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specification: OCR A Level Computer Science H446 Specification

pmt notes: OCR A-Level Computer Science Revision
isaac computer science: Isaac Computer Science: OCR A-Level
ada computer science: Ada Computer Science: OCR A-Level
seneca: Seneca Learning
craig n dave playlist: Craig'n'Dave OCR A-Level Computer Science Playlist
online notes: comp sci dictionary, concise notes, student room notes (theory & coding)

1.1 - The characteristics of contemporary processors, input, output & storage devices

1.1.1 - Structure & Function of the Processor

Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

- Completes all of the ​arithmetical and logical operations​, comparisons between values (such as
greater than, less than, equal to) & shifting binary patterns to the left or right
- Arithmetical operations include all mathematical operations such as addition & subtraction on fixed
or floating point numbers.
- Fixed Point Number - a method of representing fractional numbers by storing a fixed
number of digits of their fractional part
- (e.g. £ in money only allows for 2 numbers after the decimal point, making amount of
money a fixed point number)
- Floating Point Number - a method of representing fractional numbers allows for a varying
number of digits after the decimal point
- Logical operations include boolean logic operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and XOR
Control Unit
Component of the processor which ​directs the operations of the CPU​.
- In charge of organising the sequence in which program instructions are executed, followed by
decoding the instructions.
- Decoding an instruction means that the opcode and operand of an instruction are analysed
to determine what needs to be done to execute the instruction
- i.e. specify the type of instruction and the address mode
used, fetch any required data, & co-ordinate the sequence of
micro-operations.
- Opcode - The portion of a machine language instruction that
specifies the operation to be performed
- Operand - The part of an instruction containing the data or
the address of the data that is to be manipulated by the
operator
- This means that the control unit is responsible for directing the operations of all the other
components of the processor

It also has the following jobs:

- Managing the flow of data between the CPU and other devices
- Accepting the next instruction
- Storing the resulting data back in memory

Registers
Small memory cells​that operate at a ​very high speed​, used to temporarily store data​. All ​arithmetic​, ​logical​
and ​shift​operations occur in these registers.
- Program Counter (PC) - Holds the ​address​of the ​next instruction​to be executed
- Accumulator (ACC) - Stores the ​results from calculations processed by the ALU
- The processor accesses other general-purpose registers where temporary values are stored
while calculations are completed. Any result resides in the accumulator
- Memory Address Register (MAR) - Holds the ​address​of a location that ​is to be read from or
written to​
- Memory Data Register (MDR) - Temporarily stores data​that has been ​read or data that needs to
be ​written​
- Current Instruction Register (CIR) - Holds the ​current instruction​being executed, divided up into
​operand and opcode

Buses
Bus - A set of ​parallel wires​which connect ​two or more components​inside the CPU
- The communication channels linking the CPU with the RAM & I/O devices
- 3 buses in the CPU: ​data bus​, ​control bus​& ​address bus​. (collectively called the system bus)

The width of the bus is the ​number of parallel wires​the bus has.
 - The width of the bus is directly proportional​to the ​number of bits​that can be transferred
​simultaneously​at any given time.
- Buses are typically 8, 16, 32 or 64 wires wide

Data Bus
A ​bi-directional bus​used for transporting ​data​and ​instructions​between components.
- Bi-Directional Bus - A bus where bits can be carried in both directions

Address Bus
Used to transmit the ​memory addresses​specifying where data is to be sent to or retrieved from
- The width of the address bus is proportional to the ​number of addressable memory locations​

Control Bus
A ​bi-directional​bus used to transmit ​control signals​between internal and external components.
- Coordinates the use of the address and data buses and provides status information between
system components.

The control signals include:

- Bus request: shows that a device is requesting the use of the ​data bus
- Bus grant: shows that the CPU has ​granted access​to the data bus
- Memory write: data is written into the addressed location using the control bus
- Memory read: data is read from a specific location to be placed onto the data bus
- Interrupt request: shows that a device is requesting access to the CPU
- Clock: used to ​synchronise operations

Relation to assembly language programs

Assembly code​uses ​mnemonics​to represent instructions (e.g. ADD for addition), a simplified way of
representing ​machine code​.
- The instruction is divided into ​operand​and ​opcode​in the Current Instruction Register (CIR)
- Opcode - The portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be
performed
- Operand - The part of an instruction containing the data or the address of the data that is to
be manipulated by the operator

Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle
Fetch
1. The program counter (PC) holds the address of the next instruction to be executed. The contents of
the PC are copied to the memory address register (MAR), which is connected to the address bus.
2. The address of the next instruction to be executed is placed on the address bus
3. Once the address of the instruction is on the address bus, the control unit instructs a memory read
operation to allow the contents of the memory location to be transferred to the processor.
4. The instruction that is stored at that address is transferred using the data bus from the main memory
to the processor, and is saved in the memory buffer register (MBR)/memory data register (MDR).
- Simultaneously, the contents of the program counter (PC) are incremented by one so that
they point to the address of the next instruction that needs to be fetched
5. The contents of the memory data register (MDR) are copied to the current instruction register (CIR).
- This ensures that the current instruction is kept safe so that the memory data register (MDR)
can be used during the execute stage, in order to store additional data that is needed.

Decode
 1. The control unit decodes the instruction that is kept in the current instruction register (CIR). This
involves splitting the instruction into operand and opcode to determine what type of instruction
needs to be carried out, checking if additional data are required from memory, and figuring out
where these are kept in main memory.

Execute
1. The instruction is executed.
- The exact sequence of operations depends on the type of instruction that is being executed.
- For example, for an arithmetic instruction, any required data are fetched from the main
memory, then the calculation is executed by the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), and the
result of the instruction is stored in the accumulator, a general-purpose register, or back into
main memory.

Factors Affecting Performance of the CPU

Clock Speed
The clock speed is determined by the ​system clock​.
- System Clock - An electronic device which generates signals​, switching between 0 & 1.
- All processor activities begin on a clock pulse, and each CPU operation starts as the clock changes
from 0 to 1.
- The clock speed is the time taken for one clock cycle to complete.
- The quicker a cycle completes, the faster the CPU can execute tasks, making the CPU
quicker

Number of Cores
Core - An ​independent processor​that is able to run its own fetch-execute cycle.
- A computer with multiple cores can complete ​more than one​fetch-execute cycle at any given time.
- A computer with dual cores can theoretically complete tasks ​twice as fast​as a computer with a
single core.
- However, not all programs are able to utilise multiple cores efficiently as they have not been
designed to do so, so this is not always possible.

Cache
Cache - Fast, relatively small capacity set of locations that sit close to the processor used to store the most
frequently used instructions & data
- Level 1 (L1) Cache: Part of the circuitry of each core, is the smallest and fastest cache. Very fast
memory cells with a small capacity. (2-64KB)
- Level 2 (L2) Cache: It is slower than L1 cache and tends to be larger & often shared by cores.
Relatively fast memory cell, with a medium sized capacity. (256KB-2MB)
- Level 3 (L3) Cache: Sits on the processor or near it on the motherboard. Much larger and slower
memory cell.

Pipelining & Improving Efficiency

Pipelining - Process of completing the fetch, decode, and execute cycles of multiple separate instructions​
​simultaneously​, holding appropriate data in a ​buffer​in close proximity to the CPU until it’s required.
- Used to improve processor performance
- In order to apply pipelining to a task, that task needs to be able to be broken down into subtasks
that can be handled independently
- While one instruction is being executed, another can be decoded and another fetched.
- Pipelining aims to reduce the amount of the CPU which is kept ​idle​.
- It is separated into instruction pipelining​and ​arithmetic pipelining​.
 - Instruction pipelining - The simultaneous decoding of several instructions by decoding the
next instruction & fetching the one after while the current instruction is being executed
- The instruction pipeline will pre-fetch the next instruction and data and store it in a
register.
- As one instruction leaves the current instruction register (CIR), the next one is ready
to be loaded and decoded.
- At any given point, there are instructions being fetched, decoded and executed.
- Arithmetic pipelining - Breaking down the arithmetic operations and overlapping them as
they are performed.

Advantages of Pipelining
- Improved Performance: Pipelining reduces the overall execution time by increasing the output of
tasks.
- Parallel Processing: Tasks are executed concurrently, making efficient use of system resources
and maximising performance.
- Reduced Latency: The pipeline structure minimises idle time between instructions, resulting in
faster data processing

Disadvantages of Pipelining
- Structural Hazards: When there are not enough hardware resources to handle all of the pipelined
instructions (more likely with CISC processors)
- Control Hazards: when a program branches and so the next instruction to be executed is not
necessarily the one that has been fetched
- Data Hazards: When there is an attempt to read a piece of data that has not yet been written by the
previous instruction (more likely with CISC processors)

Computer Architecture
Von Neumann
Includes the basic components of the computer and processor (single control unit​, ​ALU​, ​registers​and
​memory units​) in which a ​shared memory & ​shared data bus​is used for both data and instructions.
- Built on the stored program concept (A program must be stored in main memory to be executed &
instructions are fetched one at a time & executed sequentially)
- Includes:
- a Processor
- a Memory unit that can communicate directly with the processor
- Connections for input and output devices
- Secondary storage for saving/backing up data

Harvard
Has physically separate memories for instructions and data, more commonly used with embedded
processors.
- Useful for when memories have different characteristics​
- Example: instructions may be read only, while data may be read-write.
- Allows optimisation of the size of individual memory cells & their buses depending on your needs,
- Example: the instruction memory can be designed to be larger so a larger word size can be
used for instructions

Advantages of Von Neumann Architecture Advantages of Harvard Architecture

Cheaper to develop as the control unit is easier to Quicker execution as data & instructions can be
design fetched in parallel
 Programs can be optimised in size Memories can be different sizes, which can make
more efficient use of space

Contemporary
Contemporary processors use a ​combination of Harvard and Von Neumann​architecture.
- Von Neumann is used when working with data and instructions in main memory
- Harvard architecture is used to divide the cache into instruction cache and data cache.

1.1.2 - Types of Processor

Processors: RISC vs CISC
Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
A processor with a small instruction set, where each instruction is approximately ​one line of machine code​
& takes one clock cycle to execute

Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)

A processor with a ​large instruction set that aims to try and accomplish tasks in as few lines of assembly
code as possible.
- Instructions are built into the hardware
- Used more in ​microcontrollers​& ​embedded systems​
- Used to be standard, but later were replaced by RISC design

Direct Comparison

Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)

Instruction set is made up of a small number of Instruction set is made up of a large number of
simple, fixed-length instructions complex, variable-length instructions

The compiler has to do more work to translate high The compiler has less work to translate high level
level code into machine code code into machine code

More RAM is required to store the code Less RAM is required since code is shorter

Pipelining is possible since each instruction takes Many specialised instructions are made, even
one clock cycle though only a few of them are used

One instruction is executed per clock cycle Instructions can take several clock cycles to be
executed

Limited addressing modes Compound addressing modes

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

A device which has ​lots of independent processors​which work in parallel making it very efficient at
completing ​repetitive tasks such as image processing & machine learning.
- GPUs are a type of ​co-processor​
- Co-Processor - a secondary processor designed to supplement the activities of the primary
processor
Uses
- Gaming (High quality & 3D graphics rendering)
- Parallel process calculations for machine learning algorithms
Multicore & Parallel Systems
Multicore Systems
Multi-core CPUs have ​multiple independent cores​that can complete instructions separately which results in
higher performance
- Generally, multi-core systems perform better in larger projects than parallel systems.

Parallel Systems
System that can complete instructions & tasks simultaneously with a single core, by using ​threading​
- Threading - use of multiple threads running at the same time and performing different tasks in a
single program
- Thread - a single sequential flow of control within a program

1.1.3 - Input, Output & Storage

Input & Output Devices
Input Devices
A device which can be used to put data and information into a computer
- Examples:
- Keyboard: Used to enter text into a computer
- Webcam: A camera used by a computer to take photos and record videos
- Magnetic Stripe Reader: Used to read data from magnetic stripes on cards like credit and
debit cards
- Barcode Reader: Used in supermarket checkouts and access control systems to read
information from printed labels and cards

Output Devices
A device which can be used to send out information from the computer
- Examples:
- Speakers: Used to output sound from a computer
- Printers: Used to output information from a computer onto paper
- Projector: Used to project video content from a computer onto a screen

Input & Output Devices

A small number of devices can be categorised as​both input and output ​devices
- For example, a touch screen outputs information in a visual way like a monitor, while acting as a
device for touch input.

When choosing an input/output device, these things should be considered:

- Cost
- Speed
- Accuracy
- Reliability

Storage Devices - Magnetic Storage

Devices which store information magnetically represent binary information using ​two magnetic states​:
polarised and unpolarised.
- These two states can represent ​1​& ​0​, allowing any information to be represented in binary form
 - If a portion of magnetic material is polarised, all magnetic poles align and can be read by a
read/write head passing over the region.
- If an area is not polarised, magnetic poles are randomly scattered & produce a different reading on
a read/write head.

Most common type: Hard Disk Drives​

- Other types include: Magnetic tape, floppy disk & cassette tape

Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Rotating magnetic platters at high speeds under a read/write head on an actuating arm, where the
combination of the arm & rotating platter allows the read/write head to access any part of the platter
- Typically high capacities (500GB - 5TB)
- Most HDDs will have multiple platters stacked on top of each other to maximise storage capacity.
- Disadvantages: Slow data transfer speeds​, tendency to become damaged by movement, delicate
(due to brittle platters & moving parts)

Magnetic Tape
Long stretches of tape wound into reels were passed through readers which would check the polarity of the
tape and read off a binary value
- Bulky ​way to store data
- Improvements made by reducing the width of the tape and writing in diagonal lines as opposed to
horizontal tracks
- However, the technology was superseded by more modern technology like ROM cartridges

Floppy Disks
A​thin (usually flexible) magnetic disk enclosed in plastic to protect the disk from dust and dirt.
- Incredibly portable (due to thin size & low weight)
- Good for exchanging small amounts of data
- Typical storage capacity of 1MB (later versions as much as 200MB)

Storage Devices - Flash Storage

A solid state technology that stores data on a collection of memory chips with no moving parts, as data are
accessed by software
- Makes use of silicon ​semiconductors ​forming the logic gates NAND and NOR to store electrical
charge in one of two states: high or low
- These two states represent the binary values True and False, which can be used to represent
information.

Information is stored in blocks, which are combined to form pages. a visual representation:
The preferred logic gate used for storing small quantities of data, such as code to be executed, is NOR.
- For larger files, like photos and videos, NAND is the preferred logic gate.

- Can be erased and reprogrammed ​electronically​

- Non-volatile​, meaning it stores its data even when power is lost.
- These features make SSDs a good replacement for HDDs as they have the same functionality but
improved performance.
- More expensive per gigabyte than other methods of data storage

Solid State Drives (SSDs)

- One of the most popular forms of data storage.
- Extremely light & portable
- No moving parts = resistant to damage from movement
- High data transfer rates
- High cost
 - Limited lifetime: Every time a page is written to, the voltage required to write to it increases. Over
time, this required voltage will become too high for the page to be written to.

Storage Devices - Optical Storage

A form of storage where data is stored in the reflectivity (pits & lands) of a surface and is read & written to
by a laser
- Binary information is represented by portions of the disc which either ​reflect (lands) ​or scatter (pits)
​the incident laser light written in spiral tracks on the disc’s surface.
- Pits represent 1s & Lands represent 0s

Compact Discs (CDs)

Use optical technology to store​small quantities​of information.
- Most commonly used for​audio files​, but can also be used to store ​text and ​digital images​.
- Small, thin and light = very portable
- Disadvantages: easily damaged​by scratches, their​limited storage capacity & ​relatively slow
transfer speeds​.
- Varieties of CD: CD-R (can only be written to once), CD-RW (can be written to more than once) &
CD-ROM (written to during production & can then only be read from)

Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD)

An optical storage device which has more storage capacity than a typical CD
- More suitable for storing digital videos which require more storage space than audio files or photos

Blu-Ray
An advancement over DVDs, blu-ray discs have ​more than 5x as much storage​than traditional DVDs
- Useful for storing high-resolution films

RAM & ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM)
A type of ​fast ​main memory used to store data and programs that the computer is currently using
- Volatile, short-term memory
- RAM is more expensive per gigabyte​than secondary storage devices, so computers often have
only 4 or 8 GB of RAM compared to 100s or 1000s of GB of secondary storage

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Memory that is used to store information that is permanently required to boot up & run the computer
- Non-volatile
- Not able to be written to, only read
- Contains fixed sequence of instructions, such as the BIOS & the computer’s bootstrap routine

Virtual Storage
Storing information ​remotely ​so that it can be accessed by any computer with access to the same system,
for example over the Internet. Also known as ‘cloud storage’
- Examples: ​Cloud storage services (Google Drive, Microsoft OneDrive, iCloud, etc.)
- Often an​abstraction of multiple drives ​acting like one.
- Information stored in the cloud is actually stored on 100s of hard drives or SSDs formatted to
act as a single piece of storage
- Virtual/Cloud storage is facilitated by the internet, and is usually owned and managed by
commercial organisations
- Therefore, disadvantages include: Inaccessible without internet connection, Accessibility
limited by user’s network & potential costs from companies for more storage if needed
- Virtual storage can be configured so that it automatically synchronises with local
drives.
- This means that there is always a local copy, in case there is no available internet
connection & any changes made locally will be synchronised when the connection is
next available
- However, advantages include: Easily accessible over internet, Can be easily shared with
others, security managed by external companies, no need to buy storage hardware
1.2 - Software & Software Development

1.2.1 - Systems Software

Operating Systems
The Need for Operating Systems
An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware resources, software resources &
the interactions between them, as well as providing common services for computer programs
- Examples of operating systems: iOS, macOS, Microsoft Windows, Android

Function & Purpose of Operating Systems

Operating systems are essential to a computer system as they provide the following features:
- User Interface
- Memory management (​paging, segmentation, virtual memory​)
- Resource management (​scheduling​)
- File management (​moving, editing, deleting files and folders​)
- Input/ Output management (​device drivers​)
- Interrupt management
- Utility software (​disk defragmenter, backup, formatting etc.​)
- Security (​firewall​)

Memory Management
Paging
Splitting up memory into equal-sized sections known as pages​, with programs being made up of a certain
number of equally-sized pages
- These can then be ​swapped between main memory and the hard disk​as needed when a program
is being run

The logical address space is divided into memory units called pages.
- When a page is loaded into the main memory, it is stored in a page frame,
- Page Frame - A block of sequential addresses that is the same size (has the same number
of addresses) as a page.
- Paging allows memory to be allocated in a non-contiguous manner (pages of the same process do
not need to be stored together, but can be allocated wherever there is free space in the main
memory)
- A page table is used to keep track of which page frame is allocated to each page.

Segmentation
The splitting up of memory into logical sized divisions​, known as segments, which vary in size.
- These are representative of the ​structure and logical flow of the program​, with segments being
allocated to blocks of code such as conditional statements or loops.

The memory blocks that are allocated to processes are divided into segments of different sizes to fit the
varying memory requirements of each process.
- The segments do not need to be stored continuously across a fixed address space, and they can be
moved in and out of memory as required.
- The OS tracks the allocation of memory for each process using a segment table, which records
where each segment required for a process is physically located.
Virtual Memory
Using a ​section of the hard drive​to act as RAM when the space in main memory is insufficient to store
programs being used.
- Sections of programs that are ​not currently in use​are temporarily moved into virtual memory
through paging, freeing up memory for other programs in RAM.

Interrupts
Role of Interrupts
Interrupt - Signals generated by software or hardware to indicate to the processor that a process needs
attention.

Interrupts are stored ​in order of their priority​within a ​priority queue

- Priority Queue - an abstract data structure that arranges elements based on their priority values

This priority queue is stored within the interrupt register

- Interrupt Register - a special purpose register used to flag to the CPU when an interrupt has
occurred and where it came from.
- The interrupt is signalled by switching a bit from 0 to 1 in the register corresponding to the
source of the interrupt

Buffers
Buffer - a small amount of memory inside a device where work currently being handled by the device is
stored
- Buffers are used whenever data needs to be sent or read from a device
- So devices such a printers and hard drives will all have buffers

System Stack
When the CPU gives priority to the interrupt, it keeps track of where it was in the program that is was
executing using the system stack
- It transfers the current contents of the registers to the system stack so that it can resume when the
interrupt has been processed.
- It will then the call an interrupt service routine (ISR) to deal with the interrupt

Interrupts can have different priorities, and so some interrupts may themselves be suspended while a
higher priority interrupt is being processed
- When the main process needs to be resumed, the values that were sent to the service stack are
retrieved (last in, first out), and execution resumes

Interrupt Service Routines (ISR)

A mini program that has been designed to respond to an interrupt’s request. ISRs
can be built into an operating system or provided via device drivers.

Role Within FDE Cycle

The processor checks the contents of the interrupt register ​at the end of each
Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle​.
- If an interrupt exists that is of a higher priority to the process being
executed, the ​current contents of the special purpose registers in the CPU
are temporarily transferred into a stack​.
- The processor then responds to the interrupt by ​loading the appropriate
interrupt service routine (ISR) into RAM​.
- A ​flag is set​to signal the ISR has begun
 - Once the interrupt has been serviced, the flag is reset.
- The interrupt queue is checked again for further interrupts of a higher priority to the process that
was originally being executed.
- If there are more interrupts to be serviced, the process described above is repeated until all
priority interrupts have been serviced.
- If there are no more interrupts or interrupts are of a lower priority to the current process, the
contents of the stack are transferred back into the registers in memory.
- The Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle resumes as before.

Scheduling
Scheduling - Ensuring all ​sections of programs being run​(known as ​‘jobs’​) receive a ​fair amount of
processing time by implementing various scheduling algorithms
- Scheduling methods can be:
- Pre-emptive: Jobs are actively made to start and stop by the operating system.
- For example: Multilevel Feedback Queues, Shortest Remaining Time, Round Robin
- Non-pre-emptive: Once a job is started, it is left alone until it is completed.
- For example: First Come First Served, Shortest Job First

Each process will take a certain amount of time to run, which may be:
- Bound - Will complete within a certain time
- Unbound - Will continue to run until the user finishes (e.g. playing a game or music)

Processing States
Due to the fact that only one process can run at a time on a single core processor (or on any one core of a
multicore processor) any process can be in one of three states:
- Running – the process is being run by the CPU
- Ready to Run – the process is in the queue waiting to be processed
- Blocked – the process is waiting for an I/O operation to complete (e.g. reading data from the hard
drive)

As there can be many processes ongoing at the same time, the OS maintains queues for those processes
in ‘Ready to run’ & ‘Blocked’ states

When a process is in the ‘running’ state, many things can happen to it:
- Complete & Close – if the process has completed, it can remove itself from the scheduler
- Interrupted by the Scheduler (pre-empted) – the scheduling algorithm has determined that the
process has had enough processing time, and so will swap in another process and place the current
process back into the ready to run queue.
- Become Clocked - if a process is waiting for an I/O event, it will be moved immediately to the
blocked queue so that it does not waste processing time
- Give Up CPU Time - some processes will voluntarily give up processing time to allow other
processes time on the CPU

Process Swapping
While a process is in the running state, the program data & instructions will occupy the CPU registers
- When the process is swapped out, this data will need to be saved so that the process can resume
where it left off

A data structure called a process control block is created to store the:

- Program Counter values
 - General purpose register values
- Accumulator values
- Variables and process states

Deadlock & Starvation

Deadlock - When a process arrives at a state where it can no longer carry on
- This may be due to waiting for a resource that is no longer available or is being held by another
process.

Starvation - When a process keeps getting pre-empted by higher priority processes, so that it never
actually gets processor time, or does not get enough processor time to complete.

One of the main purposes of the scheduling algorithm is to prevent either of these situations happening

Round Robin
Each job is given​a section of processor time​(a ​time slice​)
within which it is allowed to execute
- If the process has not finished when this time is up, it
stops running and the computer switches to the next
process.
- The process that has been suspended will only
be able to resume running when it is next
allocated processor time.
- Round robin is a pre-emptive algorithm as it allows the
OS to remove a process from the CPU before it is completed.

Features of Round Robin

+ Ensures each job is seen to
+ Every task is allocated processor time without a long wait
+ Fairest algorithm & will reduce opportunities for starvation
- Does not take into account job priority​
- May affect the user experience particularly for applications with interactive interfaces
- Does not scale well, because as more processes run, the time slice for each process gets smaller
- This means that more urgent tasks are less likely to be completed quickly

First Come First Served

Jobs are processed in chronological order by which they entered the queue
- All processes are queued up in the order they arrive and dealt with according to their position.

Features of First Come First Served

+ Straightforward to implement
+ In a system that only has a few concurrent
processes, it can work well.
- There can be a long wait before a process can run, as the processes run in the order in which the
processor receives their request to run

Multi-Level Feedback Queues

This makes use of ​multiple queues​, each which is ordered based on a
different priority

Processes are chosen from different queues based on the priority of each
queue and how much processing time each process has already had:
 - Initially, processes are added to a queue with a certain level of priority.
- If a process uses too much CPU time, it is moved to a lower priority queue and if a process has
been idle for a long time, it is moved to a higher priority queue.
- This helps avoid starvation.
- Processes that depend on input/output devices require a lot of processing time, so they are kept in
high priority queues, and processes that are quick to complete are served first.

Features of Multi-Level Feedback Queues

+ More important jobs are dealt with sooner
+ Queues become more balanced the more the tasks are processed
+ Ensures that no single high-priority task dominates the processor's time
- Can be ​difficult to implement ​due to deciding which job to prioritise based on a combination of
priorities

Shortest Job First

The queue storing jobs to be processed is ordered according to the time required for completion, with the
longest jobs being serviced at the end.
- This type of scheduling is most suited to ​batch systems​, where shorter jobs are given preference to
minimise waiting time.

