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VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT OF AJIET

Vision of the Institute

To produce top-quality engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in their profession
and competitive enough to help in the growth of nation and global society.

Mission of the Institute

o To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value education

and make the students socially responsible.
o To support and enhance the institutional environment to attain research excellence in
both faculty and students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge
base.
o To identify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effective
industry- institute partnership in a sustainable way by systematically working together.
o To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovative ideas among the
engineering professionals.

Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering
Vision of the Department

To be recognized as a center of excellence in the area of Electronics and Communication

Engineering by nurturing the young innovative minds into skillful and ethical professionals to cater
the industrial and societal needs.

Mission of the Department

M1. To establish state-of-the art laboratories to facilitate research and innovation to upgrade the
knowledge and skills in healthcare sector and IoT.
M2. To provide industry interaction for training programs on latest technology.
M3. To provide ethical and value based education by promoting activities addressing the societal
needs.
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PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1 Exhibit a desire for lifelong learning through professional and societal activities.
Exhibit and apply their technical skills and knowledge in Electronics and
PEO2 Communication Engineering for industry and societal needs.
PEO3 Exhibit leadership qualities, professional skills, management skills and ethics needed
for successful career.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
PO1
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems
PO2 reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
PO3 components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
PO4 including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide
valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and
PO5 IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health,
PO6 safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal
PO7 and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
PO8
engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams,
PO9 and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
PO10 community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
PO11 management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and
PO12
life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
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PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1 Embedded Systems: Ability to apply the fundamental knowledge of core Electronics and
Communication Engineering courses in the analysis, design, and development of integrated
electronic systems and healthcare devices.
PSO2 Communication Systems: Ability to apply the fundamental knowledge of signal processing
in the analysis, design, and development of communication systems.
PSO3 Simulation: Ability to use modern electronic tools such as MATLAB, Xilinx, Multisim etc,
to design and analyze the complex electronics and communication systems.

COURSE SYLLABUS

RBT CO
Module Details
Level Mapped
Revision of Vector Calculus – (Text 1: Chapter 1) Coulomb’s Law,
Electric Field Intensity and Flux density: Experimental law of
Coulomb, Electric field intensity, Field due to continuous volume L1, L2,
1 CO1
charge distribution, Field of a line charge, Field due to Sheet of charge, L3
Electric flux density, Numerical Problems. (Text: Chapter 2.1 to 2.5,
3.1)
Gauss’s Law and Divergence: Gauss ‘law, Application of Gauss’ law
to Point Charge, line charge, Surface charge and Volume Charge,
Point (differential) form of Gauss law, Divergence. Maxwell‘s First
Equation (Electrostatics), Vector Operator ▼and divergence theorem, L1, L2,
2 CO2
Numerical Problems (Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7).Energy expended or L3
work done in moving a point charge in anElectric field, The line
integral ((Text: Chapter 4.1 and 4.2) Current and Current density,
Continuity of current. (Text: Chapter 5.1, 5.2)
Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations: Derivation of Poisson‘s and
Laplace‘s Equations, Examples of the solution of Laplace‘s equation,
Numerical problems on Laplace’s equation (Text: Chapters 7.1 and L1, L2, CO3,
3
7.3) Steady Magnetic Field: BiotSavart Law, Ampere‘s circuital law, L3 CO4
Curl, Stokes‘ theorem, Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density. (Text:
Chapters 8.1 to 8.5)
Magnetic Forces: Force on a moving charge, differential current
elements, Force between differential current elements, Numerical
L1, L2,
4 problems (Text: Chapter 9.1 to 9.3). Magnetic Materials: CO4
L3
Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary conditions, the
magnetic circuit, problems (Text: Chapter 9.6 to 9.8)
Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction –Integral form and Point
form, Numerical problems. Inconsistency of Ampere’s law with
continuity equation, displacement current, Conduction current,
Derivation of Maxwell‘s equations in point form, and integral form,
Maxwell’s equations for different media, Numerical problems (Text: L1, L2,
5 CO5
Chapter10.1 to10.4) Uniform Plane Wave: Wave propagation in free L3
space, Uniform plane wave, Derivation of plane wave equations from
Maxwell’s equations, Poynting‘s Theorem and wave power, Skin
effect or Depth of penetration, Numerical problems. (Text: Chapter
12.1, 12.3, 12.4)

Course outcomes
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At the end of the course the student will be able to:

