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 Tensor Analysis
for Engineers
Third Edition

TAE3E.CH00_FM_2PP.indd 1 6/17/2023 12:38:26 PM

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TAE3E.CH00_FM_2PP.indd 2 6/17/2023 12:38:27 PM

 Tensor Analysis
for Engineers
Transformations • Mathematics • Applications

Third Edition

Mehrzad Tabatabaian, PhD, PEng

MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION

Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi

TAE3E.CH00_FM_3PP.indd 3 6/21/2023 6:13:14 PM

 Copyright ©2023 by Mercury Learning And Information LLC. All rights reserved.
An imprint of Walter De Gruyter GmbH

This publication, portions of it, or any accompanying software may not be reproduced in any
way, stored in a retrieval system of any type, or transmitted by any means, media, electronic display
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Publisher: David Pallai

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M. Tabatabaian. Tensor Analysis for Engineers: Transformations • Mathematics • Applications, Third Edition.
ISBN: 978-1-68392-964-2

The publisher recognizes and respects all marks used by companies, manufacturers, and developers as a
means to distinguish their products. All brand names and product names mentioned in this book are trade-
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TAE3E.CH00_FM_3PP.indd 4 6/21/2023 6:13:38 PM

 To my teachers and mentors
for their invaluable transfer of knowledge and direction.

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TAE3E.CH00_FM_2PP.indd 6 6/17/2023 12:38:27 PM
 Contents

Prefacexiii
About the Author xv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Index Notation—The Einstein
Summation Convention 2
CHAPTER 2: COORDINATE SYSTEMS DEFINITION 3
CHAPTER 3: BASIS VECTORS AND SCALE FACTORS 5
CHAPTER 4: CONTRAVARIANT COMPONENTS
AND TRANSFORMATIONS 9
CHAPTER 5: COVARIANT COMPONENTS
AND TRANSFORMATIONS 13
CHAPTER 6: PHYSICAL COMPONENTS AND
TRANSFORMATIONS15
CHAPTER 7: TENSORS—MIXED AND METRIC 17
CHAPTER 8: METRIC TENSOR OPERATION ON
TENSOR INDICES 21
8.1 Example: Cylindrical Coordinate Systems 23
8.2 Example: Spherical Coordinate Systems 25

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 viii • Contents

CHAPTER 9: DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS OF TENSORS 29

9.1 Determinant of an N × N Matrix Using
Permutation Symbols 34
CHAPTER 10: GRADIENT VECTOR OPERATOR—CHRISTOFFEL
SYMBOLS35
10.1 Covariant Derivatives of Vectors—Christoffel
Symbols of the 2nd Kind 35
10.2 Contravariant Derivatives of Vectors 39
10.3 Covariant Derivatives of a Mixed Tensor 40
st
10.4 Christoffel Symbol Relations and Properties—1
and 2nd Kinds 41
CHAPTER 11: DERIVATIVE FORMS—CURL, DIVERGENCE,
LAPLACIAN51
11.1 Curl Operations on Tensors 51
11.2 Physical Components of the Curl of Tensors—3D
Orthogonal Systems 54
11.3 Divergence Operation on Tensors 55
11.4 Laplacian Operations on Tensors 57
11.5 Biharmonic Operations on Tensors 58
11.6 Physical Components of the Laplacian
of a Vector—3D Orthogonal Systems 59
CHAPTER 12: CARTESIAN TENSOR TRANSFORMATION—
ROTATIONS65
12.1 Rotation Matrix 67
12.2 Equivalent Single Rotation: Eigenvalues
and Eigenvectors 67
CHAPTER 13: COORDINATE INDEPENDENT GOVERNING
EQUATIONS75
13.1 The Acceleration Vector—Contravariant Components 76
13.2 The Acceleration Vector—Physical Components 78
13.3 The Acceleration Vector in Orthogonal
Systems—Physical Components 79
13.4 Substantial Time Derivatives of Tensors 82
13.5 Conservation Equations—Coordinate
Independent forms 85

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 Contents • ix

CHAPTER 14: COLLECTION OF RELATIONS FOR SELECTED

COORDINATE SYSTEMS 89
14.1 Cartesian Coordinate System 89
14.2 Cylindrical Coordinate Systems 91
14.3 Spherical Coordinate Systems 93
14.4 Parabolic Coordinate Systems 96
14.5 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinate
Systems98
CHAPTER 15: RIGID BODY ROTATION: EULER ANGLES,
QUATERNIONS, AND ROTATION MATRIX 103
15.1 Active and Passive Rotations 104
15.2 Euler Angles 107
15.3 Categorizing Euler Angles 113
15.4 Gimbal Lock-Euler Angles Limitation 121
15.5 Quaternions-Applications for Rigid
Body Rotation 123
15.6 From a Given Quaternion to Rotation Matrix 135
15.7 From a Given Rotation Matrix to Quaternion 138
15.8 From Euler Angles to a Quaternion 139
15.9 Putting it all Together 140
CHAPTER 16: MECHANICAL STRESS TRANSFORMATION:
ANALYTICAL AND MOHR’S CIRCLE METHODS 143
16.1 Plane Stress Condition 144
16.2 Principal Stresses and Directions: Eigenvalues
and Eigenvectors 152
16.3 Analysis of Transformed Stresses: Mohr’s Circle
Graphical Method 153
16.4 3D Stress Transformation and Analysis 169
16.5 Principal Directions: Eigenvectors 177
16.6 Octahedral Stresses in Principal Coordinate System 183
16.7 Octahedral Stresses and Deviatoric Stresses 186
16.8 von Mises Yield Criterion vs Octahedral Shear Stress 188

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 x • Contents

CHAPTER 17: THE WORKED EXAMPLES 191

17.1 Example: Einstein Summation Conventions 191
17.2 Example: Conversion from Vector to
Index Notations 192
17.3 Example: Oblique Rectilinear Coordinate Systems 193
17.4 Example: Quantities Related to Parabolic
Coordinate System 197
17.5 Example: Quantities Related to Bi-Polar
Coordinate Systems 200
17.6 Example: Application of Contravariant
Metric Tensors 203
17.7 Example: Dot and Cross Products in
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 203
17.8 Example: Relation between Jacobian
and Metric Tensor Determinants 205
17.9 Example: Determinant of Metric Tensors
Using Displacement Vectors 206
17.10 Example: Determinant of a 4 × 4 Matrix
Using Permutation Symbols 207
17.11 Example: Time Derivatives of the Jacobian 207
17.12 Example: Covariant Derivatives of
a Constant Vector 208
17.13 Example: Covariant Derivatives of Physical
Components of a Vector 209
17.14 Example: Continuity Equations in Several
Coordinate Systems 209
17.15 Example: 4D Spherical Coordinate Systems 210
17.16 Example: Complex Double Dot-Cross
Product Expressions 213
17.17 Example: Covariant Derivatives of Metric Tensors 214
17.18 Example: Active Rotation Using Single-Axis and
Quaternions Methods 214

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 Contents • xi

17.19 Example: Passive Rotation Using Single-Axis

and Quaternions Methods 216
17.20 Example: Successive Rotations Using
Quaternions Method 218
CHAPTER 18: EXERCISES 219
REFERENCES227
INDEX231