Features of Shortest Job First

+ Reduces wait times because shorter processes are removed quickly
- Susceptible to starvation if shorter jobs keep being added
- The scheduler will keep prioritising shorter jobs, which means that longer processes will not
be serviced

Shortest Remaining Time

The queue storing jobs to be processed is ordered according to the time left for completion, with the jobs
with the least time to completion being serviced first
- This is different to the shortest job first algorithm because a long job which is mostly complete might
have a very short time remaining, and would therefore be prioritised.
- SRT is a pre-emptive algorithm as it allows the OS to remove a process from the CPU before it is
completed.

Features of Shortest Remaining Time

- Risk of processor starvation for longer jobs if quick jobs are added to the job queue

Types of Operating Systems

Distributed
This is a type of operating system which is run across ​multiple devices​, allowing the load to be spread
across multiple computer processors​when a task is run.
- A distributed operating system coordinates the communication between these computer nodes and
essentially makes them component parts that are joined together as a whole.
- They are designed to spread different tasks across a range of computers to make use of their
combined processing power so that greater performance is achieved.

Distributed systems are useful when processor-intensive tasks need to be completed and a single
processor cannot provide enough computational power on its own.
Embedded
Used in computers which only serve a specific purpose, and are therefore built to perform a​​small range of
specific tasks​, catered towards a specific device​
- Provide a reliable platform for specific applications to carry out their processes.
- Often used to provide hardware reliability and ensure efficient use of resources, although this is
usually at the cost of flexibility of the system.
- Likely to be customised for the device on which they are installed, so that they best harness the
resources of the hardware to ensure the device is optimised for the best performance
- Limited in their functionality & hard to update
- Consume significantly less power​than other types of OS

Multi-Tasking
Enable the user to​carry out tasks simultaneously through the use of ​time slicing​to ​switch quickly between
programs and applications in memory.
- Specifically designed to enable the management of multiple processes at once so the CPU can be
given the right tasks at the right time to make it appear that all of the programs are running quickly
and simultaneously

Multi-User
Provides the facilities to enable several users to all access a system’s resources at the same time
- Controls the consumption of resources so that users can access the same system at the same time,
without adversely affecting the other users
- Therefore a ​scheduling algorithm must be used​to ensure processor time is shared fairly
between jobs.
- Without a suitable scheduling algorithm, there is a risk of​processor starvation

Real-Time
Supports applications that need to process data, produce a particular output to perform tasks within a
definitive time period
- Not likely to be as flexible as other operating systems as they need to ensure a consistent response
to inputs within a guaranteed time period.
- Commonly used in ​time-critical computer systems (e.g. plane autopilot systems, self-driving cars)

Real-time operating systems are optimised to process priority jobs incredibly quickly.
- They will also have ‘fail-safe’ features so that in the event of a piece of hardware failing there is
another component that can quickly be used

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)

Basic Input/Output System
First program that runs when a computer system is switched on, which initialises and tests the hardware in
a computer system so that it is ready for use by other software on the computer.
- Loads the bootloader/bootstrap program from secondary storage, which starts the initialisation of
the operating system.
- Bootloader - The program that loads the operating system from secondary storage into
main memory
- Without the BIOS, nothing could be loaded, as the main memory does not contain any instructions
that could start the boot process.

The Program Counter register points to the location of the BIOS upon each start-up of the computer as the
BIOS is responsible for running various key tests before the operating system is loaded into memory, such
as:
 - POST (Power-on self test)​which ensures that all hardware are correctly connected and functional
- Checking the CPU clock, memory & processor is operational
- Testing for external memory devices connected to the computer

BIOS is critical to the computer system as it is only after these checks are completed that the operating
system can be loaded into RAM from secondary storage

BIOS is stored in ROM, but changes, configurations & updates to the original BIOS are stored on the
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor), a small chip within the computer.

Power On Self Test (POST)

1. Sends an initialisation signal to each device and instructs them to run self tests
2. The device returns their current state

Devices may not be permitted to run if they return an invalid state

- POST does not guarantee that the device is fully functional as the tests are very basic
- Once POST is completed, the BIOS will know which boot devices are available

Device Drivers
Small computer programs which are provided to the operating system
and allow the operating system to ​interact with peripheral devices
- When a piece of hardware is used, the device driver
​communicates this request to the operating system​which can
then produce the relevant output
- Specific to the computer’s architecture​& operating system, so
different drivers must be used for different device types &
different operating systems
- Drivers extend the functionality of an operating system

When a program requests to interact with a hardware device, it calls a routine within the driver software of
that device, which will cause the device to perform specific tasks.
- The drivers may also receive requests from the device that require the processor to be interrupted.
- The driver will then provide the interrupt service routine to the operating system

Typically, drivers are installed using software routines that are either built into the operating system, or
where necessary, downloaded from the internet.
- If a new device is added to the system, the OS will detect it and try to install the relevant device
driver
- It is able to identify this by querying the device for the vendor ID (VID) and product ID (PID) which
can then be checked against a database of known drivers

Virtual Machines
Virtual Machine - A ​theoretical computer​in that it is a software implementation of a computer system​.
- Occurs when a host system run a software that allows other software to behave as if it were running
on a hardware system
- It provides an ​environment with a translator​for intermediate code to run
- Commonly used to create a​development environment​for programmers to test programs on
different operating systems
- Can be configured to replicate any combination of hardware so that the software running on it works
as if it were accessing certain devices, even if they don't exist.
Host System - The computer running the virtual machine
Guest system - the virtual machine itself
- The guest system will have it’s own RAM, processor and hard drive allocation, but will have no
knowledge of the host system
- It does not know that it is being run as a virtual machine
- The virtual machine runs as a sandbox, a self contained environment

Features of Virtual Machines

+ ​Saves time & money​of having to purchase multiple devices solely for testing applications on
various operating systems
+ Protection from malware: Malware will affect the virtual machine rather than the host device being
used

Uses of Virtual Machines

Main uses of virtual machines include:
- Running alternative operating systems: A VM can be created to allow the installation of one
operating system within another operating system.
- This might be a legacy OS or an OS that might not normally be able to run on the hardware
host.
- The VM can emulate different hardware setups so that the software runs as if it were running
on a different hardware platform
- Supporting incompatible software: Some older software might not run on newer systems.
- A VM could emulate an older system, on which the user could run the older software.
- Creating a test system: VMs are closed and controlled environments. The 'hardware' of the VM
only exists as a self-contained software process that is isolated from the actual host system.
- This provides the opportunity to run software that could potentially be damaging, such as
malware or early versions of software that need to be analysed.
- Running multiple servers: Servers on networks are required to fulfil multiple roles, such as
providing access to file stores or storing email accounts for users.
- More than one server can run on a virtual machine, which allows for separation of services
without the need for multiple pieces of hardware.

Executing Intermediate Code

Intermediate Code - Code that is ​halfway between machine code and object code
- Rather than compiling program code into machine code that can only be run on similar platforms,
some languages use virtual machines to act as an intermediary between the system and the source
code
- Using a VM as an intermediary between the system and the source code allows the same code to
be used on any platform that can run the VM.

At run-time, the original program is translated into intermediate code, which is then passed to a virtual
machine.
- The VM then runs this code and determines how to control the host computer so that it can carry out
the relevant instructions.
- Running intermediate code in a virtual machine can also be ​considerably slower ​compared to
running low-level code on the device it was designed for

Java is a programming language that utilises VMs & intermediate code

- The high-level code is compiled to Java bytecode and then the Java virtual machine executes the
code on the hardware platform that it is running on
- Advantages:
 + Code is both compiled (to produce the bytecode) and interpreted (by the JVM)
+ Code can be run on many different hosts without needing to be recompiled
+ No need to release source code, so intellectual property is protected
+ Code can be optimised by both the compiler & the interpreter

1.2.2 - Applications Generation

Nature of Applications
General Purpose Software
Software that can be used for a variety of tasks
- General purpose software includes office applications, such as presentation software and word
processing software
- As general purpose software can be used for a number of different tasks, it is likely to attract a lot of
users, and therefore, it can be sold at quite a low price.

Bespoke Software
Software that is developed to meet the user’s specific requirements.
- As bespoke software is developed for a specific task and/or user, it is unlikely that other users will
wish to buy it, and therefore, development costs, ongoing support & maintenance costs are high
- May have bugs because only a few users will ever get to test them (compared to general purpose
software which is often beta tested through perhaps many thousands of end users)
- If the user’s needs were not correctly specified before the software was developed, the software
may not meet the requirements of the users (dependent on the development methodology used)

Applications Software
Software designed to be​used by the end-user to perform one specific task​
- Requires systems software in order to run
- Examples: ​desktop publishing, word processors, spreadsheets​, ​web browsers
- Application software can be general purpose (e.g. word processing software), special purpose
(mathematical calculator software) or bespoke

Systems Software
Low-level software that is responsible for running the computer system smoothly​, interacting with hardware
and generally providing a platform for applications software to run.
- The user does not directly interact with systems software but it ensures high performance for the
user.
- Examples: ​library programs, utility programs, operating system, device drivers.

Justifying Suitable Applications for a Specific Purpose

Things to Consider:
- The features it offers and whether it meets your needs
- The cost of the software and whether or not it outweighs the benefits that the software will bring
- Whether or not the source code is available enabling you to develop it further if you want
- The platform that the software can run on and whether you have the hardware to run it or not
- Whether or not the application is hosted in the cloud or simply on a single device

Utilities
Utility Software - System software integral to ensuring the ​consistent, high performance​of the operating
system
- Each utility program has a ​specific function​linked to the ​maintenance of the operating system
- Examples: Compression, Defragmentation, Anti-virus, Backup, Encryption, Formatting Software
Encryption Software
Scrambles information using an algorithm & a key so that it is not understandable to anyone without the key
- Does not prevent the data being intercepted, it prevents it from being understood after interception
- Most common uses is to encrypt when transmitting data, but some OS automatically encrypt
secondary storage to prevent data theft in the event that the device is lost
- Most cloud providers also encrypt data when it is stored

Formatting Software
Prepares the storage device for data storage by creating sectors & tracks which data can be stored
(magnetic storage)
- Creates a special list called the File Allocation Table (FAT)
- This is used to keep track of where data is located, each time a new file is written to a hard
disk, the table is updated with where the data is physically stored in the disk
- When you format a disk, the data on the disk is not deleted, it is the entry on the FAT which is
deleted
- The computer can no longer locate any data & will think its empty, but the data actually
remains, just overwritten
- There are utilities that will forensically wipe a disk by writing 0s to every memory location

Defragmentation Software
As files are stored as singular ‘blocks’ contiguously, over time, these ‘blocks’ get fragmented over the hard
disk, making reading files longer as the hard drive needs to be searched in multiple places instead of one
contiguous area
- Rearranges the hard disk so that all ‘blocks’ of a program are places together and all free space is
collated at the end
+ This helps to shorten read/write times
- Not used on SSDs, as they already have very fast seek times, so even if files are stored across
many locations, it does not provide any meaningful performance benefit to defragment an SSD
- SSDs also have a finite read-write cycles before they start to degrade, so defragmentation
would needlessly use up these

Compression Software
Reduces the size of files.
- Reasons why it is needed
- Less storage space required
- Faster download times – improving online experience
- Improved streaming of video/audio files

There are two ways in which compression software might reduce the size of a file, lossy or lossless:
- Lossy Compression: When unrequired data is removed from a file.
- MP3s are an example of this where sound quality may reduce but not to a point which is
noticeable by the listener.
- Lossless Compression: This is when data is temporarily removed from the file, but added back
(rebuilt) when the file is to be used again.
- Zip files are an example of this. They will need to be unzipped (extracted) to be useable
again

Antivirus Software
Responsible for ​detecting potential threats​to the computer, alerting the user and removing these threats.
Backup Software
Automatically creates routine copies of specific files selected in specific time periods by the user.
- This means that in the event of a power failure, malicious attack or other accident, files can be
recovered.

2 Types of Backup Software

- Full Backup - All files are backed up to the device
- Incremental Backup - Only files that have been modified since the previous backup are backed up

Open Source vs. Closed Source

Considerations when choosing open source vs closed source software:
- Costs - ​implementation, maintenance, training of staff, licence
- Functionality - ​features available, ease of use

Open Source
Open Source - Software for which the source code is freely available to download in which the code can be
inspected and modified to suit the specific requirements of the user
- Although most of the time is free, all open source software is licenced with a GNU general public
licence
- This prevents someone taking the ideas from a piece of open course software, modifying it &
then releasing it as closed source

Advantages
+ Can be modified and improved by anyone
+ Technical support from online community
+ Can freely share the software with others
+ Software licence is usually free

Disadvantages
- Support available online may be insufficient or incorrect
- No user manuals
- Lower security as may not be developed in a controlled environment

Closed Source
Closed Source - Software that requires the user to have a licence to use, in which the source code is not
editable or freely available
- It is developed and provided to the user as a fully compiled, executable set of files

Advantages
+ Thorough, regular and well-tested updates
+ Company owning software provides expert support & user manuals
+ High levels of security as developed professionally
+ The company is obliged to provide software that is “fit for purpose” as it is covered by the Trades
Description Act

Disadvantages
- Licence restricts how many people can use the software at once
- Users cannot modify and improve software themselves
- Licence usually has to be paid for
Translators
Translator - a program that ​converts high-level source code into low-level object code​, which is then ready
to be executed by a computer

Machine Code
Made up of instructions & data represented by bits. Each instruction consists of an operator (or opcode)
and and operand
- Operator/Opcode - the actual instruction that the CPU needs to decode & execute. The instructions
that a CPU understands is given by its instruction set
- Operand - Any data that the instruction needs to work

Assembly Language
An abstraction of machine code that uses a small set of commands which represent machine code
instructions (mnemonics)
- Assembly language commands have a one to one relationship with machine language commands
- E.g. instead of 1011, a command like ADD would be used
- CPU Specific: The instructions used are dependent on the instruction set of the processor​.

High-Level Languages
A programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer, which is easily written in
and read by humans (E.g. Python, Java, C++)
+ Offer a further abstraction of machine code. Uses (close to) natural language to represent key
functions that are then carried out by one or more machine language commands
+ Easier to write for humans, but still is easily converted to machine code so that it can be processed
by the CPU
- An instruction in high-level languages can represent many instructions that a CPU will carry out.
- Writing in source code can therefore lead to a CPU running commands that may not actually
be directly required, causing the program to run slower than it could

Low-Level Languages
A programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a computer's instruction set architecture
(E.g. Assembly Language)
- They may be used because one instruction in low level language represents a single instruction, a
programmer can control precisely the actions of the CPU & how it uses the RAM
- This means that programmers can write highly efficient programs, which will run faster & use
memory more resourcefully.

Compilers
Translate high-level code into machine code ​all at once​, after carrying out a number of checks and reporting
back any errors.
+ Produces a fully optimised executable file (but does not execute code)
+ Code can be run ​without a translator​being present
+ Runs faster than interpreted code after being compiled
- This ​initial compilation process is longer​than using an interpreter or an assembler
- If changes need to be made, the whole program must be recompiled.
- Once code has been compiled to produce machine code, it can only be executed on certain devices
- compiled code is specific to a particular processor type and operating system​.

Most commercial software applications are distributed as compiled code so that the source code is
protected, this is due to the fact that the executable file is produced in such a way that cannot be read by a
human or readily reversed-engineered.
Interpreters
Translate and execute code line-by-line​. These are mostly used in the development stage of a program.
+ Can quickly stop & produce an error if a line contains an error.
+ This feature makes interpreters useful for ​testing ​sections of code and pinpointing errors, as
time is not wasted compiling the entire program before it has been fully debugged.
- Code can be executed on a range of platforms​as long as the right interpreter is available, thus
making interpreted code​more portable​
- Translator must be present on computer being run
- Slower than running compiled code, as it needs to be translated each time it is executed

Assemblers
Translate assembly code into machine code.
- Each line of assembly code is equivalent to almost one line of machine code​so code is translated
on almost a one-to-one basis.
- Relatively simple translation process, as compared to translating high-level into machine code

Comparing Translators

Feature Compiler Interpreter

Source Code Hidden from other developers, Visible to other developers, IP at
intellectual property is protected risk

Multiple Platforms Code is compiled for a specific Will run anywhere there is a
CPU instruction set and OS suitable interpreter

Distribution The code is compiled into a Requires the interpreter and

standalone .exe file and so is possibly other library files to be
easily distributed installed in order to run

Stages of Compilation
Lexical Analysis
First stage of compilation, ​whitespace & comments are removed​from the code & the remaining code is
analysed for keywords and names of variables and constants.
- These then are ​replaced with tokens​and information about the token associated with each keyword
or identifier is stored in a ​symbol table​.
- Tokens: Each aspect of the code has its purpose in the code identified (a command, a variable
name, a value, arithmetic operator, etc.) & each token is added to a symbol table.
- Example:
while flag = False:
print “not found”;
#terminates when item is found
goes through lexical analysis to become:
while flag=False:
print“not found”;

Symbol Table - Used by the compiler to keep track of all of the elements identified in the program
- The format of the symbol table will vary depending on the compiler, but may typically contain:
- An identifier
- the kind of item (variable, keyword, operator etc.)
- the data type
 - run time memory address or value
- scope & restrictions (local vs global)

Token Stream
- Aim of lexical analysis is to convert the code into a token stream, based on the symbol table The
token stream, is then passed to the next stage which check whether it is in an acceptable order,
according to the syntax rules of the language

Syntax Analysis
Tokens are analysed against the grammar & rules of the programming language​.
- Any tokens that break the rules of the programming language are ​flagged up as syntax errors​&
added to a list of errors.
- Examples of Syntax Errors: ​undeclared variable type, incomplete set of brackets
- An ​abstract syntax tree is produced​, which is an unambiguous data structure representation of the
source code in a syntactically correct form
- Further detail about identifiers is also added to the symbol table.
- Semantic analysis​is also carried out at the syntax analysis stage, where logic mistakes within the
program are detected.
- Examples of semantic errors: ​multiple declaration​, ​undeclared identifiers

Code Generation
A separate program is created that is distinct from the original source code.
- The abstract syntax tree produced in the syntax analysis stage is used to produce machine code.
- The code that is generated is in binary form, known as the object code.
- This is a major distinguishing feature between compilation and interpretation; interpreters do not
produce a separate executable file
- Libraries that are used within the code are not included in this, this is where linkers are used

Machine Code Templates

<achien code generation maps part of the abstract syntax tree to blocks of machine code
- Common tasks (e.g. assign, add, store) will have machine code templates which can be used
- these are mapped to the syntax tree, without needing to recreate sections of code that are already
commonly used, speeding up the compilation process

Optimisation
Searches through the code for areas it could be made more efficient by detecting & removing insignificant,
​redundant parts of code
- ​Repeated sections of code may be grouped and replaced with a more efficient piece of code which
produces the same result.
- The aim of optimisation is to​make the code faster to execute​although this stage can significantly
​add to the overall time taken for compilation​.
- There is a danger, however, that excessive optimisation may alter the way in which the program
behaves.

Linkers, Loaders & Libraries

Linkers
Piece of software used during the compilation process that is responsible for​incorporating external
modules and libraries included within the executable file. There are two types of linker:
- Static: Modules & libraries are ​added directly​into the main file.
- Increases the size of the file​.
- Any updates to modules and libraries externally will not affect the program.
 - This means a specific version of a library can be used
- Dynamic: Addresses of modules & libraries​are included in the file where they are referenced.
- When the program is run, the loader retrieves the program at the specified address so it can
be executed.
- Files remain small​& external updates feed through to the main file​; there is no need to
rewrite the code

Loaders
Part of the operating system which are responsible for loading the executable files into memory from
secondary storage and prepares the program for execution
- Programs are provided by the operating system.
- When a file is executed, the l​oader retrieves the library or subroutine from the given memory
location​

Use of Libraries
Libraries -​Pre-compiled programs ​which can be incorporated within other programs using either static or
dynamic linking.
- Ready-to-use and error free​, so ​save time developing & testing modules
- Can be reused within multiple programs
- Often used to provide a specialised range of functions which would otherwise require a lot of time
and effort to develop, so​save programmers from having to recreate existing functions & instead
make use of others’ expertise.
- Popular libraries provide mathematical and graphical functions.
1.2.3 - Software Development
General Stages of Software Development
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) - Describes the different stages that happen during a software or
system project
Software can be developed using a variety of methodologies, however, they all have a general form of:

Feasibility
Can be evaluated using ‘TELOS’
- Technical: ​is the project possible considering the technology available and accessible?
- Economic: ​can the project be financed in the short-term and the long-term?
- Legal: ​can the project be solved within the law?
- Operational: ​can the project be successfully implemented and maintained?
- Scheduling: ​can the project be completed given the time available?

Analysis
- Stakeholders​state what they require from the finished product. This information is used to​clearly
define the problem​and the ​system requirements​. Requirements may be defined by:
- Analysing strengths and weaknesses with current way this problem is being solved
- Considering types of data involved including inputs, outputs, stored data and amount of data
- Aspects to be considered:
- Features: High-level statements of what the system will do
- Requirements: What the system needs to do to develop the features
- Success Factors: How we will check that we have met the requirements

Design
Translating requirements into feasible solutions, as well as defining & justifying any limitations that the
project may have. A test plan may also be designed at this stage.

The different aspects of the new system are designed, such as:
- Inputs: ​volume, methods, frequency
- Outputs: ​volume, methods, frequency
- Security features: ​level required, access levels
- Hardware set-up: ​compatibility
- User interface: ​menus, accessibility, navigation

Development
The design from the previous stage is used to split the project into ​individual, self-contained modules​, which
are allocated to teams for programming.
- These are all then tested

Testing
The program is tested against the test plan formed in the Design stage. There are various types of testing
that can be carried out:
1. White Box Testing: A form of testing ​carried out by software development teams​in which the test
plan is based on the ​internal structure of the program​. All of the ​possible routes through the program
are tested
- The structure of the code is tested & so requires knowledge of how the code is written
- Each path through the code must be tested to check that the code runs as expected
- Unit Tests: Designed to check that a section of code is working in isolation from the rest of
the code
 - This stage of testing will use valid, invalid/erroneous & boundary/extreme inputs to make
sure that code can handle such inputs correctly
2. Black Box Testing: Form of testing where the software is tested​without the testers being aware of
the internal structure​of the software and can be carried out both within the company and by
end-users.
- The test plan traces through​inputs and outputs within the software
- Doesn’t require knowledge of how the code is working, only on the required functionality of
the program
- Testers will not normally be end users who are not familiar with the code, but are familiar
with what the code needs to do
- Usually follow a test script, which defines how the test should be carried out
- Test scripts specify the actions to take & the data to use in the test
- Based on the requirements, the expected outcomes will be known & can be compared to the
actual outcome, which if they are the same then the test is passed,
- If not, it fails and is sent back to the developers for remedial action
3. Alpha Testing: Carried out​​in-house​by the software development teams within the company. Bugs
are pinpointed and fixed.
- Alpha builds are for the developer as they may be unstable or non-functional in some areas,
but give an idea of the current state of system development
4. Beta Testing: Carried out by end-users​after alpha testing has been completed. ​Feedback from
users ​is used to inform the next stage of development.
- Beta builds are done once the main functionality is all complete & the system is assessed to
be stable
- End users test the system as if they were using the end product in order to find any
remaining bugs or issues
- Any bugs which are found are passed back to the development team to be fixed
- Companies use beta releases to expose the software to as many end users as
possible so that it is thoroughly tested

Importance of Testing
- Untested or poorly tested code will result in unstable software & possibly non-working requirement,
which will lead to user dissatisfaction
- Developers are not the best people to test code as they make subconscious assumptions
about how the code will be used, which may not will be true of an end user
- An independent user is more likely to find bugs, as they will use the software in the same
way a user might
- The netter tested code is, the most stable & robust it will be
- The earlier on in the development process that bugs are found, the easier they will be to fix (and
less expensive to fix)

NOT ON SPEC: More Types of Testing:

- Acceptance Testing: Last testing phase & is the final verification that the end product meets the
requirements of the user
- Tests will usually be end to end of the system to make sure that it all works correctly using
data matches reality as far as possible
- completion of acceptance testing is a major project milestone as it is usually linked to the
developers getting paid
- Regression Testing: Testing the newer enhancements of the code doesn’t adversely affect any
previously existing code
- Often a software project will be an enhancement of an existing system, with new features
added in or existing bugs or security issues fixed
 - Generally involved running previously run tests to make sure that the outcome is still as it
was & hasn’t been changed by the new code
- Load Testing: Testing how a program operates under a high demand
- As many applications are developed as client-server models, it is Important in understanding
how the application will behave under different levels of users (load
- Business will generally be able to predict the highest load on a system might be so they can
make estimates to inform load testing
- Automated software is generally used to run load tests as it is difficult to run load tests
reliably & manually

Implementation
Where the system is made available to the end users
This may mean installing the solution onto production server & setting up the support mechanism
- May also include producing & shipping physical products
- May include making a download available through online services
- In the immediate period after implementation, the development team will generally retain
responsibility for support

Once the testing stage has been used to make the appropriate changes to the software, it is ​installed onto
the users’ systems​

Methods of Implementation: Older to Newer Systems

- Direct Changeover: Old system is directly replaced by the new system
- Risky approach as new systems inevitably will have bugs and users will make mistakes
when starting to use it
- Can lead to loss of productivity or a temporary shut down of the business if the new system
does not work as it should
- Phased Changeover: New modules are introduced alongside an existing system
- Can be used for modular applications
- New modules & existing system must be able to work together for continuity
- May need temporary middleware solutions to connect the new and old systems
together
- Pilot Changeover: New system is trialled in a small part of a business
- Any problems that arise will only affect a small part of the business and can be corrected
before the project is implemented more widely
- Parallel Changeover: Old & new system are run alongside each other to make sure that the new
system is fully working
- Involves duplication of tasks
- Ensures that there is no downtime or loss of business due to the new system failing
- Relatively safe, but creates much more work
- Tends to be used only for critical systems & for as short a time period as possible

Evaluation
Effectiveness of the software​is evaluated against the system requirements​defined at the analysis stage to
evaluate its suitability in solving the problem.
- Different criteria are considered, including robustness, reliability, portability ​and ​maintainability​

Maintenance
Any errors or improvements that could be made to the software are ​flagged up by the end-users​.
- Programmers will regularly send out​software updates to ​fix any bugs, security issues​or make any
needed improvements.
There may also be a roadmap for how the developers see the system developing over the coming years.

