CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.1 Formulae, functional groups and

terminology

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Draw and interpret the displayed formula of a molecule to show all the
atoms and all the bonds

● The displayed formula shows all the atoms of each element and all the bonds
in the molecule
● E.g. The molecular formula of methane is CH4, draw the displayed formula of
methane.
○ We know that each hydrogen atom can only form 1 bond whereas a
carbon atom can form 4 bonds so the displayed formula of CH4 would
be:

● E.g. The molecular formula for ethanoic acid is CH3COOH, draw the displayed
formula of ethanoic acid.
○ We know that each hydrogen atom can only form 1 bond, a carbon
atom can form 4 bonds and an oxygen atom can form 2 bonds so the
displayed formula of CH3COOH would be:

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Write and interpret general formulae of compounds in the same
homologous series, limited to:

The general formula is a formula followed by all the compounds in the same
homologous series representing the composition of the atoms present in each
molecule

(a) Alkanes, CnH2n+2

● The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2
● E.g. An alkane has 5 carbon atoms, what is the molecular formula of this
alkane?
○ 5 carbon atoms means n is 5 so working out no. of H atoms: 2(5) + 2 =
12
○ The molecular formula is C5H12 (pentane)

(b) Alkenes, CnH2n

● The general formula for an alkene is CnH2n
● E.g. An alkene has 4 carbon atoms, what is the molecular formula of this
alkene?
○ 4 carbon atoms means n is 4 so working out no. of H atoms = 2(4) = 8
○ The molecular formula is C4H8 (butene)

(c) Alcohols, CnH2n+1OH

● The general formula for an alcohol is CnH2n+1OH
● E.g. An alcohol has 4 carbon atoms, what is the molecular formula of this
alcohol?
○ 4 carbon atoms means n is 4 so working out no. of H atoms = 2(4) + 1
=9
○ The molecular formula is C4H9OH (butanol)

(d) Carboxylic acids, CnH2n+1COOH

● The general formula for a carboxylic acid is CnH2n+1COOH
● E.g. A carboxylic acid has a total of 4 carbon atoms, what is the formula of
this carboxylic acid?
○ 4 carbon atoms including the functional group COOH, so n is 3 so
working out no. of H atoms = 2(3) + 1 = 7
○ The formula is C3H7COOH (butanoic acid)

Identify a functional group as…

● The functional group is an atom or group of atoms that determine the

chemical properties of a homologous series
● E.g. The functional group of an alcohol is the hydroxyl group (-OH)

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State that a homologous series is…

● A homologous series is a family or group of similar compounds with similar

chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group

State that a saturated compound…

● A saturated compound has molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are

single bonds
● E.g. All alkanes are saturated compounds since they only have single
carbon-carbon bonds.

State that an unsaturated compound…

● An unsaturated compound has molecules in which one or more

carbon-carbon bonds are not single bonds
● E.g. Alkenes are unsaturated since they all have at least one double
carbon-carbon bond.

(Extended only) State that a structural formula is an unambiguous

description of the way the atoms in a molecule are arranged, including
CH2=CH2, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOCH3

● The structural formula is a formula which shows the arrangement of atoms in

the molecule of a compound but does not show all the bonds between them.

● E.g. CH2=CH2 is the structural formula for ethene (molecular formula C2H4)
and shows where the double bond lies

● E.g. CH3CH2OH is the structural formula for ethanol (molecular formula

C2H5OH)

● E.g. CH3COOCH3 is the structural formula for methyl ethanoate (an ester with
the molecular formula C3H6O2)

(Extended only) Define structural isomers as compounds with the same

molecular formula, but different structural formulae, including C4H10 as
CH3CH2CH2CH3 and CH3CH(CH3)CH3 and C4H8 as CH3CH2CH=CH2 and
CH3CH=CHCH3

● Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but
different structural formula

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● E.g. C4H10 has 2 structural isomers:

○ The structural isomers of C4H10 differ in that 2-methylpropane has a

side group (a methyl group) whereas butane is a straight chain
molecule

● E.g. C4H8 has 2 structural isomers:

○ The structural isomers of C4H8 differ in where the double bond lies in
the structure

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(Extended only) Describe the general characteristics of a homologous
series as…

● The general characteristics of a homologous series are:

○ have the same functional group
○ have the same general formula
○ differ from one member to the next by a –CH2– unit
○ display a trend in physical properties
○ share similar chemical properties

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.2 Naming organic compounds

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Name and draw the displayed formulae of:

(a) Methane and Ethane

● Methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6) are both alkanes.

