IKS Module-I Conventional Trade & Commerce and Environment
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Miit PherwaniIKS Module-I Conventional Trade & Commerce and Environment
Uploaded by
Miit PherwaniR. A.
PODAR COLLEGE OF COMMERCE & ECONOMICS (AUTONOMOUS) MUMBAI
SEMESTER-I
2024-25
COURSE INTRODUCED UNDER IKS AS PER NEP FROM ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-24
INDIAN TRADITIONAL APPROACH IN
CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABILITY
odule-I
M
ONVENTIONAL TRADE & COMMERCE AND ENVIRONMENT
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Table of Contents:
1. I ntroduction and overview of Indian Knowledge System
1.1. Indian disciplinary knowledge system in different fields:
1.1.1. Architecture
1.1.2. Science & technology
1.1.3. Nature
1.1.4. Astronomy
1.1.5. Agriculture
1.1.6. Health & medicine
1.1.7. Defense
2. Traditional commercial activities & trade practices with reference to environmental conservation
2.1. Agricultural trade
2.2. Silk, Cotton and Textile industry,
2.3. Spices
2.4. Metallurgy, etc.
3. Transportation and its modes
3.1. Grand Trunk road
3.2. Boat & ship-building,
4. Energy efficiency in the transport sector: a current scenario
4.1. Ecomobility. Impact of transport on climate
4.2. Impact of climate on transport
1. Introduction and overview of Indian Knowledge System
“ We owe a lot to the ancient Indians, teachingushowtocount.Withoutwhichmostmodernscientific
discoveries would have been impossible”
~ Albert Einstein
I ndia's extraordinarilylargebodyofintellectualtexts,thelargestcollectionofmanuscriptsintheworld,
and its well-documented legacyoftexts,thinkers,andschoolsinavarietyofsubjectareasareallproof
thatcivilizationplacedahighpriorityonknowledge.Indiahasavasthistoryoflearningthathaspersisted
uninterruptedforcenturies.Thegoalofallinquiryhasbeenacquiringknowledge,asevidencedfromthe
ancient Vedas, Upanishads to more recent Sri Aurobindo.
I ndian knowledge systems have developed through thousands of years and have a solid foundation in
Indianculture,philosophy,spirituality,andscience.Ayurveda,Yoga,Vedanta,andtheVedicsciencesare
all knowledge systems that have applications in the present world. Learning more about the Indian
Knowledge System will actively contribute inspreadingtherichheritageofourcountryandtraditional
knowledge in the field of Arts and literature, Agriculture, Basic Sciences, Engineering & Technology,
Architecture, Management, Economics, etc.
1.1. Indian disciplinary knowledge system in different fields:
1.1.1. Architecture:
rchitectureisthestudyofdesigningandmakingbuildings.Italsoincludesthestyleordesignofthose
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buildings.
Ancient Indian architecture:
• It is as old as the civilization itself.
•It has a variety of architectural styles.
•UNESCO lists 830 World Heritage Sites, 26 of which are on Indian soil.
•It is usually related to religions, but other non-religious forms are also seen.
Religiousarchitectureincludes:Temples(Nagara:Northernstyle,Vesara:MixedstyleandDravida:South
Indian style), caves, Viharas, caves, Stupas, Chaityas, Mosques, tombs, Dargahs, Churches, chapels,
Cathedrals, Gurudwaras, etc.
Non-religious architecture includes: Forts, Wells and other water reservoirs, Palaces, Gardens,
Residences, Royal and public baths, etc.
Design of a Stupa, Nagara style and Dravid style temple:
ogether, the ancient Indian architecture can be studied in two manners: either by its style or by the
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period in which it was constructed. For the ease of understanding, we shall study the ancient Indian
architecture by clubbing the styles and periods together. For example, since major developments of
BuddhistarchitecturehappenedduringMauryanperiod,BuddhiststyleandMauryanarchitectureshallbe
studied together.
. Harappan architecture:
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ThearchitectureoftheHarappanculturestoodoutincomparisontootherrecentcivilizations. TheIndus
Valley CivilizationspansthroughoutNorthwesternIndia,anddisplaysnumerousworksofart,including
seals, sculptures, pottery, jewelry, etc. The famous Indian Architecture sites related to the Harappan
civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, which are in Pakistan today. However, the spread of
Indus valley civilization in the mainland of India was evident with the excavation of the sites like:
➔ Balathal and Kalibangan in Rajasthan
➔ Surkotda, Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat
➔ Rakhilgarhi and Banawali in Haryana
➔ Ropar or Rupnagar in Chandigarh,
➔ Alamgirpur in UP, etc.
Features of Indus Valley Architecture:
● Twomajorsites,HarappaandMohenjoDaro,aretheearliestandfinestexamplesofurbancivic
planning. There exists a planned network of roads, houses, and drainage systems.
● The Harappan towns were designed in a rectangular grid pattern. They cut each other at right
angles.
● For construction, baked mud bricks of standard size have been used.
● The city was divided into 2 parts- the upraised citadel and the lower part of the city.
● Granarieswerealsoconstructedtostoregrainswithfeatureslikestrategicairductsandaraised
platform.
● Another important feature was the prevalence of Public baths. It shows the importance of
ritualistic cleansing.
● T he lower part of the city had small one-roomed houses. The remains of stairs indicate the
presenceofdouble-storiedhouses.Mostbuildingshadproperlyventilatedbathroomsandprivate
wells.
● Themostoutstandingfeaturewasanadvanceddrainagesystem.Thedrainswereinterconnected.
For regular cleaning and maintenance, drains were covered loosely.
● Earliest known temple was excavated at: Baghor Shakti temple (M.P.)
b. Mauryan architecture:
By the 4th century BCE, the Mauryas had solidified their dominance. The architecture and sculpture
created under the patronage of the Mauryans reached its peak and glory. Along with the temple
architecture,majorBuddhiststupaswereconstructed,asthisperiodunderlinesthespreadofBuddhismin
the Indian subcontinent.
Significant features of Mauryan architecture:
● Palaces: Principle material used inancientMauryanarchitecturewasprimarilywood.Ashoka’s
palaceatKumraharwasmassive.Ithadathree-storywoodenstructuredecoratedwithsculptures
and carvings. The Achaemenid palaces in Iran inspired Chandragupta Maurya’s palace.
● Pillars: Pillar inscription was a symbol of state or to commemorate battle victories and to
propagate sermons. The average height of the pillar was 40feet;madeupofchunarsandstone
and had fourparts.Asinglepieceofstoneormonolithwasused.Example:LauriaNandangarh
pillar at Champaran, Sarnath pillar.
● Stupa: In the Buddhist tradition, the nine stupas were built afterthedeathofBuddha.Eightof
themhadrelicsofBuddhaattheirMedhi,andtheninthhadapotwheretherelicswereoriginally
deposited. Example: Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh, Piprahwa stupa in UP is the oldest.
● Cave Architecture: During the Ancient Indian architecture period, rock-cut cave architecture
emerged.TheyweregenerallyusedasviharasbyJainasandBuddhistmonks.Thesecaveswere
markedbythehighlypolishedfinishofinteriorwallsanddecorativegateways.Example:Barabar
and Nagarjuna caves in Bihar were formed by the Dasharatha king.
● Sculpture:TheseweremainlyusedtodecoratestupasinToranaandMedhi.Thefamoussculpture
of ancientarchitectureduringtheMauryaperiodisYakshaandYakshi.Jainism,Buddhism,and
Hinduism used them as an object of worship. Example: Didargunj Yakshini.
● Pottery: Northern Black polished ware (NBPW) was generally used. They were made of fine
alluvial clay and had peculiar luster and brilliance, distinguishing them from other polished
wares. Black-painted lustrous were luxury items for use during the Ancient Indian period.
c. South Indian Architecture (Dravida style):
All temple buildings in ancient Indian architecture included decoration as a key component. Ancient
Indian temples' elaborate architectural features and figurativesculptureswereprimarilyconcernedwith
ornamentation.
● For instance, each temple had a garbha-griha, also known as a sanctum sanctorum, where the
deity of the building resided.