Waterfall Lifecycle
Based on a series of stages which are completed in sequence​, from start to finish.
1. Feasibility & Problem Definition
2. Requirements
3. Analysis
4. Design
5. Development
6. Implementation
7. Evaluation
8. Maintenance

At the end of each phase, it is a formal milestone where documentation is reviewed & approved by
stakeholders
- Change management is important in the waterfall method in order to incorporate information that
was not known at an earlier stage but is found to be important later

Advantages
+ Straightforward to manage
+ Clearly documented
+ Rigid & Structured

Disadvantages
- Lack of flexibility
- No risk analysis
- Limited user involvement
- Relies on accurate & meticulous planning

Appropriate Situations For Use

If the user requirements are clearly understood and well specified, the waterfall lifecycle methodology can
be suitable.
- For innovative & complicated projects where not much is known at the beginning, this approach is
unlikely to be successful.
- Static, low-risk projects which need little user input, such as a piece of general-purpose software,
are more likely to be successful with this methodology

Agile Methodologies
A​collection of methodologies which aim to improve the
flexibility of software development​and adapt to changes in
user requirements faster​
- It is also easier to make improvements or changes
to the software.

Features of Agile Methodologies

- Problem is broken down into ​sections which are developed in parallel
- Design & analysis phases often occur together
- Different sections of software can be at ​different stages of development​
- Working prototype​is ​delivered early on​and prototypes are built upon and improved in an ​iterative
manner​so that ​new prototypes are delivered regularly throughout the course of the development
cycle
 - Less of a focus on documentation​& more priority is given to ​user satisfaction​

Advantages
+ Produces high quality code
+ Flexible to changing requirements
+ Regular user input

Disadvantages
- Poor documentation
- Requires consistent interaction between user & programmer
- Projects can sometimes take longer than anticipated where users make continuous requests for
minor changes or new features/functionality

Appropriate Situations For Use

Small to medium projects with unclear initial requirements
- Can be used for larger projects, but must be broken down into sub-problems, each of which has the
agile methodology applied to it independently

Extreme Programming
An ​agile model ​in which the development team consists of a ​pair of programmers alongside a
representative end-user​.
- The model is built on ‘​user stories​’: system requirements are specified by the end-user and used
when designing the program.
- The aim of paired programming is to produce ​high-quality code​, as the code is written by one
person and critiqued by the other so it is improved as it is written.
- Each iteration through the cycle generates what is called a ‘​working version​’, as opposed to a
‘prototype’, of the program, meaning it could function as the final product

At the start of each release, there is a planning phase that determines what will be developed and how it
will be tested.
- There is a heavy emphasis on development standards and strict version control.
- At the end of each release, there is a feedback stage that will inform the next release.

Advantages
+ Produces high quality code
+ Constant user involvement means high usability
+ Having a user on each team means that there is a strong focus on getting the user requirements
right

Disadvantages
- High cost of two people working on one project
- Teamwork is essential
- End-user may not be able to be present
- Projects can sometimes take longer than anticipated where users make continuous requests for
minor changes

Appropriate Situations For Use

Small to medium projects with unclear initial requirements requiring excellent usability.
- Not suitable for projects where the users are hard to contact or do not want to be actively involved,
because of its emphasis on continuous feedback
Spiral Model
Uses project cycles, where a version of the software (a prototype) is formally reviewed to inform the next
cycle. Built on 4 key stages with the focus of ​effectively managing risk-heavy projects​:
1. Feasibility & Proof of concept
2. Analysing system requirements
3. Pinpointing and mitigating risks
- If the project is found to be too risky at any point, the project is ​terminated​
4. Development, testing & implementation
5. Evaluating & Feedback from user to inform the next iteration

Then the cycle repeats continuously until a suitable solution with all the user requirements met is produced.

Advantages
+ Thorough risk-analysis and mitigation
+ Caters to changing user needs
+ Produces prototypes throughout

Disadvantages
- Expensive to hire risk assessors
- Lack of focus on code efficiency
- High costs due to constant prototyping
- Can easily go overtime & become more expensive

Appropriate Situations For Use

Large, risk-intensive projects with a high budget
- Hiring risk assessors to analyse the risks involved can be ​expensive​, which makes this methodology
​suited to only very large-scale projects with a high budget

Rapid Application Development (RAD)

Iterative methodology ​which uses ​partially functioning prototypes​which are continually built-upon​.
- Different elements of the solution will be worked on in parallel before being combined into a
prototype
- User requirements are ​initially gathered using focus groups​& used to develop an ​‘incomplete’
version of the solution​which is given to the user to trial.
- User feedback​is then used to generate the next, ​improved prototype​
- This continues until the prototype matches the requirements of the end-users at which point
it becomes the final product

Advantages
+ Caters to changing user requirements
+ Highly usable finished product
+ Focus on core features, reducing development time

Disadvantages
- Poorer quality documentation
- Fast pace may reduce code quality

Appropriate Situations For Use

Small to medium, low-budget projects with short time-frames
- Commonly used where ​user requirements are incomplete or unclear at the start​.
 - Not suitable for projects where the users are hard to contact or do not want to be actively involved,
because of its emphasis on continuous feedback

Writing & Following Algorithms

Algorithm is a ​set of instructions used to solve a particular problem or task
- Will be written in such a way that it mimics the structures & constructs of all programming languages
so th any programmer (regardless of programming language) can write programs from that
algorithm with ease

Features of Good Algorithms

- Must have clearly defined Inputs (what is valid and what is invalid?)
- Must ​always ​produce a ​valid output for any defined input
- Must be able to ​deal with invalid inputs
- Must always reach a​stopping condition
- Must be ​well-documented​for reference
- Must be ​well-commented​so modifications can easily be made

INCORRECT Methods of Writing Algorithms

Specific Language
- Time consuming
- Pointless (could just code)
- Can’t be sued by other programmers using a different language
- Too complex (requires knowledge of syntax)

Everyday language
- Too Time consuming
- Inaccurate, (ambiguous & open to interpretation)

CORRECT Methods of Writing Algorithms

Pseudocode & Flowcharts

Comparing Software Development Methodologies

Methodology Advantages Disadvantages Uses

Waterfall Straightforward to manage Lack of flexibility If the user requirements are

Clearly documented No risk analysis clearly understood and well
Rigid & Structured Limited user involvement specified, the waterfall
Relies on accurate & lifecycle methodology can
meticulous planning be suitable
- Static, low-risk
projects which need
little user input,
such as a piece of
general-purpose
software, are more
likely to be
successful with this
methodology
Agile Produces high quality code Poor documentation Small to medium projects
Flexible to changing Requires consistent with unclear initial
requirements interaction between user & requirements
Regular user input programmer - Can be used for
Projects can sometimes larger projects, but
take longer than anticipated must be broken
where users make down into
continuous requests for sub-problems, each
minor changes or new of which has the
features/functionality agile methodology
applied to it
independently

Spiral Thorough risk-analysis and Expensive to hire risk Large, risk-intensive

mitigation assessors projects with a high budget
Caters to changing user Lack of focus on code - Projects where
needs efficiency continuous risk
Produces prototypes High costs due to constant assessment and
management are
throughout prototyping
critical
Can easily go overtime &
become more expensive

Extreme Produces high quality code High cost of two people Small to medium projects
Programming Constant user involvement working on one project with unclear initial
means high usability Teamwork is essential requirements requiring
Having a user on each End-user may not be able excellent usability.
team means that there is a to be present - Not suitable for
strong focus on getting the Projects can sometimes projects where the
user requirements right take longer than anticipated users are hard to
where users make contact or do not
continuous requests for want to be actively
minor changes involved, because
of its emphasis on
continuous
feedback

Rapid Caters to changing user Poorer quality Small to medium,

Application requirements documentation low-budget projects with
Development Highly usable finished Fast pace may reduce code short time-frames, where
product quality ​user requirements are
Focus on core features, incomplete or unclear at the
reducing development time start​.
- Not suitable for
projects where the
users are hard to
contact or do not
want to be actively
involved, because
of its emphasis on
continuous
feedback
Considerations When Choosing Software Development Methodology
- Size
- Complexity
- Requirements
- Attitude of risk
- Expected level of change
1.2.4 - Types of Programming Languages
Programming Paradigms
Programming Paradigms - Different ​approaches to using a programming language to solve a problem​
- Most programming languages, such as python, allow for more than one programming paradigm
2 Types & 4 Sub-types:
- Imperative
- Procedural
- Object-oriented
- Declarative
- Functional
- Logic

Imperative Programming Languages

Uses code that ​clearly specifies the actions to be performed​
- Procedural: Type of imperative programming which uses a ​sequence of instructions​which may be
contained within procedures.
- These instructions are carried out in a ​step-by-step manner​
- One of the most widely-used paradigms
- Can be ​applied to a wide range of problems
- Relatively ​easy to write & interpret​
- Uses data structures such as lists, queues & stacks
- Uses procedures and functions
- Variables have either local or global scope
- Examples: Python, C, Pascal & Logo
- Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): Built on entities called ​objects formed from classes​which
have certain ​attributes and methods​
- Focuses on making programs that are ​reusable​& easy to update & maintain​
- Applicable to certain types of problem with lots of reusable components which have similar
characteristics
- Examples: Python, Delphi & Java

Declarative Programming Languages

Focuses on ​stating the desired result,​rather than the exact series of instructions that need to be performed
to get to the result
- Role of the programming language is to determine how best to obtain the result & the details about
​how it is obtained are abstracted from the user​.
- Common in expert systems & ​artificial intelligence​
- Example: Structured Query Language (SQL)

- Functional: uses the concept of ​reusing a set of functions​, which form the core of the program
- Programs are made up of lines of code consisting of​function calls​, often combined within
each other.
- Closely linked to mathematics​
- Examples: Haskell, C# & Java
- Logic: Uses code which defines a ​set of facts and rules​based on the problem
- Queries ​are used to find answers to problems.
- Example: Prolog
Procedural Languages
Procedural Languages - Languages that use traditional data types​such as integers and strings which are
built into the language, & also ​provide data structures​like dictionaries and arrays.
- Used for a wide range of software development as it is very simple to implement
- May not be possible/efficient to solve all kinds of problems ​with procedural languages

Structured Programming
- Subsection of procedural programming in which the control flow ​is ​given by four main programming
structures​:
- Sequence: Code is executed ​line-by-line​, from top to bottom.
- Selection: A certain block of code is run ​if a specific condition is met​, using IF statements.
- Iteration: A block of code is executed a ​certain number of times​or​while a condition is met​.
Iteration uses FOR, WHILE or REPEAT UNTIL loops.
- Recursion: Functions are ​expressed in terms of themselves​. Functions are executed, calling
themselves, until a certain condition known as a​base case ​(which does not call the function)
is met.

Assembly Language
Assembly Language - An abstraction of machine code that uses a small set of commands which
represent machine code instructions (mnemonics)
- Low-level language & is the next step up from machine code
- Converted to machine code using an assembler​when it is executed
- Each mnemonic is ​represented by a numeric code​
- Commands that assembly language uses are ​processor-specific​as it directly interacts with the
CPU’s special purpose registers.
- Allows for direct interaction with hardware so is useful in embedded systems.
- Each instruction in assembly language is typically equivalent to almost one line of machine code.

Little Man Computer (LMC) Assembly Language Mnemonics

Mnemonic Instruction Function

ADD Add Add the value at the given memory address to the value in
the Accumulator

SUB Subtract Subtract the value at the given memory address from the
value in the Accumulator

STA Store Store the value in the Accumulator at the given memory
address

LDA Load Load the value at the given memory address into the
Accumulator

INP Input Allows the user to input a value which will be held in the
Accumulator

OUT Output Prints the value currently held in the Accumulator

HLT Halt Stops the program at that line, preventing the rest of the
code from executing

DAT Data Creates a flag with a label at which data is stored

 BRZ Branch if zero Branches to a given address if the value in the
Accumulator is zero. This is a conditional branch

BRP Branch if positive Branches to a given address if the value in the

Accumulator is positive. This is a conditional branch

BRA Branch always Branches to a given address no matter the value in the
Accumulator. This is an unconditional branch

Following Little Man Computer Programs

Example 1: Adding 3 numbers together
inp
sta first
inp
sta second
inp
sta third
lda first
add second
add third
out
hlt
first dat
second dat
third dat

Example: LMC program which returns the remainder, called the modulus, when ​num1​is divided by ​num2
- BRP Positive: branches to the ‘positive’ flag, subtracting num2 while the result of num1 minus
num2 is positive

Code
INP
STA num1
INP
STA num2
LDA num1
positive STA num1
SUB num2
BRP positive
LDA num1
OUT
HLT
num1 DAT
num2 DAT

Modes of Addressing Memory

Machine code instructions are made up of the ​opcode ​and ​operand​.
- Opcode - specifies the instruction to be performed by the CPU
- Contains the actual instruction & will be part of the instruction set of the processor
- Addressing mode is part of opcode
- Operand - holds a value which is related to the ​data on which the instruction is to be performed​.
- In some cases, may hold the actual value on which the instruction is to be executed
 - Address mode refers to how the value of the operand is interpreted

Addressing modes​allow for a much ​greater number of locations for data to be stored​as the size of the
operand would otherwise constrain the number of addresses that could be accessed.
- Specifies how the operand should be interpreted​
- Part of the opcode​

4 Modes of Addressing Memory

- Immediate: Operand is the ​actual value​upon which the instruction is to be performed, represented
in binary
- With immediate addressing, the operand of the instruction is the actual value to be operated
on
- Direct: Operand ​gives the address which holds the value​upon which the instruction is to be
performed.
- Used in Little Man Computer (LMC)
- The operand of the instruction is the location in memory of the data to be operated on
- Indirect: Operand ​gives the address of a register which holds another address, where the data is
located
- Operand of the instruction is the location in memory (or register) which holds the memory
address of the value to be operated on
- Goes to memory address, uses its contents as a address, then goes to that address to find
the value needed
- Although slower than direct, indirect addressing enables a much wider range of memory
addresses to be used, which can overcome limitations imposed by the width of the address
bus
- Potentially makes more of physical RAM accessible
- One example is interrupts & the interrupt register holding the address in memory of the
correct interrupt service routine (ISR)
- Indexed: Index register stores a certain value & the address of the operand is determined by ​adding
the operand to the index register​.
- Necessary to add an ​offset ​in order to ​access data stored contiguously​in memory such as in
​arrays​.
- The final address is found by adding an offset from the index register to a base value
- Used to access an array, which have data in successive memory locations

Examples
Immediate: Goes to the actual value given, which in this case is the 005 in the
‘memory address’ column, so value in accumulator is 5 (005)

Direct: Goes to the contents of the memory address value (the value held at
memory address 005, given by the value in the column ‘Contents’ next to the
memory address. In this case is 9, as 9 is next to 005 in the table, making the
value in the accumulator 9)

Indirect: This goes to the ‘memory address’ value given (005), goes to the
corresponding ‘contents’ (9), which is then used as a further address, taking us
to the memory address (009), and by looking in the ‘memory address’ column,
you then look at the corresponding value in the ‘contents’ column to get the final value in the accumulator,
19

Indexed: Find the memory address needed in the ‘memory address’ column (005), then goes to the right
column, ‘index register’, and takes that value in the ‘index register’ column, to make the value in the
accumulator 7 (007)
- Add the value given to index to the value in the index register then go to that address to find the
value

Object-Oriented Languages
Object Oriented Programming - Programming paradigm built on entities called ​objects formed from classes​
which have certain ​attributes & methods​
- Supports well structured code & reusability
- Considers the problem to be solved as a series of data objects

Classes
Class - a​template for an object​and defines the attributes and methods of an objec​t
- Object - a particular instance of a class
- State is given by ​attributes ​which give an ​object’s properties​.
- Behaviour is defined by the ​methods ​associated with a class, which ​describe the actions it can
perform​
- Can be used to​create objects​by ​instantiation
- Can be used to create multiple objects with the same set of attributes and methods.
- Usually associated with an entity.
- Example: a class called ​‘Library’.​It could have attributes ‘​number_of_books’​,
‘​number_of_computers’​and methods ‘​add_book’​and ‘​remove_book’​. Similarly, ‘​Book’​could
also be a class.

Instantiation
Instantiation - the creation of an object (or an “instance” of a given class) in an object-oriented programming
- Objects are created within a class through the process of instantiation
- A constructor is used to instantiate an object from the class
- Can instantiate any number of objects from the class
- All instances will have the same attributes & methods, but the values of the attributes will be
unique to the particular instance of the object

Methods
A program subroutine that represents an action an object can perform
- Setter - a special type of method used in OOP that​sets the value of a particular attribute
- Getter - a special type of method used in OOP which retrieves the value of a given attribute​
- Getters & setters are used is to make sure​attributes cannot be directly accessed & edited​by
users (encapsulation)
- Attributes are ​declared as private​so ​can only be altered by public methods​.
- Every class must also have a constructor method, which is called ‘​new​’

Attributes
Data recorded as a variable associated with an object
- Attributes are ​declared as private​, so ​can only be altered by public methods​
Inheritance
A subclass can inherit data & behaviour from a superclass
- Base Class - The first class within a hierarchy of classes
- Subclass will inherit common attributes form the parent & may inherit the common methods
- Subclass may then also add attributes & methods of their own
- Inheritance would be expressed as: class Biography inherits Book

Encapsulation
A method of maintaining data integrity by only allowing class methods to access data in an object’s
attributes
- An object encapsulates both its data & methods into a single entity
- Any one object cannot affect the way in which any of object functions
- Means that the class can hide how it works whilst allowing other developers to use it through its
interface (e.g. its public attributes & methods)

Polymorphism
The ability to process objects differently, depending on their subclass
- Linked to inheritance (super & subclasses)
- Means ​objects can behave differently depending on their class​.
- Can result in the ​same method producing different outputs​depending on the object involved.

2 categories of polymorphism: overriding and overloading

- Overriding: Redefining a method​within a subclass and altering the code so that it functions
differently ​and ​produces a different output​.
- Overloading: Passing in different parameters into a method​
- Both of these forms of polymorphism would produce different results which would depend on
the scenario

Advantages of Object Oriented Programming

+ High level of reusability​, which makes it useful for projects where there are multiple components with
similar properties.
+ Inheritance & polymorphism​within OOP allow for this.
+ Classes can be ​used across multiple projects​
+ Encapsulation makes the ​code more reliable by ​protecting attribute​s from being directly accessed.
+ Code for different classes can be ​produced independently​of others.
+ A ​thorough design​can produce a higher-quality piece of software with ​fewer vulnerabilities​.
+ Modular structure​​makes it easy to maintain and update​.
+ High level of ​abstraction
+ Not necessary for programmers to know details about how code is implemented.
+ Once classes have been created & tested, they can be reused as a​black box​which ​saves time and
effort​

Disadvantages of Object Oriented Programming

- Requires ​advance planning​to determine how the problem will be broken down into classes and how
these will link to each other
- Requires an alternative style of thinking​, which can be difficult for programmers accustomed to other
paradigms to pick up
- Not suited to all types of problems​.
- Where few components are reused, OOP may in fact result in a​longer, more inefficient
program​.
- Generally ​unsuitable for smaller problems​
1.3 - Exchanging Data

1.3.1 - Compression, Encryption & Hashing

Compression
Compression - The process of reducing the amount of storage space required for a file
+ Can store more files in the same storage space
+ Smaller files transfer over the internet faster, more files can transfer in a given time
+ Faster streaming of video/audio files
+ Faster download times

Lossy Compression
Compressing a file by removing some of its data to reduce its size
+ More effective at reducing space than lossless compression
+ Can achieve very high compression ratios
- Audio become less clear & images become more pixelated
- The loss in quality is very small, to the point where it is barely perceptible

Common Formats:
- MP3: Audio
- JPEG: Images
- MPEG: Video

Lossless Compression
Compressing a file by rearranging its contents in a way that allows the original data to be reconstructed
from the compressed data with no loss of information

Common Formats:
- PNG: Images
- GIF: Images/Short animations
- TIFF: Images
- ZIP: Compressing 1 or more files together

Types of Lossless Compression

- Run Length Encoding (RLE): Method of lossless compression​in which repeated values are
removed and replaced with ​one occurrence​of the data followed by the ​number of times​it should be
repeated
- Relies on consecutive pieces of data being the same
- With little repetition, run length encoding ​doesn’t offer a great reduction​in file size
- Example: AAAAAABBBBBCCC could be represented as A6B5C3
- Dictionary Encoding: Method of lossless compression where frequently occurring pieces of data
are replaced with an index & compressed data is stored alongside a ​dictionary, ​which matches the
frequently occurring data to an index.
- The original data can then be restored using the dictionary
- Data compressed using dictionary compression must be transferred ​alongside its dictionary​.
Without a dictionary, the data cannot be used.
- Example
Goes through dictionary coding to become:

Encryption
Encryption - a way to convert data (plaintext) into ciphertext so that only authorised parties can
unscramble it and understand its content
- Cipher - an algorithm used to perform encryption and decryption
- Key (to a cipher) - a set of parameters to guide the algorithm

Ciphers
- Substitution Cipher - Encrypting text by substituting one character with another
- E.g. Caesar Cipher: offsetting all the letters in a phrase to
Cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis - The process of breaking a code, to figure out a plaintext from ciphertext without knowing the
key
- Brute force approach, but ciphers often have weaknesses that allow process to be exploited

Symmetrical Encryption
A method of encryption where both the sender and receiver share the same​private key​, which they
distribute to each other during a ​key exchange​
- This key is used for both encrypting and decrypting​data.
- Key exchanges have to happen over the internet, so could potentially be intercepted

Asymmetrical Encryption
A method of encryption where a public key, available to everyone is used to encrypt the data, and the data
is decrypted by the paired private key, only known to the recipient
- Public key can be published ​anywhere, private key kept secret
- Together they are known as a​key pair & are ​mathematically related ​to each other
 - A single key cannot be used to both encrypt & decrypt communication.
- Messages encrypted with the recipient’s public key can only be decrypted with the recipient’s
private key, which should only be in the possession of the recipient.
- Example: If someone wants to send you a message, they must first find your public key
- The message is then encrypted with your public key meaning that ​only you​can decrypt it, as
you are the only one with the private key which is a pair to the public one
- To prove that a message has been sent by you, you can encrypt it using your private key.
- This means that ​anyone can decrypt it​(as your public key is available to anyone) and by
doing so, can guarantee that you encrypted the message, as only you have access to the
private key.
- This forms the basis of the digital signature systems

Hashing
Hashing - A process in which an algorithm is used on an input (a key) to
turn it into a fixed size value (a hash)
- the process of applying an algorithm on a piece of data, to derive a
numerical value, which can be used for verification purposes
- There are a vast number of hash functions (algorithms​) that do this
- The output of a hash function​can’t be reversed​to form the key
- One way process
- No need for reversing, as it is used to verify the integrity of
the data, rather than encrypt it
- Takes input data of any size and reduces it to a fixed size

Features of Good Hashing Algorithms

1. Compression: The input data is generally bigger than the output, which is usually of a fixed length.
The hash algorithm needs to be able to take inputs of varying sizes and reduce them all to the same
size output
2. Resistant to Collisions: Collision - where different inputs lead to the same hash value.
- A minor change in the input should lead to a very different output in the hash, so there is no
recognisable patterns
3. Irreversible: It should be impossible to recreated original file from hash value
4. Speed: Needs to work quickly while still applying the above principles
5. Shorter than Input: Provide an output which is ​smaller than the input​it was provided, otherwise
searching for the hash ​could take longer ​than simply searching for the key.

Uses of Hashing
Storing Passwords
- Convert passwords into a numerical value of fixed size and stored in a file
- No need to store or transfer actual password, only hash value.
- The output of a hash function​can’t be reversed​to form the key.
- Makes hashing useful for storing passwords.
- A password entered by a user can be hashed and checked against the key to see if it is
correct
- A successful hacker would only gain access to the keys
- Which is useless, as they​can’t be reversed ​to gain the passwords.