PO PSO
Sl. No. DESCRIPTION
MAPPING MAPPING
Evaluate problems on electrostatic force, electric field
CO1 due to point, linear, volume charges by applying PO1,PO2,PO12 PSO1,PSO2
conventional methods and charge in a volume.
Apply Gauss law to evaluate Electric fields due to
PO1, PO2, PO3,
CO2 different charge distributions and Volume Charge PSO1,PSO2
PO4
distribution by using Divergence Theorem.
Determine potential and energy with respect to point
charge and capacitance using Laplace equation and PO1, PO2, PO3,
CO3 PSO1,PSO2
Apply Biot-Savart’s and Ampere’s laws for evaluating PO4
Magnetic field for different current configurations
Calculate magnetic force, potential energy and
PO1, PO2, PO3,
CO4 Magnetization with respect to magnetic materials and PSO1,PSO2
PO4
voltage induced in electric circuits.
Apply Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields,
PO1, PO2, PO3,
EM waves in free space and conductors and Evaluate
CO5 PO4 PSO1,PSO2
power associated with EM waves using Poynting
theorem

Suggested Learning Resources:

BOOK TITLE / AUTHORS / PUBLICATION
W.H. Hayt and J.A. Buck, ―Engineering Electromagneticsǁ, 8th Edition, Tata McGrawHill,
T-1.
2014, ISBN-978-93-392-0327-6.
R-1. Elements of Electromagnetics – Matthew N.O., Sadiku, Oxford university press, 4thEdn.

R-2. Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating systems – E. C. Jordan and K.G. Balman, PHI, 2ndEdn.
Electromagnetics- Joseph Edminister, Schaum Outline Series, McGraw Hill. N. NarayanaRao,
R-3.
―Fundamentals of Electromagnetics for Engineeringǁ, Pearson.

T- Text Book. R-Reference Book

Web References:
WEB ADDRESS

W-1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/104/108104087
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

MODULE 1
VECTOR ANALYSIS

Syllabus: Scalars and vectors, vector algebra, Cartesian coordinate system, scalar and
vector field, dot and cross products, Gradient, divergence and curl of a vector field,
cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems, Relation between different coordinate
systems.
______________________________________________________________________________

Recommended readings:
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck,
Tata McGraw-Hill, 2014.
2. Vector Calculus, Jerrold E. Marsden; Anthony Tromba, Macmillan
Learning, 2013.
______________________________________________________________________________

Contents

Vector Algebra 2
Product of Vectors 3
Co-ordinate Systems 5
Numerical Problems 13
Review Questions 23

______________________________________________________________________________
Electromagnetic theory can be thought of as generalization of circuit theory. There are certain
situations that can be handled exclusively in terms of field theory. In electromagnetic theory, the
quantities involved can be categorized as source quantities and field quantities. Source of
electromagnetic field is electric charges: either at rest or in motion. However an electromagnetic
field may cause a redistribution of charges that in turn change the field and hence the separation
of cause and effect is not always visible. Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter.
Charge exist only in positive or negative integral multiple of electronic charge, e=
-19
1.6x10 coulombs.
Electromagnetic theory deals directly with the electric and magnetic field vectors where as circuit
theory deals with the voltages and currents. Voltages and currents are integrated effects of electric
and magnetic fields respectively. Electromagnetic field problems involve three space variables
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

along with the time variable and hence the solution tends to become correspondingly complex.
Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which electromagnetic concepts are more conveniently
expressed and best comprehended. Since use of vector analysis in the study of electromagnetic
field theory results in real economy of time and thought, we need to introduce the concept of vector
analysis.
The quantities that we deal in electromagnetic theory may be either scalar or vectors.
Scalars are quantities characterized by magnitude only and algebraic sign or the term scalar refers
to a quantity whose value may be represented by the single real number. Examples are temperature,
mass, density, volume etc.
A quantity that has direction as well as magnitude is called a vector. Examples are force, velocity,
acceleration etc. Both scalar and vector quantities are function of time and position.
A field is a function that specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a region. It is mathematically
defined as some function of that vector which connects an arbitrary origin to a general point in
space. Depending upon the nature of the quantity under consideration, the field may be a vector or
a scalar field. Example of scalar field is the electric potential in a region while electric or magnetic
fields at any point is the example of vector field.

A vector can be written as, , where, is the magnitude and is the unit
vector which has unit magnitude and same direction as that of .
______________________________________________________________________________

Zero in on:

Unit vectors are base vectors which are strictly oriented along the axes of given co-ordinate system.
_______________________________________________________
Vector Algebra
Two vector and are added together to give another vector . We have
Vector Subtraction is similarly carried out:
Scaling of a vector is defined as , where is scaled version of vector and is a scalar.
Some important laws of vector algebra are:

Commutative Law

Associative Law

Distributive Law

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The position vector of a point P is the directed distance from the origin (O) to P,

i.e., = .

If = OP and = OQ are the position vectors of the points P and Q then the distance vector

______________________________________________________________________________

Product of Vectors

When two vectors and are multiplied, the result is either a scalar or a vector depending
how the two vectors were multiplied. The two types of vector multiplication are:

Scalar product (or dot product) gives a scalar.