● A path for circumambulation surrounded each garbha-griha. Gates, sikharas,andgopuraswere
some of the additional features.
d. Indo-Islamic Architecture:
Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and for Islamic
patrons and purposes. India was introduced to Islamic style architecture after the
establishment of Delhi Sultanate (Dynasty).
The features of Indo-Islamic Architecture includes:
● Influence of Central-Asian dynasties (Turkish, Persian, Afghani, etc.)
● Large buildings
● The exteriors were topped by large domes
● Extensive use of arches was done
● Single large space under a high dome
● No figurative sculpture
● Adopted Indian ways of construction in many structures, e.g. bricks were replaced by stones
● A major aspect ofMughalarchitectureisthesymmetricalnatureofbuildingsandcourtyards.It
was also a mix of Islamic,Persian,Arabic,CentralAsianandnativeIndianarchitecture.Major
contributions of Mughal architecture includes: various Tombs (Taj Mahal,Akbar'sTomb,etc.),
Forts (Red Fort, Agra Fort, etc.), Mosques (Jama Masjid),Gardens(ShalimarGarden),Saraies
i.e. Guest Houses on trading routes (Akbari Sarai), Bridges (Shahi Bridge), Milemarkers (Kos
Minar)
e. Indo-Christian Architecture:
IndianChristianarchitectureduringtheBritishRajhasexpandedintoseveraldifferentstylesasaresultof
extensive church building in different parts of the country. Most Protestant cathedrals and churchesin
India conform to the Neo-Gothic and Gothic Revival architecture styles. The adaptation of European
architecturalelementstothetropicalclimateinIndiahasresultedinthecreationoftheIndo-Gothicstyle.
French and Danish influences on Christian art and architecture in India can beseenintheirrespective
colonies.
The features of Indo-Christian Architecture includes:
● Tall walls
● Presence of tower and bell
● Specious interiors
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1.1.2. Science and Technology:
inceancienttimes,Indiahashadagloriouscultureofeducation,science,andtechnology,andhasmade
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significant contributions in the fields of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, metallurgy, the ayurvedic
system of medicine, and surgery.
1. Mathematics:
heIdeaofZero:MathematicianAryabhatawasthefirstpersontocreateasymbolforzeroanditwas
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throughhiseffortsthatmathematicaloperationslikeadditionandsubtractionstartedusingthedigit,zero.
Theconceptofzeroanditsintegrationintotheplace-valuesystemalsoenabledonetowritenumbers,no
matter how large, by using only ten symbols. Aryabhata is also credited for approximation of Pi,
he Decimal System: India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten
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symbols – the decimal system. In this system, each symbol received a value of position as wellasan
a bsolute value. Due to the simplicity of the decimal notation,whichfacilitatedcalculation,thissystem
made the use of arithmetic in practical inventions much faster and easier.
umeralNotations:Indians,asearlyas500BCE,haddevisedasystemofdifferentsymbolsforevery
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numberfromonetonine.ThisnotationsystemwasadoptedbytheArabswhocalleditthehindnumerals.
Centuries later, this notation system was adopted by the western world who called them the Arabic
numerals as it reached them through the Arab traders.
ibonacci Numbers: The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence firstappearinIndianmathematicsas
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‘mātrāmeru’,mentionedbyPingala(300BCE)inconnectionwiththeSanskrittraditionofprosody.Later
on,themethodsfortheformationofthesenumbersweregivenbymathematiciansVirahanka,Gopalaand
Hemacandra, much before the Italian mathematician Fibonacci introduced the fascinating sequence to
WesternEuropeanmathematics.Pingalawasalsothefirstonetodescribethebinarynumbersysteminhis
book Chandahśāstra.
Trigonometry:Bhaskara-I has major contribution towardsapproximation of sine function.
quare and square root: Baudhayana (800BCE)contributedtoapproximationofthesquarerootof2
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and the statement of a version of the Pythagorean Theorem.
2. Physics:
TheoryofAtom:OneofthenotablescientistsofancientIndiawasKanadwhoissaidtohavedevised
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the atomic theory centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated about the existenceofanuor
smallindestructibleparticles,muchlikeanatom.Healsostatedthatanucanhavetwostates—absolute
rest and a state of motion.
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1.1.3. Nature:
Ancient Indian ideas about the conservation of nature:
● “Paryavaranam”isaSanskritwordforenvironmentthatwasprevalentinancientIndia,thousands
of years before the advent of modern science.
● InIndianconsideration,theenvironmentisnotaphysicalandlifelessbeingbutaverylivingand
active mechanism andhumanbeingsarejustoneamongthevariousothercreaturesthatinhabit
the earth.
● Theconceptofonenessbetweenthelivingandnonlivingentitiesontheearthisalsoseeninthe
ancient text references.
● Early Vedicperiodmentionstheworshipingofnaturalforcessuchassun,water,air,soil,earth,
plants, trees, animals.
● Theconceptofpanchamahabhutas(fivegreatelements)i.e.theearth(prithvi),water(apah),fire
(teja),air(vayu)andspace(vyoma)alsounderlinestheimportanceofnatureanditspowerover
the human beings.
● T hese moral values displayed a genuine love for nature and instilled the idea of sustainable
consumption of resources and wasting them was considered a sin.
● AncientIndianthoughtsaboutplantsandtrees:Medicinalqualitiesofmanyplantsandtrees
establishedareligiousvalueforthem.Forexample,Tulsiplant,Banyantree,pipalfindamention
in ancient Vedic text and their conservation is emphasized.
● Ancient Indian thoughts about animals and birds: A religious practiceofdailyofferingsof
foodstoanimals,birdsandothercreaturesleadstomaintaininganecologicalbalanceinthetime
of lack of food due to severe climatic change. Many animals and birds were automatically
protected due to their connection to a deity, e.g. peacock, elephant, etc.
Harappan civilization:
● They had acute awareness about hygiene and sanitation as evident from their construction of
ventilated houses, orderly streets, numerous wells, bathrooms, public baths and covered
underground drains. These structures were constructed keeping water conservation in mind.
● Several tablets found at the site show their love for trees as a form of worshiping tree goddesses.
Buddhism and conservation of nature:
● For thousand years, the Buddhist forest monasteries have manifested aharmoniouslivingwith
nature, being established in the mountains and in the forest.
● TranquillifeintheforesthelpedBhuddhistpractitionerstoimprovetheirinnermindsandatthe
same time, they also worked for the protection of animals and flora and fauna in the area.
Jainism and conservation of nature:
● Compassion and non-violence are the basis of ancient Jain philosophy.
● TheconceptofJainismrestrictsitsfollowerstoharmanycreatureandeventuallyleadstolimited
consumption as well as help in protecting the environment.
Kautilya Arthashastra and the Mauryan period:
● Itisatreatisethatenumeratesonjurisprudenceofvariousaspectswithregardstoadministration
and governance, including conservation of resources.
● AsmentionedintheArthashastra,duringtheMauryanperiod,environmentalguidelineshadtobe
followed even in the affairs of the state.
● Special importance was attached to the animal sanctuaries called abhayaranya or abhayavna
which implies ‘forest that is free from fear’. This was so that the animalsandtreescouldlive
without fear of slaughter.
● Eventreesandotherplantsthatweregrowninthemunicipalareadeservedprotectionandafine
was imposed for causing harm to them.
● Itdescribesthemaintenanceofpublicsanitationandpreservationoftheenvironment,forestAnd
wildlife.Evenintheaffairsofthestate,theadministrationwas directedtopreserveandpromote
environmental welfare.
● ‘Superintendent Of Forest Produce’ was appointed by the state for each forest zone to be
responsible for maintaining thehealthoftheforests,protectingforeststoassistwildlifesuchas
Elephants (Hastivana), but also protecting forest products to satisfy economic needs, products
s uch as Teak, Arjuna, Sal, Birch, Bamboo, Fodder, Firewood, Bulbous Roots and fruits for
medicines, flowers, etc.