Many people often choose the same password, which would then give the same hash value, which
introduces a potential vulnerability
 - Salt - A random piece of data that is added to the start of the password before it is passed through
the hashing algorithm
- Is stored alongside the hash value
- The password is hashed, the hashed password is sent to the server, and the salt is added to
the hashed password, the hash password & salt are hashed together, and then it is stored.
- This means that if someone gets the hash, they cannot reverse engineer the
password, as the salt is integrated in the hashed password

Hash Tables
Hashing can be used to speed up access to records in a data structure
- For a table index, a hash function is applied to the data contained in the record, which generates a
value
- The record is then inserted at this index position in the table
- When the record needs to be retrieved, applying the hash value to the search item gives the index
of the record

Hash Table - Data structure which holds​key-value pairs​

- Formed from a​bucket array ​and a​hash function
- Can be used to lookup data in an array in​constant time​.
- When data needs to be inserted, it is used as the key for the hash function and stored in the
bucket corresponding to the hash
- Used extensively in situations where a lot of data needs to be stored with constant access times
- Examples: Cache & Databases

Collision - When 2 keys produce the same hash

- To overcome a collisions, you can:
- Store items​together in a list ​under the hash value
- Use a​second hash function​to generate a new hash

Digital Signatures
Extra data that is appended to the file that is unique to the sender and very difficult to forge

To ensure that you only receive legitimate files, encrypted with your key, from acceptable sources
- The public key can also generate a digital code called a digital signature, which verifies the file’s
content and the sender

How they work

The process compresses the message into a message digest, using a hashing algorithm
- the digest is then encrypted using the sender’s private key
- The receiver uses the sender’s public key to decrypt the message digest & compares it to the digest
created from the message itself (using the same hashing algorithm as the sender)
- If they match, the message is genuine and unaltered

1.3.2 - Databases
Relational Databases
Database - a persistent organised store of related data
- Persistent - Permanent, stored on secondary storage
- Organised - Data stored in records and fields
- This could be in a single table or a collection of tables.
- Most programs will store data using a database
Terminology
- Entity - An item of interest about which ​information is stored
- An entity becomes a table in a database
- Record - one instance of an entity in a database
- Attributes - Characteristics of an entity
- Becomes a field in the database (a column in a table)
- Table - Collection of data that relates to an entity (e.g. students)
- Record - A collection of data about a single entity (e.g. a student)
- Field - A unique piece of data about an entity (student surnames)
- Field Name - An identifier for the single piece of data (e.g. ‘surnames’).

Flat File
Flat File - a database that consists of a ​single file​, a single table of data
- Will most likely be based around a ​single entity and its attributes​.
- Typically written out like this: Entity1​(​Attribute1​, Attribute2, Attribute3 ...)
- Underlined item is the primary key

Example - Entity of car

- Description: Car​(C​ arID​, Age, Price)
- Visual Representation:

Primary Key
Primary Key - Unique identifier​for each ​record ​in the table.
- In the above example, the unique identifier is the CarID as this is always different for each row in the
table.
- The primary key is shown by ​underlining it​in its description: Entity1​(​Attribute1​, Attribute2, Attribute3
...)

Foreign Key
Foreign Key - The attribute which ​links two tables together​.
- A primary key that is present in another table & does not need to
be unique
- Will exist in one table as the primary key and act as the foreign
key in another
- The foreign key is shown using an asterisk.
- Example: DoctorID is the foreign key in the Patient table.

Secondary Key
Secondary Key - A key that can be used as an alternative index to access or sort records in a table quicker
- Allows a database to be​searched quickly​
- Less accurate than a primary key, as secondary keys can be identical
- Example Doctor/Patient: 2 patients can have the same surname, but not the same PatientID
- Example Doctor/Patient - The patient is unlikely to remember their patientID but will know their
surname.
 - Therefore, a secondary index ​(secondary key) is set up on the surname attribute.
- This makes it possible to ​order and search ​by surname which makes it easier to find specific
patients in the database.

Entity Relationship Modelling

One-to-one
Each entity can only be linked to one other entity
- Example: the relationship between a husband and wife.
- The husband entity can only be associated with one wife entity (& vice versa)

One-to-many
One table can be associated with many other tables,
- Example: A school has many teachers, but teachers are only associated with one school

Many-to-many
One entity can be associated with many other entities and the same applies the other way round.
- Example: Students and courses
- Each student can enrol in more than one course & each course can have more than one
student.

Normalisation
Normalisation - The process of coming up with the ​best possible layout​for a ​relational database
This tries to achieve:
- No redundancy​(unnecessary duplicates)
- Consistent data​throughout linked tables
- Data is logically grouped so that related data is stored together
- Records can be​added and removed without issues
- Complex ​queries ​can be carried out

First Normal Form (1NF)

Rules of 1NF:
- All field names must be unique (no repeating attributes)
- Values in fields should be from the same domain (same type of data)
- Values in fields should be atomic (contain only 1 value)
- No 2 records can be identical
- Each table needs a primary key

Second Normal Form (2NF)

A database which ​doesn’t have any partial dependencies​& is in​first normal form​
- This means that no attributes can depend on part of a composite key
- Essentially, each table is based upon a single entity

Rules of 2NF:
- Database is already in 1NF
- All partial dependencies have been removed

Partial Dependencies
- When certain fields only depend on part of the primary key
- This only applies when the primary key is a composite key
- Composite Key: a type of primary key that uses multiple fields, instead of 1 unique field
 - Partial dependencies can be removed by splitting the partially dependent fields from the rest of the
table, creating 2 separate tables

Example:

In this table, the primary key is a composite

key, a combination of the underlined fields:
‘name’, ‘date of birth’ and ‘course number’

However, the fields ‘course name’, ‘lecturer

initials’ & ‘lecturer name’ do not depend on the
the student’s ‘name’, ‘date of birth’ & ‘gender’
- This is because, no matter what the
student’s name, date of birth or gender
are, the details of the course will
always remain the same

This means that the fields ‘course name’, ‘lecturer initials’ &
‘lecturer name’ have partial dependencies, as they don’t
depend on every field in the composite primary key

To get rid of this partial dependency, you can take the fields
‘course number’, ‘course name’, ‘lecturer initials’ & ‘lecturer
name’, and put them into a new separate table.
- This has created a many-to-many relationship
between the 2 tables, which is not ideal for databases
- This many-to-many relationship can be solved through the usage of a linking table
- Linking table - A table that links 2 other tables together, through the use of their primary keys
- With this example, you first create a new primary key called ‘student number’, assigning
each student a student number and then removing all of the extra entries for each student
that, so that their names don’t come up multiple times in the students table
- Using the new 2 tables, you can create a linking table with the only fields being the primary
keys of those 2 tables (‘student number’ and ‘course number’)
- Now you can use this linking table, the students table and the course table to locate records
Third Normal Form (3NF)
A database which is in ​second normal form​& has no transitive (non-key) dependencies
- Transitive (non-key) dependency - When a value of a field is determined by the value of another
field that isn’t the primary key
- To get rid of transitive dependencies, you should not be able to determine a value in a field
by a non-key
- Tables with only 2 fields (e.g. linking tables) are always in 3NF, as they only have 2 fields

Rules of 3NF
- The database is already in 2NF
- There are no transitive/non-key dependencies

Example:
We need to make sure that this table is in 3NF, to do this, you have to
check if the values in each field can be determined by non-key fields.
- The ‘course number’ field does not have to be checked
because it is the primary key
- First, you check the ‘course name’ field
- Can ‘course name’ be determined by ‘course
number’? Yes
- This is fine, as ‘course number’ is the primary
key
- Can ‘course name’ be determined by ‘lecturer initials’?
No
- Can ‘course name’ be determined by ‘lecturer name’? No
- Then you check the next field: ‘lecturer initials’
- Can ‘lecturer initials’ be determined by ‘course number’? Yes
- Can ‘lecturer initials’ be determined by ‘course name’? Yes
- This is a transitive (non-key) dependency, meaning that this table is not in 3NF
- Can ‘lecturer initials’ be determined by ‘lecturer name’? No
- Then you check the last field: ‘lecturer name’
- Can ‘lecturer name’ be determined by ‘course number’? Yes
- Can ‘lecturer name’ be determined by ‘course name’? Yes
- This is a transitive (non-key) dependency, meaning that this table is not in 3NF
- Can ‘lecturer name’ be determined by ‘lecturer initials’? Yes
- This is a transitive (non-key) dependency, meaning that this table is not in 3NF

Therefore, this table is not in 3NF, because it has 2 transitive (non-key) dependencies
- To put this into 3NF, you can split the 2 fields with transitive dependencies (‘lecturer initials’ and
‘lecturer name’ into separate tables

In converting from 1NF to 3NF, we have gone from 1 table, a flat file, to 4 tables, a relational database.
Indexing
Indexing - Method​used to store the position of each record ordered by a certain attribute.
- Used to look up and access data quickly.
- Primary key​is ​automatically indexed​; however, the primary key is almost never queried since it is
not normally remembered.
- Secondary keys are used instead and indexed to make the table easier and faster to search
through on those particular attributes.

Methods of Capturing
Capturing Data
Method of data capture must be
- Accurate: Errors in databases may cause problems in future

There are a range of manual & automated methods, depending on the context
Manual
- Paper-based forms, which would be completed and the information is then manually entered into
the database
- These forms may have been formatted to support Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
- This is when the form is scanned and the data is read electronically
- This method is likely to be error prone and so is slowly becoming obsolete

Automated
- A variation on OCR is Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
- This uses specially formatted forms to capture large amounts of data and are used for
multiple choice tests (e.g. 11+), surveys & the lottery
- Other automated methods include barcodes & QR codes
- Banks scan cheques using ​Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)​
- All details, excluding amount, are printed in a magnetic ink which can be recognised by a
computer
- Amount must be entered manually

Selecting
Selecting the correct data is an important part of ​data preprocessing​.
- This could involve only selecting data that fits a certain criteria to reduce the volume of input.
- Example: Speed cameras will only select cars going above a certain speed
- Then, background information will be removed so only the number plate is added to a record

Data Validation
- Data entry methods will use validation to ensure that all the required fields are populated with the
correct type of data
- Does not ensure that data is correct, just ensures it is valid in the context
Methods of Data Validation
- Presence Check: Ensures there is an item in every field
- Format Check: Makes sure the format of data is correct (e.g. DD/MM/YYYY vs MM/DD/YYYY)
- Range Check: Checks the data between an expected range of values
- Type Check: Ensures that data entered into a field is of the correct data type
- Uniqueness Check: Ensures that an item is not entered multiple times into a database
- Consistency Check: Confirms the data’s been entered in a logically consistent way
- Code Check: A code check ensures that a field is selected from a valid list of values or follows
certain formatting rules
- Constraint Check: Checks the consistency of entered data, for example against a regular
expression
- Length Check: Ensures that the appropriate number of characters are entered into the field

Data Verification
- Has to be done manually, by looking at the data

Managing
Instead of being selected, collected data can alternatively be managed using SQL to sort, restructure &
select certain sections

Exchanging Data
Exchanging data - the process of ​transferring the collected data​.
- Common method: ​Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
- This ​doesn’t require human interaction​and enables data transfer from one computer to
another

Structured Query Language (SQL)

Structured Query Language (SQL) - Declarative language​used to ​manipulate databases​.
- Enables the creating, removing and updating of databases.

SELECT … FROM … WHERE (& ORDER BY)

​SELECT​- Statement used to ​collect fields from a given table
FROM - Statement used to specify which table(s) information will come from, paired with SELECT
WHERE - Statement used to filter records based on certain criteria
ORDER BY - [NOT IN SPECIFICATION] Orders the filtered records by a singular attribute in ascending
order,
- Automatically displayed in ascending order, but can be descending by adding ‘Desc’ to the end of
the statement (e.g. ORDER BY Attribute4 Desc)

Example:
SELECT MovieTitle, DatePublished
FROM Movie
WHERE DatePublished BETWEEN #01/01/2000# AND
#31/12/2005#
ORDER BY DatePublished

Will result in the table being filtered to:

LIKE
Used to select singular values that contain a string of alphanumeric character(s) within them
- Example: Selecting records of movies where the name begins with A
- SELECT *
- FROM Movies
- WHERE name LIKE A%

AND
Used to add extra conditions that both need to be met to select records within an SQL statement
- Example: Selecting movies where the movie name starts with A and has over 100 million downloads
- SELECT *
FROM Movies
WHERE name LIKE A%
AND downloads > 1000000

OR
Used to add extra conditions that either can be met to select records within an SQL statement
- Example: Selecting movies where the name starts with A or B
- SELECT *
FROM Movies
WHERE name LIKE A%
OR name LIKE B%

DELETE (FROM)
Used to delete records in a table based upon a certain condition
- Example: Deleting movies that have less than 1000 downloads
- DELETE FROM Movies
WHERE downloads < 1000

INSERT (INTO)
Used to ​insert a new record​into a database table
- Example:
- INSERT INTO (column1, column2, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, ...)

DROP (TABLE)
Used to delete a table from a relational database
- Example: Deleting a table called ‘directors’
- DROP TABLE Directors

JOIN
Provides a method of ​combining rows from multiple tables​based on a ​common field between them
 - This also acts as an equivalent to INNER JOIN
- Example: Joining together 2 tables ‘Movies’ and ‘Directors’
- SELECT Movie.MovieTitle, Director.DirectorName, Movie.MovieCompany
FROM Movie
JOIN Director
ON Movie.DirectorName = Director.DirectorName

WILDCARDS
A method of selecting every single field when accessing a record, usually shown as an asterisks (*) or
percentage symbol (%)
- Example:
- SELECT * (or SELECT %)
FROM Movie
WHERE DatePublished > 2008

Referential Integrity
Referential integrity - the accuracy and consistency of data within a relational database
- All foreign keys in a table must represent a valid primary key in a source table
- Ensures that information is not removed if it is required elsewhere in a linked database
- If two database tables are linked, one of these tables cannot be deleted as the other table
requires its contents
- One way to maintain a referential integrity would be to enforce a cascade delete restraint on the
primary key relationship between tables
- Essentially, if a primary key is deleted from one table, the associated records within a related
table will also be deleted
- Cascade Delete - If a record is deleted, which is present as a foreign key in a linked table,
all records in the linked tables which contain the value as a foreign key
- Cascade Update is a similar concept, but for updates instead of deletes
- It can also prevent from adding a record to a table when it has no foreign key (primary key from
another table) to go with it

Data Integrity
The maintenance & consistency of data in a data store, as the data store must reflect the reality that it
represents
- The Database Management System (DBMS) helps to ensure that all data is consistent, and there is
always data integrity

Transaction Processing
Transaction - a ​single operation executed on data​.
- A collection of operations can also sometimes be considered a transaction
- Each transactions must succeed or fail as a complete unit, and can never be partially complete
- Transaction Processing: Any information processing that is divided into individual, indivisible
operations (transactions)

All relational databases have certain base functionality, referred to as CRUD. Each aspect of CRUD has its
equivalent SQL command(s):
- Create (INSERT or CREATE)
- Retrieve (SELECT)
- Update (UPDATE)
- Delete (DELETE)
ACID
To ensure data integrity, transaction processing in all database management systems (DBMS) must
conform to a set of rules, ACID, which describes the ideal properties of every database transaction:
- Atomicity: A transaction must be ​processed in its entirety or not at all​, no partial transactions
- Consistency: A transaction/change must retain the overall state of the database and maintain the
​referential integrity rules​between linked tables, taking the database from one valid state to another
- Isolation: Simultaneous executions of transactions should not interfere with one another and should
lead to the ​same result​as if they were executed one after the other
- Durability: Once a transaction has been executed it ​must remain so & not be lost due to system
failure and will remain so​regardless of the circumstances surrounding it, such as in the event of a
power cut

Database Management System (DBMS)

Databases require interfaces in order to interact with the database’s content. Applications that access
databases will all do so using a Database Management System (DBMS)
- This is used to separate the database from the application(s) that use it

The Need for DBMS

- Multiple applications access the database & presenting different functionality to different users
- Ensures the integrity of the data is maintained
- Applications can be developed or updated without affecting the underlying database
- Modular applications can be developed on a common data store

Features of DBMS
- Allows different applications to access the data at the same time
- Controls access to the data
- Security features are provided to limit who can do what
- Provides backups & the ability to restore from a backup if a disaster occurs
- Supports a query language, and other languages which can be used to do CRUD & structure the
database
- Can enforce referential integrity
- Prevents any operations that could damage the relationships between tables of data
- Controls concurrency, when multiple people are accessing the same database

Record Locking
Record Locking - The process of ​preventing simultaneous access to records​in a database
- Used to ​prevent inconsistencies​or a ​loss of updates​.
- While one person is editing a record, this ‘locks’ the record so prevents others from accessing the
same record until the first user has completed their transaction
- An issue with this is deadlock
- Where a record is locked dependent on another recorded which is also locked & so there is
a cyclic dependency that cannot be resolved

Example: Deadlock
- User 1 accesses Customer 1’s record and as a result locks Customer 1’s record.
- Simultaneously User 2 accesses Customer 2’s record and as a result locks Customer 2’s
record.
- Now User 1 tries to access Customer 2’s record, and User 2 tries to access Customer 1’s record.
- User 1 waits for Customer 2’s record to be free and User 2 waits for Customer 1’s record to
be free and as they are both waiting, there is no progress causing a deadlock
Data Redundancy
Data Redundancy - the process of having one or more copies of the data in ​physically different locations
- This means that if there is any damage to one copy the others will remain unaffected and can be
recovered
- This is important because some data is extremely important and companies cannot afford to
lose it

1.3.3 - Networks
Characteristics of Networks
Network - two or more​computers connected together with the ability to ​transmit information and resources
between each other
- Node - Singular device on a network

Advantages of Networks
+ Enables digital communication between people
+ Enables the sharing of digital information
+ Enables the sharing of peripheral devices, such as printers & scanners
+ Enables computers to be updated with the latest software from a central point
+ Enables distributed processing (the ability for a single program to run simultaneously at various
computers
+ Enables an organisation to keep their data private and manage certain aspects of the network (e.g.
security, access to programs, access to data, availability of devices and services, etc.)

Disadvantages of Networks
- Requires expertise to instal & maintain a large network, which can be costly
- Several security issues from unauthorised access to data
- Measures to secure a network include:
- Passwords, strong passwords use a range of character types
- Not allowing users to install software
- With wireless access, use encryption
- Changing passwords frequently
- Challenges surrounding continuity of service 24/7
- Disaster recovery plans - in the event of the network going down
- Failover system - transferring to another system if problems occur
- Redundancy of equipment - use of alternate equipment if required
- Regular backup regime - ensuring the data is always available even if the live data source
experiences issues

Network Topologies
Types of Topology
- Physical Topology: The ​physical layout​of the wires and components which form the network. (e.g.
bus, star, mesh)
- Logical Topology: An abstract representation of how data flows and is transmitted within a
network, independent of its physical layout
 Comparing Topologies

Topology & Diagram Description Advantages Disadvantages

Bus All the terminals ​(devices) Relatively inexpensive to If ​backbone cable fails​, the
are connected to a set up entire network gets
​backbone cable​, the ends disconnected
Doesn’t require any
of which are plugged into a
​additional hardware As traffic increases,
terminator​. performance decreases

All computers can ​see the

data transmission

Star Use a central node, often a Performance is ​consistent​ Expensive​due to switch &
switch​, to direct data even with heavy network cabling
through the network. MAC traffic
​(Media Access Control) If the central ​switch fails​,
addresses, which are If one cable fails,​only that the rest of the ​network fails
unique to a device, are single terminal is affected
used to identify each
device on the network. Transmits data faster​,
giving better performance
than bus topology

Easy to add new nodes.

No data ​collisions

Mesh Every node is connected to If using a wireless network, If using a wireless network,
every other node. Mesh there is no cabling cost devices with wireless
topologies are most capability (which increases
commonly found with As the number of nodes ​cost​) must be purchased
wireless technology such increase, the ​reliability and
as Wi-Fi. speed​of network becomes If using a wired network, a​
better large quantity of cable​is
(Partial Mesh - Majority of required compared to other
nodes are connected with Nodes are ​automatically network topologies like bus
each other, but not all) incorporated and star, which is
expensive
Nodes don’t go through a
central switch, improving Maintaining the network is
​speed ​difficult

Ring A network configuration Relatively inexpensive to If ​backbone cable fails​, the

where device connections set up entire network gets
create a closed circular disconnected
data path. Doesn’t require any
​additional hardware All computers can ​see the
Each networked device is data transmission
connected to two others, Data only travels in one
like points that form a direction, so there are no Network activity is
circle. collisions disturbed when new nodes
are added
Protocols & Standards
Protocols - Formal standards & policies comprised of rules, procedures & formats that define
communication between devices on a network
- Standard so that all devices have a designated method of communicating with each other,
regardless of manufacturer

Standards - A set of rules hardware & software specifications that allow manufacturers to create products
& services that are compatible with each other
- Formal standards, so any type of device can connect to it & work on the network, if it can implement
the standards
- make it easy for hardware manufacturers to ensure interoperability

Handshaking - An initial communication between 2 devices to decide how communication will operate, by
deciding on a set of protocols to use
- Used when 2 devices communicate over the internet by deciding on certain protocols
- Simply carried out by 1 device, sending a list of protocols to user to another device & receiving an
acknowledgement back in return
- if the devices fail to agree with the choice of protocols, another set must be chosen, or they will fail
to communicated

Commonly Used Protocols

- HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)​- Used for web page rendering, a way for a client & server to
send & receive requests & deliver HTML pages
- Fundamental Protocol of the World Wide Web (WWW)

- ​ TTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)​- Used for secure web page rendering, a way for a
H
client & server to securely send & receive requests & deliver HTML pages
- Has added encryption & authentication
- Used whenever a website deals with sensitive information, such as passwords or bank
details

- TCP/IP​​(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) ​- Networking protocol used in the

routing of packets through networks

- POP3 (Post Office Protocol)​- Used for accessing emails, and deletes them from the server after
being downloaded to the device

- IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)​- Used for email access, but keeps the email on the
server after accessing it, so it can be accessed across multiple devices
- Maintains synchronicity between devices

- FTP (File Transfer Protocol)​- Used for the transmission of files over networks
- Usually over a Wide Area Network (WAN)
- People often use FTP Clients: software applications that sit on top of the actual FTP protocol
- When you interact with the program, the client generates & sends the appropriate
FTP commands

- SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) - Used for sending emails

- Transfers outgoing emails between servers & from email clients to servers
 - UDP (User Datagram Protocol) - a communications protocol for time-sensitive applications like
gaming, playing videos, or Domain Name System (DNS) lookups
- An alternative to TCP, and does not have error checking, so runs faster
- Used when speed is more important than accuracy
- Maintains open, two-way communication, ideal for online gaming

- Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) - a protocol or procedure that connects an Internet Protocol
(IP) address to a Media Access Control (MAC) address
- Used when a host needs to broadcast an IP address in order to find the destination IP
address
- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - a client/server protocol that automatically
provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration information
- Used by the router to assign devices on a network IP addresses

Considerations When Deciding Protocols

Physical
- Wired or wireless
- Serial or parallel data transmission
- Synchronous/Asynchronous
- Copper wire or fibre optic
- Simplex, half-duplex or full duplex mode

Logical:
- Bit rate
- Error detection
- Packet size
- Packet ordering
- Routing
- Compression and encryption
- Digital signatures

Error Detection
Checksum
A value that represents the number of bits in a transmission message, that is compared to the number of
bits in the received message to ensure all packets have arrived
- Calculated from the data in the packet using an algorithm and added to the packet
- Receiving computer calculates the checksum in the same way when it receives the packet and
compares it to the value in the packet
- If they match, the packet has transmitted successfully
- The most common checksum method in use is the cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
- Picks up over 99% of errors

Parity Bits
An extra bit of data that is added to the packet, used to indicate whether the packet contains an even or
odd number of 1s
- Whether to use even or odd parity is decided prior to transmission
- Even Parity: Where the parity bit is set so that the total number of 1s in the packet is even
- Odd Parity: where the parity bit is set so that the total number of 1s in the packet is odd
- Can be used for error correction, as well as detection
 - By treated the data as a grid & effectively assigning two parity bits for each bit in the
message

Echo Error Detection

When the receiving computer receives a packet, it sends a copy back to the sending
computer, echoing it back
- If the returned packet matches the original packet, it must have transmitted correctly
- If even 1 bit is not matched, the packet will be resent
- Issues with Echo Error Detection
- As each packet is effectively sent at least twice, network traffic increases & data transfer
rates will effectively slow down
- There is as much chance of the packet being corrupted on the echo as the original send, so
it may have been received correctly, but the error in the echo would cause it to be resent
unnecessarily

The Internet Structure

The Internet - a ​global network of networks​which allows devices across the world to communicate with
each other.
- Individual networks owned by different operators, working together to provide end-to-end
connectivity
- A packet switching network
- Continents are connected to each other using ​large international backbone cables​.
- Many of these pass ​underwater​, linking continents to one another
- Offers the World Wide Web (WWW): A collection of files with information stored in hypertext
(webpages), & other associated files, hosted on web servers
- These web servers host the files & handle client requests
- A web page, stored as text (HTML, CSS, Javascript), is sent to a web browser application,
which uses rules to render it correctly

Layering
Layering - To divide the complex task of networking into smaller, simpler tasks that together form a network
- The hardware and/or software for each layer has a defined responsibility, & each layer provides a
service to the layer above it

Advantages of Layering
+ Reducing a complex problem into smaller sub-problems
+ Devices can be manufactured to operate at a particular layer
+ Products from different vendors will work together

TCP/IP Stack
TCP/IP (Transmission Control/Internet Protocol) Stack - ​A stack of networking protocols​that work
together passing packets during communication
- Each layer gives a choice of protocol, which is responsible for adding information to the packet
before passing it to the next layer
- When it is received, the protocol on the receiving machine will read the data that was added by the
same protocol on the sending machine

Application Layer
Specifies ​what protocol​needs to be used in order to ​relate the application to the data that’s being sent
- Protocols: FTP, HTTP, HTTPS, SMTP, IMAP, POP3
When Sending
- Uses an appropriate protocol relating to whatever application is being used to transmit data
- Based at the top of the stack.
- Prepares the data in a format ready to be passed to the next layer – transport