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TAE3E.CH00_FM_2PP.indd 12 6/17/2023 12:38:28 PM
 Preface

This is the third edition of the published textbook: Tensor Analysis for
Engineers. In this edition, we have expanded the content on the application
of mechanical stress transformation. We include topics like 2D and 3D stress
tensor transformation, Mohr’s circle graphical method, and octahedral shear
stress with applications in static failure theories for solid media. We added sev-
eral worked-out numerical examples related to the above-mentioned topics.
In the second edition, we expanded the content on the rigid body rotation
and Cartesian tensors by including Euler angles and quaternions methods.
In addition to the rotation matrix method, presented in the first edition and
included in this edition, we collect all three methods in this volume of the
textbook. In this edition, the quaternions and their algebraic calculation rules
are presented. We also discuss the active and passive rotations and present
several worked-out examples using the Euler angles and quaternions meth-
ods applications and their interrelations. The problem of gimbal lock is also
analyzed and presented with detailed worked out examples. Additional refer-
ences were added to the list of references for the second edition.
In engineering and science physical quantities are often represented by math-
ematical functions, namely tensors. Examples include temperature, pressure,
force, mechanical stress, electric/magnetic fields, velocity, enthalpy, entropy,
etc. In turn, tensors are categorized based on their rank, i.e. rank zero, one,
and so forth. The so-called scalar quantities (e.g. temperature) are tensors of
rank zero. Likewise, velocity and force are tensors of rank one and mechani-
cal stress and gradient of velocity are tensors of rank two. In Euclidean space,
which could be of dimension , we can define several coordinate systems for
our calculation and measurement of physical quantities. For example, in a 3D

TAE3E.CH00_FM_2PP.indd 13 6/17/2023 12:38:28 PM

 xiv • Preface

space, we can have Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.

In general, we prefer defining a coordinate system whose coordinate surfaces
(where one of the coordinate variables is invariant or remains constant) match
to the physical problem geometry at hand. This enables us to easily define the
boundary conditions of the physical problem to the related governing equa-
tions, written in terms of the selected coordinate system. This action requires
transformation of the tensor quantities and their related derivatives (e.g., gra-
dient, curl, divergence) from Cartesian to the selected coordinate system or
vice versa. The topic of tensor analysis (also referred to as “tensor calculus,”
or “Ricci’s calculus,” since originally developed by Ricci (1835-1925), [1], [2]),
is mainly engaged with the definition of tensor-like quantities and their trans-
formation among coordinate systems and others. The topic provides a set of
mathematical tools which enables users to perform transformation and cal-
culations of tensors for any well-defined coordinate systems in a systematic
way- it is a “machine.” The merit of tensor analysis is to provide a systematic
mathematical formulation to derive the general form of the governing equa-
tions for arbitrary coordinate systems.
In this book, we aim to provide engineers and applied scientists with the tools
and techniques of tensor analysis for applications in practical problem solving
and analysis activities. The geometry is limited to the Euclidean space/geom-
etry, where the Pythagorean Theorem applies, with well-defined Cartesian
coordinate systems as the reference. We discuss quantities defined in curvilin-
ear coordinate systems, like cylindrical, spherical, parabolic, etc. and present
several examples and coordinates sketches with related calculations. In addi-
tion, we listed several worked-out examples for helping the readers with mas-
tering the topics provided in the prior sections. A list of exercises is provided
for further practice for readers.
Mehrzad Tabatabaian, PhD, PEng
Vancouver, BC
June 7, 2023

TAE3E.CH00_FM_2PP.indd 14 6/17/2023 12:38:28 PM

 About the Author

Dr. Mehrzad Tabatabaian is a faculty member at the Mechanical Engineering

Department, School of Energy at BCIT. He has several years of teaching and
industry experience. Dr. Tabatabaian is currently Chair of the BCIT School
of Energy Research Committee. He has published several papers in scien-
tific journals and conferences and has written textbooks on multiphysics and
turbulent flow modelling, advanced thermodynamics, tensor analysis, direct
energy conversion, and Bond Graph modelling method. He holds several reg-
istered patents in the energy field resulting from years of research activities.
Dr. Tabatabaian volunteered to help establish the Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy Division (EERED), a new division at Engineers and
Geoscientists British Columbia (EGBC). He was Chair of this division for
several years.
Mehrzad Tabatabaian received his BEng from Sharif University of Technology
(former AUT) and advanced degrees from McGill University (MEng and
PhD). He has been an active academic, professor, and engineer in leading
alternative energy, oil, and gas industries. Mehrzad has also a Leadership
Certificate from the University of Alberta and holds an EGBC P.Eng. License.

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TAE3E.CH00_FM_2PP.indd 16 6/17/2023 12:38:28 PM
 CHAPTER

1
INTRODUCTION

Physical quantities can be represented mathematically by t­ ensors. In further

sections of this book we will define tensors more rigorously; however, for the
introduction we will use this definition. An example of a tensor-like quantity
is the temperature in a room (which could be a function of space and time)
expressed as a scalar, a tensor of rank zero. Wind velocity is another example,
which can be defined when we know both its magnitude and speed—a scalar
­quantity—and its direction. We define velocity as a vector or a t­ ensor of rank
one. Scalars and vectors are familiar quantities to us and we encounter them
in our daily life. However, there are quantities, or tensors of rank two, three,
or higher that are normally dealt with in technical engineering computa-
tions. Examples include mechanical stress in a continuum, like the wall of a
pressure vessel—a tensor of rank two—the modulus of elasticity or viscosity
in a fluid—tensors of rank four—and so on.
Engineers and scientists calculate and analyze tensor quantities, including
their derivatives, using the laws of physics, mostly in the form of govern-
ing equations related to the phenomena. These laws must be expressed in
an objective form as governing equations, and not subjected to the coor-
dinate system considered. For example, the amount of internal stress in a
continuum should not depend on what coordinate system is used for calcu-
lations. Sometimes tensors and their involved derivatives in a study must be
transformed from one coordinate system to another. Therefore, to satisfy
these ­technical/engineering needs, a mathematical “machine” is required to
perform these operations accurately and systematically between arbitrary
coordinate systems. Furthermore, the communication of technical compu-
tations requires precise definitions for tensors to guarantee a reliable level
of standardization, i.e., identifying true ­tensor quantities from apparently

TAE3E.CH01_1pp.indd 1 6/7/2023 12:51:01 PM

 2 • Tensor Analysis for Engineers, 3E

tensor-like or non-tensor ones. This machine is called tensor analysis [2],

[3], [4], [5], [6], [7].
The subject of tensor analysis has two major parts: a) definitions and proper-
ties of tensors including their calculus, and b) rules of transformation of ten-
sor quantities among different coordinate systems. For example, consider
again the wind velocity vector. By using tensor analysis, we can show that this
quantity is a true tensor and transform it from a Cartesian coordinate system
to a spherical one, for example. A major outcome of tensor analysis is having
general relations for gradient-like operations in arbitrary coordinate systems,
including gradient, curl, divergence, Laplacian, etc. which appear in many
governing equations in engineering and science. Using tensor notation and
definitions, we can write theses governing equations in explicit coordinate-­
independent forms.

