George Stibbitz’ Complex Calculator worked in

COA MIDTERMS REVIEWER 1940. Howard Aiken rebuilt Babbage’s Analytical

Engine design using electronic relays in 1944
HISTORY
Von Neumann Computer: John von Neumann
Pre-historic calculating machines: Fingers, was the world’s foremost mathematician.
stones
1945: EDVAC proposal for storing the program
Antikythera: First mechanical calculating along with the data in memory, not on punched
machine tape.

1642: Blaise Pascal, 19, invented a gear-based 1952: IAS completed at Princeton: the stored
machine for addition and subtraction program computer.

1672: Leibnitz added multiplication and division The architecture for almost all moderm
to machine machines follows the IAS Design

1792 - 1871: Charles Babbage created Birmingham’s KDF-9

Difference Engine (only addition and subtraction)
Hired first programmer - Ada Lovelace, daughter
- 8K 48-bit words of main memory
of Lord Byron. Ada is the programming language
- 8us (!25KHz) cycle time
used named after her.
- 2 magnetic tape decks and paper tape
I/O - no printers, disk or other I/O
Babbage’s Analytical Engine had 4 parts: 1) devices
Store (memory), 2) mill (CPU), 3) input (card - First upgrade: machine envy set in
reader), 4) output (card punch) 1968. Then machine was upgrade with
a 4M word disk weighing over a ton, a
First fully programmable computer mechanical - punched card i/o reader and punch, a
read instructions from punched cards and high-speed printer.
executed them. Designed by Ada Lovelace. - Birmingham’s First Mini. The KDF-9 was
later replaced by a PDP-8 minicomputer.
First Electronic Computer
The Integrated Circuit Third Generation
Similar to Babbage’s Analytical Engine Revolution

Konrad Zuse built electronic calculating machine - 2G computers used thousand of

Z1 in 1936 using telephone relays and punched discrete transistors
tape destroyed in WW2. Z2 in 1993, Z3 in 1941 - Jack Kilby and others invented the
was 4-bit. World first computer startup company integrated circuit (IC) which put many
transistors on a single microchip.
John Atanasoff invented a machine called ABC - This led to cheaper computers in 1970s
(Atanasoff-Berry Computer) with binary - IBM 360 became a workhorse for both
arithmetic and capacitor-based memory scientific and business computing
(DRAM!) in 1939. - 360 allowed multiprogramming,
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit - If chip were size of Birmingham, a
transistor would be a size of a sheet of
- IC-based minis were still large cupboard A4 paper
sized - Original transistors were about same
- VLSI technology pushed the numbers of size as microchips are now.
components per chip up from 100s or
1000s to 10,000s and eventually
10,0000,000s.
- This sparked home compter revolution Moore’s Law
of microcomputers (Zilog Z80, Intel
8080, MosTech 6502_. - Transistors density doubles every 18-24
- Early home computers cost one or two months
hundred pounds and used TV as - True over the last 35 years
monitor - Means transistors size decreases by
- Mainly used for word-processing, 30% every 18-24 months, 15-20% every
spreadsheets, and games. year
- CPU speed is inversely proportional to
IBM PC arrived in 1981. the length of the circuit paths so CPU
speeds increased by 10% or more every
- Intel 8088 CPU (8 bit) year
- MS Dos operating system - Eventually physics means we will need
- Windows came much later (after Apple something else. Quantum effects
introduced the Lisa with a GUI, then interfere with reliability at small scales.
Mac) - Quantum computing is possible but very
- IBM made design public so others could very far off. More likely first to move to
build add-ons photonics from electronics.
- Clones were sold at lower cost
- Microsoft and Intel eventually gained COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND
control of the market created by IBM ARCHITECTURE