When Receiving
- Receives data from the transport layer
- Presents the data to the user through the application

Transport Layer
Uses TCP to establish an ​end-to-end connection & maintaining conversations between the source and
recipient computer
- Protocols: TCP, UDP

When Sending
- After a connection is established, the transport layer splits the data into packets
- Splitting data up into packets​and labels these packets with:
- Packet number
- Total number of packets the original data was split up into
- Port number being used for communication
- Port - The application on the device that needs the packet
- Port Number - A number corresponding to the application on the device that needs
the packet
- If any packets get lost, the transport layer ​requests retransmissions of these lost packets]
- Passes the packets onto the network/internet layer

When Receiving
- Reassembles packets in the correct order
- Acknowledges receipt of packets that have been successfully transmitted
- Requests transmission of lost packets
- Receives data from the network/internet layer

Internet/Network Layer
Adds the source and destination ​IP addresses​, forming socket addresses/numbers (or separates them
when receiving)
- Protocols: IP​

When Sending
- Adds to each packet:
- Source IP Address
- Destination IP Address
- Routers​operate on the network/internet layer & the router is what uses the IP addresses to forward
the packets
- Forms a Socket Address/Number - The combination of the IP address and the port number
- Sockets are then used to specify which device the packets must be sent to and the application
being used on that device.
-

When Receiving
- Separates Socket address/number into IP & Port number, then passes that to the transport layer
Link Layer
The ​connection between the network devices​, adding the MAC address​identifying the ​Network Interface
Cards​of the source and destination computers
- Responsible for adding the Media Access Control (MAC) Address of the
- Source device
- Destination device
- For devices on the same network, the destination MAC address is the address of the
​recipient ​computer, otherwise, it will be the MAC address of the ​router
- When transmitting data between routers on over a WAN, the MAC address is
changed at each hop on the route
- Operating system device drivers also sit here
- Protocols: Ethernet, fibre optic, Wi-fi

Communication between devices on different networks (WAN), requires both the network layer & the
link layer, which uses IP addresses to create a packet, & the link layer frame
- The destination MAC address will be the MAC address of the router
- When the frame reaches the router, the router works out where it needs to send the packet by
looking at the destination IP address in the header
- Frame - the unit of transmission in a link layer protocol, and consists of a link layer header
followed by a packet
- The router then sets its own MAC address as the source & the next device as the destination
- It can also use the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to find the destination MAC
address if the router doesn’t already know it
- If there are several routers on the path to the destination, the source destination MAC
address will be overwritten at every hop
- Once the frames reach their final destination, they will travel up through the layers of the TCP/IP
stack in reverse order, stripping off the headers & tails as they go

Communication between devices on the same network (LAN), this creates a frame using the same IP
address

On the recipient’s computer these layers are looked at from bottom to top,
but on the sender's end, it is from top to bottom.
- Once the destination has been reached, the MAC address is removed
by the link layer
- Then the IP addresses are removed by the Network Layer, then the
transport layers remove the port number and reassemble the packets
- Finally, the application layer presents the data to the recipient in the
form it was requested in
Example: Sending a Message

LANs & WANs

2 main types of networks: ​local area networks​(LAN) & ​wide area networks (WAN)

Local Area Networks (LANs)

A network which is contained on a ​single site​(e.g. school or home network) or a limited geographical area
- All of the network infrastructure is the property of the organisation/operator of the network
- Typically connected using:
- Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
- Fibre optic cable
- Wi-f

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

A network which is spread over multiple sites (e.g. corporation with multiple offices) or a large geographical
area
- Will usually require extra ​telecommunication hardware​
- Infrastructure used is owned by third-parties. (e.g. leased from telecommunications companies)
- The largest WAN is the Internet, and is made up of a series of smaller networks
- Typically connected by:
- Telephone lines
- Fibre optic cables
- Satellite links

Domain Name System (DNS)

Domain Name System - the system used to​name ​and ​organise internet resources​
- It is a hierarchy, in which each smaller domain is separated from the larger domain by a full stop

DNS Server Levels

 1. If the URL if frequently requested, the IP will be cached in the browser cache, going straight to
returning it to the browser
2. If not, it may be stored in the Internet Service Provider (ISP)’s IP address
- Internet Service Provider (ISP) - an organisation that provides services for accessing, using,
managing, or participating in the Internet

Next level
- Your Internet Service Provider (ISP)’s DNS Server

1. A user requests a URL (e.g. www.bbc.co.uk) via a browser (Google, Safari, Firefox, etc.)
2. The browser sends the domain name to a Domain Name System (DNS) & maps it to an IP address
- If the URL if frequently requested, the IP will be cached in the browser cache, going straight
to returning it to the browser
- This is received by the DNS resolver server
- The DNS resolver server then queries a DNS root name server
- The DNS root name server response with the address of the top-level domain server
(TLD) for .com (or .uk, .org, .edu, .ca, etc.)
- The resolver makes a request to the .com (.uk, .org, .edu, etc.) TLD server
- The TLD server then responds with the IP address of the domain’s name server (e.g.
google.com, gov.uk)
- The recursive resolver sends a query to the domain’s name server
- The IP address of the website is then returned to the resolver from the name server
- The DNS resolver responds to the web browser with the IP address of the URL
3. The DNS maps the domain name to an IP address
a. Goes through the TCP/IP Stack to establish a connection
4. returns it to the browser
5. The requested web page/resource is returned to the clients web browser

Example: Full DNS Lookup of “raspberrypi.org”

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Top-level domains are usually allocated to countries (e.g. uk), categories (e.g. org), and for use by very
large organisations (e.g. com).
- Each top-level domain is managed by an internet registry and may have restrictions as to who can
use it.
 - Example: the “.sk” top-level domain is restricted in use to Slovak
companies, organisations, and citizens.

Hierarchy
The hierarchy of domains continues from top to bottom (of the tree) and from right to left in the URL.
- Some top-level domains are further divided administratively.
- Example: The .uk top-level domain has many subdomains (.co, .ac, .gov); in these
instances, the name of the authority that has registered the domain will be the third level

Internet Registries & Registrars

Internet Registrars - Hold records of all website names & can sell new domain names to people &
companies
- 5 Global internet registries, governed by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names & Numbers
(ICANN)
- Registries also allocate IP addresses as part of the Domain Name System (DNS)

The Cloud
The Cloud - a network of servers hosted on the internet which offer a range of services to store and
process data
- Cloud Computing - the provision of computing resources and services over the internet

Advantages
+ They do not need to ‘buy’ and install the software themselves
+ Any device can access the service if they have an internet connection
+ There is no need to upgrade the software (this will be handled by the provider)
+ Collaboration can occur with multiple people working on the same document at once.
+ Work is automatically saved / backed up
+ Lower costs than setting up your own servers

Disadvantages
- Sensitive company data may be stored in another country which may not adhere to the same data
laws as the country the company is in
- Completely reliant on the network / internet / provider
- Service costs may vary

Virtual Networks
Virtual Network - a network which uses software to subdivide a physical network (LAN or WAN) into
smaller ones
- For a simple virtual network, software will re-divide a Local Area Network (LAN) into a series of
smaller networks so that users of the smaller network can share information separately from the rest
of the members of the larger network
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) - When software re-divides a wide area network (WAN) into a series of
smaller networks so that groups of people spread across a country / the world can communicate and share
information separately from other members of a network

Data Packets
Data Packets - ​segments of data​containing a header, a payload and a trailer
- Header:
- Sender & recipient ​IP addresses
- The sender and the recipient’s IP addresses act like a postcode, allowing the packet
to be delivered to the correct destination & enabling the recipient device to trace
​where the packet came from​.
- Protocol ​being used
- The protocol allows the recipient computer to understand how to interpret the packet.
- Order ​of the packets
- Upon arriving at the recipient device, packets are reconstructed in the appropriate
order as specified in the header.
- Time To Live ​/ Hop Limit
- The Time To Live (TTL), tells the packet ​when to expire​so that it does not travel
forever.
- Payload
- Raw ​data ​to be transmitted
- Trailer
- Checksum​, or ​cyclic redundancy check
- The trailer contains a code used to detect whether any errors have occurred during
transmission.

Packet Switching
Packet switching - a method of communication in which data is communicated using packets​across a
network.
- In this method of communication, packets are sent across the most efficient route, which can vary
for each packet
- Packets are sent via whichever route the node deicides is least congested
- Supports store & forward transmission
- Store & Forward Transmission - a method of switching data packets by the switching
device that receives the data frame and then checks for errors before forwarding the packets

Advantages Disadvantages

Multiple methods to ensure data arrives intact Time is spent deconstructing and reconstructing
- e.g. ​checksums​and ​cyclic redundancy the data packets
checks
Must wait for all packets to arrive before data can
Multiple routes can be used between devices, so if be received
one path breaks, another can be used

Packets can be transferred over ​very large

networks​to allow communication globally

Maximises bandwidth by sending packets down

least congested route

More efficient than circuit switching, as all

 bandwidth can be used at once

More affordable than circuit switching, as less

complex infrastructure is needed & can easily
respond if parts of the network fail

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching - a method of communication where a ​direct link​is created between two devices
- This direct link is maintained for the duration of the ​entire conversation​between devices
- Circuit switching requires the two devices to transfer and receive data at the same rate
- Link created is dedicated & temporary, with a fixed amount of bandwidth, which only lasts until the
transmission is complete​
- All data uses the same path
- Dedicated bandwidth
- Physical path between source & destination
- No store & forward transmission
- Store & Forward Transmission - a method of switching data packets by the switching
device that receives the data frame and then checks for errors before forwarding the packets

Advantages Disadvantages

Data arrives in a logical order which results in a Bandwidth is wasted ​during periods of time in
​quicker reconstruction​of the data. which no data is being sent

Enables two users to hold a call without delay in Devices must transfer & receive data at the same
speech rate

Guarantees quality of transmission through Using switches means electrical interference may
dedicated bandwidth be produced, which can corrupt or destroy data

Ties up sections of the network which cannot be

used by others data until transmission has been
completed

Network Threats
Hackers
An unauthorised person who attempts to gain access to a computer system with the intent of damaging
data or somehow harming that system
- Black-hat hackers - An unauthorised person who attempts to gain access to a computer system
through nefarious means with the intent of stealing, damaging or harming data or a system
- White-hat (ethical) hackers - Security experts employed by companies, who attempt to gain
access to a computer system through nefarious means in order to find vulnerabilities in a system
and fix them
- Grey-hat hackers - Security expects, who are not employed by companies, who attempt to locate
vulnerabilities in a computer system as a hobby, usually reporting them to the company

Malware
An umbrella term for any computer code written with malicious intent to frustrate or harm. These have
various effects including:
- Deleting, corrupting or encrypting files
- Causing devices to crash, reboot or slow down
- Reducing network speeds
 - Logging keyboard inputs & sending them to hackers

Examples of malware include:

- Adware
- Rootkit
- Bots & Botnets
- Trojan
- Worm
- Ransomware
- Spyware
- Virus

Virus
Pieces of code capable of copying themselves & spreading throughout a system
- Typically designed to have a detrimental effect (e.g. corrupting a system, destroying data)

Spyware
A form of malware that obtains information about a user's computer activities by covertly transmitting data
from their device
- Can steal all sorts of information, such as:
- Internet surfing habits
- Email addresses
- Visited web pages
- Downloads/download habits
- Passwords
- Credit card numbers
- Keystrokes (this is done using keyloggers)
- Cookies

Denial of Service (DoS) Attack

When an attacker floods a server with useless traffic, causing the server to become overloaded
- Many exploit the limitations of the TCP/IP stack
- Often target web servers of high-profile organisations (banks, large-scale e-commerce businesses,
governments/government agencies, etc.)
- Do not typically result in theft or loss of data, but can cost a large deal of time & money to handle

Another form of DoS attacks is a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attack

- Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attack - When multiple systems orchestrate the flooding of a
server with useless traffic against a single target, causing the server to become overloaded
- Achieved by attacking a single target from multiple locations at one time
- Can be done by instead of attacking from a single device, several devices can be
taken over & be carrying out independent DoS attacks, often unknowingly

Structured Query Language (SQL) Injection

A code injection technique used to attack data-driven systems
- Achieved by entering SQL code within input text boxes, which is then executed by the server
- Designed to exploit vulnerabilities in poorly coded database applications

Social Engineering
An umbrella term for several different manipulation techniques that exploit human error
- This can include a view to obtaining private information, access to a restricted system or money
- Lure users into exposing data, spreading malware or provided access to a system through:
 - Baiting
- Scareware
- Pretexting/blagging
- Phishing
- Pharming
- Shoulder-surfing
- Quid pro quo
- Vishing

Phishing
An online fraud technique used to trick users into giving out personal information, such as usernames,
passwords & bank details
- Perpetrators disguise themselves as a trustworthy source in an electronic communication (e.g.
email or fake website)

Pharming
An online fraud technique using malicious code installed on a PC or server, which misdirects users to
fraudulent websites without their knowledge

Network Security
The aim of network security is to
- Only allow authorised users to access what they need
- Prevent unauthorised access
- Minimise the potential damage caused by unauthorised access

There are many methods of ensuring this, such as:

- Penetration testing (e.g. white-hat hackers)
- Firewalls
- Physical Security
- User Access levels
- Network forensics
- Secure passwords
- Backup & recovery plans
- Anti-virus/anti-spyware software
- Acceptable usage policies
- User education
- Proxies
- Encryption
- Network perimeter defence
- Patch management
- Device controls
- Secure configuration

Firewalls
A piece of software or hardware configured to let only certain types of traffic through it
- Can be set up to prevent
- Unauthorised internet traffic from an outside LAN
- Users in a LAN from accessing parts of the internet prohibited by an organisation they are a
part of
- Can block certain ports & types of traffic
- Can inspect data travelling across it, to see if it looks suspicious
 - Can consist of two network interface cards (NICs) between the user and the Internet.
- It passes the packets between these two NICs and compares them against packet filters set
by the firewall software.​​
- Packet filters - The preconfigured rules for packets
- Operating systems & home routers often come with built-in firewalls, whereas more sophisticated
ones can be purchased separately

Packet filtering / static filtering ​limits network access​in accordance with ​administrator rules and policies
- Works by examining the source IP, destination IP and the protocols being used as well as the ports
being requested.
- When access is denied by a firewall, two things can occur.
- Dropped: ​A packet is denied and the sender is not notified​of the error
- Rejected: A packet is denied and the sender is notified of the error

Proxies
Proxy server - A server which receives all internet requests before sending them out onto the internet
- Acts as an intermediary, collecting and sending data on behalf of the user.
- All traffic travels through the device on its way in & out of a network
- Will look at each request and analyse it against its protocols / rules & if it meets the rules then it will
pass it on to the internet, & the user will access the service required.
- However, if the request is for a website / service which is on a blocked / filtered list, it will not
be forwarded to the internet, & the user will be unable to access the service required
- Some proxy servers are dedicated to caching common websites so that a user can browse a copy
of a site without accessing it directly.
- This can reduce traffic to certain websites as a result.

There are several benefits of using proxies:

- Privacy of the user is protected and they ​remain anonymous
- Some servers will accept your internet requests and then forward them onto the internet but
using their own IP address and not yours.
- The proxy server can cache frequently used website data making it ​faster to load
- Can reduce overall web traffic
- Can be used by administrators to ​prevent access​to ​sensitive or irrelevant information​at work or at
school

Encryption
A way to convert data (plaintext) into ciphertext so that only authorised parties can unscramble it and
understand its content
- A way of ​keeping data secure​when transmitting it over the Internet.
- Makes data unreadable if it is intercepted.
- Data is encrypted and decrypted using a set of keys that only authorised personnel have access to

User Training
This is the process of educating users on network safety & security, so they are less vulnerable to social
engineering attacks that depend on people as the weak point

Secure Password Systems

This is the process of requiring users to login to sites with pre-determined credentials (e.g. username &
password)
- The creation of passwords may also be required to meet certain requirements, to make them
stronger & more secure, as well as harder to brute force
 - However, the forced creating of difficult passwords may cause users to write theirs down,
defeating the point entirely

Anti-Malware Software
These are applications that identify, notify the user of and remove malware from a device
- These often come pre-installed, but can be purchased
- Crucial to make sure that these are updated with the latest patches, so that when flaws are
discovered & patched, the device is in-line with the newest version

User Access Levels

A system where users of a computer system will be given different access rights depending on their role in
an organisation
- Depending on their role in the organisation, some users will have access to certain parts of the
system with other parts inaccessible
- Access levels are important to ensure that users cannot view sensitive organisation information &
cannot sabotage vital system data

Network Hardware
Network Interface Card
The card within a device required to ​form a wired network connection between a node and another
networked device
- Usually built into the device and assigns a unique media access control (MAC) address to each
device.
- Media Access Control (MAC) Address - a ​48-bit value​coded into the device and is usually
written as a ​twelve digit hexadecimal ​number
- Responsible for placing packets onto network cables in the form of electrical signals or pulses of
light
- Encodes the data according to the physical protocol being used on the network
- Ethernet is a very common protocol for data transmission
- Built into the motherboard, so no extra hardware is needed
- 2 Types: Wired & Wireless
- Converts the data that is to be sent into appropriate signals that can be carried across the medium:
- These signals will be voltages through a wire, or pulses of light through a fibre
- In a Wireless Network Interface Card (W-NIC), signals will be modulated radio waves

Switch
Device used to ​direct the flow of data​across a network by enabling multiple wired devices to connect so
that the network traffic can be forwarded on to the next point in the network
- Most commonly used in networks using a ​star topology
- Contains multiple Ethernet ports
- Uses MAC addresses and data frames rather than IP addresses and packets
- Creates and maintains a MAC address table for all devices that are connected
- MAC Address Table - where the switch stores information about the other Ethernet
interfaces to which it is connected on a network.
- Enables the switch to send outgoing data (Ethernet frames) on the specific port
required to reach its destination, instead of flooding (broadcasting the data on all
ports)
- As a result, is able to forward traffic to only the intended recipient which reduces data collisions and
overall network traffic
Wireless Access Point (WAP)
Device which connects to a wired network and provides wireless network radio signal for wireless devices
to connect to
- More commonly combined with a ​router ​to enable internet access.
- Used in ​mesh networks
- Will generally have a maximum number of devices that can connect
- Will generally have a physical broadcast range within which connections are possible (which can be
also influenced by other factors)
- Uses W-iFi or other similar standard
- Wi-Fi range is limited & easily interfered with by various materials (e.g. walls/ceilings,
electromagnetic waves from other devices like microwaves)
- Uses a broadcast signal, so security is very important

Hub
Device which allows more than device to be connected in a network by providing a point of connection
- Any message sent to a hub is sent to all nodes connected to that hub
- This leads to the potential for ‘data collisions’ – when two computers transmit data at the
same time
- When the packets collide, they can get corrupted and so both are discarded
- Part of the Ethernet protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) is used to handle this.
- Collisions can cause a severe reduction in network throughout, & so hubs are only suitable for use
in small networks
- Much slower than a switch at data transfer (despite having similar function)

Routers
Responsible for moving data from one network to another, e.g. from your home network to the internet, or
across different networks on the internet
- Used to determine the best route that a packet should take for the next stage of its journey
- Switch the packet from the inbound port to the outbound port
- In order to do this, routers maintain a routing table which stores information about which
routers are connected to which ports
- Used to ​connect​two or more ​networks togethe​r.
- Allow private, home networks to connect to the Internet

Routers will share their routing tables with other routers using the Routing Information Protocol (RIP, part of
the TCP/IP stack), so that each router gets information about more networks than only those that it is
directly connected to.
- RIP also helps the router determine the most efficient route across the network, generally involving
the smallest number of ‘hops’
- Home routers, although they have the same function, only need to know how to connect to the ISP,
so will have a static routing table

Gateway
Translates​the protocols so that networks can communicate with each other by removing the header from
packets before adding the data to packets using the new protocol
- Used when routing packets between networks, when ​protocols are not the same​between them
- Reformat the data into the format required by the new network
- The data can then continue its way to the destination

Cables
Needed in a network to connect the different pieces of hardware together
 - Within a network, ethernet cables are commonly used
- Ethernet is the name of the protocol - the actual cables are really unshielded twisted pair
copper cables with an RJ45 connector
- Different Types: Twisted pair, Coaxial, Fibre optic
- Between networks, fibre optic cable may be used – very fast but expensive

Twisted Pair Cables

Made up of a pairs of insulated copper wires
- Affected by noise from external magnetic fields, but they are more affordable than coaxial & fibre
optic cables
- Only able to provide low bandwidth
- Cheapest cable
- Generally used for telephone networks, data networks & cable shielding

Coaxial Cables
Metal wire made up of 4 cylindrical components (solid conductor wire, a layer of insulation, a grounding
conductor & layer of exterior insulation
- Can be affected by noise from external magnetic fields (but to a lesser extent than twisted copper
pair)
- Provides moderate bandwidth
- More expensive than twisted pair, cheaper than fibre optic
- Used for feedlines (radio transmission), antenna receivers, networking, digital audio & cable
television

Fibre Optic Cable

Made up of very thin optical fibres, made of plastic or glass, bundled together in a single cable
- Highest noise immunity, as the light rays are unaffected by electrical noise
- High bandwidth
- Most expensive cabling (more than coaxial & twisted pair)
- Used for long-distance communication between cities or countries, data centres & organisations
transmitting large volumes of data

Client-Server Networks
A network that consists of ​terminal(s),​known as clients, connected to a ​server​, which it can request
resources from
- The server is a​powerful, central computer​.
- Holds all of the ​important information & resources​
- Has ​greater processing power​than the terminals
- Manages network traffic
- Records user activity
- Controls user authentication
- Clients make requests to the server for data, communication & other services
- Servers need to be high spec devices, as they need to be able to:
- Handle requests from multiple clients simultaneously
- Respond quickly to requests
- Have high availability (available 24/7 & reliable)
- Work in an environment with lots of other servers (e.g. high durability
- If the server fails it will not be able to provide resources, hence the importance of a failover &
redundancy
- Failover: The process of swapping over authority to the backup hardware
- Redundancy: A piece of backup hardware that is used in case of a fail in the main server
 - Types of servers
- Print
- Web
- Database
- Mail
- Application

Client-server networks are best suited to organisations with large number of computers or situations where
many computers need access to the same informations

Advantages Disadvantages

Central backups​are carried out so there is no need Relatively expensive​to set up & maintain
for individual backups, easy to backup shared data
Functionality of terminals depends on the server; if
Data and resources can be ​shared between clients this falls, performance falls

Easy to manage file security, as all data is stored in Trained staff are required to maintain the server
1 location
Users will lose network access if the server fails
Easier to install software & security updates to all
computers Server is a single point of failure
- Security & backups centrally managed

Peer-to-Peer Networks
A network in which​computers are of equal status and are connected to each other​so that they can share
files independently
- Peer: A computer connected to the network
- All computers are of equal status
- Each device effectively acts as both a server and client, as it can both provide and request
resources
- Commonly used for file sharing
- Especially in ​piracy​, since it’s almost ​impossible to trace the origin of files
- For Larger files
- Each peer individually downloads parts of the file
- Once a single have enough of the file, it can start sharing with other peers
- Other peers then download parts of the file from peers that have already download
those parts
- Once a peer has a whole file, it can be used as a seed for other peers to start
downloading the file
- This model enables large files to be downloaded without the need for a powerful
server
-
- Each peer is responsible for its own security & data backup
- Peers usually have their own printers
- Can send print jobs to another peer to process, but that peer must be switched on to
communicate with the printer

Peer-to-peer networks are best suited to smaller organisations with fewer computers, or where fewer users
need access to the same data
 Advantages Disadvantages

Cheaper to set up Impossible to trace the origin of files

Allows all users to share & request resources Backups must be performed separately

Easy to maintain Poorer security

Not dependent on a central server May be difficult to locate resources & maintain a
well-ordered file store
Specialist staff are not required

No specialist hardware required

Network Address Translation (NAT)

Network Address Translation (NAT) - A way to map multiple private addresses inside a local network to a
public IP address before transferring the information onto the internet
- Means that private networks only require one IP address (for the internet facing router), irrespective
of the number of devices on the network
- Done so that there are enough IP addresses in IPv4, while the switch to IPv6 is still incomplete
- Some IP address ranges (e.g. 168.192.0.0, 172.16.0.0, 10.0.0.0) are reserved exclusively for use
within private LANs

The router maintains a table which enables it to direct all traffic to the correct device within the LAN
- Achieved by adding a unique port number to each packet)

1.3.4 - Web Technologies

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
HTML - The ​language/script​that ​web pages​are written in
- Allows a browser to interpret​and ​render​a webpage for the viewer by describing the​structure and
order ​of the webpage.
- Uses tags written in ​angle brackets​(<tag>, </tag>)
- 2 sections of a webpage: the body and the head.
- Head contains the title of the webpage
- Body contains the content of the webpage