1.1 INDEX NOTATION—THE EINSTEIN SUMMATION

CONVENTION
Writing expressions containing tensors could become cumbersome, especially
when higher ranked tensors and higher dimensional space are involved. For
example, we usually use hatted arrow symbol for vectors (like A) and bold-
font symbols for second rank tensors (like A). But this approach is very lim-
ited for expressing, for example, the modulus of elasticity, a 4th ranked tensor.
Another limitation shows up when writing the components  of a tensor in
N -­dimension space. For example, in 3D we write vector A in a Cartesian coor-
 3    
dinate system as A = ∑Ai Ei = A1 E1 + A2 E2 + A3 E3 , where Ai is the compo-
 1
nent and Ei the unit vector. Taking this approach for N -dimension space and
carrying the summation symbol (i.e., Σ) is cumbersome and seems unnecessary.
The Einstein summation convention allows us to dispose of the summa-
tion symbol, if we carry summation operation for repeated indices in prod-
uct-type expressions (unless otherwise specified). Using this approach, we
     
can write A = Ai Ei and a tensor of rank 4, for example, as T = Tijkl Ei E j Ek El ,
with all ­indices range for 1 to N. In practice, however, we even ignore ­writing
the unit vectors and just use the component representing the original t­ ensor;
hence
 this method is also referred to as component or index notation, or
A ≡ Ai and T ≡ Tijkl . In addition, we represent a tensor’s rank by the n
­ umber
of free (i.e., not repeated) indices. We use these definitions and ­conventions
­throughout this book.

TAE3E.CH01_1pp.indd 2 6/7/2023 12:51:02 PM

 CHAPTER

2
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
DEFINITION

For measuring and calculating physical quantities associated with geometrical

points in space we require coordinate systems for reference. These systems
(for example, in a 3D space) are composed of surfaces that mutually
intersect to specify a geometrical point. For reference, an ideal system of
coordinates called a Cartesian system is defined, in Euclidean space, such
that it composes of three flat planes. These planes are considered by default
to be mutually perpendicular to each other to form an orthogonal Cartesian
system. In general, the orthogonality is not required to form a coordinate
system—this kind of coordinate system is an oblique or slanted system.
A Cartesian coordinate system, although ideal, is central to engineering
and scientific calculations, since it is used as the reference compared to
other coordinate systems. It also has properties, as will be shown in further
sections, that enable us to calculate the values of tensors [3].
For practical purposes, sometimes it is more convenient to consider curved
planes instead of flat ones in a coordinate system. For example, for cases
when a cylindrical or a spherical water or an oil tank is involved, we prefer
that all or some of coordinate surfaces match the geometry of the tank. For
a cylindrical coordinate system, we consider the Cartesian system again but
replace one of its planes with a cylinder, whereas for a spherical system we
replace two flat planes with a sphere and a cone.

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 4 • Tensor Analysis for Engineers, 3E

FIGURE 2.1 Sketches of Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical coordinate systems.

Many other coordinate systems are defined/used in practice such as

­parabolic, bi-spherical, etc. Figure 2.1 shows some examples of common
coordinate systems.
For organizing the future usage of symbols for arbitrary coordinate systems
we define coordinate variables with superscripted letters, for reasons that
will be explained in further sections. For Cartesian systems we use yi and
for other arbitrary systems we use x i —note that i is merely an index, not a
raised power. For example, in a 3D space we have y1 ≡ X , y2 ≡ Y, and y3 ≡ Z
where ( X , Y, Z ) are common notations for Cartesian coordinates. In general,
for N dimensional systems we have

 yi ≡ ( y1 , y2 , y3 ,, yN ) Cartesian coordinates

 i 2.1
 x ≡ ( x , x , x ,, x ) arbitrary coordinates
1 2 3 N

In this book, we limit the geometry to that known as Euclidean geometry [2], [4],
[5]. Therefore, curved space geometry (i.e., Riemann geometry), space-time,
and discussions of General Relativity are not included. However, curvilinear
coordinate systems and oblique non-orthogonal systems are covered, where
applicable, and defined with reference to Euclidean geometry/space.

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 CHAPTER

3
BASIS VECTORS AND
SCALE FACTORS

For the measurement of quantities we need to define metrics or scales in

whatever coordinate system we use. These scales are, usually, vectors defined
at a point (such as the origin) and are tangent to the coordinate surfaces at
that point. These vectors
 are called basis vectors. For Cartesian system yi we
define basis vector Ei (see Figure 3.1). Note that subscript i (i.e., i = 1,2,, N)
is merely an index and the reason why we used it as a subscript for basis
­vectors willbe
 explained in a further section. Now, considering an incremen-
tal vector ds , from point P to neighboring point P′ , we define the direc-

tion of the basis vector as moving from P to P′ or Ei = yi P → yi + dyi P′ .
 
For example, E1 = y1 P → y1 + dy1 P′. Now we define the magnitude of Ei
such that the magnitude of distance from P to P′ is given as

ds ( i ) = dyi Ei 3.1

Also, we can get the distance = PP′ ds = ( i ) dyi in a Cartesian coordinate


system. Therefore, the basis vectors magnitude is unity, or Ei = 1 . In
other words, the basis vectors in Cartesian system have unit lengths and
  
are ­well-known unit vectors (usually represented by i , j, k ). This is more
than a trivial result and as shown in further sections, enables us to calculate/­
measure quantities in other coordinate systems  with reference to the
Cartesian ­system. The directed distance vector ds is given as
 N i  
= ds ∑ =dy Ei dyi Ei 3.2
i =1

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 6 • Tensor Analysis for Engineers, 3E


The magnitude of this vector is the square root of the dot-product of ds with
itself,
    
ds = ds ⋅ ds = dyi dy j Ei ⋅ E j 3.3


FIGURE 3.1 A Cartesian system with unit vectors and an incremental vector ds.

Assuming the Pythagorean theorem holds in Euclidean space we have


=ds =
dyi dyi ∑ ( dy )
i
i 2
3.4

From Equations 3.3 and 3.4, we can conclude that

  1 for i = j
Ei ⋅ E j =
 3.5
 0 for i ≠ j
Which also shows that the basis/unit vectors in Cartesian system yi are mutu-
ally perpendicular or the system is orthogonal, as defined.
Now we assume an arbitrary system x i, which may be neither rectilinear
nor orthogonal (see Figure 3.2). In this system the distance between
 two
points—say P and P′—is the same when considering the vector ds . In other
words, the vector components in system x i compared to those in system yi
could change along with the basis vector corresponding to system x i such
that the vector itself remains the same, or as an invariant. This requirement
is simply a statement of independence of physical quantities (and the laws of
nature) regardless of the coordinate system we consider for calculation and
analysis. Therefore, we have
 i

= ds dx = ei dyi Ei 3.6

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 Basis Vectors and Scale Factors • 7


where ei is the basis vector corresponding to system x i. In general the basis

vector ei can vary, both in magnitude and/or direction, from point to point
in space. Also, the dx i may be dimensionless, like the angle coordinate in a
polar coordinate system.

FIGURE 3.2 Sketches of a curvilinear coordinate system and basis vectors1.


The magnitude of basis vector ei is the scale factor hi, or

hi = ei 3.7

Note that hi is unity for a Cartesian coordinate system and may be d

­ ifferent
from unity in general curvilinear systems. We will derive formulae for
the calculation of hi in an arbitrary coordinate system in further sections.