Vector product (or cross product) gives a vector.

The dot product between two vectors is defined as = |A||B|cosθAB

Vector product where, is unit vector perpendicular to and

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Fig: Vector dot product

The dot product is commutative i.e., and distributive i.e., .

Associative law does not apply to scalar product.

The following relations hold for vector product.

= i.e., cross product is non commutative

i.e., cross product is distributive

i.e., cross product is non associative

______________________________________________________________________________

Zero in on:

Two vectors are said to be equal or identical if their difference is zero

______________________________________________________________________________

Co-ordinate Systems
In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, we require using appropriate co-ordinate
system. A point or vector can be represented in a curvilinear coordinate system that may
be orthogonal or non-orthogonal. An orthogonal system is one in which the co-ordinates are

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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

mutually perpendicular. Non-orthogonal co-ordinate systems are also possible, but their usage is
very limited in practice.

Three most commonly used orthogonal co-ordinate systems are:

1. Cartesian (or rectangular) co-ordinate system

2. Cylindrical co-ordinate system

3. Spherical polar co-ordinate system

Cartesian Co-ordinate System:

In Cartesian co-ordinate system, we have, (u,v,w) = (x,y,z). A point P(x0, y0, z0) in Cartesian co-
ordinate system is represented as intersection of three planes x = x0, y = y0 and z = z0. The unit
vectors satisfy the following relation:

In cartesian co-ordinate system, a vector can be written as .

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The dot and cross product of two vectors and can be written as follows:

Since x, y and z all represent lengths, h1= h2= h3=1. The differential length, area and volume are
defined respectively as

Cylindrical Co-ordinate System :

For cylindrical coordinate systems we have a point is determined
as the point of intersection of a cylindrical surface r = r0, half plane containing the z-axis and
making an angle ; with the xz plane and a plane parallel to xy plane located at z=z0 as shown
in figure.

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In cylindrical coordinate system, the unit vectors satisfy the following relations

A vector can be written as ,

The differential length is defined as,

Differential areas are:

Differential volume,

Transformation between Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinates:

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Let us consider is to be expressed in Cartesian co-ordinate

as .

In doing so we note that and it applies for other

components as well.

Therefore we can write,

These relations can be put conveniently in the matrix form as:

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themselves may be functions of as:

The inverse relationships are:

Spherical Coordinate system:

For spherical polar coordinate system, we have, . A point is
represented as the intersection of
(i) Spherical surface r=r0
(ii) Conical surface ,and
(iii) half plane containing z-axis making angle with the xz plane as shown in the figure

The orientation of the unit vectors are shown in the figure below:

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The unit vectors satisfy the following relationships:

Coordinate transformation between rectangular and spherical polar:

pg. 10
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With reference to the above figure, we can write the following equations:

Given a vector in the spherical polar coordinate system, its component

in the cartesian coordinate system can be found out as follows:

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Similarly,

The above equation can be put in a compact form:

The components themselves will be functions of . are related

to x,y and z as:

and conversely,

______________________________________________________________________________

Zero in on:

The right handed co-ordinate system is commonly used.

_____________________________________________________________________________

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VTU Question Papers: July 2017, July 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Numerical Problems

Given two vectors 𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴 = - 𝑎̂𝑥 - 3𝑎 ̂𝑦 - 4𝑎 ̂𝑧 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑅𝐵 = 2𝑎̂𝑥 + 2𝑎̂𝑦 + 2𝑎̂𝑧 and
point C (1, 3, 4). Find (i) 𝑅 𝐴𝐵 (ii) |𝑅𝐴 | (iii) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂𝐴 (iv) 𝑎̂
𝐴𝐵 (v) an unit vector
directed from C to A

Given, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂𝑧 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑅𝐴 = - 𝑎̂𝑥 - 3𝑎̂𝑦 - 4𝑎 𝑅𝐵 = 2𝑎̂𝑥 + 2𝑎̂𝑦 + 2𝑎
̂𝑧 and point C (1, 3, 4).