Modern VSLI Microprocessors Computer Organization and Architecture is a

field of study that delves into the internal
- 2G machines of 60s ahad 1000s of workings of computers, encompassing both their
transistors visible attributes to programmers (Computer
- Early VLSI chips had a few 10,000s of Architecture) and the operational units along
transistors with their interconnections (Computer
- Modern AMD Athlon FX has Organization).
105,000,000 transistors on one
microchip area 1.4 cm sq Terminologies:

Scales ​ Computer Architecture: This refers to

the attributes of a computer system that
- Modern processors are about 1cm x are visible to the programmer. It deals
1cm in size with the design decisions regarding
- Transistors are about 0.1um across so instruction sets, addressing modes, data
100,000 fit on an edge of a processor types, and more, which influence
chip. programming techniques and
optimizations.
 ​ Computer Organization: This pertains to Definition:
the operational units and their
interconnections within a computer Data movement involves transferring data within
system. It deals with the physical a computer system or between the system and
components and their arrangement, external devices.
including memory, registers, ALU
(Arithmetic Logic Unit), control units, Terminologies:
and I/O interfaces.
​ Input-Output (I/O): Refers to the process
Examples: of moving data between the computer
and its peripherals.
The distinction between architecture and ​ Data Communications: This involves the
organization can be illustrated by considering transfer of data between the computer
whether a computer system has a multiply and remote devices.
instruction (architecture) and how the
multiplication operation is executed, either Basic Functions:
through a specialized multiply unit or via
repeated use of the add unit (organization).
The primary functions of a computer include
data movement, data storage, and data
Hierarchy of Structure and Function: processing, with operations categorized into
various types such as processing from/to
Definition: storage and I/O operations.

In computer systems, the hierarchical nature is Structure at Different Levels:

crucial for both design and description, with
subsystems interrelated and organized in a Definition:
hierarchical manner.
Computer structure encompasses various
Terminologies: levels, from the top-level system architecture to
the internal components within the CPU.
​ Structure: This refers to the way
components are interrelated within a Terminologies:
system.
​ Function: It signifies the operation of
​ Central Processing Unit (CPU): This
individual components within the
component controls the computer's
structure.
operation, executes instructions, and
houses the ALU, control unit, and
Function: registers.
​ Main Memory: It serves as a storage
The fundamental functions of a computer location for data and instructions.
system include processing data, storing data ​ I/O: Handles data transfer between the
(both short-term and long-term), moving data computer and external devices.
between the system and external devices, and ​ System Interconnection: This facilitates
controlling these operations. communication among CPU, memory,
and I/O devices, commonly achieved
Data Movement: through a system bus.
Structure within the CPU: Registers serve as temporary storage
locations within the CPU, facilitating
The CPU consists of major components like the
quick access to data for processing.
control unit, ALU, registers, and interconnection
mechanisms, which collectively execute They include user-visible registers and
instructions and perform data processing control/status registers, each serving
operations. specific functions within the CPU's
operation.
Review of Chapter 2: Central
Processing Unit Instruction Cycle:

The basic instruction cycle comprises

Terminologies and Definitions:
fetch, execute, and potentially interrupt
Central Processing Unit (CPU): sub-cycles, ensuring the sequential
execution of instructions stored in
The CPU is the core component of a memory.
digital computer responsible for
executing instructions fetched from Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
memory, performing arithmetic and
The ALU is a combinational circuit
logic operations, and controlling data
within the CPU responsible for
flow.
performing arithmetic and logical
Processor Unit: operations on data. It operates based on
simple digital logic devices and includes
This part of the CPU comprises the arithmetic and logical sections.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), registers,
and internal buses, facilitating data Instruction Formats:
transfer between registers and the ALU.
Instructions stored in memory come in
Control Unit: various formats, including
three-address, two-address,
The control unit, a crucial element of the one-address, and zero-address formats,
CPU, coordinates instruction execution, each specifying different ways of
manages data movement between specifying operands and operations.
memory and the ALU, and controls the The operation code (opcode) field
operation of the ALU and other defines the operation to be performed,
components. It interprets instructions while other fields designate addresses
and directs the necessary data flow. or modes.

