‫ساختمان دادهها و الگوریتمها‬

‫فصل دوم‬

‫‪[email protected]‬‬ ‫‪۱۳۹۴‬‬ ‫صمد نجار‬

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‫فهرست مطالب‬
‫‪‬مقدمهای بر الگوریتمها و مفاهیم پایه‬
‫‪‬معرفی پیچیدگی زمانی و حافظهای و روشهای تحلیل مسائل‬
‫‪‬معرفی ساختمان دادههای مقدماتی و الگوریتمهای وابسته به آنها‬
‫آرایه‬ ‫•‬
‫صف‬ ‫•‬
‫پشته‬ ‫•‬
‫لیست پیوندی‬ ‫•‬
‫‪‬تئوری درخت و گراف و الگوریتمهای مرتبط‬
‫‪‬الگوریتمهای مرتبسازی و تحلیل پیچیدگی مربوط به آنها‬
‫‪ ‬مباحث تکمیلی در ساختمان دادهها‬
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‫سوال‬

‫• اگر دو الگوریتم داشته باشیم که یک هدف را انجام دهند‪ ،‬چگونه باید فهمید که کدام بهتر‬
‫عمل میکنند؟‬

‫• معیار ارزیابی چه پارامترهایی میتواند باشد؟‬

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Space Complexity
S(P)=C+SP(I)
• Fixed Space Requirements (C)
Independent of the characteristics of the inputs and
outputs
▫ instruction space
▫ space for simple variables, fixed-size structured variable,
constants
• Variable Space Requirements (SP(I))
depend on the instance characteristic I
▫ number, size, values of inputs and outputs associated with I
▫ recursive stack space, formal parameters, local variables, return
address
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Example
Program 1.9: Simple arithmetic function
Sabc(I) = 0
float abc(float a, float b, float c)
{
return a + b + b * c + (a + b - c) / (a + b) + 4.00;
}

Program 1.10: Iterative function for summing a list of numbers

float sum(float list[ ], int n)
{
float tempsum = 0; Ssum(I) = 0
int i;
for (i = 0; i<n; i++)
tempsum += list [i];
return tempsum;
}
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Example (Cont.)
*Program 1.11: Recursive function for summing a list of numbers (p.20)
float rsum(float list[ ], int n)
{
if (n > 0) return rsum(list, n-1) + list[n-1];
return 0;
} Srsum(I) = Srsum(n)= 6n

Space needed for one recursive call of Program 1.11

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Time Complexity
T(P)=C+TP(I)
• Compile time (C)
independent of instance characteristics
• run (execution) time TP
• Definition
A program step is a syntactically or semantically
meaningful program segment whose execution
time is independent of the instance
characteristics.
• Example
▫ abc = a + b + b * c + (a + b - c) / (a + b) + 4.0
▫ abc = a + b + c
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Methods to compute the step count

• Introduce variable count into programs

• Tabular method
▫ Determine the total number of steps contributed by each statement
step per execution  frequency
▫ add up the contribution of all statements
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Variable Count Method (Example)

*Program 1.12: Program 1.10 with count statements
2n + 3 Steps
float sum(float list[ ], int n)
{
float tempsum = 0; count++; /* for assignment */
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++; /*for the for loop */
tempsum += list[i]; count++; /* for assignment */
}
count++; /* last execution of for */
count++; /* for return */
return tempsum;
}
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Variable Count Method (Example Cont.)

*Program 1.13: Simplified version of Program 1.12

float sum(float list[ ], int n)

{
float tempsum = 0; 2n + 3 Steps
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
count += 2;
count += 3;
return 0;
}
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Variable Count Method (Example Cont.)

*Program 1.14: Program 1.11 with count statements added

float rsum(float list[ ], int n)

{
2n + 2 Steps
count++; /*for if conditional */
if (n > 0) {
count++; /* for return and rsum invocation */
return rsum(list, n-1) + list[n-1];
}
count++;
return 0;
}
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Variable Count Method (Example Cont.)

*Program 1.15: Matrix addition

void add( int a[ ] [MAX_SIZE], int b[ ] [MAX_SIZE],

int c [ ] [MAX_SIZE], int rows, int cols)
{
int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < rows; i++)
for (j= 0; j < cols; j++)
c[i][j] = a[i][j] +b[i][j];
}
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Variable Count Method (Example Cont.)

