misbehaves only when certain conditions met

otherwise it works as a genuine program.
A. Trojan Horse
B. Trap Door
C. Logic bomb
D. Virus

9) How do viruses avoid basic pattern match of antivirus?

A. They are encrypted
B. They modify themselves
C. They act with special permissions
D. None of the above

10) A file is a sequence of?

A. bits
B. bytes
C. lines
D. All of the above

11) Reliability of files can be enhanced by :

a) by keeping duplicate copies of the file
b) making a different partition for the files
c) by keeping them in external storage
d) keeping the files safely in the memory

12) Many systems recognize three classifications of users in connection with each file (to
condense the access control list) :
a) ) Universe
b) Group
c) owner
d) All of the mentioned