Water was regarded as a collective and not a private commodity. It was considered extremely
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precious. Fineswereprescribedforanumberofactsthatnegativelyaffectedwaterbodies,such
as obstruction or diverting a water course, damaging river banks, etc.
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1.1.4. Astronomy:
he ancient Indian astronomers used the stars and planets to create astrological charts, developing
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sophisticated mathematical models and many intriguing theories, many of which were passed down to the
Middle-East world and Europe.
This time period witnessed the exchange of ideas between Indians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Persians.
This exchange of theories and philosophy was critical to the advancement of astronomy.
Contribution of ancient Indian Astronomers:
Aryabhatta (476–550 CE):
● He was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian
mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include theĀryabhaṭīyaand theArya-siddhanta.
● In his works named ‘Aryabhatiya’, proposed a computational system based on a planetary model
in which the Earth was assumed to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were
given with respect to the Sun. Many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets,
times of solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon, were precisely
calculated by him.
● He also gave nearly accurate values of sidereal rotation, i.e. the rotation of the earth around itself
as 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds;the modern value is 23:56:4.091. Similarly, his value for
the length of the sidereal year at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds (365.25858 days)
is an error of only 3 minutes and 20 seconds over the length of a year (365.25636 days).
Bhaskara II (1114-1185 CE):
● He was the head of the astronomical observatory in Ujjain.
● He composed theSiddhanta Siromani,which is dividedinto two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and
Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets).
● He also calculated to 9 decimal places the time it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun.
Varahamihira (505-587 CE):
● Varahamihira was a Ujjain-based ancient Indian astrologer, astronomer, and polymath.
● The Brihat Samhita, an encyclopedic work on architecture, temples, planetary motions, eclipses,
timekeeping, astrology, seasons, cloud formation, rainfall, agriculture, mathematics, gemology,
perfumes, and many other topics, was one of Varahamihira's most notable works.
● Varahamihira proposed that objects must be held stationary by an attractive force.
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1.1.5. Agriculture:
I ndia has a long, old history of agriculture since time immemorialintheIndusvalleycivilization.The
status of India as an agrarian economy still remains in today’s times.
Key features of ancient Indian agriculture:
neoftheoldestwaterregulatingstructuresintheworldisGrandAnicutdamonriverKaveri(1st-2nd
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Century CE) .
● Indianagriculturebeganby9000BCEasaresultofearlycultivationofplants,anddomestication
ofcropsandanimals.Settledlifesoonfollowedwithimplementsandtechniquesbeingdeveloped
for agriculture.
● Double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped in one year.
● Indian products soon reached the world via existing trading networks and foreign crops were
introduced to India.
● Plantsandanimals—consideredessentialtotheirsurvivalbytheIndians—cametobeworshiped
and venerated.
Harappan agriculture:
● Land and water management systems were developed
● Wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE.
● Domestication of sheep andgoatsoonfollowed.Thisperiodalsosawthefirstdomesticationof
the elephant. BCE-4th millennium BCE.
● A variety of tropical fruits such as mango and muskmelon are native to the Indian subcontinent.
● The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Sugarcane was originallyfrom
tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.
● Many wild species of Rice were cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization.
● Mixed farming was the basis of the Indus valley economy.
● Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE.
Vedic period:
● Jute was first cultivated in India, where it was used to make ropes and cordage
● Some animals— thought by the Indians as being vital to their survival—came to be worshiped.
● Treeswerealsodomesticated,worshiped,andvenerated—PipalandBanyaninparticular.Others
came to be known for their medicinal uses and found mention in the holistic medical system
Ayurveda.
● Cultivation of a wide range of cereals, vegetables, and fruits is described in the Vedic texts.
● The soil was plowed several times. A certain sequence of cropping were practiced.
● Cow dung provided the manure.
● Irrigation was practiced.
The Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE):
● In this period farmers categorized soils and made meteorological observations for agricultural
use.
● Other Mauryan facilitation included construction and maintenance of dams, and provision of
horse-drawn chariots—quicker than traditional bullock carts.
● Early Common Era – High Middle Ages (200–1200 CE)
● T heTamilpeoplecultivatedawiderangeofcropssuchasrice,sugarcane,millets,blackpepper,
various grains, coconuts, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and sandalwood.
● Jackfruit, coconut, palm, areca and plantain trees were also known.
● Systematic ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and crop protection was practiced for
sustained agriculture.
● Water storage systems were designed during this period. Kallanai (1st-2ndcenturyCE),adam
built on river Kaveri during this period, is considered as one of the oldest water-regulation
structures in the world still in use.
● The Cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of water—-particularly the
distribution of water by tank-and-channel networks to the drier areas.
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1.1.6. Health and Medicine:
I ndianshavemadeasignificantcontributiontomodernmedicineandhealth.Itisamazingthatthesages
of old discussed intricate knowledge of the causes of disease and even described the likelihood of
hereditarytransmissionpathways.Manyancienttexts,includingtheAtharvaveda,whichhassectionson
longevity, the treatment of ailments, cures for particular diseases, eradication of germs, antidotes to
poison, prudent food habits, and healthy lifestyle, mention the importance of good diet, hygiene, and
mental and physical health. In order to achieve a healthy body and mind, asanas (yoga positions),
pranayama (regulation of breathing process), and meditation are all recommended by Patanjali in his
Yoga Sutras, as well as Samadhi (meditative contemplation to achieve higher awareness). Ayurveda
viewedhumanhealthintermsofthreedoshas(fundamentalenergiesorgoverningprinciplesofthebody),
each ofwhichiscomposedoffiveelements:Vata(air(Vayu)+space/ether(Aakash),Pitta(fire(Agni),
and Kapha (earth (Prithvi)+water(Jala),animbalanceofwhichresultsinillnessandcallsforremedy.
ThePanchaMahabhutas(5bigelements)andthedoshas,whichregulatebodilyprocesses,wereseenas
constitutingtheuniverse.Thesevenbasicprinciplesortissuesthatmakeupthehumanbodyareknownas
the sapta dhatus: Rasa (tissuefluids),Rakta(blood),Mamsa(muscle),Meda(fat),Asthi(bones),Majja
(marrow), and Shukra (reproductive tissue).
ithsuchadeepandvastknowledgesystem,ancientIndianswereabletoachievegreaterheightsinthe
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field of medicine, health and overall well-being.
Significant contribution of ancient Indians towards Health and Medicine:
1. Ayurveda:
Ayurveda,India’straditionalmedicine,hasbeeninpracticeforcloseto3,000yearsandhasbeenserving
the health-care needs of millions of Indians.
Key features:
● The word Ayurveda derived from AYU and VEDA. AYU means life, VEDA means science or
knowledge, Ayurveda means the science of life.
● Ayurveda has both preventive and curative aspects.
● The treatment approach in the Ayurveda system is holistic and individualized, having
preventive, curative, mitigative, recuperative and rehabilitative aspects.
● The principal objectives of Ayurveda are maintenance and promotion of health, prevention of
disease and cure of sickness.
2. Yoga:
oga is an ancient practice that originated in ancient India and has been gaining immense popularity
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worldwide. It encompasses a holistic approach to well-being, integrating physical, mental, and spiritual
aspects of health.
Key features:s
● ‘Yoga’ has its roots from the Sanskrit word ‘yuj’ which means to join or unite. The very origin
of the word speaks volumes. It aims to connect your mind and body and to help them work
together in peace and as one.
● It encompasses various principles and techniques that contribute to its therapeutic benefits. Key
elements include:
○ Asanas: Asanas are physical postures that promote strength, flexibility, and balance.
Through a series of poses, asanas enhance physical fitness, improve body awareness,
and promote overall well-being.
○ Pranayama: Pranayama involves breath control exercises that regulate and manipulate
the breath. It improves respiratory function, enhances energy flow, and promotes
relaxation and mental clarity.
○ Dhyana: Dhyana, or meditation, involves focusing the mind and cultivating
mindfulness. It promotes mental calmness, emotional stability, and self-awareness.