The unit vector e ( i ) can be defined as

 ei
e ( i) = ( no summation on i ) 3.8
hi
Obviously, in a Cartesian system the unit vectors and the basis vectors are
identical, since hi is unity.

1
Common copyright (cc), https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vector_1-form.
svg#mw-jump-to-license

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TAE3E.CH03_1pp.indd 8 6/7/2023 2:05:15 PM
 CHAPTER

4
CONTRAVARIANT
COMPONENTS AND
TRANSFORMATIONS

For transformations between systems x i and Cartesian yi , we must have the

functional relationships between their coordinate variables. For example,

x i = Fi ( y1 , y2 ,, yN )4.1
gives N number of functions transforming yi to x i system. Inversely [4], we
can transform from x i to yi system using function Gi given as

yi = Gi ( x1 , x2 ,, x N ) 4.2
For example, for a 2D polar coordinate system, ( r ,q ) ≡ ( x1 , x2 ) with refer-
ence to Cartesian system ( X , Y ) ≡ ( y1 , y2 ) we have

 X = r cosq  y = x cos ( x )
1 1 2

 ≡ 2 . Or inversely,
Y = r sin q  y = x sin ( x )
1 2

 1
( y1 ) + ( y2 )
2 2
r
= X2 + Y2 =  x
 
 −1  Y 
≡  y2  .
q = tan    x2 = tan −1  1 
 X  y 


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 10 • Tensor Analysis for Engineers, 3E

Now by taking partial derivatives of Gi (see Equation 4.2) we can relate

i
the differentials dyi , in a Cartesian system, to dx in an arbitrary coordinate
­system as
∂yi j
dyi = dx 4.3
∂x j
∂y1 1 ∂y1 2
For example, after expanding Equation 4.3 for i = 1 we get, dy
= 1
dx + 2 dx + 
∂x1 ∂x
∂y1 1 ∂y1 2 ∂y1 N ∂yi
=
dy1
dx + dx +  + dx . The transformation coefficient can be
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x N ∂x j
 ∂y1 ∂y1 
 1  
∂x ∂x N 
∂yi 
written in matrix form as j =     . The determinant of the
∂x  N 
 ∂y 
∂yN 
 ∂x1 ∂x N 
transformation coefficient matrix is defined as the Jacobian of the transfor-
mation, or
∂y1 ∂y1

∂ ( y1 , y2 ,, yN ) ∂x1 ∂x N
= =    4.4
∂ ( x1 , x2 ,, x N )
∂yN ∂yN

∂x1 ∂x N

The Jacobian can be interpreted as the density of the space. In other words,
let’s say that we have  = 5 for a given system x i . This means that we have
packed 5 units of Cartesian space into a volume in x i space through trans-
formation from Cartesian to the given system. The smaller the Jacobian, the
smaller the space density would be and vice versa.
Similarly, we can use function Fi (see Equation 4.1) to have

∂x i
dx i = dy j4.5
∂y j
It can be shown [4], [2], that the determinant of transformation coefficient
∂x i
is the inverse of  , or
∂y j

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 Contravariant Components and Transformations • 11

∂x1 ∂x1

∂y1 ∂yN
∂ ( x1 , x2 ,, x N )
−1
= =    4.6
∂ ( y1 , y2 ,, yN )
∂x N
∂x N

∂y1 ∂yN 

Equations 4.3 and 4.5 show a pattern for the transformation of differentials
dyi and dx i, respectively. That is, the partial derivatives of the c­ orresponding
coordinates appear in the numerator of the transformation coefficient.
Nevertheless, one can ask: does this pattern maintain for general system-to-
system transformation? The short answer is “yes” [7]. Hence, for arbitrary
systems x i and x′i we have

∂x i ∂x′i j
=dx i = dx′ j
and dx′ i
dx 4.7
∂x′ j ∂x j
Any quantity, say A i, that transforms according to Equation 4.7 is defined as
a contravariant type, with the standard notation of having the index i as a
superscript. Therefore, transformation A i  A′i reads

∂x′i j ∂x j i
=A′i = A and A j
A′ 4.8
∂x j ∂x′i
Obviously, performing the related calculations requires the functional
relations between the two systems, i.e., x i = func ( x′1 , x′2 ,, x′N ) or
x′i = func ( x1 , x2 ,, x N ) . This in turn requires having the Cartesian system
as a reference for calculating the values of A j or A′i, since x i and x′i are arbi-
i
trary. For example, transforming A directly from a spherical to a cylindrical
system requires having the functional relations between these coordinates
with reference to the Cartesian system as the main reference.
The contravariant component of a vector has a geometrical meaning as well.
To show this, we consider a rectilinear non-orthogonal system ( x1 , x2 ) in 2D,
as shown in Figure 4.1. The components of vector A can be obtained by
drawing parallel lines to the coordinates x1 and x2 to find contravariant com-
ponents A1 and A2, respectively.

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 12 • Tensor Analysis for Engineers, 3E

FIGURE 4.1 Contravariant components of a vector in an oblique coordinate system.

With reference to Figure 4.1, we can also find another set of components,
A1 and A2 of the same vector A by drawing perpendicular lines to the
­coordinates x1 and x2 . This is shown in Figure 4.2. Obviously, components
A1 and A2 are different in magnitude from the contravariant components.
We define A1 and A2 as covariant components. In the next section we define
the transformation rule for covariant quantities.

FIGURE 4.2 Covariant components of a vector in an oblique coordinate system.

We can conclude from these definitions that contravariant and covariant

components of a vector in a Cartesian system are identical and there is no
distinction between them.

TAE3E.CH04_1pp.indd 12 6/7/2023 2:08:27 PM

 CHAPTER

5
COVARIANT COMPONENTS
AND TRANSFORMATIONS

We use the standard notation of writing the index i as a subscript for


­covariant quantities. We consider basis vector ei as a covariant quantity.
We can rewrite Equation 3.6, considering two arbitrary systems x j and x′k

and the fact that ds is coordinate-system independent or invariant, as
  
= ds dx= ′k e′k dx j e j 5.1

 ∂x j 
After substituting for dx j , using Equation 4.7, we get dx′k e′k = k dx′k e j or
∂x′
 ∂x j  
dx′k  e′k − k e j  =
0 5.2
 ∂x′ 

Since dx′k is arbitrary (i.e., the relation is valid for any choice of system
x′k and selections
=
of dx′k i ≠ 0 and dx′k ≠ i =
0 , for all values of i = 1,2,, N )
therefore the expression in the bracket must be equal to zero, or we have

 ∂x j 
e′k = k e j 5.3
∂x′

TAE3E.CH05_1pp.indd 13 6/7/2023 2:11:32 PM

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 “We are,” retorted Tavia, adding with a chuckle: “But as soon as I
cease to be crazy I shall want to die!”
“The Major would understand though,” said Dorothy, still as
though talking to herself. “He would know that I couldn’t stand back
and just wait when Joe was in danger.”
“You bet he would, honey,” said Tavia reassuringly. “You could
count on the Major to understand every time.”
“Do you think we are following the right trail?” Dorothy asked,
some time later.
They had reached a level spot and paused to rest their ponies, and
were looking back the way they had come.
“I don’t know,” returned Tavia, with a thoughtful shake of her
head. “All we can do is to follow the trail as far as it goes, Doro, and
hope for the best. Hark! What’s that?”
 CHAPTER XXV
THE STORM