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(i) 𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵 - 𝑅𝐴 = 2𝑎̂𝑥 + 2𝑎̂𝑦 + 2𝑎
̂𝑧 - [- 𝑎̂𝑥 - 3𝑎̂𝑦 - 4𝑎
̂]𝑧

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅 𝐴𝐵 = 3𝑎
̂𝑥 + 5𝑎̂𝑦 + 6𝑎
̂𝑧

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴 | = √−12 + −32 + −42 = √26

(ii) |𝑅

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴
𝑅 ̂𝑥 − 3𝑎
−𝑎 ̂𝑦 − 4𝑎
̂𝑧
(iii) 𝑎̂𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴 |
|𝑅 |√26|

𝑎𝐴 = -0.196 𝑎̂𝑥 – 0.588𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.784𝑎

̂ ̂𝑧

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝐴𝐵 ̂𝑥 + 5𝑎
3𝑎 ̂𝑦 + 6𝑎
̂𝑧
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
(iv) 𝑎̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑅 𝐴𝐵 |
√32 +52 +62

𝑎̂ ̂𝑥 – 0.597𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.717𝑎
𝐴𝐵 = 0.358 𝑎 ̂𝑧

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝐶𝐴
(v) 𝑎̂
𝐶𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑅 𝐶𝐴 |

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑎̂𝑥 + 3𝑎̂𝑦 + 4𝑎̂𝑧

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝐶𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴 = - 2𝑎̂𝑥 - 6𝑎̂𝑦 - 8𝑎
𝑅𝐶 - 𝑅 ̂𝑧

̂𝑥 − 6𝑎
− 2𝑎 ̂𝑦 − 8𝑎
̂𝑧
𝑎̂
𝐶𝐴 =
√−22 +−62 +−82

𝑎̂ ̂𝑥 – 0.588𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.784𝑎
𝐶𝐴 = - 0.196 𝑎 ̂𝑧

______________________________________________________________________________
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Given the vectors

Find the vector C = A + B at a point P (0, 2,-3).

Where

The point P(0,2,-3) is in the y-z plane for which

C=A+B

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the unit vector in the direction of a given vector.

𝐴 = 2𝑎̂𝑥 + 2𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎̂𝑧

⃗⃗
𝑎̂𝐴 = |𝐴⃗⃗𝐴|

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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

|⃗⃗𝐴| = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 = √4 + 4 + 1 = √9 = 3

̂𝑥 + 2𝑎
2𝑎 ̂𝑦 + 𝑎
̂𝑧
⇨ 𝑎̂𝐴 =
3

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Given the two coplanar vectors 𝐴 = 3𝑎𝑥^ + 4𝑎𝑦^ + 3𝑎𝑧^ and 𝐵

⃗ = -6𝑎𝑥^ + 2𝑎𝑦^ +
4𝑎𝑧^. Obtain the unit vector normal to the plane containing the vectors
𝐴 and 𝐵⃗.

Given the two coplanar vectors

𝐴 = 3𝑎𝑥^ + 4𝑎𝑦^ + 3𝑎𝑧^ and 𝐵

⃗ = -6𝑎𝑥^ + 2𝑎𝑦^ + 4𝑎𝑧^

⃗ is given by:
The unit vector normal to the plane containing the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

⃗
𝐴𝑋𝐵
𝑎̂𝑁 = |𝐴 ⃗|
𝑋𝐵

⃗ = |𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
𝐴𝑋𝐵 ̂𝑧 3 4 3 − 6 2 4 |

⃗ = 10𝑎𝑥^ - 30𝑎𝑦^ + 30𝑎^𝑧

𝐴𝑋𝐵

⃗ | = √102 + −302 + 302

|𝐴 𝑋 𝐵

^ ^ ^
𝑁 = 0.22𝑎𝑥 - 0.688𝑎𝑦 + 0.688𝑎𝑧
⇨ 𝑎̂

______________________________________________________________________________

Given Points P (1, -3, 5), Q (2, 4, 6) and R (0, 3, 8) find

a) Position vectors of P and R.
b) Distance vector rQR.
c) Distance between Q and R.

a) rp = ax – 3ay + 5az.
rR = 3ay +8az.

b) rQR = rR -rQ
= 3ay +8az – (2ax + 4ay + 6az)
= - 2ax – ay + 2az.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

c) |rQR| = (22 + 12 + 22)1/2 = 3.

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the unit vector along the line joining point (2, 4, 4) to point (-3, 2,
2)

Ā = (-3, 2, 2) – (2, 4, 4)
= (-5, -2, -2)

= - 0.87ax - 0.35ay - 0.35az

______________________________________________________________________________

Given 𝐴 = 2𝑎𝑥^ + 4𝑎𝑦^ and 𝐵

⃗ = 6𝑎𝑦^ - 4𝑎𝑧^ , find the smaller angle between
them using (a) the cross product (b) the dot product.