Registers:
CPU: The central processing unit (CPU) ○ It might tell the ALU what
is the brain of a computer. It performs operation to perform (add,
most of the data processing tasks. subtract, etc.).
Here's a breakdown of its parts and 4. The PU performs the operation
functions: and stores the result.
5. The CU might store the result in
CPU Parts: memory or a register.
● Processor Unit (PU): This unit Types of instructions:
does the actual calculations
(addition, subtraction, etc.) and ● Instructions come in different
data manipulation (moving, formats, specifying how many
comparing, etc.) It has two main memory locations (addresses)
parts: they need to reference their data.
○ Arithmetic Logic Unit ○ Three-address
(ALU): Performs instructions: Specify two
arithmetic and logical operands (data to be
operations on data. used) and a result location
○ Registers: Small, (where to store the
temporary storage answer). (Less common)
locations within the CPU ○ Two-address
that hold data for the ALU instructions: Most
to work on. common type. Specify one
● Control Unit (CU): Fetches operand and a result
instructions from memory, location (the other operand
decodes them, and tells the other is usually in a register).
parts of the CPU what to do. It's ○ One-address instruction:
like the conductor of an Use an implied register
orchestra, directing the flow of (accumulator) for one
data and instructions. operand and a memory
location for the other.
How it Works: (Used in older machines)
○ Zero-address
1. The CU fetches an instruction
instructions: Don't use
from memory.
any address fields in the
2. The CU decodes the instruction
instruction itself. (For
to understand what needs to be
specific operations like
done.
push/pop to a stack)
3. The CU sends signals to the PU:
○ It might tell the registers to
provide data to the ALU.
CHAPTER 3 CONTROL UNIT 2. Addressing Sequencing:

Chapter 3 of the book delves into the ● Microinstruction Storage: Stored

intricacies of the Control Unit in in control memory, specifying
computer organization and architecture. routines for executing
It explores various aspects of control instructions.
memory, microprogramming, addressing ● Address Sequencing: Process of
sequencing, symbolic microinstructions, determining microinstruction
and the design of control units. addresses based on instruction
codes.

3. Conditional Branching:
1. Control Memory:
● Branch Logic: Provides
● Definition: Control Memory is a decision-making capabilities
storage unit within the control based on status conditions.
unit responsible for storing ● Unconditional/Branch
microprograms. Instructions: Alter control flow
● Hardwired Control Unit: based on specified conditions.
Generates control signals using ● Mapping of Instructions: Convert
conventional logic design operation code bits to
techniques. microinstruction addresses.
● Microprogramming: Offers an
elegant and systematic method 4. Symbolic Microinstructions:
for controlling microoperation
sequences. ● Usage: Allows specifying
● Bus-Organized Systems: Control microinstructions in symbolic
signals are groups of bits form similar to assembly
selecting paths in multiplexers, language.
decoders, and arithmetic logic ● Translation: Symbols are
units. translated into binary equivalents
● Microprogrammed Control Unit: using a microprogram assembler.
Control variables stored in
5. Microinstruction Format:
memory, known as a
microprogram.
● Structure: Divided into functional
● Control Memory Types: ROM or
parts specifying microoperations,
Writable Control Memory
conditions, and branching.
(dynamic microprogramming).
6. Control Unit Operation:
 ● Microoperations: Atomic
operations of CPU execution,
essential for each instruction
cycle.
● Functions: Sequencing and
execution of microoperations
using control signals.

7. Design of Control Unit:

● Hardwired Implementation:
Combinational circuit generating
control signals based on inputs.
● Micro-programmed
Implementation: Sequences of
instructions controlling
microoperations stored in control
memory.

8. Microprogram Sequencer:

● Components: Control memory

and sequencer determining next
microinstruction address.
● Input Logic: Determines operation
types based on microinstruction
fields.