There came to the girls’ ears the grumbling of thunder, faint at first
but growing louder as it flung itself against the lofty mountains. A
flash of lightning illumined the semi-dusk of the woods.
The ponies pricked up their ears nervously and danced a little,
threatening to unseat their riders. But the girls spoke to them gently
and soothingly and in a moment had them under control again.
“I suppose we ought to go back,” said Dorothy. “You know what
storms are up here. And the ponies don’t like the thunder.”
“So it seems,” said Tavia dryly, adding, as she turned her pony so
that its nose was pointing toward the trail again: “You may go back, if
you like, Dorothy Dale, but I am going on. You are not afraid of a
little storm, are you?”
“Only this doesn’t promise to be a little one,” replied Dorothy
shortly. “But come on. If we keep the ponies on the trail——”
“All may yet be well,” finished Tavia. “Whew—that was a bad one!”
she added, as a terrific crash of thunder flung itself against the
mountainside and retreated, grumbling ominously.
The ponies attempted to stand on their hind legs again but the
girls only urged them on the faster.
The storm was waxing fast and furious now. The wind tore down
upon them in titanic gusts, catching at their breath, whipping twigs
and branches across their faces, fairly blinding them.
Another terrific crash of thunder came, a vicious streak of
lightning, and then the rain!
It did not come slowly in gentle little drops, but burst upon them
in full fury, soaked them to the skin in its first onslaught, enveloped
them in a solid sheet of water.
They struggled on, urging their reluctant ponies up the rocky trail
—up and up, while the trail grew ever steeper, the ground more
thickly strewn with rocks and tree stumps, more impassable.
It seemed to the girls that they were like flies, clinging to the walls
of a precipice.
A hideous crash of thunder, more terrific than any that had
preceded it, broke shatteringly above them and seemed to cause the
very ground beneath their feet to tremble.
Dorothy’s pony, scrambling over a huge boulder in the trail,
slipped, stumbled, caught itself, and then, in fright, reared suddenly
backward.
Caught unawares, Dorothy shot from her saddle like a bullet from
a gun and rolled down the steep incline directly beneath the feet of
Tavia’s prancing pony.
The whole thing was so sudden, so horrible, that Tavia could only
gasp in sickening fear.
But it was the gallant beast she rode that saved the life of her
chum, helpless beneath the death-dealing hoofs.
The pony reared, balanced with his forefeet in the air for a moment
while Dorothy’s life hung in the balance. Then, with a terrific effort
and almost human intelligence, he flung himself backward and to
one side.
Even then his forefeet came to earth gently, tentatively, making
sure that they touched only earth and stone. Then he stood quite still,
shivering.
Dorothy lay beneath his body, her arm flung out, her face turned
upward to the sky. She was as still as death and a sinister red spot
grew upon her forehead—grew and widened while two tiny rivulets of
blood ran down her cheek.
For a moment Tavia stared down at her chum as though paralyzed.
She dared not move for fear her action might excite the shivering
pony and cause him to move only the fraction of an inch.
“But I must get down,” she told herself dully, as though in a
terrible dream. “Any minute the pony may move. Anyway—oh,
Dorothy! Dorothy!”
 Slowly and with infinite care she let herself down from the saddle
on the opposite side from her chum, speaking gently to the pony,
patting his neck, urging him to stand quietly.
But the gallant little beast needed no urging. He knew as well as
Tavia that a human life depended on his ability to remain absolutely
still.
Except for the nervous quivering of his muscles he stood like a
horse carved out of rock as Tavia lifted her chum from her perilous
position and laid her gently on the grass beside the trail.
The thunder was more frequent, more deafening in its increasing
nearness. The rain continued to pour down in a great torrential
flood.
Tavia’s hair had come down and was clinging soddenly to her face
and neck. She had to push it back before she could look at Dorothy,
shake her, wildly call her by name, beg her sobbingly to open her
eyes and look at her.
The blood was still coming from the cut in Dorothy’s forehead, but
aside from that vivid blotch of color, her face was deadly pale.
Tavia sought for and found a clean handkerchief in the pocket of
her riding coat. With this she sought to staunch the wound. The
handkerchief became red and sodden and still the wound bled freely,
sickeningly.
Tavia stumbled to her feet and, with a hand before her eyes to
ward off the twigs and branches that lashed at her face, fought her
way back along the trail toward a spot where they had passed a
mountain brook.
She knelt beside the stream, saturated the handkerchief with the
almost ice-cold water, and returned to Dorothy. Several times she
made the trip, until she was bruised and torn and panting.
Finally she had her reward. The blood ceased to flow and, washing
away the last traces of it, Tavia was able to inspect the wound more
closely.
To her surprise and intense relief she found that, instead of being
on her forehead, the cut began farther up, on the scalp, just reaching
past the line of the hair.
 That then, was the reason it had bled so profusely. A scalp wound
is in appearance usually worse than in reality, sending out wild
signals of distress when there is really very little to be distressed
about.
Dorothy had evidently in falling struck upon a pointed stone,
gashing the scalp jaggedly and in such a way that it seemed an ugly
wound.
“Might have killed her,” muttered Tavia. “If she would only open
her eyes! Perhaps some water—” But the irony of that suggestion
curved her lips in a wry smile. Foolish to talk of water when nature
was supplying it in bucketfuls, free of charge!
At that moment Dorothy stirred, lifted her hand in an aimless
gesture and made as though to rise.
Tavia put a hand beneath her chum’s head, lifting her a little.
“Take it easy, Doro honey,” she advised gently. “You have had a
pretty hard knock, and it may take a little while for you to remember
what happened. Oh, keep still, will you!” she cried to the elements in
senseless fury as a crash of thunder shook the earth, drowning out
her last words. “Don’t you know it isn’t polite to interrupt a person
while she’s talking? Doro darling,” as Dorothy once more made an
effort to rise, “how are you feeling?”
“All right—I guess,” said Dorothy unsteadily. “I seem a little—
dizzy.”
Tavia tried to laugh and made a rather dismal failure of it.
“I should think you might,” she said. “After a fall like that!”
“What happened?” asked Dorothy, sitting up, her hand feeling
instinctively for the painful cut in her head. “I fainted, didn’t I?”
“You surely did, Doro, my love!” responded Tavia, once more
herself now that Dorothy was out of danger. “You fainted good and
plenty, and I don’t mind telling you you gave me the scare of my life.”
“Sorry—but I guess we had better get away from here,” said
Dorothy, still faintly, looking uneasily about her. She clapped her
hands to her ears nervously as another thunder clap broke above
their heads. “Help me, Tavia, please—I feel a little—weak.”
She tried to stumble to her feet, but sank down again with a cry of
alarm.
 “Not so fast!” Tavia scolded her. “You lost quite a good deal of
blood, my dear, if you did but know it, and naturally you feel pretty
faint.”
“Blood!” echoed Dorothy alarmed. “I had no idea——”
“Only a scalp wound,” Tavia said quickly. “But it bled like sixty.
Now, let’s try it again. That’s the idea. Feel better?”
Dorothy stood, swaying a little on her feet, Tavia’s supporting arm
about her shoulders.
“I guess I don’t remember just what happened, but I guess I must
owe my life to you, Tavia.”
“No, you don’t,” denied Tavia quickly, adding, as she pointed to the
pony standing quietly enough now where she had left it. “There’s the
fellow you ought to thank!”
 CHAPTER XXVI
A GENTLEMAN