⃗ |= |𝐴||𝐵| sinθ𝑎̂
a) |𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 𝑁

𝐴𝑋𝐵 ⃗
Sinθ =
|𝐴||𝐵| 𝑎̂𝑁

̂𝑧 2 4 0 0 6 − 4 | = -16𝑎𝑥^ + 8𝑎𝑦^ + 12𝑎𝑧^

⃗ = |𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
𝐴𝑋𝐵

|𝐴| = 4.47

|𝐵| = 7.21

⃗ | = 21.54
|𝐴 𝑋 𝐵

21.54
Sinθ = = 0.668
(4.47)(7.21)

θ=41.90

⃗
𝐴 .𝐵
b) Cosθ =
|𝐴||𝐵|

⃗ = 24
𝐴.𝐵

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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

24
Cosθ = = 0.745
(4.47)(7.21)

θ= 41.90

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the angle between the vectors 𝐴 = 2𝑎𝑥^ + 4𝑎𝑦^ - 𝑎𝑧^ and 𝐵
⃗ = 3𝑎𝑥^ +
6𝑎𝑦^ - 4𝑎𝑧^ using dot product and cross product.

Using dot product,

⃗
𝐴 .𝐵
Cosθ =
|𝐴||𝐵|

⃗ = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz = 6 + 24 + 4 = 34

𝐴.𝐵
34
Cosθ = = 0.9499
(√𝐴2𝑥 +𝐴2𝑦 +𝐴2𝑧 )(√𝐵2𝑥 +𝐵2𝑦 +𝐵2𝑧 )

θ= 18.210

Using cross product,

⃗ |= |𝐴||𝐵| sinθ 𝑎̂
|𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 𝑁

𝐴𝑋𝐵 ⃗
Sinθ =
|𝐴||𝐵| 𝑎̂𝑁

̂𝑧 2 4 − 1 3 6 − 4 | = (-16+6)𝑎𝑥^ + (-8+3) 𝑎𝑦^ + (12-12) 𝑎𝑧^

⃗ = |𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
𝐴𝑋𝐵

= (-10)𝑎𝑥^ + (5) 𝑎𝑦^

|𝐴| = √21

|𝐵| = √61

⃗ | = √125
|𝐴 𝑋 𝐵

𝐴𝑋𝐵 ⃗ (−10)𝑎𝑥^ + (5) 𝑎𝑦

^
𝑎̂
𝑁 = ⃗ |
|𝐴 𝑋 𝐵
= √125

(−10𝑎𝑥^ + 5 𝑎𝑦
^ )√125
Sinθ = (−10𝑎^ + 5 𝑎^ ) = 0.3123
𝑥 𝑦 √21 √61

pg. 17
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

θ=18.20

______________________________________________________________________________

Show that the vectors 𝐴 = 4𝑎𝑥^ - 2𝑎𝑦^ - 𝑎𝑧^ and 𝐵

⃗ = 𝑎𝑥^ + 4𝑎𝑦^ - 4𝑎𝑧^ are
mutually perpendicular vectors.

⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵| Cosθ
𝐴.𝐵

⇨ 𝐴 . 𝐵⃗ = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

⇨ 4 𝑥1 + −2 𝑥 4 + −1 𝑥 − 4

⇨ 𝐴 . 𝐵⃗ = 0
⃗ are not zero, for 𝐴 . 𝐵
Since, magnitudes of 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ = 0 to be zero, Cosθ should be zero i.e. θ =
⃗ are mutually perpendicular vectors.
900. Hence 𝐴 and 𝐵

__________________________________________________________________

Given that A = 3ax + 5ay – 7az and B = ax – 2ay + az ; find

a) | 2B + 0.4A |
b) A.B - | B |2
c) A x B

a) 2B + 0.4A
= 2ax – 4ay +2az + 0.4 (3ax + 5ay – 7az)
= 3.2ax + 6ay - 0.8az

| 2B + 0.4A | = (3.22 + 62 + 0.82)1/2 = 6.846

b) A.B - | B |2
= (3ax + 5ay -7az) . (ax -2ay + az) – (12 + 22 +12)1/2
= - 14 – (6)1/2
= - 16.4494

c) A x B

= |𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 3 5 − 7 1 − 2 1 |

pg. 18
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

= -9ax – 10ay – 11az

______________________________________________________________________________

Given Vectors T = 2ax – 6ay + 3az and S = ax + 2ay +az; find

a) the scalar projection of T on S.

b) the vector projection of S on T.
c) the smaller angle between T and S.

a)

𝑇.𝑆 (2,−6,3).(1,2,1) 7
T s = T . as =
|𝑆|
= =
√6 √6

b)

(𝑆.𝑇)𝑇 −7(2,−6,3)
ST = (S . aT) aT = =
𝑇2 49

= -0.286 ax + 0.857ay – 0.43az

c)

|𝑇 𝑋 𝑆| |𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 2 −6 3 1 2 1 |
SinθTS = |𝑇||𝑆| =
7 𝑋 √6

Sin θTS = 0.9129

⇨ θTS = 65.91o

______________________________________________________________________________
E and F are vector fields given by E = 2xa x + ay +yzaz. and
F = xyax – y2ay +xyzaz. Determine:
a) | E| at (1, 2, 3)
b) A vector perpendicular to both E and F at (0,1, -3) whose magnitude
is unity?

