Section 3 IT

Abacus -> Leibniz Machine -> Punched Cards -> Electromechanical Machine ->
Fully Electronic Computer -> Computing System -> Desktop Computer ->
Personal Computer -> Internet -> Hand-Held Computers
Vacuum Tubes (1946-1959)
First generation – circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. Machine languages.
Punched cards. Vacuum tubes.
Transistors (1959-1965)
Second generation – Maintain two states “ON” and “OFF” represented by binary
digits 0 and 1. Relied on punched cards for inputs and printouts for output. Tapes
and disks for storage. Still used machine language and then soon replaced by
assembly language. Computers were smaller in size. High-level programming
languages such as FORTRAN (Formula translation) and COBOL (Common
Business-Oriented Language).
Integrated Circuits (1965-1971)
Third generation – Miniaturized transistors and placed them on silicon chips called
semiconductors. Usage of keyboard and monitors to interact with other hardware
and operating systems. OS made it possible to run multiple applications.
Microprocessors (1971-Present)
Fourth generation – Microprocessors includes thousands of integrated circuits on a
single silicon chip. Significant reduction in processor size. Intel 4004 chip includes
all components of computer on one chip. Portable, economical, use of high-level
languages, and calculates in picoseconds.
Artificial Intelligence (Future)
Fifth generation – Started 1980s. Ultra large-scale integration (ULSI). Systems can
run multiple programs based on AI. Using principles of robotics, neural networks,
expert systems, and natural language understanding and generation. Quantum
computing, molecular technology, and nanotechnology.
Quantum computing – study of non-classical model of computation. Quantum
computers reduce power consumption from 100 to 1000s times.
Nanotechnology – use of nanoscale tools and nonbiological processes to build
structures, devices, and systems at the molecular level. Build structures to
complex, atomic specifications by means of mechanosynthesis, or reaction
outcomes by use of mechanical constraints.
Hardware
Central processing unit (CPU) – Processes information. Measured in gigahertz
(GHz). Consists of three parts.
1. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) – contains circuitry that performs operations on
data such as addition and subtraction.
2. Control unit – contains circuitry coordinating the machines activities.
3. Processor register – contains data storage cells called registers. Data must be
stored in registers before it can be processed.
Control unit transfers data from main memory to registers. Informs the ALU
which registers hold the data then activates it and tells it which register should
receive the result.
Random-access memory (RAM) – Temporarily stores information created by
programs and data is immediately accessible. Used for rendering images, editing
videos or photos, or multitasking with multiple applications.
Hard drive - Storage device for storing permanent and temporary data. Anything
saved or installed on a computer. Two types of storage: Hard disk drive (HDD)
and solid-state drive (SDD). HDD works by writing binary data onto spinning
magnetic disks while solid-state drive stores by using static flash memory chips.
Most slots today are Peripherical Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) variety.
PCI, the predecessor, was used in the 90s. Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
and Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA).
Graphics Processor Unit (GPU) – Important for 3D rendering. Extension of the
CPU.
Expansion card – Moves information between internal hardware of the CPU and
RAM and peripheral devices. Collection of wires and protocols. Addition of new
features to a computer.
Motherboard – Main circuit board of computer.
Power supply – Changes normal household electricity into electricity that a
computer can use.
Expansion Slot – socket on the motherboard to plug in expansion cards.
Von Neumann architecture is another name for the IPOS model.
Three major components of a computer system – CPU, storage, and peripheral
devices.
Parts of CPU.
Memory address register (MAR) - Holds memory location of data.
Memory data register (MDR) – Holds data that is being transferred to or from
memory.
Accumulator (AC) – Holds ALU results.
Program counter (PC) – Holds the address of the next program instruction to be
executed.
Counter instruction register (CIR) – Holds the current instruction during
processing.
Read-only memory (ROM) – Is a component that stores instructions for crucial
system activities such as booting up the computer and initializing other
components.
3 Parts of the bus.
Address Bus – Carries the destination address of where the data is assigned to be
processed.
Data Bus – Carries data between the processor, memory unit, and input/output
devices.
Control Bus – Carries control signals from CPU, controls and coordinates all
activities within a computer system.
Parts of the System Unit –
The Motherboard – Main circuit board. Holds CPU, RAM, and ROM as well as
other hardware components.
CPU
System Clock – More pulses = faster computer. MHz or GHz.
Expansion Slots
Ports – USBs, ethernet cables.
A bit is the smallest unit of storage set to 0 or 1. 8 bits represent a byte.
Supercomputer – Biggest and fastest computers. Designed to process huge
amounts of data.
Mainframe computers – Designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously.
Workstation – Single-user computer designed for technical or scientific
applications.
Microcomputer – Also known as personal computer.