Significant contributors towards ancient wisdom in Health and Medicine:
Sushruta
● Surgerywasawell-establishedmedicalspecialityinIndiabythetimeofSushruta,eventhough
in a less-advanced form.
● Hemadesignificantcontributionstothecreationofnumeroussurgicalmethods(suchastheuse
ofanant'sheadtosewsutures),mentioningalmost120differentsurgicaltools,whichwerelater
modified in the Western world.
● One of the most thorough texts on ancient surgery is Sushruta Samhita,whichhewroteinthe
sixth century BC.
● The work covers a wide range of ailments, botanicals, preparations, and treatments,aswellas
sophisticated surgery procedures.
Charaka
● A key work on the antiquated discipline of Ayurveda, the Charakasamhita, was authored by
Charaka long before Hippocrates.
● KnownasthefatherofIndianmedicine,Charakawasthefirsttomentiontheideasofimmunity,
metabolism, and digestion.
● The ancient preventative medicine text written by Charakaenduredasastandardworkfortwo
millennia and was translated into numerous foreign languages, such as Arabic and Latin.
● AyurvedawasseenbyCharakaasacompletemedicalsystemthataddressedboththepreventative
andcurativeaspectsofhealthcare,despitethefactthathehadstudiedeveryaspectofmedicine,
including the logic and philosophy that underlie the Indian medical system.
Jivaka
● Lord Buddha's and the Sangha's personal Physician.
● Under the supervision of Atreya, he learnedAyurvedicmedicine.
Nagarjuna
● He is thought to have been an alchemist who used mercury frequently and advocated using
chemical remedies rather than herbal and vegetable concoctions.
● He gave a thorough explanation of the circulatory system and called blood rakta dhatu.
● He also made use of Bhasmas, a group of specially created substances with therapeutic potential.
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1.1.7. Defense:
efense was the chief means by which territory wasannexedorrulersdefeatedinancientIndiawhich
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was divided into multiple kingdoms, republicsandempires.Thekingoremperorwassupposedtobea
greatwarrior,capableofdefeatingenemiesonthebattlefieldandprotectingtheirownkingdom.Theidea
ofdigvijaya(i.e."victoriouscampaigninalldirections”)sothatarulercouldbecomeachakravartisamrat
i.e.“emperorwhosechariotwheelrollsunobstructed”)wasalwaysemphasizedeveninancientliterature.
throne. Buddhism and Jainism, despite their advocacy ofnon-violence,alsounderstoodtheroleofwar
and warfare in the prevailing political system and especially for the defense of one's kingdom against
invaders.
One example of ancientIndianefforttowardsdefenseisthestoryofRaniAbbakkafromtheChowta
dynasty,whowasthefirstTuluvaQueenofUllal(Karnataka)andfoughtthePortugueseforfourdecades
inthe16thcentury.HavingformedanalliancewiththeBijapurSultanofAhmedNagarandtheZamorin
ofCalicut,whowerealsoopposingthePortuguese,RaniAbbakkaisconsideredtobetheearliestIndians
to fight Eurochristian colonialism and is sometimes regarded as the 'first woman freedom fighter of India'.
arfare techniques in ancient India:
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Army:
● Thearmywascomposedoffourarms(chaturangasena)—infantry(soldierswhofoughtonfoot),
cavalry (army that fought on horses), chariots (army that used chariots run by horses) and
elephants.
● They were all deployed in the field of battle in formation (vyuha), as decided by the commanders.
● Great concern was shown to the training of men and animals.
● Thekingsandprinceswerewell-trainedintheartsofwarandleadership,personallyledarmies
and participated in the defense of forts.
● Wooden battle chariots (sangramika) were used as command vehicles.
● Around the 6th century BCE, elephants replaced the chariots and were considered as being
invaluable owing to theirhugedestructivepower.Theirfunctionsincludedclearingthewayfor
marches, fording rivers, guardingthearmyfromthefront,sidesandbehindandbatteringdown
fort walls.
● The Rajput rulers in north, central and western India, used camels as well.
The fighting techniques:
● F ighting could take place on low grounds, in open battle, ambuscades, under the cover of
entrenchment, from heights and even during the night.
● The footsoldiers fought also in forests, hilly and inaccessible regions.
Weapons:
● Arms included bows and arrows, swords, double-handed broadswords, oval, rectangular or
bell-shaped shields (often of hides), spears, javelins, lances, axes, pikes, clubs and maces.
● Bows were the primary weapon for the infantry, chariot and elephant warriors and even the
commanders.
● Armour included helmets, turbans, covers for neck, torso, sleeved/sleeveless coats of varied
length, wrist-guards and gloves.
● There was also armour made from hides, hoofs and horns of certain animals like tortoise,
rhinoceros, bison, elephant or cow or chainmail.
Command structures:
● The emperor or king was always the supreme commander, followed by the crown prince
(yuvaraja) and the general or commander-in-chief (senapati).
Fortification:
● Forts held a key position in ancient Indian warfare.
● Forts were also treated ascentresforadministrativeunits.Theywerebuiltinborderregions,at
theextremeendsofthekingdom,andindifferentterrains—islands,hills(giridurga),desertsand
forests (vanadurga).
● Thereweremoats,ramparts,parapets,towers,turretsandpositionsforarchers,passagesforflight
and exit doors along with multiple gates, secret land ways and waterways.
● The forts were also well-stocked with the number and amount of resources necessary for
withstanding long sieges, such as food and weaponry.
● Thereweremoats,ramparts,parapets,towers,turretsandpositionsforarchers,passagesforflight
and exit doors along with multiple gates, secret land ways and waterways.
● The forts were also well-stocked with the number and amount of resources necessary for
withstanding long sieges, such as food and weaponry.
Naval warfare:
● Thenavywasusedtotransporttroopstodistantbattlefields,participateinactualwarfareandwas
primarilymeantforprotectingthekingdom'stradeonseaandnavigableriversandthemaritime
trade routes by destroying pirates.
● TheancientIndianspreferredtofightonlandandfightsonseawerenotgivenmuchimportance,
except in a few cases where destroying the enemy navy became crucial.
● The shipsweremostlyusedtoconquerislands,whichwasseeninthecaseofthecampaignled
by Gupta emperor Samudragupta (335 CE – 380 CE), or for fighting seafaring peoples as the
Satavahanas ( 1st century BCE – 2nd century CE) did.
● The Cholas (4th century BCE to 13th century CE) conducted expeditions even to Southeast Asia.
_________________________________________________________________________________
.Traditional commercial activities & trade practiceswith reference to environmental conservation
2
Trade is an act of buying, selling, or exchanging goods and services.
Types of trade:
● Domestic Trade: Domestic Trade refers to any trade that occurs between individuals or
organisations within the country
● International Trade: International Trade refers to any trade that occurs between two or more
countries.
Importance of trade:
● Trade is an engine of growth that creates jobs, reduces poverty and increases economic
opportunity.
● Countries that are open to tradeandinvestmentaremoreprosperousthancountriesthatrestrict
individuals’ freedom to decide how to spend and invest their money.
● International trade between differentcountriesisanimportantfactorinraisinglivingstandards,
providing employment and enabling consumers to enjoy a greater variety of goods.
● International trade hasoccurredsincetheearliestcivilisationsbegantrading,butinrecentyears
international trade has become increasingly important with a larger share of GDP devoted to
exports and imports.
● International trade plays an important role in improving living standards and reducingpoverty
levels.
Key features of ancient Indian trade:
● TradehasbeenbelievedtoexistinIndiasince600BC.Thisinvolvedtheexportofspices,metals,
and even textiles from India to other parts of the world.
● All major towns were situated along various trading routes. Towns such as Pataliputra (on
riverine routes), Ujjain (land route), and Puhar (oceanic route) were valued for being trade
centers.
● Several routes were introduced in order to facilitate trade across cities and countries. These
include the most famous Silk Route, that connected India to China and the Roman Empire.
● Two major routes concerning India are mentioned in several ancient literature, Uttarapatha
(northernrouteofthecurrencyGrandTrunkRoad)andDakshinapatha(southernroutewithinthe
Deccan plateau).