(b) Ethene
● Ethene is an alkene with 2 carbon atoms (the molecular formula C2H4) and a
double bond between the carbon atoms.

(c) Ethanol
● Ethanol is an alcohol with molecular formula C2H5OH so has a hydroxyl group
(-OH) attached to one of the carbon atoms

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(d) Ethanoic acid
● Ethanoic acid is a carboxylic acid with structural formula CH3COOH so has a
carboxyl group (-COOH) in its structure

(e) The products of the reactions stated in sections 11.4–11.7

● See notes 11.4-11.7

State the type of compound present, given a chemical name ending in

-ane, -ene, -ol, or -oic acid or from a molecular formula or displayed
formula

Type of Chemical name General Example Example (displayed

compound ending in formula (molecular formula)
formula)

Alkane -ane CnH2n+2 CH4

Alkene -ene CnH2n C2H4

Alcohol -ol CnH2n+1OH C2H5OH

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Carboxylic -oic acid CnH2n+1COOH CH3COOH
acid

(Extended only) Name and draw the structural and displayed formulae of
unbranched:

(a) Alkanes
● Naming alkanes is relatively easy as all the names end in -ane
● To know the prefix, count the number of carbon atoms:

Number of carbons Prefix Name of alkane

1 meth- methane

2 eth- ethane

3 prop- propane

4 but- butane

5 pent- pentane

6 hex- hexane

7 hept- heptane

8 oct- octane

● To draw the displayed formula of alkanes, remember:

○ There are only single carbon-carbon bonds
○ Carbon atoms must have 4 bonds
○ Hydrogen atoms must have 1 bond
○ If there are side groups, e.g. a methyl group, attach it to the correct
carbon as numbered in the name of the alkane

(b) Alkenes, including but-1-ene and but-2-ene

● Naming alkenes is relatively easy as all the names end in -ene
● But numbers are included in the name between the prefix (number of carbon
atoms) and the suffix -ene, to show which carbon atom the double
carbon-carbon bond is attached to
● E.g. But-1-ene has the double carbon=carbon bond on carbon-1 whereas
but-2-ene has the double carbon=carbon bond on carbon-2:

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(c) Alcohols, including propan-1-ol, propan-2-ol, butan-1-ol and butan-2-ol
● All the names of alcohols end in -ol
● But numbers are included in the name between the prefix (number of carbon
atoms) and the suffix -ol, to show which carbon the hydroxyl (-OH) group is
attached to
● E.g. Propan-1-ol has the hydroxyl group on carbon-1 whereas propan-2-ol
has the hydroxyl group on carbon-2:

● E.g. Butan-1-ol has the hydroxyl group on carbon-1 whereas butan-2-ol has
the hydroxyl group on carbon-2:

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(d) Carboxylic acids containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule
● All the names of carboxylic acids end in -oic acid
● The carboxyl group (-COOH) is always at the end of the carbon chain so there
is no need to number where it goes

(Extended only) Name and draw the displayed formulae of the

unbranched esters which can be made from unbranched alcohols and
carboxylic acids, each containing up to four carbon atoms
● Unbranched esters are formed from unbranched alcohols and carboxylic
acids
● The functional group of esters is -COO which is known as an ester
linkage/bond
● To name an ester:
1. Change the name of the alcohol to end in –yl
2. Change the name of the carboxylic acid to end in –oate
3. Alcohol name goes to the front, carboxylic acid name to the back
● E.g. Methyl ethanoate is formed from methanol and ethanoic acid:

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.3 Fuels

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Name the fossil fuels

● The fossil fuels are coal, natural gas and petroleum (crude oil).

Name the main constituent of natural gas…

● The main constituent of natural gas is methane, CH4.

State that hydrocarbons are…

● Hydrocarbons are compounds that only contain hydrogen and carbon.

● E.g. alkanes are hydrocarbons.