a) At (1, 2, 3), E = (2, 1, 6)

pg. 19
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

|𝐸 | = √4 + 1 + 36 = √41

b) At (0, 1, -3), E = (0, 1, -3) and F = (0, -1, 0)

𝐸𝑋𝐹 |𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 0 1 −3 0 −1 01 | (−3,0,0)

Perpendicular Vector =
|𝐸 𝑋 𝐹|
= |𝐸 𝑋 𝐹|
= = ±ax
3
______________________________________________________________________________
Given two points C(ρ=4.4, 𝜑= -1150, z=2) and D(x= -3.1, y=2.6, z= -3),
find

(i) Cartesian coordinates of C

(ii) Cylindrical coordinates of D

(iii) Distance from C to D.

(i) x = ρ cosФ = 4.4 cos (-115) = -1.8590

y = ρ sinФ = 4.4 sin (-115) = - 3.9870

z=z=2

C(x, y, z) = C (-1.859, -3.987, 2)

(ii)

ρ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √(−3.1)2 + 2.62 = 4.046

𝑦 2.6
𝜑= tan-1( ) = tan-1( ) = -39.980
𝑥 −3.1

z = z = -3

D(ρ, 𝜑, z) = D(4.046, -39.980, -3)

(iii) Distance from C to D

= √(−3.1 + 1.859)2 + (2.6 + 3.987)2 + (−3 − 2)2

= 8.362 units

______________________________________________________________________________

Given two points A(x= 2, y=3, z= -1) and B(r=4, θ=250, 𝜑= 1200), find
pg. 20
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

(i) Spherical coordinates of A

(ii) Cartesian coordinates of B

(iii) Distance between A and B

(i) r = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 3.74
𝑦 3
𝜑= tan-1( ) = tan-1( ) = 56.30
𝑥 2

𝑧
θ = cos-1( ) = 105.50
√𝑥2 +𝑦2 +𝑧2

A(r, 𝜑, θ) = A(3.74, 56.30, 105.50)

(ii)

x = rsinθcosФ = 4sin25cos120 = -0.84

y = rsinθsinФ = 4sin25sin120= 1.46

z = rcosθ = 4cos25 =3.62

B(x, y, z) = B (-0.84, 1.46, 3.62)

(iii) Distance between A and B

= √(−0.84 − 2)2 + (1.46 − 3)2 + (3.62 + 1)2

= 5.64 units

__________________________________________________________
Given two points C(3, 2, -1) and D(r=5, Ɵ = 200, 𝜑 = -700), find

(a) Spherical coordinates of C

(b) Cartesian coordinates of D

(c) Distance from C to D

Given two points C(3, 2, -1) and D(r=5, Ɵ = 200, 𝜑 = -700)

pg. 21
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

x = 3, y = 2, z = -1

(a) r=√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √32 + 22 + (−1)2 = 3.741

𝑍 −1
θ= = = 105.50
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2+𝑧 2 √14

𝑦 2
Ф= = = 33.690
𝑥 3

C(r, θ, Ф) = (3.741, 105.50, 33.690)

(b) x = rsinθcosФ = 0.5848

y = rsinθsinФ = -1.606

z = rcosθ = 4.698

D(x,y,z) = (0.5848, -1.606, 4.698)

(c) Distance from C to D

= √(0.5848 − 3)2 + (−1.606 − 2)2 + (4.698 + 1)2

= √5.833 + 13.003 + 32.467

= 7.16 units

______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2017, July 2017, Jan 2018, July 2018,
Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________
Review Questions

pg. 22
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

1.
Given that

(a) Determine the angle between the vectors A and B.

(b) Find the unit vector which is perpendicular to both A and B.

2.
Given the vectors

Find :
a. The vector C = A + B at a point P (0, 2,-3).
b. The component of A along B at P.

3. A vector field is given by

Transform this vector into rectangular co-ordinates and calculate its magnitude at P(1,0,1).

4. Transform
𝑥2
𝐴 = y𝑎𝑥^ + x𝑎𝑦^ + 𝑎𝑧^
√𝑥2 +𝑦2

From Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates.