● Trading also helped promote the growth of Indian culture to east Asia as well as western world.
● Trading was done:
○ Over land into Central Asia
○ OverseasfromportsintotheArabianSeatoEastandNorthAfricaandWestAsia,
and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.
● Rulers often attempted to control these routes by offering protection for a price.
● Awiderangeofgoodsweretransportedlikesalt,grain,cloth,metaloresandfinishedproducts,
stone, timber, medicinal plants, etc.
● Intermsofcurrency,theGuptaperiodwasperhapsthefirsttousecoinsthatwerepunch-marked,
made with silver and copper.
● There is evidence that maritime (Overseas) trade continued on a major scale in the Vedic
(1500-800 BCE), Mauryan (324-187 BCE),Kushana(30-375CE)andGuptaperiods.Buddhist
literature,includingJatakastories,arealsorepletewiththeaccountsofseavoyages,shipwrecks
and missionaries going overseas.
2.1. Agricultural trade:
● A griculture continued to flourish and prepared the strong and stable backbone for the rise of
urbanization in the valleys of the rivers Sarasvatī and Indus (Sindhu) around 2600 BCE.
● The mature Phase of this civilisation (2600-2000 BCE) proved beneficial for agriculture as well
as the climatic conditions were very favourable.
● There were two kinds of crops- those which were grown during the rainy season and those which
were cultivated in the winter season.
● Wheat, barley, green peas, mustard, millet, sesame and cotton were some of the noteworthy crops,
which were traded mostly in the domestic markets.
● Small quantities of sugarcane were also grown by the ancient Indians. In fact, the first account of
crystallization of sugar are from ancient Indian trades.
● Many wild species of rice were cultivated and traded, again mostly in the domestic market.
● Large trading with other civilizations happened with the spices and textiles. Like cotton and wool.
2.2. Silk, Cotton and Textile industry:
ilk trade in ancient India:
S
TheSilkRoute,alsoknownastheSilkRoadwasanetworkofancienttraderoutesthatconnectedChina,
India,CentralAsia,andtheMediterranean.ItwasdubbedtheSilkRoutebecauseoftheheavysilktrading
that took place during that period.
What is silk:
ItisavaluablefabricthatoriginatedinChina,whichinitiallyhadamonopolyonsilkproductionuntilthe
secrets of its creation spread to other regions.
Key features of the silk route:
● It wasahistorictraderoutethatdatedfromthesecondcenturyB.C.untilthe14thcenturyA.D.It
stretched from Asia to the Mediterranean, traversing China, India, Persia, Arabia, Greece, and
Italy.
● The original Silk Route was established during the Han Dynasty by Zhang Quian, a Chinese
official and diplomat.
● In addition to silk, the route facilitated the trade of other fabrics, spices, grains, fruits and
vegetables, animal hides, wood and metal work, precious stones, and other items of value.
● SilkroutealsofacilitatedtradingintoCentralAsiathroughthepassesoftheHimalayasconsisting
of food grains, cotton,dyeingmaterial,gunnybags,utensils,etcdryfruits,silk,saffron,shawls
andworksofartsfromtheWesternHimalayasandpreciousandsemipreciousstones,herbs,gold
dust, musk, salt, borax and pack animals from Tibet.
● Intheinitialtimes,atradeagreementwasdonebyusingapieceofwoodorstonebrokenintotwo
piecesmarkedwiththeiridentityretainedbyeachpartyinordertobetalliedtoensurethetrade
contact. This method was later replaced by a written promissory note.
● Travelers used camel or horsecaravansandstayedinguesthousesorinnstypicallyspacedone
day’s travel apart.
● T ravelersalongtheSilkRoute’smaritimeroutescouldstopatportsforfreshdrinkingwaterand
trade opportunities.
● Placeswherethetradeactuallyusedtotakeplace:Fairs,festivalsandperiodicalmartswerethe
main centers of commercial gathering and marketing.
Silk route in India:
The monuments and sites located along this road comprisesofprehistoricsettlement,Harappansites,
Buddhist Stupas & Monasteries, Temples, Forts, Tombs, Pavilions , Bridges, Gardens, Sarais (halting
places), Kos minars (milestones), Baolis (wells) etc.Theysurvivetilldateandsomeofthemhavealso
been excavated providing a cultural continuity from prehistoric to modern times.
In India, the ancient Silk Road covered today’s seven main states – Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir,
Maharashtra, Puducherry, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and present-day Uttarakhand.
Other important parts of the silk route:
1. Ladakh and Leh are great examples of this cultural exchange. The SilkRoutepassedthrough
Ladakh via the ancient trade routes of the Indus Valley, which connected the Indian
subcontinenttoCentralAsia.TheregionwasalsoanimportantcenterofBuddhismandtoday,
manyBuddhistmonasteriesandculturalsitescanbefoundinLadakhthatwereconnectedtothe
Silk Route.
2. Similarly,GartangGaliinUttarkashi,Uttarakhand,wasapartoftheancienttraderoutesofthe
SilkRoute.Itwasanimportantrouteforthetradeofgoodssuchassilk,spices,tea,andprecious
stones betweenIndia and Tibet.
3. Some of the other important historical places lying on this road are Kabul, Peshawar, Attock,
Lahore (allintoday’sPakistan),Attari(Waghaborder),Amritsar,Jalandhar,Ludhiana,Ambala,
Karnal, Kurukshetra, Delhi, Mathura, Agra Kanpur, Allahabad, Benaras, Sasaram, Patna,
Dhanbad, Burdwan and Kolkata.
Consequences of silk route:
● The opening of the Silk Route brought many otherproducts,likegunpowderandpaper,which
would have a big impact on the West.
● Paperwasespeciallyimportant,asiteventuallyledtotheinventionoftheprintingpress,which
gave way to newspapers and books.
● TheSilkRoutewasameanstoexchangegoodsandcultures.Italsoservedinthedevelopmentof
science, technology, literature, the arts, and other fields of study.
● It also helped missions by Buddhist and European monks and was instrumental in spreading
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and other religions throughout the regions servedby
the routes.
____________________________________________________________________________________
Cotton and Textile industry:
What is cotton:
Cotton is one commodity thatisavailablevirtuallyeverywhereprovingitsutility.Itisaformoftextile
that has been generating significant employment for both skilled and unskilled labour, thus helping
strengthen the country’s economy.
Ancient Cotton Textile Industry in India:
I ndian civilization had been ruling the global cotton production and trade for about 3,000 years - from
1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. It held this position till the 19th century when the British Raj started affecting the
native cotton textile production.
Harappan civilization:
● Evidence from excavationsintheIndusValleydatingbacktoabout4,500yearsagoshowsthat
Indians had already developed the technology to weave cotton into cloth at that time.
● Cotton was cultivated by the Harappans at Lothal, Rangpur & Alamgirpur.
● Seeds of cotton were found in association with Indus coins, proving the presence of cotton
trading.
● RoutesofthecottontradebetweenIndiaandMesopotamia(today’sIran,Iraq,Syriaetc.),were:
Sea-routes with the help of boats as well as through land routes (via Afghanistan).
● ThereisevidencethatinMesopotamiaandGreece,thecottonwascalled‘sindon’,whichmight
have its origin in the word ‘Sindhu’.
● Shawl and dhoti were supposed to be the main clothes of Harappans.
● From the discovery of many spindles and spindlewhirlsinthehousesoftheIndusValley,itis
evident that spinning of cotton and wool was very common.
● The presence of dyers’ vats (i.e. buckets carrying fabric colours and dyes) on the Harappan
excavation sites indicate that dyeing was practiced.
● Herodotos(484-425BCE),aGreekhistorianstatesthatIndianshaveawildtreethatcarrieswool
(cotton).
Mauryan period:
● The Mauryan period is known as the period of expansion of cotton industry and commerce
because it was the age of second urbanization.
● ThiswasprobablythetimewhenIndiansestablishedfirstcontacttotheislandsofBurma,Malaya
and Indonesia.