State that petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons

● Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons

● Crude oil is another term used interchangeably with petroleum, crude oil is the
raw form of petroleum before it is refined and processed.
● Petroleum is a finite resource found in rocks and formed from the remains of
an ancient biomass consisting mainly of plankton that was buried in mud.

Describe the separation of petroleum into useful fractions by fractional

distillation

● Petroleum can be separated into its constituent fractions by a separating

process known as fractional distillation
● Fractional distillation separates compounds into its constituent substances
based on their differences in boiling points
● Crude oil is heated in a furnace until it is vaporised and is added to a
fractionating column, that has divisions at different levels to collect the various
constituents (fractions)
● Fractions will separate into its constituent levels based on their properties:
different boiling points, chain length, volatility and viscosity.
● Typical fractions collected include:
○ Refinery gases (e.g., propane, butane) at the top.
○ Gasoline (petrol) slightly lower.
○ Kerosene (jet fuel) mid-level.
○ Diesel below kerosene.
○ Heavy fuel oil near the bottom.
○ Residue (e.g., bitumen) at the very bottom.

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Describe how the properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change
from the bottom to the top of the fractionating column, limited to:

(a) Decreasing chain length

● Fractions with shorter carbon chains, such as propane, will be tapped from
the top of the fractionating column.
● Fractions with longer chain lengths will collect at the bottom of the
fractionating column.

(b) Higher volatility

● Fractions with higher volatility will separate off at the top of the fractionating
column
● Fractions with lower volatility will collect at the bottom of the fractionating
column

(c) Lower boiling points

● Fractions with lower boiling points condense at higher levels (top of the
column).
● Fractions with higher boiling points condense at lower levels (bottom of the
column).

(d) Lower viscosity

● Viscosity refers to how thick and sticky and substance is
● Hydrocarbons with lower viscosity, such as refinery gases, will separate off at
the top of the column
● Hydrocarbons with higher viscosity, such as bitumen will collect at the bottom
of the fractionating column

Name the uses of the fractions as:

Petroleum is separated into fractions since its individual constituents have various
utility functions such as:

(a) Refinery gas fraction

● Gas used in heating and cooking

(b) Gasoline /petrol fraction

● Fuel used in cars

(c) Naphtha fraction

● Used as a chemical feedstock

(d) Kerosene /paraffin fraction

● Used for jet fuel

(e) Diesel oil/ gas oil fraction

● Fuel used in diesel engines

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(f) Fuel oil fraction
● Fuel used in ships
● Fuel for home heating systems

(g) Lubricating oil fraction

● Used for lubricants, waxes and polishes

(h) Bitumen fraction

● Used for making roads

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.4 Alkanes

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State that the bonding in alkanes is…

● All the bonds in alkanes are single covalent bonds

● Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, meaning they only consist of single
bonds and have only hydrogen and carbon atoms.
○ Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds.
○ Contain C-C and C-H covalent bonds.

Describe the properties of alkanes…

● Alkanes are generally unreactive, except combustion (burning) reactions and

substitution by chlorine

(Extended only) State that a substitution reaction is…

● A substitution reaction is when one atom or a group of atoms is replaced by

another atom or group of atoms.

(Extended only) Describe the substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine

as a photochemical reaction, with ultraviolet light providing the activation
energy, Ea , and draw the structural or displayed formulae of the products,
limited to monosubstitution

● Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with chlorine

● This is known as a photochemical reaction since UV (ultraviolet) light is
needed to provide the activation energy for the reaction to occur
● The general equation for the substitution reaction between an alkane and
chlorine is:
Alkane + Chlorine -> Chloroalkane + Hydrogen chloride
● E.g. Ethane + Chlorine -> Chloroethane + Hydrogen chloride
CH3CH3 + Cl2 -> CH3CH2Cl + HCl

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.5 Alkenes

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State that the bonding in alkenes includes a double carbon–carbon
covalent bond and that alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons

● Alkenes contain at least one double carbon-carbon covalent bond

● Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons:
○ Unsaturated means there is at least one double bond in the carbon
chain
○ Hydrocarbon means there is only hydrogen and carbon present in
alkenes