Essential Tags
- <html>, </html> - All code written within these tags is interpreted as HTML
- <body>, </body> - Defines the content in the main content area of the webpage
- <head>, </head> - Defines the browser tab or window heading area
- <title>, </title> - Defines the text that appears with the tab or window heading area
- <h1> </h1>, <h2> </h2> & <h3> </h3> - Heading styles in decreasing sizes, h1 being the largest
- <link> link to an external sheet (e.g. a CSS style sheet: <link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css"> )
- <p></p> defines a paragraph of text
- <img src="imageFilename.png" alt = “ alt text for the image" style = "width: 100px; height: 70px;">
- <div></div> forms a division in the HTML page, as can be assigned identifiers or classes to be able
to reference in external sheets, such as CSS or Javascript
- <div id = "theDivision"> </div>
- <div class = "myDiv"> </div>
 - <form> </form> Defines a web form where users can input data
- <input> Defines where a user can have input into a web form (enter text, select items, submit, etc.)
- Example:
- <form action="/theform.php" method="get">
<input type="text" id="fname" name="fname"><br><br>
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</form>
- Types of input: button, checkbox, color, date, datetime-local, email, file, hidden, image,
month, number, password, radio, range, reset, search, submit, tel, text, time, url, week
- <ol> </ol> Defines an ordered list, in which items will be numbered
- <ul> </ul> Defines an unordered list, in which items will bullet pointed
- <li> </li> Defines a list item
- <script> </script> Signifies that all code between these tags will be identified as Javascript

Example: Code for All HTML & CSS Tags

Click to run on repl.it

HTML Code

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<!-- everything within the <html> </html> tags is read as HTML code -->
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width">
<title>replit</title>
<link href="style.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!-- Above is a link to an external CSS file
</head>

<!-- this is a comment. -->

<body>
<script src="script.js"></script>
<script>
var name =prompt("What is your name? ", "")
alert("Welcome to the webpage, " + name + "!")
document.write("Hello, " + name + "! This is Javascript embedded into the HTML file!")
</script>
<p> this is a link to an external script, the js script. And this message is enclosed in paragraph tags</p>

</body>

<br>
<head> This is heading tag, this creates a heading for the page</head>
</br>
<title> This is a title tag, which creates a larger title for the page</title>

<body> This is a body tag, where the content of the webpage is contained</body>
<h1> This is heading 1 </h1>
<p> the styling for this is in an external style sheet, which is used for styling across multiple pages</p>

<p> the styling of this heading is using external style sheet, which only applies to all h1 elements on every
page in this project</p>

<h1 style="color:purple;">A Purple Heading, with in-line styling</h1>

<p> in-line styling is the highest in the hierachy, and only affects specific elements on a page</p>

<!-- This CSS code embedded within the HTML page, it only effects the styling of all h2 tags ON THIS
PAGE ONLY!-->
<style>
h2{
color:#34fe88;
}

body {font-family: 'Lucida Sans';

color:black;
background-color: white;}
</style>

<h2> This is heading 2 </h2>

<p> the styling of this heading is using internal style sheet, which only applies to h2 elements on this
page</p>

<h3> This is heading 3 </h3>

<p> this has no styling</p>

<div id="colourfulHeader">
<h4> Identifiers & Classes </h4>
<p>identifiers are only used once on a page, and are used to style specific elements on a page. when using
css, this is prefixed with a hastag (#)</p>

<p>a class is used to style multiple elements on a page, and is used to style elements with the same style.
when using css, this is prefixed with a full stop (.)</p>
</div>

<!-- This is an image -->

<img src="computer.png" alt="a picture of a computer" style = "width: 100px; height: 70px;">

<a href="https://classroom.google.com">this is a link (to google classroom)</a>

<div class="classExample">
<p> This is a paragraph tag within a div tag. a div tag just shows a division in the HTML code. it is being
stylised using a class named "classExample" in the external style sheet</p>
</div>

<p> below is an input box and a form tag</p>

<form action="/theform.php" method="get">
<input type="text" id="fname" name="fname"><br><br>
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</form>

<ol>
<li>ordered list, with numbers</li>
<li>the items are in order with numbers</li>
<li>which is defined by the ol tag</li>
</ol>

<ul>
<li>this is list is unordered, with bullet points</li>
<li>defined by the ul tag </li>
<li>and have bullet points</li>
</ul>

</html>

** css code is outlined below in the css code subheading **

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) - A style sheet language used for specifying the presentation and styling of
a document written in a markup language such as HTML
- Commonly used for the styling of web pages, for visual aspects (borders, different fonts,
background colours, etc.)

Application of CSS in Web Pages

1. In-Line styling: When the styling of a tag is applied within the HTML code, within 1 particular
instance of a tag.
a. Only applies to the particular instance it is embedded in
b. Only applies to that particular instance on that page only
c. Overrides all other methods of styling
d. Example (within HTML code):
i. <h1 style="color:purple;"> A Purple Heading, with in-line styling </h1>

2. Internal Styling: When the styling of a tag is applied within the HTML code, within style tags, and
applies to all instances of that tag within that page
a. Only applies to the page it is embedded in
b. Only applies to the type of tag specified in the style code (e.g. h1, h2, title, etc.)
c. Must be applied with correct CSS syntax within <style></style> tags within the HTML code
d. Overrides external styling, but can be overridden by in-line styling
e. Example: (within HTML code):
i. <style>
h2{
color:#34fe88;
}

body {font-family: 'Lucida Sans';

color:black;
background-color: white;}
</style>
 3. External Styling: When the styling of a tag, class or identifier is applied within an external
stylesheet, written in CSS
a. Applies to all pages within the project to all instances of the tag, class or identifier
b. Only applies to the type of tag, class or identifier specified
c. Can be overridden by both in-line & internal styling
d. Example (within external CSS stylesheet):
i. Using Tags:
- h1{
color:#e392fe;
font-size: 20px;
font-family: "Lucida Console", "Courier New", monospace;
- }

ii. Using Classes

- .classExample {
background-color: lemonchiffon;
color: black;
border-radius: 20%;
border-color: black;
border-width: 2px;
border-style: solid;
}

iii. Using Identifiers

- #colourfulHeader{
background-color: lightpink;
font-family: "verdana";
}

Essential Properties
These can be applied to the entire HTML page, or just a single container of text, using either in-line, internal
or external styling.

- background-color
- border-color
- border-style
- border-width
- font-family
- font-size
- height
- width
- color (with named & hex colours)

Guide to Hex Colour System

This is a system used within HTML code to describe colours using the
RGB colour system.
- Made up of 3 hexadecimal numbers (0-255), each representing
the amount of red, green and blue that the colour is made up of,
in that order.
- Must begin with a hashtag (#)
- Ranges from #000000 (pure black) to #FFFFFF (pure white)
 - The higher the hexadecimal number, the more of that colour there will be in the generated
colour
- The lower the hexadecimal number, the less of that colour there will be

Examples:

Example: All HTML Tags & CSS Properties

Click to run on repl.it

CSS Code
html {
height: 100%;
width: 100%;
border-color: #ed719e;
border-width: 10px;
border-style:dotted;
}

h1{
color:#e392fe;
font-size: 20px;
font-family: "Lucida Console", "Courier New", monospace;
}

#colourfulHeader{
background-color: lightpink;
font-family: "verdana";
}

.classExample {
background-color: lemonchiffon;
color: black;
border-radius: 20%;
border-color: black;
 border-width: 2px;
border-style: solid;
}

Javascript
General Syntax Rules
- All command lines (lines that output, declare a variable, etc.) must end with a semicolon
- All sections of code are contained within curly brackets {}, with the final curly bracket being on the
line below the section it contains, on its own separate line
- Javascript is case sensitive, so ‘age = 18’ is not the same as writing ‘Age = 18’ and will be treated
as 2 separate variables with no affiliation

Variables
Can be declared in 4 ways:
- Automatically (typically seen as bad practice to do this)
- age = 18
- Using ‘var’ (only used to support older browsers)
- var age = 18
- Using ‘let’ (should be used when value should be able to be reassigned)
- let age = 18
- Using ‘const’ (should be used when value should not be changed during the program)
- const age = 18

After declaring, the type of variable does not need to be specified (e.g. if you wanted to change age later
on, you could put ‘age = 16’ instead of ‘var age = 16’, bearing in mind that variables labelled with ‘const’
cannot be changed through reassignment later in the program)

Casting

Method Example Description

Number() let abc = "123"; String to number
let num = Number(abc)
Boolean to number
let bool = true;
let num = Number(bool);

bool = false;
num = Number(bool);

+ let abc = "123"; Unary operator; string to number

let num = +abc;
Boolean to number
let bool = true;
let num = +bool;

bool = false;
num = +bool;

parseInt() let abc = "123"; String to integer

let numInt = parseInt(abc);
 parseFloat() let abc = "123.45"; String to float
let numFloat = parseFloat(abc);

String() let num = 123; Number to string

let str = String(num)
Boolean to string
let bool = true;
let str = String(bool);

.toString() let num = 123; Number to string

let str = num.toString();
Boolean to string
let bool = false;
let str = bool.toString();

+““ let num = 123; Concatenation of a non-numeric

let str = num + "" character to a number to
automatically change the entire
variable to a string

String() let bool = true;

let str = String(bool

=== let str = "true"; String to boolean

let bool = (str === "true");

Boolean() let num = 1; Number to boolean

let bool = Boolean(num);

num = 0;
bool = Boolean(num);

!! let num = 1; Double negation, number to

let bool = !!num; boolean

num = 0;
bool = !!num;

Outputting to Screen
This can be done in 3 different ways:
- By changing the contents of an HTML element
- Example:
- chosenElement = document.getElementById(“example”);
chosenElement.innerHTML = “Hello World”;
- In this example, the item in HTML code contained within the tag where id = “example”
is replaced with “Hello World”

- By writing directly into the document

- In this example, there is no change to the actual HTML code, but there is text inserted at the
end of the web page: “Hello World”
- document.write(“Hello World”);

- By using an alert box

- In this example, there is no change to the actual HTML code, nor is there a change to the
web page itself, the text “Hello World” pops up in an alert box
 - alert(“Hello World”);

Iteration (Count Controlled)

Example:
- for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
document.write("Woohoo");
}

Key aspects:
- var i = 0: Defines the starting number for the iteration
- i < 5: Defines the number that the variable I will go up to, which is how many times the code will loop
- i++: Defines the increment of i after each iteration, the ++ being a representation of +1
- All parts of the for statement must be separated by semicolons

Iteration (Condition Controlled)

Example:
- var i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
document.write("Woohoo");
i++;
}

Key aspects:
- var i = 0: Declaration of the variable to be the condition for the loop
- i < 5: The condition to be met for the iteration to be continued
- i++: Defines the increment of i after each iteration, the ++ being a representation of +1

Arithmetic & Logical Operators

Arithmetic

Operator Description
+ Add

- Subtract

* Multiply

** Exponentiation

/ Division

% Modulus (Gives remainder of division)

++ Increment

-- Decrement

Arithmetic Assignment

Operator Example Same as

 = x=y x=y

+= x += y x=x+y

-= x -= y x=x-y

*= x *= y x=x*y

/= x /= y x=x/y

%= x %= y x=x%y

**= x **= y x = x ** y

Logical

Operator Description
== Equal to

=== Equal to & equal type

!= Not equal to

!== Not equal to or not equal type

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than or equal to

<= Less than or equal to

? Ternary operator (short way of writing if/else

statement, see image below)
Selection
Example:
- if (age >= 18) {
alert("You are allowed to drink beer");
} else if (age > 16) {
alert("Nice try. You are not allowed to drink beer.");
} else {
alert("Here is some lemonade.");
}

The output can be done using any of the 3 methods described in the ‘Outputting to Screen’ section

String Handling

Green - Most important aspects

Amber - Somewhat unlikely, but still useful
Red - Extremely unlikely, but still useful

Format: variable = string.operator()

Operator Example Description

charAt() let str = "Hello, World!"; Returns the character at a
let char = str.charAt(0); specified index
alert(char);

indexOf() let str = "Hello, World!"; Returns the index of the first
 let index = str.indexOf("o"); occurrence of a specified value
alert(index);

concat() let str1 = "Hello"; Join two or more strings.

let str2 = "World";
let result = str1.concat(", ", str2,
"!");
alert(result);

slice() let str = "Hello, World!"; Extracts a part of a string and

let sliced = str.slice(7, 12); returns a new string.
alert(sliced);

split() let str = "Hello, World!"; Splits a string into an array of

let array = str.split(", "); substrings at a defined
alert(array); character/set of characters

startsWith() let str = "Hello, World!"; Checks if a string starts with a

let startsWith = specified value.
str.startsWith("Hello");
alert(startsWith);

endsWith() let str = "Hello, World!"; Checks if a string ends with a

let endsWith = specified value
str.endsWith("World!");
alert(endsWith);

substring() let str = "Hello, World!"; Extracts characters from a string

let substring = str.substring(7, between two specified indices.
12);
alert(substring);

toLowerCase() let str = "Hello, World!"; Converts a string to lowercase

let lower = str.toLowerCase(); letters.
alert(lower);

toUpperCase() let str = "Hello, World!"; Converts a string to uppercase

let upper = str.toUpperCase(); letters.
alert(upper);

search() let str = "Hello, World!"; Searches a string for a specified

let position = str.search("World"); value and returns the position of
alert(position); the match.

includes() let str = "Hello, World!"; Checks if a string contains a

let hasHello = specified value.
str.includes("Hello");
alert(hasHello);

lastIndexOf() let str = "Hello, World!"; Returns the index of the last
let lastIndex = occurrence of a specified value
str.lastIndexOf("o");
alert(lastIndex);

repeat() let str = "Hello"; Returns a new string with a

let repeated = str.repeat(3); specified number of copies of the
alert(repeated); string it was called on.

replace() let str = "Hello, World!"; Returns a new string with some
let newStr = str.replace("World", or all matches of a pattern
 "JavaScript"); replaced by a replacement.
alert(newStr);

replaceAll() let str = "Hello, World! World!"; Returns a new string with all
let newStr = matches of a pattern replaced by
str.replaceAll("World", a replacement.
"JavaScript");
alert(newStr);

charCodeAt() let str = "Hello, World!"; Returns the Unicode of the

let code = str.charCodeAt(0); character at a specified index.
alert(code);

trim() let str = " Hello, World! "; Removes whitespace from both
let trimmed = str.trim(); ends of a string.
alert(trimmed);

Functions
Functions are defined with the word function before the name of the functions itself

Example:
- function multiply(num1, num2) {
var total = num1 * num2;
return total;
}

Procedures
Defined with the word function before the name of the procedure itself & does not return a value to the main
program

Example:
function multiply(num1, num2) {
var total = num1 * num2;
alert(total);
}

Arrays
Declaring an Array
- Literal Notation
- Example: let array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
- Array Constructor Method
- Example: let array = new Array(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);
- Array of method
- Example: let array = Array.of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

Array Functions

Green - Most important aspects

Amber - Somewhat unlikely, but still useful
Red - Extremely unlikely, but still useful
 Operator Example Description
concat() let array1 = [1, 2, 3]; Merges 2 or more arrays
let array2 = [4, 5, 6];
let result = array1.concat(array2);
alert(result);

includes() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Determines whether an array

let includesTwo = includes a certain value among
array.includes(2); its entries
alert(includesTwo);

length let array = [1, 2, 3, 4]; Returns the length (size) of an

let size = array.length; array

pop() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Removes the last element from
let lastElement = array.pop(); an array and returns that element
alert(lastElement);

push() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Adds one or more elements to

let newLength = array.push(4); the end of an array and returns
alert(newLength); the new length of the array

toString() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Returns a string representing the

let str = array.toString(); specified array and its elements
alert(str);

at() let array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; Returns the element at the given
let element = array.at(2); index, allowing for positive and
alert(element); negative integers

element = array.at(-1); Negative integers count back

alert(element); from the last item in the array

[] let array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; Accesses the element at the

let element = array[2]; given index in the array
alert(element);

join() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Joins all elements of an array

let joined = array.join("-"); into a string
alert(joined);

indexOf() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Returns the first index at which a
let index = array.indexOf(2); given element can be found in
alert(index); the array

slice() let array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; Returns a shallow copy of a

let sliced = array.slice(1, 3); portion of an array into a new
alert(sliced); array object selected from start to
end (end not included)

sort() let array = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5]; Sorts the elements of an array in

array.sort(); place and returns the array
alert(array);

unshift() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Adds one or more elements to

let newLength = array.unshift(0); the beginning of an array and
 alert(newLength); returns the new length of the
array

splice() let array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; Changes the contents of an array

array.splice(2, 1, 10); by removing or replacing existing
alert(array); elements and/or adding new
elements in place

forEach() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Executes a provided function

array.forEach(num => once for each array element
alert(num));

reverse() let array = [1, 2, 3]; Reverses an array in place.

array.reverse();
alert(array);

lastIndexOf() let array = [1, 2, 3, 2]; Returns the last index at which a
let lastIndex = given element can be found in
array.lastIndexOf(2); the array
alert(lastIndex);

Search Engine Indexing

Search Engines
A program that ​searches through a database of internet addresses looking for resources based on criteria
set by the client.
- Try to display the most high-quality websites with the most relevant content at the top of the page
- When making a search, a search engine will look through it’s index (a database of websites) to give
you relevant information & sites
- A search engine’s index is constantly updated using web crawlers/spiders

Web Crawlers
Software used to collect information about websites to build an index of web pages
- Work by traversing the internet, one web page at a time by using links on websites
- Collect keywords & phrases from the linked web pages, then adds this information to the index
- Collect & add meta data from websites, which is information provided by the website owner

Types of information they might collect

- How many times different words appear on the page
- When the page was last updated
- Words that are placed within the <h1> tags (headings)
- The words that are placed in the <title> tag (what appears on the browser tab)

PageRank Algorithm
An algorithm used to rank web pages, determining the order in which web pages are displayed when a
search is conducted, in which higher ranked pages will show up first (at the top of the page)
- The PageRank algorithm was devised in 1995 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin, the founders of
Google

PageRanks of webpages are constantly being recalculate & updated, and each time the calculations are
run, the process produces slightly more accurate results
- Eventually, the PageRank of each page will stabilise, when further iterations of the algorithm
would produce a negligible change (if any), so wouldn’t cause a difference in rank
Factors Affecting PageRank
- There are multiple factors which determine the page rank of a page:
- How many ​incoming links​it has from other web pages
- The quality of the links to a page
- The ​page rank​of the web pages that ​link to it
- Popularity of the page
- Popularity of incoming pages

PageRank & Directed Graphs

PageRank algorithm can be described as a directed graph
- Shows which pages link to other websites,
- Webpages are represented as nodes
- Links between two pages are represented as arcs (arrows) between the
nodes

PageRank Algorithm Formula

PR(A) = (1 - d) + d ( (PR(T1)/C(T1)) + … + (PR(Tn)/C(Tn)) )

- PR(A): PageRank of the page to be calculated

- PR(T1): PageRank of a page that links directly to A
- C(T1): The number of outbound links on page T1
- PR(Tn): Denoting the PageRank of page ‘n’ (each subsequent page) linking directly to A
- C(Tn): Denoting the number of outbound links on page ‘n’ (each of the subsequent pages)
- d: The probability, at any step, that the person will continue following links from the webpage they
are currently on. Usually set to 0.85 (85%, around 1 in 6)

Damping Factor
The probability, at any step, that the person will continue following links from the webpage they are
currently on
- Also known as the teleportation probability
- Usually set to 85%, due to the random surfer model
- Stops the page rank of pages linked to page A from having too much effect
- Based on the idea of a random surfer (random surfer model) who will follow a link from a page 85%
of the time, but 15% of the time will go somewhere else entirely

Random Surfer Model

A graph model which describes the probability of a random user visiting a web page.
- Assumes that a person browsing the web (a random surfer), who accesses a webpage, will click on
a link on that page, and will then click on a link on the next page, and so on.
- However, occasionally, the surfer will get bored and access a completely different page (that is not
visited through a page link).
- To replicate this behaviour, the algorithm introduces a damping factor: a typical setting of
0.85 (85%) assumes that out of every six links, five follow links on a page (one switches to
an unrelated page)

Server & Client Side Processing

Webserver - A computer with specialised software which hosts sites & delivers web pages to users
Server Side Processing
When a ​client sends data to a server​for it to be processed, so no information is processed on the client
computer.
- Common Server Side scripting languages: ​SQL​or ​PHP​

Advantages of Server Side Processing

- Does not require ​plugins
- Can perform ​large calculations​much faster than clients
- Servers can be optimised to cope with heavy processing demands
- Not browser dependent
- More ​secure
- More control over the environment in which the scripts are to be executed
- Scripts are hidden on the server, which helps protect intellectual copyright and helps prevent
anyone from tampering with the code

Client Side Processing

When a client processes the data on a ​local device​, which means that all of the information is processed on
the client computer.
- Also called client side scripting
- Common language: Javascript

Advantages of Client Side Processing

- Webpage can immediately respond to user actions
- Executes quickly
- Gives developers more control over the behaviour and look of the website

Thin & Thick Clients

These terms refer to the amount of processing that is done on the client’s side compared to the server
- Thin Clients: Do very little processing or data storage with most of the work being done on the
server.
- Thick Clients: Require much more in terms of processing & storage on the client side

Advantages Disadvantages
Thin Clients Easy to set up, maintain and add Reliant on the server
terminals on a network as little
client installation required Requires high end hardware for
reliability
Software can be managed
centrally Higher demand on the server

More secure as data is kept More data transfer from client to

centrally server which can consume
battery on mobile devices

Thick Clients Robust and reliable providing More expensive client side
greater up time hardware required

Can operate without continuous Installation of software on the

connection to the server client required.
 Generally better for running more Possible integrity issues with
powerful applications distributed data

Comparison: Server vs Client Side Processing

Server Side Client Side

Processing carried out on the webserver Processing carried out on the user’s computer

Can put strain on a server so important that the Reduces the load on a server by offloading
server only processes data it has to (e.g. for processes to the client
security reasons)

Can slow the web experience down due to data Reduces web traffic as less data gets sent /
transfer between client and server received

Good for security related validation checks (e.g. Good for initial data entry validation (e.g.
looking up passwords on database) presence/format checks)

Uses PHP/SQL Uses Javascript

1.4 - Data Types, Data Structures & Algorithms

1.4.1 - Data types

Primitive Data Types
Integer - A whole number, with no fractional aspects
- E.g: 6, 56789, -12, 0, 17

Real/Float - Any numerical value with or without a fractional part

- E.g: 0, -71.5, 5.01, 17

Character - A single symbol used by a computer

- E.g: R, l, {, %, 1, $

String - A collection of 2 or more alphanumeric characters and/or symbols,

- E.g: Hello World!, 0784921, R:66D

Boolean - Data type that stores 1 of 2 possible opposing values

- E.g: TRUE/FALSE, 1/0, ON/OFF

Binary, Denary & Hexadecimal

Base - The number of unique digits (including 0) used to represent in a positional value
- Positional Numeral System: Uses the positions of the digits in a number to represent their value
- Each positional value is a successive power of the base, starting at 0 units on the right hand
side

Representing Positive Integers in Binary

In 8-bit binary, 256 distinct positive integers can be represented, these being 0-255 inclusive.

Converting from Denary to Unsigned Binary

1. Find the largest power of 2 less than or equal to the decimal number.
2. Subtract this value from the decimal number.
3. Record a 1 in the corresponding binary position.
4. Move to the next largest power of 2 and repeat the process until the decimal number is reduced to 0
5. Fill in 0s for all positions that were skipped

Powers of 2 (for an 8-bit number) are as follows:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Example - Converting 13 to Binary

1. Identify that the largest power of 2 less than or equal to 13 is 8 (23)
2. Subtract 8 from 13: 13 - 8 = 5
3. Record a 1 in the ‘8’ position:
-

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1
4. Subtract next largest power of 2: 5 - 4 = 1
 5. Record a 1 in the ‘4’ position:
-

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1
6. Subtract next largest power of 2: 1 - 1 = 0
7. Record 1 in the ‘1’ position
-

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1
8. Fill in 0s for the rest of the positions skipped:
-

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

Therefore: 13 in 8-bit binary is represented as 00001101

Representing Positive Integers in Hexadecimal

In 2-digit hexadecimal, 256 distinct values can be represented, 0-255 inclusive.

Converting from Denary to Hexadecimal

1. If the number is greater than or equal to 16, divide the number by 16
a. The integer value represents the 1st digit, if it is between 1-9 (inclusive) record this as the
first digit of the hexadecimal number
b. If it is between 10 -15 (inclusive) then use the chart below to find the corresponding number
to represent it (ranging from A-F inclusive)
2. Take the remainder of that division, and assign that as the second digit in the hexadecimal number

Place Value:
-

16 1
161 160

Letter/Number Representations:
-

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Example - 42 in Hexadecimal
1. 42 > 16, and so 42 / 16 = 2.625,
a. Integer value of the division is 2, therefore the first digit is ‘2’
2. Remainder of this division is 10
a. This corresponds to the letter ‘A’ in the table above, therefore the second digit is ‘A’
Therefore, 42 in hexadecimal is 2A

Binary Addition Rules

1. 0+0+0=0
2. 0+0+1=1
3. 0 + 1 + 1 = 10
4. 1 + 1 + 1 = 11

Example

Sign & Magnitude

This is a method of representing binary numbers’ magnitude, using the leftmost digit as the ‘sign bit’
- A leading (leftmost) 1 is seen as negative sign, whereas a 0 is seen as a positive sign
- To show a number’s sign, a 1 or 0 is placed in front of the binary number

Example:

Two’s Complement
A method of representing negative numbers in binary that works by making the most significant bit
negative.
- For example, with eight bits (a byte) the most significant bit, usually 128, represents -128.