● During thisperiod,therewereforestsofaspecialvarietyofsilklikecottontrees.Besidesthese
natural forests, cotton was cultivated also.
● It appears that this industry was very much governed by soil and climate.
● Mathura, Saurastra, Kashi,Kalinga,Vanga,Kausambi,etc.weretheimportantcentresofcotton
clothes traders.
● There was a great demand for Indian cotton clothes in the Roman empire during this period.
● Megasthenes(350-290BCE),aGreekhistorianwhospentaconsiderabletimeinIndiaduringthe
Mauryan period, says that most people wore a white cotton dress.
● Trade was both foreign and inland, sea-borne, river-borne, export & import.
● The eastern sea-borne trade was extended as far as China, and led to an extensive colonization.
The Kushana period:
● IntheKushanaperiod,cottontradeflourishedonthesilkroutefromtheRomanempiretoChina
through central Asia.
● The inland trade was wide-spreaded, as between Taksasila and Varanasi.
● Barbaricum and Bharukaccha (Bharuch) were the chief port centers of export and import.
The Gupta period:
● I ntheperiodofGuptakings,weknowfromtheliteratureofKalidasaandBana,notonlycotton
but other textiles as well,suchasKshauma(linen),Badara(cotton),dukula(bark-silk),amsuka
(muslin) and netra (short silk).
● Hiuen-Tsang(602-664CE),aChinesescholar,mentionstheclothingmaterialsofIndiansassilk,
cotton, linen and wool.
● Pataliputra, Tamralipti, Kasi, Mathura, Vaisali, Dasapur etc. were the main trade centres.
● The foreign trade in the Gupta period belonged to different countries, such as- Egypt, Rome,
Persia, Lanka and in southeast Asian countries – Java, Sumatra, Bali, Malaya and China.
The Chola period:
● ‘Uraiyur’ , the capital of Chola Kingdom, was famous for cotton clothes.
● Foreign countries, such as – Egypt, Arab, Greece, China, Malaya islands etc. took part in the
trade with India during this time.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2.3. Spices:
picesarevaluableagriculturalproducts,whichcanbeanyseed,fruit,root,bark,orotherplantsubstance
S
in a form primarily used for flavoring or coloring food.
Key features of ancient spice trade:
● Spices were traded through the maritime (Sea) routes.
● The spices consisted of cinnamon, pepper, ginger, cloves and nutmeg and many more, which
were exchanged for valuable commodities like gold and silver.
● Thespicerouteswereestablishedaround3000BCEandthiswastwothousandyearsbeforethe
Silk route was established.
● SpicerouteslinkedtheeastwiththewestasitstretchedfromJapanthroughIndonesiatoIndiato
the Middle Eastern lands to Europe through the Mediterranean, covering a distance of 15,000
kilometers.
● Spices were the most valued medicinalplantsandwereusedformedicinalpurposesduringthe
ancient times. Their use in food became prevalent much later.
● Spices were so valued once that people used to risk their lives just to trade in spices. Arab
merchantswhotradedinspices,wouldtellfantastictalesabouttheiradventuresinordertoreach
spice growing regions. This would ensure high prices for the spicess.
● In the medieval period, food spoiling was a major problem faced by The Europeans as they
lacked refrigeration and general hygiene. In such a situation,speciesbecameimportantasthey
helped to preserve the food for a long period of time.
● Other valuable goods were also exchangedacrossthespiceroutessuchastextiles,metalwork,
saffron, incense, etc.
● For almost 5,000 years, Arab traders had a monopoly over the spice trade till the Europeans
searched for new routes to the Far East regions.
Spice trading with respect to ancient India:
● As India was the leading producer of spices, it became the center of the world’s spice trade.
Spices became an important part of India’s trade with Chinese, Egyptian, Mesopotamian and
rabcivilisations.Eventoday,Indiatopsthelistofthespice-producingcountriesoftheworld.
A
Around 70% of the global spices are produced in India.
● CochinandMalabarcoastweretheleadingproducersofthePepper.IntheCoastalregionsofBay
of Bengal, cloves were grown in huge quantities.
● As Kerala produced many important spices, including black pepper (indigenous to Kerala), it
became the hub of cultural and economic exchanges.
● In1498,VascodaGamacametoIndiabysearoute.Thisledtodominationofspicetraderoutes
by the Portugueseforashortperiodoftime,whichwaslaterdominatedbytheDutchandeven
later by the British through the East India Company.
● Knowledge about the social and religious life of the people were also transferred through the
trade routes.
____________________________________________________________________________________
_
2.4. Metallurgy:
etallurgy before and during the Harappan Civilization:
M
The first evidence of metal in the Indian subcontinent Mehrgarh inBaluchistanisasmallcopperbead
dated 6000 BCE.
ArchaeologicalexcavationsshowthatHarappanmetalsmithsobtainedcopperorefromtheAravallihills,
Baluchistan and beyond.
Harappans discovered Copper + Tin = Bronze.
Harappan craftsmen also invented the true saw, with teeth and the adjoining part of the blade set
alternatively from side to side, a type of saw unknown elsewhere until Roman times.
pearheads,arrowheads,axes,chisels,sickles,blades(forknivesaswellasrazors),needles,hooks,and
S
vessels such as jars,potsandpans,besidesobjectsoftoiletrysuchasbronzemirrors;weresomeofthe
metal artifacts produced by Harappans.
he Dancing Girl of 'Mohenjo daro' made by the Lost Wax
T
rocess
P
ronzespikedspear
B A bronze figurine of a bull (Kalibangan) made by the
Lost Wax Process
fter the Harappans (the classical age):
A
In the classical age, copper bronze smiths supplied countless pieces of art.
Let us mention the huge bronze statue of the Buddha made between 500 and 700 CE in Sultanganj
(Bhagalpurdistrict,Bihar,nowattheBirminghamMuseum);at2.3mhigh,1mwide,andweighingover
500 kg. It was made by the same lost wax technique that Harappans used three millennia earlier.
ronze Metallurgy:
B
So were thousands of statues made later (and up to this day) inTamilNadu,suchasthe,amongother
famous bronzes.
Beautiful Nataraja statues of the Chola period Highly polished bronze mirrors
Highly polished bronze mirrors are still made in Kerala today, just as they were in Harappan times.
I ron Metallurgy, Iron Pillars and Beams:
TheuseofIronappearstohavebecomewidespreadfromabout1000BCE,andwefindinlateVedictexts
mentions of a ‘dark metal’ (krṣnāyas), while earliest texts (suchastheRigVeda)onlyspokeofAyas,
which, it is now accepted, referred to copper or bronze.
Zinc Distillation and Metallurgy:
● The technique of zinc distillation, which was also applied to mercury, is described in Sanskrit
texts such as the 14th century ‘Rasaratna Samuccaya’.
Social Context:
● Most of India’s metal production was controlled by specific social groups, including so called
tribes.
● Agarias of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are reputed iron smiths, andtherearestillsuch
communities scattered across Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
● TheycontributedsubstantiallytoIndia’swealth,sinceIndiawasforalongtimeamajorexporter
of iron.
● In the late 1600s, shipments of tens of thousands of wootz steel was shipped to Persia every year.
● I ndia’s iron and steel industry was intensive till the 18th century and declined only when the
British started selling their own products in India while imposing high duties on Indian products.
● Industrially produced iron and steel unavoidably put a final stop to most of India’s traditional
production.
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Transportation and its modes
3.1. Grand Trunk Road:
he Grand Trunk Road (formerly known as Uttarapath, Sarak-e-Azam, Shah Rah-e-Azam, Badshahi
T
Sarak, and Long Walk)is one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads. For at least 2,500 yearsithas
linked Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent. It runs roughly 2,400 km (1,491 miles)from Teknaf,
Bangladesh on the border with Myanmarwest to Kabul, Afghanistan, passing through Chittagong and
DhakainBangladesh,Kolkata,Lucknow,Delhi,andAmritsarinIndia,andLahore,Gujrat(Punjabregion
of Pakistan), Rawalpindi, and Peshawar in Pakistan.
verthecenturies,theroadactedasoneofthemajortraderoutesintheregionandfacilitatedbothtravel
O
and postal communication. The Grand Trunk Road is still used for transportation in the present-day
Indian subcontinent, where parts of the road have been widened and included in thenationalhighway
system.