Describe the manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of

larger alkane molecules using a high temperature and a catalyst

● Alkenes are manufactured by cracking long chain alkanes using a high

temperature and a catalyst:
○ Long chain hydrocarbons are heated until vaporised. The vapours are
passed over a hot catalyst to break the long chains. Alternatively, the
vapours are mixed with steam at very high temperatures so that
thermal decomposition occurs.
● Cracking of long chain alkanes produces alkenes, shorter chain alkanes and
hydrogen

Describe the reasons for the cracking of larger alkane molecules

● Reasons for the cracking of larger alkanes:
○ Produces alkenes which can be used as chemical feedstock
○ Helps to meet supply and demand of fractions
■ Fractional distillation of crude oil usually produces more long
chain alkanes and less short chain alkanes, the latter has higher
demand
■ Cracking produces shorter chain alkanes which are more useful
as fuels than long chain hydrocarbons

Describe the test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated

hydrocarbons by their reaction with aqueous bromine
● Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons: contain only single covalent bonds
● Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons: contain at least one double
carbon-carbon bond
● To test for the presence of a double bond (i.e. whether a molecule is
unsaturated), add aqueous bromine:
○ There will be a colour change from orange to colourless
○ In saturated compounds, aqueous bromine will remain orange

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(Extended only) State that in an addition reaction…

In addition reactions, two reactants will usually react to form only one product.

(Extended only) Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition

reactions with… and draw the structural or displayed formulae of the
products

● Alkenes will react with the following reactants in addition reactions, where the
product of each reaction will not contain a double carbon-carbon bond

(a) Bromine or aqueous bromine

● As mentioned above, alkenes will react with aqueous bromine and
decolourise it from orange to colourless.
● This is because the double bond is more reactive than a single covalent bond
and will react with bromine to form a dibromoalkane.
● E.g. Write the word and balanced symbol equation for the reaction between
ethene and bromine.
Ethene + Bromine -> 1,2-dibromoethane
C2H4 + Br2 -> C2H4Br2
● E.g. Draw the structural and displayed formulae of the products for the
reaction between ethene and bromine.
Structural formula: CH2(Br)CH2(Br) or C2H4Br2
Displayed formula:

(b) Hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst

● In the presence of a nickel catalyst, alkenes will react with hydrogen in an
addition reaction to produce an alkane, by replacing the double carbon-carbon
bonds with single covalent bonds.
● E.g. Write a balanced word and symbol equation for the reaction between
propene and hydrogen, in the presence of a nickel catalyst.
Propene + Hydrogen -> Propane
C3H6 + H2 -> C3H8

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 ● E.g. Draw the structural and displayed formulae of the products for the
reaction between propene and hydrogen, in the presence of a nickel catalyst.
Structural formula: CH3CH2CH3 or C3H8
Displayed formula:

(c) Steam in the presence of an acid catalyst

● In the presence of an acid catalyst, e.g. sulfuric acid, alkenes will react with
steam in an addition reaction to produce an alcohol, replacing the double
carbon-carbon bond with a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a hydrogen atom
● E.g. Write a balanced word symbol equation for the reaction between ethene
and steam, in the presence of an acid catalyst.
Ethene + Steam -> Ethanol
C2H4 + H2O (g) -> C2H5OH
● E.g. Draw the structural and displayed formulae of the products for the
reaction between ethene and steam, in the presence of an acid catalyst.
Structural formula: CH3CH2OH or C2H5OH
Displayed formula:

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.6 Alcohols

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Describe the manufacture of ethanol by…
(a) Fermentation
● Ethanol can be manufactured through the fermentation of aqueous glucose in
the following conditions:
o In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions)
o At an optimum temperature of 25-30˚C
o Using the enzymes in yeast
● The word and chemical equations for the fermentation of aqueous glucose to
ethanol is:
Glucose (+ Yeast) -> Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

(b) Catalytic addition of steam to ethene

● Ethanol can also be manufactured by reacting ethene with steam H2O (g) in
the following conditions:
○ In the presence of a phosphoric acid catalyst
○ At a temperature at 300˚C
○ At a pressure of 60 atm (6000kPa)
● The word and chemical equations for the catalytic addition of steam to ethene
Ethene + Steam -> Ethanol
C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH

Describe the combustion of ethanol

● Ethanol can be burnt in air or oxygen (complete combustion) to produce

carbon dioxide and water
● The balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of ethanol is:
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
● Can be used as a fuel in this way since ethanol releases a lot of energy when
burnt in a good supply of oxygen