5. Given the vectors M = -10𝑎𝑥^ + 4𝑎𝑦^ - 8𝑎𝑧^ and N = 8𝑎𝑥^ + 7𝑎𝑦^ - 2𝑎𝑧^

Find a unit vector in the direction of –M+2N

6. Three field quantities are given by

𝑃⃗ = 2𝑎𝑥^ - 𝑎𝑧^ ; 𝑄⃗ = 2𝑎𝑥^ - 𝑎𝑦^ + 2𝑎𝑧^ ; 𝑅⃗ = 2𝑎𝑥^ - 3𝑎𝑦^ + 𝑎𝑧^

Determine:
pg. 23
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

(i) 𝑄⃗ . 𝑅⃗ X 𝑃⃗

(ii) Angle between 𝑄⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅⃗

(iii) unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑄⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅⃗

7. For given vectors 𝐴 = 6𝑎𝑥^ + 2𝑎𝑦^ + 6𝑎𝑧^ and 𝐵⃗ = -2𝑎𝑥^ + 9𝑎𝑦^ - 𝑎𝑧^
(i) Show that vectors are perpendicular to each other
⃗ and show 𝐴 X 𝐵
(ii) Find 𝐴 X 𝐵 ⃗ =-𝐵⃗ x𝐴

8. Given two vector combinations:

𝐴+𝐵 ⃗ = 2𝑎𝑥^ + 3𝑎𝑦^ -3𝑎𝑧^ and 𝐴-𝐵
⃗ = 4𝑎𝑥^ + 𝑎𝑦^ + 𝑎𝑧^ . Find
(i) The value of 𝐴 and 𝐵⃗
⃗
(ii) 𝐴 X 𝐵
(iii) Dot product of 𝐴 and 𝐵⃗

pg. 24
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

MODULE 2
ENERGY AND POTENTIAL

Syllabus: Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field, the line integral,
Definition of potential difference and Potential, the potential field of a point charge and
system of charges, Potential gradient, dipole, energy density in an electrostatic field.
______________________________________________________________________________

Recommended readings:
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck,
Tata McGraw-Hill, 2014.
2. Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics, David K Cheng,
Pearson, 2014.
______________________________________________________________________________

Contents
Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field .................................................1
Line Integral of Electric Field and the Potential Difference .........................................................2
Definition of Potential .................................................................................................................4
Potential field of a point charge ...................................................................................................4
Numerical Problems ....................................................................................................................6
Potential field of system of charges ........................................................................................... 11
Potential Gradient ..................................................................................................................... 15
Potential of an Electric Dipole ................................................................................................... 17
Energy density in an electrostatic field ...................................................................................... 20
Numerical Problems .................................................................................................................. 23
Review Questions ..................................................................................................................... 29

Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field

The electric field intensity was defined as the force on a unit test charge at that point at which we
wish to find the value of this vector field. If we attempt to move the test charge against the
electric field, we have to exert a force equal and opposite to that exerted by the field, and this

pg. 1
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

requires us to expend energy or do work. If we wish to move the charge in the direction of the
field, our energy expenditure turns out to be negative; we do not do the work, the field does.

Consider a charge +Q at a point A in a uniform electric field with intensity, 𝐸⃗ . Then the force
acting on the charge will be 𝐹 = QE.
Let the charge be pushed through a distance ΔL along an arbitrary direction, A to B, which is
inclined at an angle θ to the direction of field. For such a movement, the component of force
acting in a direction opposite to the field is to be considered.
The force acting on the charge = Fcos(1800 – θ)
= QE cos(1800 – θ)
= - QE cosθ
Work done in moving the charge from A to B = force x distance of movement

ΔW = - QE cosθ x ΔL

 ΔW = - Q 𝑬⃗⃗ . 𝚫𝐋
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
______________________________________________________________________________

Line Integral of Electric Field and the Potential Difference

A line integral is like many other integrals which appear in advanced analysis, including the
surface integral appearing in Gauss’s law. It tells us to choose a path, break it up into a large
number of very small segments, multiply the component of the field along each segment by the
length of the segment, and then add the results for all the segments. This is a summation, of
course, and the integral is obtained exactly only when the number of segments becomes infinite.

This procedure is indicated in Figure below, where a path has been chosen from an initial
position B to a final position A and a uniform electric field is selected for simplicity. The path is
divided into six segments, L1, L2, . . . , L6, and the components of ⃗𝑬 along each segment are
denoted by EL1, EL2, . . . , EL6.

pg. 2
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

The work involved in moving a charge Q from B to A is then approximately,

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ∆𝐿
W = -Q [𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐿2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐿3 +……………. + 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗6 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐿6 ]
Since we assumed uniform electric field, 𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 = …….. = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸6

Therefore, W = -Q 𝐸⃗ [∆𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐿2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐿3 +……………. + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐿6 ]

Vectors add by the parallelogram law, and the sum is just the vector directed from the initial
point B to the final point A, LBA.

 W = -Q ⃗𝑬 𝑳
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑨

If the lengths of the segments are infinitely small then, ΔL -> dL,

𝑨
Then, W = -Q ⃗𝑬 ∫𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑳

𝑨
For a non-uniform field, 𝐸⃗ is not a constant and W = -Q ∫𝑩 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝒅𝑳

We should note that the work involved in moving the charge depends only on Q, 𝐸⃗ , and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐿𝐵𝐴 a
vector drawn from the initial to the final point of the path chosen. It does not depend on the
particular path we have selected along which to carry the charge.