Contribution of rulers who built the Grand Trunk Road:
● T he Mauryan empire: The highwaywasbuiltalonganancientroutecalledUttarapathainthe
3rd century BCE, extending it from the mouth of the Ganges to the north-western frontier of
India.(AncientHinduandBuddhisttextsuseUttarapathaasthenameoftheroadintheNorthern
part of present-day North India. The Buddhist literature and Indian epicssuchasMahabharata
provide the existenceoftheGrandTrunkroadevenbeforetheMauryanEmpireandwascalled
Uttarapathaorthe"Northernroad".TheroadconnectedtheeasternregionofIndiawithCentral
AsiaandAncientGreece).Theinitialstagesoftheroadwhichexiststodaywereencouragedby
Chandragupta Maurya. Its construction was inspired by the Persian Royal Road. TheMauryas
had maintained this very ancient highway from Takshashila to Patliputra (present-dayPatnain
India). Chandragupta Maurya had a whole armyofofficialsoverseeingthemaintenanceofthis
road as told by the Greek diplomat MegastheneswhospentfifteenyearsattheMauryancourt.
Constructedineightstages,thisroadissaidtohaveconnectedthecitiesofPurushapura(Today’s
Peshawar, in Pakistan) Takshashila (today’s Taxila in Pakistan), Hastinapura, Kanyakubja
(today’s Kannauj in U.P), Prayag, Patliputra (today’s Patna in Bihar) and Tamralipta (Tamluk
town in today's West Bengal), a distance of around 2,600kilometers(1,600mi).Ashokamade
further improvements to this road. He mentioned in his edict abouthavingtreesplanted,wells
built at every half kos (a measurementofdistanceinancienttimes)andmanyrest-housesbuilt
along the route for the travelers.
● SherShahSuri:TheoldroutewasrealignedandreroutedbySherShahSuritoSonargaonand
Rohtas. Sher Shah Suri was the founder of theSurEmpireinIndia(Intoday’sBihar).Healso
repaired the road extensively and also widened it. He initiated the construction of ‘sarai’
(rest-houses), kos minars (pillarstocountdistanceinkos),baolis(wells)andgardensalongside
the road. Those who stopped at the sarai wereprovidedfoodforfree.HissonIslamShahSuri
constructed an additional sarai in-between everysaraioriginallybuiltbySherShahSurionthe
road toward Bengal. This road was referred to as "Sadak-e-Azam'' by Suri.
● Mughal empire: More sarais were built under the Mughals. Jahangir under his reign issueda
decree that all sarais be built of burnt brick and stone. Broad-leaved trees were planted inthe
stretchbetweenLahoreandAgraandhebuiltbridgesoverallwaterbodiesthatweresituatedon
the path of the highways. This road was referred to as "Badshahi Sadak" by the Mughals. A
picture of Mughal era Kos Minar along GT road at Sonipat, India:
● M ahmud Shah Durrani: He rebuilt the Afghan endoftheroad.MahmudShahDurraniwasthe
Prince and later ruler of the Durrani Empire (Afghanistan) between 1801 and 1803.
● Britishempire:Theyrebuilttheroadconsiderablybetween1833and1860.Inthe1830stheEast
India Company started a program of metalled road construction, for both commercial and
administrativepurposes.Theroad,nownamedtheGrandTrunkRoad,fromCalcutta(presentday
Kolkata), through Delhi, to Kabul, Afghanistan was rebuilt at a cost of £1000/mile.
Present-day Scenario:
heIndiansectionsoftheGrandTrunkRoadcoincidewithNH19andNH44oftheNationalHighways
T
in India. NH 19 was previously referred to as Delhi–Kolkata Road and is one of the busiest national
highwaysinIndia.Afterrenumberingnationalhighways,DelhitoAgrarouteisnownationalhighway44
and Agra to Kolkata route is numbered national highway 19.
.2. Boat and Ship Building:
3
Themaritime(ship-buildingandnavy)historyofIndianshipbuildingdatesbacktothetimeofHarappan
civilization. In fact, the English word ‘Navy’ has its origin in the Sanskrit word ‘Nau’ which means ship.
References of ship building in ancient times:
● TheRig-Veda:Itmentionsdifferentpartsofavessel(ship)inSanskrit.Also,otherdetailingabout
the ancient marine industry is documented in the
● Arthashastra: It gives details of the ancient marine industry
● Matsya-yantra: It was a compass used for navigation in the 4th and 5th century CE.
● Indian folk-lore: Many Indian folk-lores have mentions of ships.
Materials used for ship building:
● Wood:Woodwasusedintheinitialperiodofshipbuilding.Sincetheboatsofthaterawerebuilt
of wood, there were stringent specifications and protocols laid down for the materials to be used.
istory of ship building in India:
H
Indian shipbuilding skills were well-known and highly regarded in the ancient and medieval world,
leading to significant maritime trade and exploration.
Harappan Civilization:
Ancient Indians were skilledshipbuildersandnavigators.TheHarappancivilization(around2600-1900
BCE) had access to the Arabian Sea and the Indus River, facilitating maritime trade withneighboring
regions.
● Excavations at Lothal, a major Harappan port city, have revealed the existence of a
sophisticated dockyard with evidence of shipbuilding.
● Certainfamiliesheldamonopolyonthetechnologyofshipbuilding,whichwasinherited
through generations.
● T he units of measurement utilized by the native builders were their hands, fingers, and
feet.
● Flat-bottomed boats were designed to dock and service ships on both the big seas and
domestic rivers. Around 60 tonnes of weight may be carried by these boats.
● Additionally,theHarappansconstructedatidaldockforberthingandmaintainingshipsat
port cities. This is seen to be a special development sinceitwasthefirsttidedockever
built.
● Thus,from3000BCEto2000BCE,Indiahadasophisticatedcivilizationcenteredaround
shipbuilding.
Maurya and Gupta Empires:
During the Maurya (322-185 BCE) and Gupta (320-550 CE) periods, IndiaconnectedwithAfrica,the
Middle East, and Southeast Asia.
● During the Mauryan Era, a Superintendent of Ships was appointed for the building and
maintenance of boats.
● Ocean-going ships capable of accommodating 700 passengers were built.
● Therearerecordsofboatswithupto30oarshavingbeenbuiltinPunjabforAlexander’s
fleet implying that the shipbuilding culture had startedtakingshapeduringtheMauryan
Era.
● ThePost-Guptaperiodhadvesselswithsingle,double,treble,andfourmastsalsowithas
many sails, were built.
● ThewoodusedtobuildshipswasmainlyMalabarteakasitwasfoundtobemoredurable
than Oak which was used in other parts of the world to manufacture vessels.
● In 756 CE, Pushyadeva, the king of Sindh, repulsed ferocious Arab Navy assaults,
displaying the maritime prowess and superior shipbuilding skills of the period.
● Thehistoricalliterarywork-YuktiKalpataru(1100CE)addressesshipbuildingandgoes
into great detail about the many kinds of ships constructed at this time.
● Boats used for different tasks were referred to by distinct names, such as Samanya,
Madhyawa, and Visesha for ferrying people across the river, hauling merchandise, and
fishing, respectively.
● Theshipshadexcellentseaworthiness,couldsailevenatextremelyhighwindspeeds,and
could withstand the huge tides caused by cyclones.
Since the Mauryan and Gupta times, the ships were mostly built at Calicut, Cochin, Kaveripattinam,
Masulipatnam, and Calcutta.
Medieval India:
Indian shipbuilding reached new heights during the medieval period. Arab and Chinese travelers
documented India’s flourishing maritime trade and advanced shipbuilding techniques.
Indian ships, known as “dhows,” were used for both trade and naval purposes. These dhows were
well-designed and efficient vessels, capable of navigating long distances across the Indian Ocean.
This period for the first time saw several Indian ships being built specifically for at-sea combat.