Converting to Two’s Complement

1. Convert number from denary to unsigned binary
2. Flip all bits of the unsigned binary number
3. Add 1 to the least significant bit

Example - Converting -7 to Two’s Complement

1. 7 in binary is equivalent to 00000111​
2. Flip all the bits: 11111000
 3. Adding 1 to least significant bit: 11111001

To prove this, we can use the values of each bit:

When doing the addition, this ends up being:

Subtraction Using Two’s Complement

The subtraction of 2 (or more) positive numbers can be carried out by converting the number to be
subtracted into two’s complement and doing usual binary addition, as shown in this example:

Subtracting 12 from 8
- This is done in five bit two’s complement (where -16 is the
right-most bit),
- 8 is ​01000 ​& -12 is 10100​. ​

The two’s complement numbers are then ​added using regular binary
addition & the result is ​11100​

Floating Point Numbers in Binary

Floating point numbers are split into 2 parts, the mantissa & the exponent
- This form is also known as ‘Mantissa & Exponent’
- Mantissa - The result of where the original number has been converted to a form where its
most significant figure is after the decimal point.
- Exponent - The ‘order of magnitude’, which indicates how many places to the right or left
the decimal point needs to be moved in order to recreate the original number

Example: In denary, in the number 7.52 × 1013, the mantissa would be ‘7.52’ & the exponent is ‘1013’

Floating point binary numbers are represented in two’s complement, so the left most bit of both the
mantissa and the exponent is always a sign bit.
- This is so it can represent both positive & negative mantissas, as well as both positive & negative
exponents

Floating Point Numbers are shown in this form:

Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1
The point is implied to be immediately after the sign bit of the mantissa, however, there is no physical bit
allocated to be the point
- All mantissa values are fractional between (close to) +1 (this being 511/512) and -1
- All exponents are integers between -32 and 31 (in this example)
Converting from positive floating point to denary:
1. Rewrite the number in ‘standard form’ ( a × 2b)
2. Convert the exponent to denary
3. Move the decimal point in the mantissa according to the magnitude of the exponent
a. Positive Exponent: Move to the right
b. Negative Exponent: Move to the left
4. Read the converted number

Example: Converting a Positive Floating Point Number to Denary

Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

1. Rewrite the number in ‘standard form’: 0.110100000 x 211

2. Convert exponent to denary: 000011 = 3
3. Move the decimal point
a. Positive 3: move 3 places to the right
b. 0.110100000 becomes 110.100000
c. Ignoring leading 0s, this becomes 110.1
4. Now we just read the converted number 110.1:

4 2 1 1/2

1 1 0 1

Which means that 110.1 is equal to 6.5

Converting from negative floating point to denary:

1. Convert the two’s complement representation into its negative form:
a. Subtract 1 bit
b. Flip all bits of the unsigned binary number
2. Rewrite the number in ‘standard form’ ( -a × 2b)
3. Convert the exponent to denary
4. Move the decimal point in the mantissa according to the magnitude of the exponent
a. Positive Exponent: Move to the right
b. Negative Exponent: Move to the left
5. Read the converted number

Example: Converting a Negative Floating Point Number to Denary

Mantissa Exponent
 -1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

6. Convert the two’s complement representation into its negative form:

a. Subtract 1 bit: 1.011100000 becomes 1.011011111
b. Flip all bits of the unsigned binary number: 1.011011111 becomes (-)0.100100000
c. Ignoring leading 0s: (-)0.1001
7. Rewrite the number in ‘standard form’: -0.1001 x 211
8. Convert the exponent to denary: 000011 = 3
9. Move the decimal point in the mantissa according to the magnitude of the exponent
a. Positive 3: move 3 places to the right
b. -0.1001 becomes -100.1
10. Read the converted number:

4 2 1 1/2

1 0 0 1

Which means that 100.1 is equal to -4.5

Floating Point Normalisation

Normalisation - The process of ensuring that the floating-point number is stored as precisely as it can be.
- Done by placing the first significant figure of the mantissa after the point
- The mantissa should have no leading 0s (for a positive number) or 1s (for a negative number)
- The first two bits are the sign bit and the first bit of the mantissa
- The first two bits of the mantissa will always be different.
- In a positive number, the mantissa’s sign bit is 0 and the next digit is 1
- In a negative number, the mantissa’s sign bit is 1 and the next digit is 0

Process of Normalisation
1. Identify whether mantissa is positive or negative
2. Shift the mantissa ‘point’ left or right to become a 0.1 or 1.0
a. Positive Mantissa: 0.1
b. Negative Mantissa: 1.0
3. Change exponent according to number of places shifted
a. Left: Increase mantissa by magnitude of shift
b. Right: Reduce mantissa by magnitude of shift
4. Combine to create full normalised floating point number

Example: Positive Mantissa & Exponent

Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
 1. This mantissa is positive, so it must be shifted to have a 0.1 at the beginning
2. To normalise the mantissa the point needs to be moved 2 to the right (discarding 0s):

Mantissa

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Therefore, we need to reduce exponent by 2 (from 5 to 3):

Exponent

-32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 0 1 1

Which results in:

Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

Example: Negative Mantissa & Positive Exponent

Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

1. This mantissa is negative, so it must be shifted to have a 1.0 at the beginning

2. To normalise the mantissa the point needs to be moved 4 to the right (discarding 1s):

Mantissa

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Therefore we need to reduce exponent by 4 (from 5 to 1):

 Exponent

-32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 0 0 1

Which results in:

Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Example: Positive Mantissa & Negative Exponent

Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1

1. This mantissa is positive, so it must be shifted to have a 0.1 at the beginning

2. To normalise the mantissa the point needs to be moved 1 to the right (discarding 0s):

Mantissa

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Therefore, we need to reduce exponent by 1 (from -3 to -4):

Exponent

-32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 0 0

Which results in:

 Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 1/512 -32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

Floating Point Arithmetic

Addition
In order to add floating point binary numbers, their ​exponents need to be the same​, then it’s just a case of
adding the mantissas & normalising the result if required.
- Changing the exponents is done in the exact same way as in normalisation, but for arithmetic, both
of the exponents can be made to be the same value and the mantissas can be shifted accordingly
- Then it is the same as any other binary addition

Example: Changing Exponents

Do the calculation: 000100 | 0011 + 000101 | 0010
- The exponents are ​not the same​, so one must be modified to match the other.
- The first mantissa needs to be shifted by three, and the second by two.
- If we shift the first mantissa by one then it will only need shifting by another two, meaning its
exponent will match the second.

This results in the calculation becoming: 001000 | 0010 + 000101 | 0010

You can then add the mantissas, which becomes:

The result is 001101 | 0010, which still needs to be normalised.

- To do this, shift the mantissa one bit to the left and decrease the exponent by one, which results in:
​
Mantissa Exponent

-1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 -8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

Subtraction
Similar to regular binary subtraction, this involves converting to two’s complement & adding
1. Make the exponents the same.
2. The mantissa of the number to be subtracted must be ​converted to two’s complement​.
a. This is performed by flipping all the bits and adding one.
Now binary addition is carried out on the two numbers, before the result is normalised.

Bitwise Manipulation
Logical Shifts
This is a shift performed on binary numbers
- There are two varieties: logical shift left and logical shift right.

A shift involves moving all of the bits in a binary number a specified number of places to the right or to the
left.
- This can be thought of as adding a number of ​leading ​or ​trailing ​zeros.

For example, perform a logical shift left by three places to the binary 10010110
- A logical shift left by three places is the same as adding three trailing zeros. The result is therefore
10010110​000​.

The result of a logical shift is a ​multiplication ​(or ​division ​if shifting right) by two to the power of the number
of places shifted.
- Example: A logical shift left by one place has the effect of ​doubling (21) ​the initial number

Masks
A mask can be applied to binary numbers by combining them with a logic gate
- These logic gates are usually AND, OR or XOR

AND OR XOR

A B P A B P A B P

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

By ‘masking’ a number, you’re applying the corresponding logic gate to each bit of the original number,
using a number known as the ‘mask’

Examples:

AND OR XOR
Character Sets
Character Set - A published collection of codes and corresponding characters which can be used by
computers for representing text.
- Two widely used character sets are ASCII and Unicode.

American Standard Code for International Interchange (ASCII)

Character set which uses 7 bits to represent 128 (27​) different characters.
- The capital letters A-Z are represented by codes 65-90 while the lower case letters a-z correspond
to codes 97-122.
- There are also codes for ​numbers ​and ​symbols​.
ASCII was useful until computers needed more characters to represent other languages with different
characters, as well as accented characters.
- This is when unicode was developed

Unicode
Character set which uses a ​varying number of bits​allowing for over 1 million different characters, many of
which have yet to be allocated.
- Because of this, Unicode has enough capacity to represent a wealth of different languages, symbols
and emoji
1.4.2 - Data Structures
Arrays
More array functions are outlined within 1.3.4 - Web Technologies: Arrays
Array - An ​ordered, finite set of elements​of a ​single type
- Unless stated in the question, arrays are always taken to be zero-indexed​, which means that the
first element in the array is considered to be at position zero

One-Dimensional (1D)
A 1D array is a​linear array​, it only needs to be accessed in the form array[index]
- Can be created like this: array = [1, 23, 12, 14, 16, 29, 12]
- And then accessed (& printed) like this: print(array[3])
- Which would output ‘14’

Two Dimensional (2D)

A 2D array is an array that can be visualised as a ​table ​or ​spreadsheet​.
- When searching through a 2D array, you first go ​down the rows​and then ​across the columns​to find
a given position.
- This means that it is accessed in the form array[a,b]
- Example:

Three Dimensional (3D)

A 3D is an array that can be visualised as a​multi-page spreadsheet​
- Can be thought of as multiple 2D arrays
- Can be accessed like this: array[a,b,c]
- Example:

Records
Record - one instance of an entity in a database (more info in 1.3.2 - Databases)
- Commonly referred to as a​row in a file​(table) and is made up of ​fields​.
- Each field in the record can be identified by ​recordName.fieldName after it has been created
- Used in databases, for example, a file containing 3 records, where each record has 4 fields:

ID FirstName LastName Age

001 John Smith 35

002 Emma Davis 23

 003 Jane Williams 31
- Above is a file containing three records, where each record has three fields, in which a record is
declared in the following manner:
- userDataType = record
integer ID
string FirstName
string LastName
integer Age
end record
- When creating this record, a variable must first be declared like this: user : userDataType

Lists
List - a data structure consisting of a number of ​ordered ​items where the items can occur more than once​
- Elements can be accessed in the form list[index]
- Values are stored ​non-contiguously​: Do not have to be stored next to each other in memory,
- Can also contain elements of ​more than one data type​

List Manipulation

format: listName.function(parameters)

Operator Example Description

isEmpty() list.isEmpty() Checks if list is empty
>> False

append(value) list.append(15) Adds given value to the end of

the list

remove(value) list.remove(23) Removes the value the first time

it appears in the list

search(value) list.search(38) Searches for a value in the list &

>> True returns True/False on whether it
is there or not

length() list.length() Returns the length of the list

>> 7

index(value) list.index(23) Returns the position of the item

>> 2

insert(position, value) list.insert(4,25) Inserts a value at a given position

pop() list.pop() Returns & removes the last value

>> 12 in the list

pop(position) list.pop(3) Returns and removes the value

in the list at the given position

Tuples
Tuple - An ​ordered set of values of any type
- Immutable​, so cannot be changed​, & elements cannot be added or removed once it has been
created
 - Attempting to do so will result in a syntax error
- Initialised using regular brackets instead of square brackets
- Example: newTuple = (“Value1”, 2, 33.21)
- Elements in a tuple are accessed in a similar way to elements in an array, for example:
- print(newTuple[0])
>> Value1

Linked Lists
Linked List - A ​dynamic data structure​used to hold an ordered sequence
- Items in the list don’t have to be in contiguous data locations
- Each item is called a ​node​, & contains a ​data field​alongside another address called a ​link ​or ​pointer
field​
- Each list also stores a predetermined ‘Start’ pointer variable & a variable for the next free index,
which gets updated as the list fills up
- Doubly Linked List: When an extra pointer is added to every node in a linked list so it can point to
the previous and next items
- Circular Linked List: When the pointer of the last node points to the start node
- The order of items can be changed by changing the pointers, but items cannot be directly accessed
like in arrays (no ‘random access’)
- Random Access - The ability to access a specific element directly, given its index

When traversing a linked list, the algorithm begins at the index given by the ‘Start’ pointer and outputs the
values at each node until it finds that the pointer field is empty/null.
- This signals that the end of the linked list has been reached.

Example 1
In the table shown on the right:
- The ‘Data’ field contains the value of the actual data which is part of
the list
- The ‘Pointer’ field contains the address of the next item in the list
- The variable ‘Start’ contains the index of the first item in the list
- The variable ‘NextFree’ contains the index of the next free space in the
list

Traversing this linked list would go as shown: ‘Example’ ➡️ ‘Linked’ ➡️ ‘List’

Manipulating Linked Lists
When adding an item to a linked list
- New item needs to have null pointer (unless being inserted within the list, in which pointers will need
to be changed to reflect this)
- Pointer of the previous item has to be changed from null to the index of the new item
- Variable holding the next free index needs to be updated to show the index of the one after the item
just added

To ‘remove’ an item from a node you can do 3 things:

- Removing Start Node: Done by changing the ‘Start’ variable to the index of the node that is
currently second in the list
- Removing Node in the Middle: (Given that node to be removed is nodeR for simplicity) Change
the pointer of the one prior to nodeR to the one after nodeR
- Removing Node at the End: Change the node of the second to last node to be null
A node can never truly be removed from a linked list, just skipped over/ignored, which wastes memory.

Graphs
This is a set of ​vertices/nodes​connected by ​edges/arcs​. There are 3 different types:
- Directed Graph: The edges can only be traversed in one direction
- Undirected Graph: The edges can be traversed in both directions
- Weighted Graph: A ‘cost’ is attached to each edge/arc

Key Terms
- Neighbours - 2 nodes that are connected to each other by an edge
- Degree - The number of other nodes that it is connected to
- Loop - An edge that connects a node to itself
- Path - A sequence of nodes that are connected by edges
- Cycle - A closed path, i.e. a path that starts and ends at the same node (& no node is visited more
than once)

Computers are able to process graphs by using an​adjacency matrix​or an ​adjacency list​

Adjacency Matrix Adjacency List

A square matrix used to represent a finite graph, A collection of unordered lists used to represent a
where the elements of the matrix indicate whether finite graph, where each unordered list within an
pairs of vertices are adjacent or not in the graph adjacency list describes the set of neighbours of a
particular vertex in the graph.

+ More convenient to work with due to quicker + More efficient for large, sparse networks
access times
+ Easy to add nodes

Stack
Stack - An abstract data type that holds an ordered, linear sequence of
items, a last in, first out (LIFO) structure
- Used to reverse an action​, such as to go back a page in web
browsers or press the ‘undo’ button
- Implemented using a pointer which points to the top of the stack,
where the next piece of data will be inserted.
- Can be implemented as either a static structure or a dynamic
structure.
- Static: Stack with a predetermined size
- Dynamic: Stack without a predetermined size
- Static stacks are better for when the maximum size required
is known in advance, & are easier to implement & make
more efficient use of memory.
Stack Manipulation

format: stackName.function(parameters)

Operator Example Description

isEmpty() stack.isEmpty() Checks if the stack is empty by
>> False checking the value of the top
pointer

isFull() stack.isFull() Checks if the stack is full and

>> True returns a Boolean value by
comparing stack size to the top
pointer

append(value) stack.append(15) Both add a new value to the end

of the list.
push(value) stack.push(15) Needs to check that the stack is
not full before pushing to the
stack

size() stack.size() Returns the size of the stack

>> 5

peek() stack.peek() Returns the top value from the

>> “Science” stack
First checks the stack is not
empty by looking at the value of
the top pointer

pop() list.pop() Removes and returns the top

>> 12 value of the stack
First checks the stack is not
empty by looking at value of top
pointer

Queue
Queue - An abstract data type that holds an ordered, linear sequence of items, a first in, first out (FIFO)
structure
- Linear Queue - A data structure consisting of an array
- Items are added into the next available space in the queue, starting from the front
- Items are removed from the front of the queue
- Make use of 2 pointers: one pointing to the front of the queue & one pointing to the back of the
queue (where the next item can be added)
- Priority Queue - A data structure where each element in the queue has a priority
- When new elements are added to the queue, they are inserted ahead of those of lower
priority and behind elements of equal priority
- Static Queue: Queue where the size is predetermined
- Circular Queue: Type of static queue where rear pointer​is equal to the maximum size of the
queue, so can loop back to the front of the array & store values here, provided that it is
empty
- Dynamic Queue: Queue where size is not predetermined
Key Terms
- Enqueue: Adding items to the back of the queue
- Dequeue: Removing items from front of the queue

General Queue Manipulation

Syntax: queueName.function(Parameters)

Operator Example Description

enQueue(value) queue.enQueue(“Science”) Adds a new item to the end of
the queue & increments the back
pointer

deQueue() queue.deQueue() Removes the item from the front

of the queue & increments the
front pointer

isEmpty() queue.isEmpty() Checks if the queue if empty by

>> False comparing the front and back
pointer

isFull() queue.isFull() Checks if the queue is full by

>> True comparing the back pointer and
queue size

Pseudocode: Initialise, Enqueue & Dequeue

Linear Queue

Initialise Enqueue Dequeue

Circular Queue
 Initialise Enqueue Dequeue

Tree
Tree - A connected, undirected graph with no cycles
- Nodes are connected to other nodes using branches, with the lower-level nodes being the children
of the higher-level nodes

Key Terms
- Node - An item in the tree
- Root Node - The start node for traversals, a single
node which does not have any incoming nodes
- Edge/Branch/Arc - Connects two nodes together
- Child - A node with incoming edges
- Parent - A node with outgoing edges
- Subtree - Subsection of a tree consisting of a parent
and all the children of a parent
- Leaf - A node with no children

Binary Search Tree

Binary Search Tree - A type of tree in which each node has a​maximum of two children
- used to represent information for binary searches​, ​as information in these trees is​easy to search​
through
- Most common way to represent a binary tree is storing each node with a​left pointer​and a ​right
pointer
- Implemented through the use of 2D arrays
NOT IN SPEC
Traversing Binary Trees
3 Methods
- Pre-order
- In-order
- Post-order

Post-Order Traversal
Follows the order: left subtree, right subtree, root node
- Starts at the leftmost child node, then its parent node, then the next
leftmost child node, then rightmost child node, then the parent node,
then that node’s parent node, then the rightmost child node, then its
parent node until you reach the root node

Example:
- Order of Traversal: 7, 5, 10, 12, 11, 9, 34, 25, 20, 15
- The leftmost child node (7), then its parent node (5), then the next leftmost child node (10), then
rightmost child node (12), then the parent node (11), then that node’s parent node (9), then the
rightmost child node (34), then its parent node (25, 20) until you reach the root node (15)

Hash Table
Hash Table - an array which is coupled with a ​hash function
- Hash Function - A function that can be used to map data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values
- Takes in data (​a key​) and releases an output (​the hash​)
- Maps the key to an index​in the hash table
- Each piece of data is mapped to a unique value
- Used for ​indexing​, as they provide fast access to data due to keys having a unique, one-to-one
relationship with the address at which they are stored

Collision - When 2 inputs to result in the same hashed value

- A ​good hashing algorithm​should have a ​low probability of collisions​occurring
- CollIsion Resolution - In the event that a collision does occur, the second item is typically placed in
the next available location
 1.4.3 - Boolean Algebra
Defining Problems Using Boolean Logic
There are 4 boolean logic operations to know:
- Conjunction (AND), Disjunction (OR), Negation (NOT) & Exclusive Disjunction (XOR)

Truth Table - A table showing all possible combinations of inputs and, for each combination, the output that
the circuit will produce
- Variables in expression are filled in on the columns, and all the possible combinations are listed
beneath them
- The result of the expression given is then shown on another column heading for the output, labelled
as either a random letter (typically C, P, or Y)

Name Definition Logic Gate Symbol Expression Truth Table

Conjunction (AND) Applied to 2 literals

(inputs) to produce a
single output.
Can be thought of as
multiplying the binary
literals.

Disjunction (OR) Applied to 2 literals

(inputs) to produce a
single output.
Can be thought of as
long as at least 1
input is true, the
output is true.

Negation (NOT) Applied to 1 literal,

and reverses its truth
Exclusive Applied to 2 literals,
Disjunction (XOR) similar to OR but only
applies when both
outputs are different
Only True when
exactly 1 input is true

Combining Boolean Operations

Boolean expressions are made by combining the Boolean operators & can be done in 3 forms:
- Words: AND, OR, NOT & XOR (e.g. A AND B)

- Mathematical Symbols: Ʌ, ˅, ¬ & (e.g. A Ʌ B)

- Diagrams: (shown above) (e.g.

When evaluating expressions, the order of operations is:

1. Brackets
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR

Truth tables can be used to evaluate operations step by step, for example:

- Solve:
- Truth Table:
 Karnaugh Maps
Karnaugh Map - a version of a truth table for a Boolean expression that is laid out in a way that makes it
easier to simplify
- Filled in corresponding to the expression’s truth table
- Can be filled in from 1-4 inputs
- For 3/4 inputs: Each row is 1 bit different than the previous row

Example:

Karnaugh Maps from Expressions

When given an expression, you can either:
- Draw the truth table and then fill in the karnaugh map using it
- Draw the titles in for the karnaugh map and then fill in using regular AND, OR, NOT & XOR rules
according to the expression

Example 1: Using a Truth Table

Step 1: Expression Step 2: Truth Table Step 3: Fill in Karnaugh Map

P = (A ^ B) V C

Example 2: Titles then Fill

Step 1: Expression Step 2: Fill Headings Step 3: Fill in rest of Karnaugh Map
 P = (A ^ B) V C

Expressions from Karnaugh Maps

1. Group adjacent 1’s together in accordance with these rules
- Groups must be as big a they can be
- Number of groups needs to be as few as possible
- Groups must be in sizes of powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.)
- Groups can overlap
- Groups can wrap
- Groups must be rectangular
- Groups are distinguishable (No groups are within each other)

2. Label the headings for each input (A / B, A / NOT B, NOT A / NOT B etc.)
3. For each groups, work out its expression by focusing on what’s common to all cells in the group
- Bearing in mind that, a 0 is NOT [column heading] & 1 is [column heading]
- if a column heading is AB for example,
- 00 = NOT A / NOT B
- 01 = NOT A / B
- 11 = A / B
- 10 = A / NOT B

4. Apply OR between each mini expression to create the simplified expression of the karnaugh map

Example:

Step 1: Karnaugh Map Step 2: Label Headings Step 3: Label Group Step 4: Apply OR
& Group Expressions between mini
expressions

¬C^D v A^B
Simplifying Boolean Expressions
There are 4 types of laws used to simplify boolean expressions
- Commutative
- Distributive
- Associative
- De Morgan’s
- Double Negation

Law Description Format

Commutative The order of literals (inputs)
around an expression doesn’t
matter

Distributive Distributing out a literal and

operation to 2 literals inside of a
bracket

Associative The addition or removal of

brackets & reordering of literals

De Morgan’s Distributing out a negation &

changing the symbol between
them

Double Negation If you negate a literal twice, you

can remove both negations and
remain with the same truth value

Summary & Extra Rules

 D-Type Flip Flops
D-Type Flip Flop - a synchronous sequential circuit that can be used to store the value of a single binary
digit
- Has 2 inputs: Data & clock input
- A clock pulse rises and falls (as shown in the diagram), with
edges labelled rising or falling.
- The output of a D-type flip flop can only change at a
rising edge, the start of a clock tick
- A flip-flop is a basic unit of memory and sets of flip-flops can
be combined to form registers

Logic Circuit
This is the logic circuit for a D-type flip flop.
- Uses 4 NAND gates & updates the value of Q to the value
of D whenever the clock (CLK) ticks, on a rising edge.
- The value of Q is the stored value
- Q will only take on D’s value when the clock signal is on the
upward rise
- Between these moments, Q will remain unchanged

Adders
Adder - a logic circuit which adds together the number of inputs which are true, and outputs that number in
binary
- 2 Types: Half adder & full adder

Name Description Conditions Diagram Truth Table

Half Adder 3 inputs, A & B, and When both A & B are

2 outputs, Sum & false, both outputs are
Carry. false.

The circuit is formed When one of A or B is

from logic gates: true, Sum (S) is true
AND and XOR
When both inputs are
true, Carry (C) is true

Full Adder 3 inputs, A, B & True when:

C-in, and 2 outputs,
Sum & Carry out. There are an odd
number of 1s among
Formed from two the three input bits (A,
XOR gates, two B, and Cin).
AND gates and an
OR gate as shown Sum output (S) is 1
in the diagram when either one or all
three of the inputs are 1

The carry output (Cout)

is true (1) when at least
two of the inputs are 1

- Because the full adder has a carry input, the circuits can be chained together to form a ripple adder
 - At each stage, B and C-in can be connected to the previous adder’s S and C-out, and a new input
can be attached to A.

1.5 - Legal, moral, cultural and ethical issues

1.5.1 - Computing Related Legislation

The Data Protection Act (1998)
This law covers ​personal data​, which is any data which can be used to identify a living person
- Applies to information stored both on ​computers & in ​organised paper filing systems​
- Data which can be used ​in combination with other data​to identify a living person is also classified
as personal data.
- Examples of personal data include a person’s name & address.