Dorothy looked bewildered. Swiftly and with a return of the

emotion she had felt at that time of her chum’s great peril, lending
eloquence to her words, Tavia told Dorothy what had happened.
“That blessed pony knew you were lying there, helpless under his
feet,” she said, “and, like the gentleman and thoroughbred he is, he
wasn’t going to hurt a lady if he could help it. You should have seen
him, Doro, pawing the air to make sure he wasn’t touching you.
“And then when I pulled you out from under him he stood so still
you would have thought he was holding his breath for fear he would
move. I never saw an animal act like that. He was human, Doro!”
Dorothy took an uncertain step toward the little pony, hands
outstretched, and Tavia regarded her curiously.
“What are you going to do?” she asked.
There was a curious catch in her voice as Dorothy answered softly:
“I am going to thank—a gentleman.”
She put an arm about the pony’s neck and with her other hand
gently stroked his soft muzzle. And as though he understood what
she was trying to say to him, the little horse nuzzled against her
shoulder and whinnied gently.
Suddenly Tavia thought of the other pony, the one that had so
nearly precipitated Dorothy to her death.
She found him standing on the ledge above them, tossing his head
nervously now and then at some particularly harsh rumble of
thunder or flash of lightning, but making no attempt to stray away.
“Lucky for us they gave us a couple of gentle, domesticated
ponies,” remarked Tavia, as she climbed the trail to bring the pony
back to the spot where Dorothy was standing, her arm still about the
neck of the little horse. “One with a wilder strain in him would have
shown us his heels long since and one of us would have been obliged
to walk back.”
Returning with the captured pony slipping and sliding down the
trail behind her, Tavia looked anxiously at her chum.
“Do you think you are strong enough to sit in a saddle, Doro?
Because if you’re not——”
“Oh, I am,” protested Dorothy quickly. “I feel strong enough to do
anything except stay in this awful place, Tavia. Listen to that
thunder!”
“Quite a pretty storm!” Tavia admitted. “Now, Doro dear, if you
will let me help you into the saddle, perhaps we had better start.”
“We are going back though,” asserted Dorothy almost defiantly,
and was relieved when Tavia agreed with her.
It was obvious that with Dorothy in her present condition, they
could gain nothing by going on. The only sensible thing, under the
circumstances, was to return to the safety and comfort of the ranch.
Mrs. Hank Ledger’s kitchen seemed particularly alluring to them just
then!
Tavia helped Dorothy into the saddle—almost lifted her, in fact—
and was more than ever alarmed to see how much the accident had
weakened her chum.
Dorothy was game—game as they come—she told herself loyally.
But nothing could hide the trembling hands and the fact that it
required all Dorothy’s will power, even with Tavia’s help, to climb
into the saddle.
It had been tacitly decided that Dorothy should ride Hero—for so
she had dubbed the little horse in appreciation of what he had done—
on the return journey.
But as she turned the pony’s head and looked back over the
sharply-sloping trail up which they had clambered, Dorothy’s heart
misgave her.
The descent would be infinitely more difficult than the ascent had
been. The ponies, though sure-footed and used to the rough
mountain trails, would be in constant danger of slipping on the wet
rocks and moss.
Guessing her thoughts, Tavia urged her own pony close to her
chum and stood for a moment beside her, staring down the steep
descent.
“Looks pretty bad, doesn’t it?” she said soberly, after a moment.
“But I guess we will have to risk it, Doro. We can’t very well stay
where we are.”
“No, we can’t stay where we are,” repeated Dorothy automatically,
adding, as she pressed her hand, palm out, against her forehead:
“But I am so dizzy, Tavia. When I look down it seems as if the earth
rose up to meet me.”
“Then don’t look down!” cried Tavia sharply, noting with an access
of alarm that Dorothy reeled in the saddle as she spoke. “Look up as
much as you can, Doro, and hold on tight to the pony’s mane if you
feel yourself slipping. Oh, I wish Garry were here!”
Perhaps she had revealed more of her alarm than she had meant to
in that exclamation.
At any rate, Dorothy looked at her queerly, and, with a huge effort
of will, jerked herself upright in the saddle.
“I’m all right, Tavia,” she said courageously. “I’ll keep hold of the
pony’s mane as you said. But, Tavia—you go first!”
Her heart full of misgivings, Tavia urged her pony forward and
began the steep and slippery descent to the road far below.
It seemed for a little while that the elements, having given them a
taste of what they could really do if put to it, had decided to take
mercy on them.
There was a lull in the storm. The rain continued to fall, but more
gently, and the thunder seemed to have spent its fury, retiring into
the distance with muttered and ever decreasing rumblings.
But just as the girls, making slow progress of it and stopping every
now and then to rest and give Dorothy a chance to rally her forces,
had begun to hope that the storm was almost over, it burst upon
them again, more furiously than ever.
Came the rain again and then the wind, bending trees backward
before its onslaught, driving the rain relentlessly into their faces,
forcing them to halt every few paces to pass a hand across their
blinded eyes and peer anxiously along the trail.
“We shall be lost if we don’t look out,” Dorothy panted, during one
of these pauses.
“Look out!” repeated Tavia, with a brief laugh. “Fine chance we
have to look out when we can’t see more than a few feet before our
faces. How are you feeling, Doro—any stronger?”
“Oh, I’m all right,” Dorothy responded. But in spite of the brave
assertion, Tavia knew that she was not all right, that she was fighting
every inch of the way to keep herself erect in the saddle. Despite her
effort to hide it, Tavia saw that she was trembling all over.
“Cold?” she asked, and again Dorothy shook her head, this time
almost impatiently.
“Let’s go on,” she cried. “We must be very near the road by this
time.”
But Tavia knew that they were not near the road. In fact, it was not
very long before Tavia made a discovery that startled her. In the
sudden fright that caught at her throat she must have made some
sort of an ejaculation, for Dorothy, reining up beside her, called
above the noise of the storm:
“Did you say anything, Tavia?”
“Nothing, except that we are not on the trail,” retorted Tavia
calmly. “Dorothy, I am very much afraid that we are lost!”
 CHAPTER XXVII
WHAT WAS THAT?