● TheconstructionofwarshipsinIndiachangedwhencannonswereaddedtothemwhenthe
Portuguese arrived in 1498 CE.
● The Marathas also boosted the Indian shipbuilding sector. The Marathas established
shipbuilding yards in Vijaydurg, Swarndur, and Kolaba throughout the 17th century.
● T he ships built here were notedfortheirmaneuverabilityinrestrictedwatersandsuperb
sailing qualities.
● One of the oldest designs inshipconstructionwasthe‘Baghalah’whichtraversedalong
the Gujarat coast. It was used forabout87yearsfrom1750-1837CE.Thus,weseethat
India had a long shipbuilding heritage even before the British arrived.
Colonial Era:
WiththearrivalofEuropeancolonialpowersinthe15thcentury,Indianshipbuildingchangedduetothe
influenceofforeigntechnologiesandshipbuildingpractices.TheBritishEastIndiaCompanyestablished
shipyards in India for its trade and naval needs.
___________________________________________________________________________________
4. Energy efficiency in the transport sector: a current scenario
4.1. Ecomobility and Impact of transport on climate:
coMobility:
E
Ecomobilityisatermusedtodescribetravelthroughintegrated,sociallyinclusive,andenvironmentally
friendly options: namely walking, cycling, wheeling and public transport options.
Characteristics of Ecomobility:
1. It integrates environmentally sustainable forms of mobility.
2. It combines non-motorized means of transport with the use of public transport.
3. It allows everybody to move in their local environment.
4. It reduces the use of privately owned motorized vehicles.
5. It reduces the pollution
Examples of non-motorized transport include:
● walking
● cycling
● wheeling(wheelchairs,non-motorizedscooters,walkingaids,skates,pushscooters,trailer,hand
carts, shopping carts/ trolleys, carrying aids)
Examples of public transport include:
● buses
● trams
● subways
● light rail
● trains
● ferries
● collective taxis
● taxis (if low-emission)
There are mainly four stakeholders for ecomobility:
1. Governmental organizations and political institutions:Theysetthegroundrulesforand
incentives for other stakeholders to follow.
2. B usinesses and public or private operators: They provide technological solutions and
transport services. For example: manufacturing a vehicle with eco-friendly feature
3. Experts’ organizations and academic institutions: They influence other involved
stakeholders, such as governments, by raising attention for certain topics.
4. Usersor“consumers”: Theyarecrucialsincetheydeterminethesuccessofdecisionsand
programs by choosing how to move.
utual relationship between mobility and socio-economics:
M
The relationshipbetweenmobilityandsocial-economicconditionsisamutualone.Theyinfluenceeach
other. On the one hand, the transport infrastructure influences the social-economic development of a
region or state. For example, the lack of proper transportation ways will slow down economic growth.
On the other hand, thesocio-economiccharacteristicsofpeopleinthegiventerritoryorhouseholdalso
influences transport choices and mobility behavior by them. The main variables affecting mobility
choices are:
● Gender
● Age
● Marital status and household composition
● Income and profession
I mpact of transport on climate:
Mobility has an indispensable role in society and the economy. An efficient and accessible transport
system is essential for the quality of life of citizens and for planetary health.
However, this sector remains one of the biggest environmental challenges that we are facing.
Infact,transportisresponsiblefor24%ofdirectcarbondioxide(CO₂)emissionsduetotheburningof
fossil fuels, according to theInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA),withthree-quartersoftheseemissions
being produced by road vehicles.
Furthermore,farfromdeclining,thenumberofemissionsresultingfromtransportiscontinuingtorise.In
Europe,forexample,whilemosteconomicsectors,suchasenergyproductionorindustry,havereduced
their emissions since 1990, emissions resulting from the transport sector have continued to rise.
Thisisdespitetheprogressthathasbeenmadeinroadsandvehiclesgoingelectric(thenumberofelectric
carsontheroadintheworldsurpassedsevenmillionin2019).AccordingtotheIEA,thisisduetotwo
main reasons:
● We are increasingly buying larger and heavier vehicles.
● There has been an increase in e-commerce, requiring road transport in order to deliver orders.
We already know the implications that CO₂ has on global warming. It is essential to reduce thesegas
emissions in order to curb climate change and limit the rise in temperatures as much as possible.
Inaddition,transportisalsopartoftheproblemofairpollution,adangerthat,accordingtoWHOdata,is
responsible for more than seven million premature deaths every year.
The fact is that the transport sector is in a critical transition. Existing plans to increase efficiencyand
reduceenergydemandmustbeextendedandbemoreambitioussothatcountriesareabletocomplywith
Agenda 2030 and the Paris Agreement.
4.2. Impact of Climate on Transport:
limate change may affect transportation at local, regional, and national scales.Threekeyimpactsare
C
described in this section.
. Impacts on System Safety and Function:
1
In many regions, sea level rise, changes in precipitation, extreme weather, and heat pose risks to the
transportation system. These hazards may affect system performance, safety, and reliability. In coastal
regions,risingsealevelsandmoreextremestormscanleadtomorestormsurgeandflooding,whichcan
damageroads,bridges,railways,ports,andcoastalairports.Increasedlocalfloodingcanaffectroadways
andtunnels,weakenroadwaymaterials,andcausetrafficcongestion.Asaresult,peoplemayhavetrouble
getting to their homes, schools, stores, and medical appointments.
cross inland regions, heavy rains can cause flooding and mudslides,affectingighways,railways,and
A
bridges.Lackofraincanalsobeaconcern.Droughtcombinedwithextremeheatincreaseswildfirerisk.
Wildfires can damage transportation networks and impair drivers’ visibility.
Risingtemperaturescanaffecttransportationinmanyregions.Theseimpactscanbebothimmediateand
long-lasting.Forexample,heataffectsrunways,andhotteraircanmakeitmoredifficultforairplanesto
takeflight.Heatcanalsodamagerailtracksandcausecracksinroads.Inaddition,heatcanposesafety
riskstotransportationworkersandtravelers.Forexample,vehiclescanoverheatandroadwayjointscan
buckle, leading to accidents.
Warmer temperatures can also cause permafrost (in and near the polar regions) to thaw. Permafrost
currently supports roads, airport runways, pipelines, and railroads in Alaska. Thawing permafrost can
weaken this critical infrastructure.
In Alaska, thawing permafrost has severely damaged airport runways, railroads, and pipelines.
. System Costs and the Economy:
2
Climatechangecanhavebothpositiveandnegativeimpactsontransportationsystemcosts.Forexample,
milderwintersinsomeregionscouldcutthecostsofwinterroadmaintenance.However,otherareasmay
see more damage to roads, bridges, and transit systems from heat, weather, andrisingsealevels.Asa
result, costs to maintain, repair, and replace infrastructure are likely to increase.
limate change impacts on transportation can also have wideeconomiceffects.Onepositiveimpactis
C
that warmer weather could lengthen the shipping season for some northern ports. Damage to the
transportation system, however, can interrupt the supply chain at local, regional, and national levels.
Insomecoastalareas,morefloodingisoccurringasthesealevelrises.Urbanareaswherethereisalotof
pavement or where sewer systems cannot handle intense rainfall also are prone to flooding. Flooding
disruptsthemovementofcommuters,tourists,andfreight.Peoplealsoneedreliabletransportationtoget
totheirjobs.Extremeweathercandisrupttransitoptionsanddamageroads,keepingpeoplefromgetting
to work.
3. Reduced Access to Social Services and Necessities:
Climate-related impactsonthetransportationsystemaffectsbothurbanandruralareas.Forexample,in
urbanareas,heavyrainscanfloodtunnelsandundergroundrailstops,affectingresidents’abilitytoaccess
critical services and necessities. However, people in cities may also have other transportation options,
including walking.
Inruralareas,therearetypicallyfewerroadsandtransportationoptionsthanincities.Asingledamaged
road or bridge can cut off people’s access to services and necessities, such asfoodormedicine.Rural
communities can also face rebuilding challenges, including being able to bring in construction materials.
==========================================================================
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