State the uses of ethanol as…

● A solvent
● A fuel

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(Extended only) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of these two
methods of manufacturing ethanol

Manufacturing method Advantages Disadvantages

Fermentation ▪ Renewable raw ▪ Batch process

materials (stop-start)
▪ Warm, normal ▪ A lot of workers
pressure needed
(inexpensive) ▪ Slow
▪ Little energy needed ▪ Impure – needs
treatment

Catalytic addition of ▪ Continuous process ▪ Non-renewable raw

steam to ethene (runs all the time) materials
▪ Few workers needed ▪ High temperature and
▪ Fast pressure (expensive)
▪ Pure ▪ A lot of energy
needed

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.7 Carboxylic acids

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Describe the reaction of ethanoic acid with… including names and
formulae of the salts produced

● Ethanoic acid is a type of carboxylic acid with the formula CH3COOH and
displayed formula:

● Ethanoic acid (aq) is a colourless liquid and is also known commonly as

vinegar

(a) Ethanoic acid and metals

● Ethanoic acid will react with metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas
● This acid-metal reaction occurs as the metal displaces the hydrogen in
ethanoic acid to form the salt.
● But only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with ethanoic
acid, to be able to displace the hydrogen
● The name of the salt is generally: Metal ethanoate
● General equation for this reaction:
Metal + Ethanoic acid -> Metal ethanoate + Hydrogen
● E.g. Write the word and balanced chemical equation for the reaction between
sodium and ethanoic acid:
Sodium + Ethanoic acid -> Sodium ethanoate + Hydrogen
2Na + 2CH3COOH -> 2CH3COONa + H2

(b) Ethanoic acid and bases

● Ethanoic acid will react with bases to form a salt and water
● This is a neutralisation reaction as water is formed as a product
● The name of the salt is generally: Metal ethanoate
● General equation for this reaction:
Base + Ethanoic acid -> Metal ethanoate + Water
● E.g. Write the word and balanced chemical equation for the reaction between
potassium hydroxide and ethanoic acid:
Potassium hydroxide + Ethanoic acid -> Potassium ethanoate +Water
KOH + CH3COOH -> CH3COOK + H2O

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(c) Ethanoic acid and carbonates
● Ethanoic acid will react with metal carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide
and water
● The name of the salt is generally: Metal ethanoate
● General equation for this reaction:
Base + Ethanoic acid -> Metal ethanoate + Carbon dioxide + Water
● E.g. Write the word and balanced chemical equation for the reaction between
calcium carbonate and ethanoic acid:
Calcium carbonate + Ethanoic acid -> Calcium ethanoate + Carbon dioxide +
Water
CaCO3 + 2CH3COOH -> (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2

(Extended only) Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation

of ethanol:

(a) With acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)

● Ethanol is heated with acidified potassium manganate(VII) to form ethanoic
acid in an oxidation reaction, in the presence of an acid catalyst.
● There is a visible colour change in the solution from purple to colourless
● This reaction is done under reflux (heated with a condenser upright)
● Acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) is an oxidising agent (brings
about oxidation whilst being reduced itself) and is represented in equations as
[O]
● The chemical equation for this reaction is:
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] -> CH3COOH + H2O

(b) By bacterial oxidation during vinegar production

● Ethanoic acid can also be formed through the bacterial oxidation
(fermentation) of ethanol.
● This reaction occurs when a wine bottle (ethanol is in wine) is left open.
● Bacteria in the air will use atmospheric oxygen to oxidise ethanol, producing a
weak solution of ethanoic acid (vinegar) over time.
● The chemical equation for this reaction is:
CH3CH2OH + O2 -> CH3COOH + H2O

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(Extended only) Describe the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol
using an acid catalyst to form an ester

● Esters have the functional group -COO (known as an ester bond/linkage)

● Esters are formed when a carboxylic acid is reacted with an alcohol using an
acid catalyst, in a reaction known as esterification.
● A reversible sign ⇌ is used in esterification reactions
● Naming esters: First name comes from the alcohol. Second name comes from
the carboxylic acid. E.g. Propanoic acid and ethanol makes ethyl propanoate.
● The general equation for esterification is:
Carboxylic acid + Alcohol ⇌ Ester + Water
● E.g. Ethanoic acid is reacted with methanol, in the presence of an acid
catalyst, what is produced?
Ethanoic acid + Methanol ⇌ Methyl ethanoate + Water
CH3COOH + CH3OH ⇌ CH3COOCH3 + H2O

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

11.8 Polymers

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Define polymers…

● Polymers are large molecules built up from many smaller molecules, known
as monomers, joined together by covalent bonds.
● ‘Poly’ means many, ‘mono’ means one.

Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition

polymerisation using ethene monomers

● Addition polymerisation occurs when unsaturated monomers (alkenes) bond

together to form a long chain polymer through addition reactions.
● Poly(ethene) is an addition polymer made up of many ethene monomers
joined together:
○ The double carbon=carbon bond in the ethene monomers is broken
into a single covalent bond to allow the many monomers to join
together by covalent bonds.
○ The formation of poly(ethene) is represented by the structure of the
ethene monomer with n standing for the number of repeating units in
the polymer.
○ Poly(ethene) is shown by its repeat unit with the outer bonds extended
and square brackets around it with an n in the corner since drawing the
entire long-chain molecule would be difficult.

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State that plastics are made from…

● Plastics are made from polymers

Describe how the properties of plastics have implications for their disposal

● The disposal of plastics can be difficult because of the following properties:

○ Non-biodegradable plastics: Can take thousands of years to
decompose so will build up in waste sites
○ Chemically unreactive: Microorganisms/decomposers are unable to
break down the material
○ Mixed with other materials: Difficult to recycle into its constituent parts

Describe the environmental challenges caused by plastics, limited to:

(a) Disposal in landfill sites

● Non-biodegradable plastics are disposed in landfill sites, where they continue
to build up and accumulate as they are unable to be broken down by
decomposers
(b) Accumulation in oceans
● Plastics also end up in oceans due to improper disposal where they
accumulate and cause harm to aquatic life, ending up in the food chains and
causing biological harm
(c) Formation of toxic gases from burning
● Incinerating plastics is done to release thermal energy which can be used to
generate electricity
● But in burning the polymers there are environmental challenges such as:
○ Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is released
○ Plastics that contain chlorine, such as PVC, burn and release toxic
hydrogen chloride gas
○ Carbon monoxide, a toxic gas, is released into the atmosphere if
incomplete combustion is done

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(Extended only) Identify the repeat units and/or linkages in addition
polymers and in condensation polymers

● As mentioned above, repeat units are used to represent polymers as drawing

the entire long chain molecule would be difficult

Addition polymers
● Addition polymers are formed from many unsaturated monomers (contain a
C=C double bond)
● To identify the repeat unit of an addition polymer:

1. Spot which group is being repeated in the long-chain molecule and

circle
2. Draw one diagram of the group that was repeated and extend the
continued bond on either side of the carbon atoms
3. Draw square brackets around the repeat unit and add a small n on the
lower right hand corner to represent the number of repeating units in
the polymer chain.

Condensation polymers
● Condensation polymers are formed from monomers with two functional
groups such as:
○ Dicarboxylic acids and diols will form polyesters and have an ester
linkage in each repeat unit
■ The ester linkage is -COO-
○ Dicarboxylic acids and diamines will form polyamides and have an
amide linkage in each repeat unit
■ The amide linkage is -CONH-

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To identify the repeat unit and ester linkage of a polyester

1. Spot which group is being repeated in the long-chain molecule and

circle
2. Draw one diagram of the group that was repeated and extend the
continued bond on either side of the carbon atoms
3. Draw square brackets around the repeat unit and add a small n on the
lower right hand corner to represent the number of repeating units in
the polymer chain.
4. A repeat unit of a polyester will have a -C=O and an -O- on either side
5. The ester linkage is circled in the diagram
6. The purple and orange rectangles represent any length and type of
carbon chain in the dicarboxylic acid and diol

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To identify the repeat unit and ester linkage of a polyamide