*Program 1.16: Matrix addition with count statements (p.25)

void add(int a[ ][MAX_SIZE], int b[ ][MAX_SIZE],

int c[ ][MAX_SIZE], int row, int cols )
{
int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < rows; i++){
count++; /* for i for loop */ 2rows * cols + 2 rows +1
for (j = 0; j < cols; j++) {
count++; /* for j for loop */
c[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];
count++; /* for assignment statement */
}
count++; /* last time of j for loop */
}
count++; /* last time of i for loop */
}
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Variable Count Method (Example Cont.)

*Program 1.17: Simplification of Program 1.16

void add(int a[ ][MAX_SIZE], int b [ ][MAX_SIZE],

int c[ ][MAX_SIZE], int rows, int cols)
{
int i, j;
for( i = 0; i < rows; i++) 2rows * cols + 2 rows + 1
{
for (j = 0; j < cols; j++)
count += 2;
count += 2;
}
count++; Suggestion: Interchange the
} loops when rows >> cols
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Tabular Method (Example)

steps/execution
Iterative function to sum a list of numbers
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Tabular Method (Example Cont.)

Step count table for recursive summing function
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Tabular Method (Example Cont.)

Step count table for matrix addition

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Home Work 1
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Trade off between time and space complexity

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Asymptotic Notation

• Determining step counts help us to compare the time complexities of two

programs and to predict the growth in run time as the instance characteristics
change.
• But determining exact step counts could be very difficult. Since the notion of
a step count is itself inexact, it may be worth the effort to compute the exact
step counts.

• How does the algorithm behave as the problem size gets very large?
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Asymptotic Notation (O)

• Definition(Big oh)
• f(n) = O(g(n)) iff there exist positive constants c and n0 such that f(n)
 cg(n) for all n, n  n0.
• Examples
▫ 3n+2=O(n)/* 3n+24n for n2 */
▫ 3n+3=O(n)/* 3n+34n for n3 */
▫ 100n+6=O(n) /* 100n+6101n for n10 */
▫ 10n2+4n+2=O(n2) /* 10n2+4n+211n2 for n5 */
▫ 6*2n+n2=O(2n) /* 6*2n+n2 7*2n for n4 */
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Asymptotic Notation Cont. (O)

• O(1): constant
• O(n): linear
• O(n2): quadratic
• O(n3): cubic
• O(2n): exponential
• O(logn) logarithmic
• O(nlogn) log linear
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Practical Complexity

250

f(n) = n
f(n) = log(n)
f(n) = n log(n)
f(n) = n^2
f(n) = n^3
f(n) = 2^n

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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Practical Complexity Cont.

500

f(n) = n
f(n) = log(n)
f(n) = n log(n)
f(n) = n^2
f(n) = n^3
f(n) = 2^n

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
 29

Practical Complexity Cont.

1000

f(n) = n
f(n) = log(n)
f(n) = n log(n)
f(n) = n^2
f(n) = n^3
f(n) = 2^n

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
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Practical Complexity Cont.

5000

4000
f(n) = n
f(n) = log(n)
3000
f(n) = n log(n)
f(n) = n^2
2000 f(n) = n^3
f(n) = 2^n

1000

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
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Asymptotic Notation (Cont.)

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Asymptotic Notation (Cont.)

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Asymptotic Notation (Cont.)

• Definition: [Omega] f(n) = Ω(g(n)) iff there exist positive constants c

and n0 such that f(n) ≥ cg(n) for all n, n ≥ n0.
• Example:
▫ 3n + 2 = Ω(n)
▫ 100n + 6 = Ω(n)
▫ 10n2 + 4n + 2 =Ω(n2)
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Asymptotic Notation (Cont.)

Definition: f(n) = Θ(g(n)) iff there exist positive constants c1, c2, and
n0 such that c1g(n) ≤ f(n) ≤ c2g(n) for all n, n ≥ n0.
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Asymptotic Notation (Cont.)

Theorem 1.2: If f(n) = amnm + … + a1n + a0, then f(n) =

O(nm).
Proof: m
f ( n)  | a
i 0
i | ni
m
n m
| a i | nim
0
for n ≥ 1
m
 n m  | ai |
0

So, f(n) = O(nm)

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Asymptotic Notation (Cont.)

Theorem 1.3: If f(n) = amnm + … + a1n + a0 and am > 0, then f(n) =

Ω(nm).

Theorem 1.4: If f(n) = amnm + … + a1n + a0 and am > 0, then f(n) =

Θ(nm).
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Home Work 2