Dorothy stood very quiet for a moment, saying nothing, just

staring at her chum.
Then suddenly she began to laugh—a wild sort of laughter that had
tears in it.
Tavia looked at her sharply, then reached out a hand and gripped
her hard.
“Dorothy, you’ve got to stop that!” she cried. “There isn’t anything
to laugh about—really, you know.”
“That’s why I’m laughing, I guess!” retorted Dorothy.
But she had stopped her untimely mirth and was gazing moodily
enough at the sodden, dreary forest about them.
“We shouldn’t be standing under a tree in a thunder and lightning
storm,” she said absently. “It’s dangerous.”
It was Tavia’s turn to laugh.
“So I’ve heard,” she said. “And if you can tell me any way that we
can avoid it, I’ll be very grateful. Oh, Doro, what’s the use? We are
just stuck, that’s all.”
That fact was so obvious that Dorothy did not take the trouble to
answer it.
“It’s all my fault,” said Tavia after a moment, her voice sounding
queer and remote above the clamor of the storm. “I ought to have
looked where I was going.”
“It isn’t your fault any more than mine,” Dorothy declared.
“Anyway, nobody could look where she was going in this storm.”
“Well, I suppose we might as well go on,” said Tavia, slapping the
reins upon the pony’s sleek and steaming back. “If we have luck we
may stumble on the path.”
“Stumble is right,” said Dorothy wearily, as she urged her reluctant
pony onward. “Oh, if I could only lie down somewhere,” she added,
in a tone that she made sure would not reach Tavia. Then the
absurdity of her wish appealed to her and in spite of the misery and
danger of their predicament, she was forced to laugh at herself.
“So many nice comfortable places around here to lie down in,” she
told herself, sweeping a hand about at the sodden landscape.
“Although it would be hard to be more wet and miserable than we
are just now,” she added.
They wandered on for a long time—they had no conception of just
how long. Finally, because the chill was creeping into their bones and
they felt stiff and cramped in their saddles, they dismounted and
stumbled along on foot, leading their ponies.
At least they would get some exercise and keep the blood stirring
in their veins.
Then at last relief came, or partial relief. The storm at last blew
itself away and the sun—a faltering and late-afternoon sun, but the
sun nevertheless—broke through the heavy clouds.
Tavia was inclined to greet him with loud exclamations of joy, but
Dorothy was too bruised and anxious and miserable of mind and
body to care very much whether the sun shone or not.
They sat down after a while on a couple of rocks that seemed not
quite so wet as the surrounding country to talk things over.
“Garry and the rest of the handsome cowboys must be somewhere
in the neighborhood,” said Tavia, determined to take a cheerful view.
“And if one of them doesn’t stumble upon us Garry is sure to send
out a searching party as soon as he finds we are gone.”
“But he won’t know we are gone till he gets back to the ranch, and
that may be late to-night,” Dorothy pointed out to her, adding with a
little moan: “What will he think of me when he finds what I have
done!”
“What we have done,” corrected Tavia. “Anyway, he will be far too
glad to get you back again to scold. You can be sure of that.”
“And Joe! We have done a lot toward finding Joe!” went on
Dorothy bitterly. “Those men could have done anything they liked to
him as far as we are concerned. As trailers we are a brilliant success!”
“We haven’t set the world on fire yet,” Tavia admitted, as she
jumped briskly to her feet. “But there is no use giving up the old ship
so soon. As long as we can’t find our way out of the trackless forest
we might as well make good use of our time and keep on hunting for
Joe.”
Dorothy stared at her chum for an instant. Then she also got to her
feet, though stiffly and wearily. She was beginning to be achingly
conscious of numerous bruises she had not known she possessed, of
sharp twinges in her back and arms that made her want to cry aloud
with the stabbing pain.
But if anything could be done, if there was the slightest chance of
finding Joe—though this she doubted—she would not give up.
“You are a confirmed optimist, Tavia honey,” she said. “But I’m
glad you are. You make a mighty-much cheerfuller companion, that
way.”
“You said it!” Tavia replied, as they started on slowly, leading the
horses. “Although I must confess that, internally, I am not as
cheerful as I have sometimes been. Something whispers that it has
been a long, long time since I gratified my craving for sustenance.”
“Oh, I don’t believe I can ever eat again!” cried Dorothy.
“You just wait till somebody tries you on a good hot plate of stew
or some good hot vegetable soup,” advised Tavia sagely. “My, what
would I give for a sniff of Mrs. Hank Ledger’s kitchen just now!”
“Oh, don’t! What is the use!” cried Dorothy, and to Tavia’s
complete surprise and dismay she began to cry, not violently, but
softly and pathetically as if she could no longer check the tears.
“Doro darling!” cried Tavia, putting an arm about her chum in
instant sympathy and alarm. “What is the matter? You? Why, you
never did this before!”
“I know it,” replied Dorothy, dabbing at her eyes with a sodden
handkerchief. “But I ache so, Tavia, and I am so frightened about
Joe, and I wish Garry were here. Then, when you spoke of the ranch
kitchen, it was just about the last straw!”
“You might know I would go and put my foot in it!” cried Tavia
penitently and quite at a loss what to do next. “You poor girl. You got
horribly banged up with that fall. If you weren’t the best sport ever
you wouldn’t go on at all. But honestly, Doro, I don’t know what to
do.”
“Of course you don’t,” cried Dorothy, trying to smile and
succeeding pretty well, considering. “And I am a goose to act this way
——”
She stopped short, a curious expression leaping to her eyes.
What was that she had heard?
Had it been a wail—a cry for help?
Nonsense! In this wilderness?
Again it came, and this time unmistakable.
She clung to Tavia, her face terrible to see in its agony of doubt, of
sudden hope.
“Some one is in trouble!”
Tavia whispered the words as though loth to break the tense
silence between them.
But suddenly Dorothy broke from her, running wildly, blindly
through the woods.
“It’s all right, Joe darling! I’m coming! Dorothy’s coming!”
 CHAPTER XXVIII
A VOICE IN THE MOUNTAIN