An individual who can be identified by personal data is referred to as the ​data subject​, with the law
protecting them in ​eight specific ways​as laid out by the Government:

1. Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully

2. Personal data shall be obtained only for one or more specified and lawful purpose
3. Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive for its purpose(s)
4. Personal data shall be accurate and where necessary kept up to date
5. Personal data shall not be kept for longer than is necessary for its purpose(s)
6. Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the rights of data subjects under this Act
7. Appropriate technical and organisational measures shall be taken against unauthorised or unlawful
processing of personal data and against accidental loss or destruction of, or damage to, personal
data
8. Personal data shall not be transferred to a country or territory outside the European Economic Area,
unless that country or territory ensures an adequate level of data protection

The Act also gives data subjects certain ​rights​, such as the right to​request a copy​of the data held about
them, the right to ​correct the data​held about them and the right to ​prevent marketing​using contact details
provided by the data subject.
- As of 2018, The Data Protection Act (1998) has been replaced by the General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR) and the Data Protection Act (2018)

The Computer Misuse Act (1990)

Related to the malicious use of computers​, originally created to ensure that computer hacking was covered
by law, but has since been frequently ​updated ​to ensure it remains relevant

Outlines 3 main offences:

1. Unauthorised access to computer materials
2. Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate further offences
3. Unauthorised modification of computer material, with intent to impair or with recklessness, impairing
the operation of a computer system

The consequences of the second and third offences are generally ​worse ​than the first, with each offence
being punishable with ​imprisonment​

The Copyright Design and Patents Act (1988)

Legislation that allows an individual or organisation that has created a piece of original work, e.g. a book or
painting, the right to control the use of their work.
 - If a work is ​original​, copyright ​automatically applies ​and doesn’t expire until ​25-70 years after the
death of the creator​, depending on the type of work.

The owner’s rights cover the way that the work can be used, e.g. copying, adapting, broadcasting, or
lending. The legislation covers:
- Literary works
- Dramatic works
- Musical works
- Artistic works
- Typographical works
- Sound recordings
- Films
- Digital assets (under 1992 extension)

In 1992, the Act was extended to include ​computer programs​as a type of literary work, meaning that
copyright ​automatically applies to code​.
- If an individual believes that their work has been copied, it is ​their responsibility ​to take action under
the Act

Patent - An intellectual property right to protect inventions, granted by a country's government as a

territorial right for a limited period.
- Allows an original idea (within certain fields) to be protected.
- The shape or configuration of a product or item is protected by design rights.

Trademark - a type of intellectual property consisting of a recognizable sign, design, or expression that
identifies a product or service from a particular source and distinguishes it from other
- Protects indications (e.g. a logo) of the commercial source of a product or service and remain in
force as long as they are actively used or registered
- A trademark owner can be an individual, business organisation, or any legal entity

The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (2000)

Covers investigation, surveillance and interception of communication​by ​public bodies, laying out the limits
of police and government agencies' powers, & the responsibilities of companies such as internet service
providers (ISPs), telecom companies, and social media platforms.
- Needed because of the growth in internet communications.

Under the Act, the police and specified public bodies can, with appropriate authorisation:
- Demand that internet service providers (ISPs) provide access to their customers' digital
communications, without informing the customer
- Carry out mass surveillance of digital communications
- Demand that ISPs fit equipment to allow for digital surveillance
- Demand that someone hand over the keys to encrypted information
- Intercept and monitor ongoing digital communication
- Keep secret the existence of interception warrants and any data collected under them, even from
being revealed in court

This Act is particularly controversial as ​its powers extend to small agencies ​like local councils.
- Some people also feel that the Act is an​invasion of privacy​, or that it is often ​improperly used​
1.5.2 - Moral & Ethical Issues
Moral, Ethical, Social & Cultural
Ethics - Moral principles that govern a person's behaviour or the conducting of an activity
- Usually stemming from the expectations of a society/company/group of people
- Ethical - Relating to moral principles or the branch of knowledge dealing with these

Morals - Standards of behaviour; principles of right & wrong, usually to do with an individual
- Moral - Concerned with the principles of right and wrong behaviour
- Morality - Principles concerning the distinction between right & wrong or good & bad behaviour

Morals usually refer to personal beliefs influenced by factors such as society, culture, and individual
experiences, whereas ethics are guidelines established by communities or specific groups outlining
acceptable and unacceptable actions or behaviours.
- Social - Discussing the behaviours & expectations of society
- Cultural - Discussing how ethnic groups, countries, and religious groups view different attitudes and
behaviours.

Computers in the Workforce

Computerisation - the adaptation of a system, device, etc. to be operated by computer.
- Currently, almost all businesses depend on computers to perform certain functions but there is
growing uncertainty as to the effects of a completely computerised society and the likelihood of
computers impacting the job market & the world economy
- This has hit middle-income manufacturing jobs the hardest, where entire production lines within
factories have been replaced by robots, resulting in major unemployment

Advantages of Computers in the Workforce

+ Improved Efficiency: Machines can be used to speed up the production & distribution of goods,
such as by using robots in warehouses as opposed to humans (Amazon) or to deliver packages to
people’s homes (Effidence’s PostBot)
+ Companies such as Amazon & Effidence have successfully been used to ​reduce delivery
times​& ​speed up manufacturing processes​using this technology
+ This i​mproves customer satisfaction​, reduces ​unit labour costs​& delivery wait times, which
translate to ​lower prices for consumers​
+ Reduced Strain on Workers: As workers are replaced with machines/robots, they not longer need
to participate in the repetitive & tedious work, such as moving items between rooms or between
factories
+ Reduced Need for Physical Interaction: As mobile technology has been developed, phone calls
can be used for long-distance work-related interactions.
+ Reduced Need for In-Person Capacity: As less people need to come to office and can
work from home, offices can save money by not providing every individual with a separate
desk (hot desking) as not every employee will be inside the office everyday.
+ Easier Communication: The development of high-speed internet connection has also allowed for
video conferencing, so people don’t need to travel to see each other and have meetings
+ Reduced Costs: People not needing to travel to separate locations to have meetings means
that travel costs don’t need to be made

Disadvantages of Computers in the Workforce

- Loss of Jobs: Tasks previously performed by humans are replaced with machines/robots, has
resulted in unemployment for many people
 - Creates structural unemployment: a long-lasting form of unemployment caused by
fundamental shifts in an economy
- For the effects to be minimised, governments must invest in retraining programmes
in order for people to change careers
- However, some believe that consumer demand will increase due to services being cheaper,
which will then create employment in other industries/sectors of business
- High Dependence: As an essential aspect of the workplace, if something goes wrong with a
network/machine/computer system, then entire companies or economies can be affected
- Example: July 2024 Crowdstrike Outage
- Approximately 8.5 million devices were affected
- Outages in various sectors, including airlines, healthcare, and financial institutions.
- 5,078 flights cancelled worldwide due to airport system disruption
- Pressure on Remote Employees: As employees can be contacted at any time, employers can
pressure them to respond to work related correspondence during their downtime. it can be difficult
for them to separate home and work.
- Risk of Data Breach: Having employees have sensitive data on their home devices outside of a
controlled environment increases the risk of the data/devices being stolen or lost. These situations
could result in a breach of the Data Protection Act

Effects of Computerisation Increase

- Shift toward low-income service jobs (e.g. customer service) by those who used to work in the
middle-income manufacturing jobs
- Demand for people working in computing-related occupations
- Especially those who can confidently & productively use computers, as they are an essential
part of the workplace
- Examples: Software developers to produce embedded systems within smart devices, or
network engineers to maintain extensive network infrastructure within workplaces/schools
- Rise in services being offered exclusively online, such as exclusively online retailers (e.g. Amazon,
Ocado & ASOS) & exclusively online banks (e.g. Starling Bank, Monzo & Revolut)
- Reduces costs of renting physical space
- Cuts labour costs, as there is no need for front-facing customer service workers
- Creates demand for delivery drivers, to ship parcels to customers
- Creates demand for web developers to ensure that websites are consistently functioning

Automated Decision Making (ADM)

Automated Decision Making (ADM) - The process by which decisions are made by systems or algorithms
without human intervention.
- Typically involves the use of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, or predefined rules to
analyse data and make decisions based on that analysis
- Commonly used in: social media feeds, likelihood of criminals reoffending, hiring, stock market
trading, power distribution systems, driverless cars

Social Media
ADM is used to determine what different users should be displayed on their ​social media feeds​.
- Based on many aspects, such as users’ interactions, inference about their interests, ‘likes’ on
content, ‘followers’, recency of content, location, language, etc.
- Feared that solely reinforcing people’s interests creates a​dangerous bubble​in which their beliefs
are never challenged, leading to a ​close-minded society​& issues such as ‘echo chambers’ &
confirmation bias
 - Echo Chamber - An environment in which a person encounters only beliefs or opinions that
coincide with their own, so that their existing views are reinforced & alternative ideas are not
considered
- Confirmation Bias - the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's
existing beliefs or theories

Criminal Reoffending
Across the world, law enforcement & criminal justice authorities to profile people, predict their supposed
future behaviour, and assess their alleged ‘risk’ of criminality or re-offending in the future.
- These predictions, profiles, and risk assessments can influence, inform, or result in policing &
criminal justice outcomes, including constant surveillance, stop and search, fines, questioning,
arrest, detention, prosecution, sentencing, and probation.
- Combined with AI, these ADM systems reproduce & reinforce discrimination on grounds including
but not limited to race, socio-economic status, & nationality
- This can infringe fundamental rights, including the right to a fair trial and the presumption of
innocence, the right to private & family life, and data protection rights

Hiring
ADM has i​mproved productivity​and made certain application processes​more convenient​for employers, by
filtering through candidate CVs much quicker without needing human input.
- Companies are able to​hire workers faster​using algorithms which can screen candidates for certain
desired qualities before the interview stage
- However, relying entirely on these algorithms could result in people being ​treated unfairly​, as these
algorithms do not consider extenuating circumstances and are unable to process information with
the same ​consideration of contextual factors​that humans are able to provide.

Driverless Cars
In driverless cars, the use of ADM often means decisions are made faster than humans are capable of
reacting, so have the potential to save lives.
- However, this raises ethical questions about how to decide who should be harmed​if a scenario
arises in which either a pedestrian or the driver must be harmed.
- This then raises questions about ​who is responsible​for the consequences of this decision.

Machine Learning
Machine learning - A branch of artificial intelligence (AI) that focuses on developing systems that
can learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed.
- Involves using algorithms & statistical models to enable computers to identify patterns, make
decisions, and predict outcomes based on data.

Key Concepts
- Data: The input that the system uses to learn patterns. It can be structured (e.g. spreadsheets) or
unstructured (e.g. text & images)
- Model: A mathematical representation of a system that processes the data and makes predictions
or decisions based on it
- Training: The process of feeding data into a machine learning algorithm so it can learn from it and
improve its model

Disadvantages of Machine Learning

- Training Bias: Models learn from data, and if the training data contains biases (e.g., based on race,
gender, socioeconomic status), the model may perpetuate or even amplify these biases, leading to
discriminatory decisions in areas like hiring, credit scoring, or criminal justice.
 - Algorithmic bias: Even if the data seems neutral, the way algorithms are designed or tuned can
introduce bias, creating unfair outcomes.
- Data Misuse: Machine learning often requires large datasets, which can include sensitive personal
information (e.g. health data, online activity). Improper handling of this data can lead to privacy
violations or unauthorised use.
- Re-identification: Anonymized data can sometimes be de-anonymized through machine learning
techniques, exposing individuals to risks of identity theft or unwanted exposure
- Adversarial Attacks: Machine learning models, particularly in image recognition, can be tricked by
subtly altered inputs that are indistinguishable to humans but cause the model to make incorrect
predictions.
- Model Hacking: Attackers can reverse-engineer models to extract sensitive information or
manipulate their outputs.
- Autonomous Systems: In cases like self-driving cars or automated trading systems, ML models
could make incorrect decisions due to unforeseen situations, leading to physical harm or financial
loss.
- Unpredictable Behaviour: Complex models like deep neural networks can behave unpredictably
when exposed to unusual inputs, making it hard to anticipate failures.
- Lack of Accountability: When decisions are made by a machine learning system, it may be difficult
to determine who is responsible for mistakes, especially in high-stakes areas like healthcare or law
enforcement.
- Job Displacement: Automation driven by machine learning can replace human workers in various
industries, leading to unemployment and societal disruptions.
- Overfitting: If a model is too closely fitted to the training data, it may perform poorly on new, unseen
- data, leading to incorrect predictions or classifications.
- Poor Generalisation: Models might not generalise well to real-world conditions if training data is
not representative of the full range of possible inputs.
- Black Box Models: Many machine learning models, especially deep learning models, operate as
"black boxes," meaning their decision-making processes are not easily interpretable by humans.
- This lack of transparency can be problematic in situations where decisions need to be
explained or justified, such as in legal or medical contexts.
- High Computational Cost: Training large ML models, especially deep learning systems, requires
significant computational power, leading to high energy consumption and a large carbon footprint.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) - Technology that enables computers & machines to simulate human learning,
comprehension, problem solving, decision making, creativity & autonomy.
- Trained using data, so that the algorithm learns for itself, without being explicitly programmed on
what the desired outcome should be
- It learns what the characteristics of the outcome are, based on previous data
- Raises questions about ​accountability​: who is responsible when things go wrong? If AI ever reaches
a stage at which it is considered sentient, what rights should it have, if any?

Expert Systems
This is a computer program that uses AI to simulate the judgement and behaviour of a human or an
organisation that has expertise and experience in a particular field.
- Usually intended to complement, not replace, human experts.
- Replicate the knowledge and experience an expert in a particular subject would have.
- Made up of a ​knowledge base​which consists of a ​set of facts and rules ​which are used to build an​
inference engine​, which is interrogated to find diagnoses
Neural Networks
This is a method in artificial intelligence that teaches computers to process data in a way that is inspired by
the human brain.
- Uses a type of machine learning process, called deep learning, that uses interconnected nodes or
neurons in a layered structure that resembles the human brain.
- These ‘learn’ from a set of data that they are given and this knowledge can be applied to new data
sets​, in the same way a human is able to.
- Used in ​pattern detection & picking up on ​financial fraud​.

Voice Recognition
This is a deep learning technique used to identify, distinguish, and authenticate a particular person’s voice,
which evaluates an individual’s unique voice biometrics, including frequency and flow of pitch, and natural
accent.
- This is distinctly different from speech recognition, which only recognizes spoken words, whereas
voice recognition identifies the speaker.
- AI is seen within ​voice recognition systems ​which are now common within ​smart home systems​
such as Google Home and Amazon’s Alexa.
- These have increased convenience for people but raise questions about ​privacy​, as they are
required to be constantly switched on to function.

Environmental Effects
With technological devices being produced cheaply and widely, they have become affordable for a large
proportion of the world population, and therefore a core part of society.
- However, the effects on the planet as a result of our consumption will go on to ​impact future
generations​as well as ​biodiversity​.

Advantages
+ Push for Renewables: There has been a push in the UK for​renewable energy ​which counteracts
the effects of increased electricity consumption to an extent
+ Environmentally-friendly Technology: The use of engineering and technological approaches to
understand and address issues that affect the environment with the aim of fostering environmental
improvement
+ Smart Home Systems: Some use temperature sensors to determine when heating should
be switched on and motion sensors to switch off lights when a room is empty.
+ Computer Modes: PCs & laptops offer ‘Sleep’ and ‘Stand-by’ features and some newly
developed car engines are designed to prevent them from idling so as to reduce emissions.

Disadvantages
- Peer Pressure: Combined with the affordability of electronics, people throw away their old (&
sometimes fully functioning) devices at an alarming rate
- E-Waste: Some device components are built of ​mercury ​and ​radioactive isotopes ​which are ​toxic
​and can contaminate water supplies
- Often, ​e-waste​is shipped to ​third world countries with lower environmental standards​to be
disposed, which is widely considered to be immoral & unacceptable
- Electricity Demand: As more devices are created, the demand for electricity increases with it to
power these devices.
- This requires the burning on non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, which emit
greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming & climate change
- Rates of climate change have accelerated over the past decade & it will continue to increase
if the current behaviour continues
Censorship & the Internet
Censorship - The act of ​suppressing the content that people are able to view, publish and access​, usually
conducted by governments or private institutions
- May be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or
"inconvenient"
- However, can also exist on a smaller level, such as within a school in which pupils may be
prevented from accessing material deemed to be unsuitable.
- Within the workplace, censorship may be used to ​maintain high productivity and prevent
distractions​

Political Ideas
Some countries use censorship to ​block out other political opinions​.
- There is much debate about the extent to which the government should be able to​control what we
have access to​and decide what is best for the public
- In the UK, ISPs block websites with content associated with terrorism & extremist political
beliefs​.
- There is fear that censorship may be used to​block out alternative political beliefs​.
- At this point, censorship would not be acting to protect the country but rather to​push a
certain ideology​, which some people consider to be unethical and unacceptable

The ‘Free Internet’

Many people believe in the idea of a ‘​Free Internet​’, where ​nothing is filtered at all​, in line with the principle
of freedom of speech.
- This idea heavily focuses on the absence of censorship, allowing all users of the internet to access
whatever content they want, including extremist propaganda, terrorism & other illegal activity
- When creating the internet, Tim Berners-Lee created the internet to be a space where people could
share and ​mutually benefit from resources​.
- However most people agree that some extent of censorship has become necessary for
​national security purposes​, to ​filter offensive comments & extremist propaganda​.

Monitoring Behaviour
Surveillance Systems
Computers are used to monitor people’s behaviour in various environments.
- In many workplaces,​employers monitor productivity​by tracking the websites and applications
workers are accessing and the time spent on these

Examples of Surveillance Systems

- Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Cameras: A form of video surveillance widely used for ​security
purposes ​and to ​detect crime​, from speeding to violence.
- Useful for tracing and punishing criminal activity, as well as discouraging people from
commiting crimes, as they know they are being watched & recorded
- Ankle Monitors: Form of surveillance device attached to an ankle, used on people under house
arrest to track their location.
- While some people argue that this is unethical and contravenes basic human rights, others
argue that this is a necessary measure that must be taken to put people off committing
crime.

Analyse Personal Information

Large amounts of data from a number of sources​, called​big data​, can be ​analysed to make inferences​
about people’s behaviour, such as likes and dislikes.
Data Mining
This is the practice of analysing large databases in order to generate new information
- Can be used to inform personalised political propaganda​,​targeted advertising ​or alternatively, to
identify previously unknown connections between two variables
- Insights from personal information could reveal things that act against certain individuals
- Common example is data mining uncovering that a certain individual is at high risk of
developing a particular disease.
- With this information, an insurance company may deny them insurance or charge a
higher premium.
- This raises ethical questions about whether companies uncovering these trends have a
responsibility to feed this information back to users

Data Protection Legislation

Although companies are legally required to ​state what kinds of data they are collecting​from you, this may
not always be obvious to users.
- There is pressure on large firms to be more transparent about the data they collect & making it
clearer what it will be used for.
- The​Data Protection Act (1998)​is no longer sufficient when it comes to protecting public welfare
which is why the ​GDPR ​has been enforced as of May 2018

Piracy & Offensive Communications

Piracy - a form of theft, the unauthorised use, copying or distribution of copyrighted software without the
proper licence or legal authorisation from the copyright holder
- Illegal Distribution - Sharing or distributing unauthorised copies of software through channels such
as peer-to-peer networks, or physical media
- Involves the violation of intellectual property rights associated with software, including but not limited
to programs, applications & operating systems
- This is criminal offence, punishable by fines up to £5,000 or imprisonment
- The Internet has made it easier than ever before to source these types of content online
- It is up to the individual to make the decision as to whether or not this is ethically correct.

Types of Piracy
- Counterfeiting: Producing & selling unauthorised copies of software
- Cracking: Removing or bypassing copy protection mechanisms or licence keys to enable software
without a valid licence (e.g. bypassing a paywall and accessing paid content for free)

Issues with Piracy

- Violation of Copyright Holder’s Rights: Undermines the rights of software developers &
companies who invest time, resources & creativity in creating software products
- Lowered Revenue Streams: Affects revenue streams for the software industry, potentially leading
to increased prices for legitimate users

Offensive Communications - Any sort of ​online harassment, including cyber-bullying or stalking

- Due to the seemingly anonymous nature of the internet, it is common for users to engage in
offensive communications, such as cyberbullying
- The ability to communicate anonymously has emboldened some people to behave in ways
that they wouldn’t in person
- ​Malicious Communications Act​(1998): Makes it a​criminal offence to send indecent or offensive
messages to anyone online​
 - This means that this sort of behaviour can be traced by law enforcement organisations and
result in a criminal record

Types of Offensive Communications

- Cyberbullying: The use of electronic communication to bully a person, typically by sending
messages of an intimidating or threatening nature.
- Sending threatening or harmful messages to an individual or group through email, social
media or other online platforms
- Creating & sharing demeaning or false content with the internet to harm someone’s
someone’s reputation
- Hate Speech: Posting discriminatory or prejudiced comments based on factors such as race,
ethnicity, religion, gender or sexual orientation
- Sharing content that promotes violence or harm against a specific group of people
- Trolling: Engaging in deliberately provocative or offensive behaviour online to incite emotional
responses from others
- Posting inflammatory comments or content with the goal of disrupting online discussions.
- Harassment: Repeatedly sending unwanted and offensive messages to an individual, causing
distress
- Stalking someone online, monitoring their activities & making unwanted contact
- Sexual Harassment: Sending explicit or unsolicited sexual content without consent
- Engaging in online behaviour that creates a hostile or uncomfortable environment
based on gender
- Doxxing: Sharing private and sensitive information about an individual without their consent, often
with malicious intent
- Online Scams & Fraud: Spreading false information with the intent to deceive or defraud
individuals
- Creating and sharing phishing websites or emails to trick people into revealing personal
information.
- Extremist Content: Sharing content that promotes terrorism, violence, or extremism
- Participating in online communities that support radical ideologies

Effects of Offensive Communications

- Mental Health & Well-being: Offensive communications, including cyberbullying and harassment,
can have severe psychological and emotional effects on individuals, leading to stress, anxiety,
depression, and in extreme cases, self-harm or suicide
- Reputation Damage: False and harmful information spread online can damage an individual's
reputation, affecting their personal and professional life
- Community Divisiveness: Offensive content can contribute to divisions within communities by
promoting hate speech, discrimination, and intolerance
- Alienation: Individuals who are targeted or marginalised by offensive communications may feel
isolated and excluded from online and offline communities
- Violation of Privacy: Offensive communications may involve doxxing or the unauthorised sharing
of private information, infringing on individuals' right to privacy.
- Hate Crimes: Online hate speech can escalate into real-world violence or hate crimes, leading to
legal consequences for both individuals & platforms
- Content Moderation Challenges: Social media platforms and online forums face challenges in
effectively moderating offensive content due to the sheer volume of user-generated content
- Algorithmic Bias: Automated content moderation systems may struggle with context and exhibit
biases, leading to the inadvertent censorship of legitimate content or the failure to address offensive
material
- Cultural Sensitivity: Offensive communications often involve cultural or contextual nuances,
making it challenging to develop universal moderation standards
 - Global Perspectives: Different countries have varying legal frameworks and cultural attitudes
toward freedom of speech, complicating efforts to create a unified approach to offensive content
- Phishing & Scams: Offensive communications can be used as a guise for phishing attacks, scams,
or fraud, posing cybersecurity risks to individuals & organisations.
- Malicious Intent: Offensive communications may be part of coordinated cyber campaigns with
malicious intent, such as disinformation or spreading malware.
- Lack of Digital Literacy: Lack of digital literacy can contribute to the spread of offensive content, as
individuals may not critically evaluate the information they encounter online
- Educational Gaps: Some individuals may not be aware of the potential consequences of offensive
communications, necessitating educational initiatives to address online
- behaviour.
- Cross-border Regulation Challenges: The global nature of the internet makes it difficult to enforce
consistent regulations against offensive communications, especially when legal standards vary
across jurisdictions.
- Enforcement Effectiveness: Law enforcement faces challenges in investigating and prosecuting
online offences, and there may be gaps in legislation related to emerging forms of offensive
communication.

Layout, Colour Paradigms & Character Sets

Layout
When web developers design websites, it is important that they consider ​who will be viewing the website​&
ensure the website is designed to accommodate all people.
- The ​Equality Act​introduced in 2010 makes it ​illegal to discriminate against providing a service to a
certain group of people​, which makes this even more important.

Websites must be laid out in a way that makes it ​easy for users to navigate between pages​.
- Menus are a common tool used to provide function
- In English-speaking countries, menus are displayed on the left-hand side of the page.
- In countries such as Egypt or the UAE, where Arabic is the primary language, these menus
may instead be displayed on the right-hand side of the page as Arabic is read from right to
left.

This is particularly important for online stores, as a well laid-out website which is easy-to-navigate will
​attract more customers​.

Disabilities & Accessibility

Websites must also be designed in a way that makes them accessible to people with visual impairments ​or
other disabilities.
- Some people may need to ​enlarge text or alter the contrast ​in order to view the contents of the
website comfortably
- Alternative text​(alt text) should be provided for images
- A screen magnifier option​should be provided, so people with visual impairments are not
disadvantaged.
- Transcripts ​of audio files should be provided for those with hearing impairments.

Colour Paradigms
When choosing a colour scheme for a website, web developers must take into account how different
colours are interpreted​around the world.
- Some colours are regarded as unlucky in certain cultures and have other negative connotations.
 - Example: White is associated with mourning in the Middle East, but is associated with purity in
Western cultures.
- Typically, a neutral colour scheme with widely positive connotations will be chosen, such as green
which represents luck & nature

Character Sets
In order to make websites accessible to as wide an audience as possible, the contents must be ​translated
into multiple languages​.
- Some character sets are too small to accommodate all of the characters of a language, such as
ASCII
- ASCII only uses seven bits & so is unable to represent all of the characters in any languages
that don’t utilise the English alphabet or that use accented characters.
- Unicode is the preferred character set ​as it is able to represent​over a million characters​,
able to be used to represent characters with vastly different characters