1. Spot which group is being repeated in the long-chain molecule and

circle
2. Draw one diagram of the group that was repeated and extend the
continued bond on either side of the carbon atoms
3. Draw square brackets around the repeat unit and add a small n on the
lower right hand corner to represent the number of repeating units in
the polymer chain.
4. A repeat unit of a polyamide will have a -C=O and a -NH- on either side
5. The amide linkage is circled in the diagram
6. The green and yellow rectangles represent any length and type of
carbon chain in the dicarboxylic acid and diamine

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(Extended only) Deduce the structure or repeat unit of an addition
polymer from a given alkene and vice versa

Addition polymers
● Addition polymers are formed from many unsaturated monomers (contain a
C=C double bond)

Drawing the repeat unit of an addition polymer from a given alkene

1. Replace the double C=C bond to a single C-C covalent bond

2. Both carbon atoms now have another bond that can be formed (carbon
atoms have 4 bonds) so this is drawn on either side of the repeat unit
extended out of the square brackets
3. An n is written on the lower right hand corner of the square brackets to
represent the number of repeat units in the polymer

Drawing the alkene monomer of an addition polymer from its structure/repeat unit

1. Identify the repeat unit in the polymer structure and draw it separately
2. Replace the single C-C covalent bond with a double C=C bond to convert it to
its alkene
3. Erase the square brackets and carbon extended bonds to ensure each carbon
only has 4 bonds.

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(Extended only) Deduce the structure or repeat unit of a condensation
polymer from given monomers and vice versa, limited to:

(a) Polyamides from a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine

Drawing the repeat unit/structure of a polyamide from its monomers

● The hydroxyl groups (-OH) on either side of the dicarboxylic acid is removed
and combined with the H atoms that are removed from the amine groups
(-NH2) on either side of the diamine to form water
● The remaining monomers are joined together by an amide linkage

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Drawing the monomers from the structure/repeat unit of a polyamide

1. Identify the repeat unit in the polyamide structure and draw it separately
2. The amide linkage is broken by the addition of water (hydrolysis reaction)
3. The monomers are separated into dicarboxylic acid (with a carboxyl group on
either end of the molecule) and a diamine (with an amine group on either end
of the molecule)

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(b) Polyesters from a dicarboxylic acid and a diol

Drawing the repeat unit/structure of a polyester from its monomers

● The -OH on either side of the dicarboxylic acid is removed and combined with
the H atoms that are removed from the hydroxyl groups on either side of the
diol to form water
● The remaining monomers are joined together by an ester linkage

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Drawing the monomers from the structure/repeat unit of a polyester

1. Identify the repeat unit in the polyester structure and draw it separately
2. The ester linkage is broken by the addition of water (hydrolysis reaction)
3. The monomers are separated into dicarboxylic acid (with a carboxyl group on
either end of the molecule) and a diol (with a hydroxyl group on either end of
the molecule)

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(Extended only) Describe the differences between addition and
condensation polymerisation

Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation

Forms a polymer from alkene Forms a polymer by reacting

monomers compounds with two different functional
groups together

The C=C bond is removed from the A small molecule such as water is
monomers to form a saturated polymer produced

Addition polymers are long chains of Condensation polymers can be

C-C single bonds polyesters with ester linkages or
polyamides with amide linkages

(Extended only) Describe and draw the structure of:

(a) Nylon, a polyamide

● Nylon is a type of polyamide formed from a dicarboxylic acid and diamine by

condensation polymerisation
● The structure of nylon is represented as:

(b) PET, a polyester (The full name for PET, polyethylene terephthalate, is not
required)

● PET is a type of polyester formed from a dicarboxylic acid and diol by

condensation polymerisation
● The structure of PET is represented as:

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(Extended only) State that PET can be

● PET can be converted back into monomers (dicarboxylic acid and diol)
through hydrolysis and re-polymerisation

(Extended only) Describe proteins as natural polyamides and that they are
formed from amino acid monomers with the general structure

● Proteins are natural polyamides

● They are formed from amino acid monomers
● Amino acids have the general structure:

● A central carbon atom is bonded to:

○ An amine (-NH2) group
○ A carboxyl (-COOH) group
○ An ‘R’ group- any side group
○ A hydrogen atom

(Extended only) Describe and draw the structure of proteins as:

● The general structure of proteins can be drawn as:

● The rectangles represent the different types of amino acids (have same
general structure but different ‘R’ groups
● Proteins are joined together like polyamides with amide linkages

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