Tavia overtook Dorothy, grasped her fiercely by the arm and

clapped a frantic hand upon her mouth.
“Hush, Doro! Are you mad?” she whispered fiercely. “There is
something queer going on here. You must not let any one hear you.”
“But it was Joe!” cried Dorothy, struggling frantically to be free.
“Didn’t you hear? It was Joe’s voice! Let me go, Tavia! Let me go!”
“Not until you can listen to reason,” cried Tavia, and Dorothy
suddenly became quiet, staring at her tensely.
“Oh, you are right—of course you are right,” she said, making a
terrible effort to calm herself. “I was a little mad, I guess. Joe calling
for help. Tavia, we must go to him quickly!”
“Of course we must,” agreed Tavia soothingly. “But it won’t do us
any good to rush in when we don’t know what we may be rushing
into. Besides, how can you be sure that was Joe’s voice?”
“Oh, Tavia, I know! Don’t you suppose I would know his voice
anywhere?”
Tavia nodded and scanned the mountain side with puzzled eyes.
“Where do you suppose it came from?” asked Dorothy, her voice
lowered to a whisper. She was beginning to tremble and her teeth
chattered uncontrollably. “It sounded as if——”
“It came from the side of the mountain,” Tavia replied. “I can’t
understand it, but if we go cautiously we probably can solve the
mystery.”
But to “go cautiously” was the last thing Dorothy wanted to do just
then. Usually the cautious one, accustomed to restraining the
impetuous Tavia, now the tables were reversed. Dorothy was the one
who could brook no delay, Tavia the one who counseled caution.
But though Dorothy’s heart urged her to fly to Joe, knowing that
he was in peril, her head whispered that Tavia’s advice was sound—
that they must proceed with infinite caution if they meant to help her
brother.
When Tavia said that the sound seemed to come from the side of
the mountain she had meant to be taken literally.
Through the woods and directly in front of them they could see the
mountain where it rose abruptly upward. There was no trail at this
point, for here the mountain was practically unclimbable.
The trail, the one they had lost, zigzagged tortuously this way and
that seeking those sections of the mountain where it was possible for
men to force a pathway.
“We had better tether our ponies here,” Dorothy suggested softly.
“If we take them much farther they are apt to whinny.”
“Excellent idea!” said Tavia, suiting the action to the word. “Now,
we’ll see what is funny about that mountain.”
Silently they crept through the woods, careful to avoid twigs that
might crack under their feet.
Once when Tavia caught her toe in the gnarled root of a tree and
fell full length upon the ground, she lay there for several seconds,
afraid to move while Dorothy stood motionless, her hand touching
the trunk of a tree to steady herself.
Nothing happened, no sound broke the murmurous silence of the
woods, and finally they gained courage to start again.
They had gained some distance when Dorothy stopped,
bewildered, and reached out a hand to Tavia.
“It’s queer we don’t hear any further sound from him,” she said,
her lips close to Tavia’s ear. “I can’t tell which way to go, can you?”
Tavia shook her head and was about to speak when Dorothy raised
her hand imploringly.
She had heard another sound, and they were startlingly close to it.
A man was speaking and although they could not hear the words
they could tell by his tone that they were angry and threatening. And
again the voice seemed to come from the heart of the mountain itself.
 “Where in the world does that voice come from?” whispered Tavia.
“I don’t mind telling you, Doro, that it has me scared.”
Dorothy held up her hand again, gesturing for silence. Then,
before Tavia knew what she was up to, Dorothy flung herself face
down upon the ground and with infinite caution made her way, eel-
like, toward a huge rock that jutted out from the mountainside.
Wondering, Tavia followed her example.
Dorothy did not increase her speed even when a sharp cry rang
out, shattering the silence with breath-taking abruptness.
“I won’t do it—you—you—” came a boy’s voice, broken and furious.
“You wouldn’t try to make me do a thing like that if you weren’t a lot
of cowards! You wait till I tell Garry! You just wait!”
“Oh, we’ll wait all right, kid.”
The girls were near enough now to hear the sneering words,
although the tone was still carefully lowered.
The boy tried to answer, but a heavy hand across his mouth
strangled the defiance.
Dorothy had reached the jutting, out-flung rock and had solved the
mystery of the mountain.
For the rock served as a gigantic door, almost blocking up the
entrance of a cave that seemed to extend far into the mountain. From
where she and Tavia had stood when Joe’s desperate cry first
reached their ears, the rock entirely concealed the entrance to the
cave.
A most excellent retreat and one admirably adapted to the needs of
Larrimer and his gang!
Tavia crowded close to her side and Dorothy saw that she also had
discovered the answer to the riddle.
With infinite caution Dorothy crept still closer to the entrance of
the cave, peering around the edge of the rock.
The cave was so dark that at first she could see nothing.
Then, as her eyes became accustomed to the gloom, she made out
the figure of a man squatting upon something that looked like an
overturned keg or small barrel. His back was turned squarely to her
so that she could not catch even a profile glimpse of his face.
 Then, her eyes searching feverishly, they fell upon an object that
very nearly caused her to forget the need of caution.
Lying huddled upon the floor of the cave, pushed a little further
into the darkness than the man’s figure, was something that
appeared to be a bunch of old clothes. It moved, cried out in misery,
and Dorothy knew that it was Joe.
Every instinct in her prompted her to fly to him, to take him in her
arms and loose the cruel bonds that bound him.
She half rose to her feet. A sound that seemed loud to Tavia,
crouching at her side, but was, in reality, only the shadow of a sound,
escaped her lips.
Tavia immediately drew her down, pressed a warning hand against
her lips.
“Don’t spoil it all now!” she hissed. “Lie still and wait.”
Dorothy nodded mutely and peered round the rock again.
Suddenly she pressed back, pushing Tavia with her behind the
shelter of its huge bulk.
For the man had risen and was moving toward the entrance of the
cave.
“So you think you won’t, my hearty,” they heard him say in his
heavy, jeering tone. “Well, I am goin’ to give you just one more
chance before we really begin to put the screws on. This here little
letter we want you to write, my lad, ain’t goin’ to hurt Garry Knapp
none.” The scoundrel condescended to an argumentative tone and
Dorothy clinched her hands fiercely.
“All you have to do is to write him a letter,” the heavy voice went
on, “tellin’ him you will be as free as air as soon as he agrees to sell us
his land—at a fair figure, mind, a very fair figure. You would be doin’
him a favor, really. Think of all that cash right in his hand to-
morrow, say, or the next day at the outside. You would be doin’ him a
favor and savin’ your own skin at the same time. Come now, how
about it? Let’s be sensible.”
Dorothy listened breathlessly for her brother’s answer. She did not
realize how much that answer meant to her till later when she found
the imprint of her fingernails in the palms of her two hands.
 “Say, I can’t tell you what I think of you—I don’t know words that
are bad enough!” cried Joe furiously. “But I know you’re a—a—bum—
and I’ll get even with you for this some day.”
“Some day—mebbe,” the man sneered. “But in the meantime this
place ain’t goin’ to be any bed of roses for you, my lad. You gotta
think of that, you know.”
“I don’t care, as long as I play fair with Garry,” muttered the boy. “I
—I—don’t care what—what you do with me.”
But Dorothy knew that, despite all his bravado, Joe was only a boy
and he did care. And even while her heart ached with pity, it thrilled
with pride at the thought that he had stood the test, had proved
himself a thoroughbred. He would “play fair” with Garry, no matter
what happened.
She shrank back suddenly as Joe’s tormentor brushed the rock
that guarded the entrance of the cave and disappeared into the
woods.
“Now, Tavia!” she whispered tensely. “Now!”
 CHAPTER XXIX
THE DASTARDLY PLOT

The two girls waited to make sure there was no one else in the cave
besides Joe, listened until the sounds made by his captor crashing
through the underbrush had died away.
Then Dorothy ran to him, sank to her knees beside him, laughed
and cried over him as she lifted his head and held it tight against her.
“Joe, Joe! why did you run away? We’ve been nearly crazy, dear!
No, no, don’t cry, Joe darling! It’s all right. Your Dorothy is here.
Nothing, nothing will ever hurt you again.”
Her arms tightened about him fiercely and the boy sobbed, great,
tearing sobs that he was ashamed of but could not control.
The storm lasted only a minute, and then he said gruffly, big-boy
fashion, to hide his weakness:
“I—you oughtn’t to come near me, Dot. I—I’ve done an awful thing
and got myself into a heap of trouble!”
“Never mind about that now, dear,” cried Dorothy, suddenly
recalled to the peril of their situation. “We’ve got to get you away
before that dreadful man comes back.”
“He went off to fetch the others,” said Joe, growing suddenly eager
and hopeful now that rescue seemed near. “They are going to do
something awful to me because I wouldn’t——”
“Yes, yes, Joe, I know. But now be quiet,” cried Dorothy, as she
propped him up against the wall and began to work feverishly at the
knots of the heavy cord that bound his feet and hands. “Some one
might hear you and—oh, we must get away from here before they
come back!”