Potential Difference:

pg. 3
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

If VA and VB are the potentials at points A and B respectively, then since potential difference is
equal to work done, we have,

𝑨
VA - VB = -Q ∫𝑩 ⃗𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑳
_____________________________________________________________________________

Definition of Potential
Consider a point P in an electric field. The potential at this point is the work done in moving a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point, against the field. It is mathematically expressed
as:
𝑷
V = − ∫∞ ⃗𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑳
______________________________________________________________________________

Potential field of a point charge

Consider a point charge Q at O (origin of a spherical coordinate system) as shown in figure
below. It establishes a radially outward field in its vicinity whose strength decreases with
distance.

Consider two points A and B in the field, which are at distances r A and rB respectively from O.
Let a unit positive charge be moved in the field from A to B along an arbitrary path as shown in
the figure.

Let us consider the unit charge at position P on the path, which is at a distance r from O. Let 𝐸⃗ be
the field at P.

pg. 4
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

The work done in moving the charge from P through a small length PR (∆𝑙) along the path AB
is,
𝑄
⃗⃗⃗ = - E ∆𝑙 cosθ = −
ΔW = - 𝐸⃗ . Δl ∆𝑙 cosθ
4𝜋∈𝑟 2
------------- (1)
If PM is drawn normal to OR, then MR represents the increment in r i.e. ∆𝑟. Since ∆𝑙 is very
small, MP could be assumed to be perpendicular to OP also.
 MR = ∆𝑙 cosθ (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑅𝑃 = 𝜃)
 ∆𝑟 = ∆𝑙 cosθ
Substituting in (1), we get,
𝑄
ΔW = − ∆𝑟
4𝜋∈𝑟 2

If the work done is indefinitely small, then, ΔW -> dW and ∆𝑟 -> dr

𝑄
dW = − 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋∈𝑟 2

Therefore, the total work done in moving charge from A to B is,

𝐵 𝑄
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫𝐴 − 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋∈𝑟2

𝑄 1 𝐵
W= ⌈ ⌉
4𝜋∈ 𝑟 𝐴

𝑄 1 1
W= [ − ]
4𝜋∈ 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴

If VBA is the difference between potentials at points B and A respectively, then, V BA = W

𝑸 𝟏 𝟏
 VBA = [ − ]
𝟒𝝅∈ 𝒓𝑩 𝒓𝑨

Potential at a point due to a point charge:

If we consider only one point, then the potential at B is the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from infinity to B.
𝑸 𝟏 𝟏 𝑸
 The potential at B will be, V = [ − ]=
𝟒𝝅∈ 𝒓𝑩 ∞ 𝟒𝝅∈𝒓𝑩

𝑸
In general, V =
𝟒𝝅∈𝒓

pg. 5
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

_____________________________________________________________________________

Zero in on:

Work done in moving a charge from one location to another in a static electric field is
independent of path selected. This is conservative property of electric field.
______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2015, July 2016, July 2017, Jan 2018
______________________________________________________________________________

Numerical Problems
Find the potential at a point P(-1,2,3)m due to point charge of
-3µC located at (-3,1,1)m
𝑸
V=
𝟒𝝅∈𝒓

r = √(−1 + 3)2 + (2 − 1)2 + (3 − 1)2 = 3 m

−3𝑋10−6
 V=
4𝜋8.854𝑋10−12 𝑋3

 V = -8.9 kV

______________________________________________________________________________

Two point charges of -10-9 C and 10-9 C are located at points

P (-3,1,5)m and Q (6,-5,2)m respectively. Find the value of
electric scalar potential and electric field strength at the point
R(3, -6, -9)m.

Electric Scalar potential, V = V1 + V2

𝑄1 𝑄2
V1 = and V2 =
4𝜋∈𝑟1 4𝜋∈𝑟2

pg. 6
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 = 𝑅⃗ – 𝑃⃗ = 6𝑎̂𝑥 - 7𝑎̂𝑦 - 14𝑎

̂𝑧

𝑟1 = |𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 | = √(6)2 + (−7)2 + (−14)2 = √281

𝑟2 = 𝑅⃗ – 𝑄⃗ = -3𝑎̂𝑥 - 𝑎̂𝑦 - 11𝑎

⃗⃗⃗ ̂𝑧

𝑟2 | = √(−3)2 + (−1)2 + (−11)2 = √131

𝑟2 = |⃗⃗⃗

𝑄1 −10−9
V1 = = = -0.536
4𝜋∈𝑟1 4𝜋𝑋8.854𝑋10−12 𝑋√281

𝑄2 10−9
V2 = = = 0.785
4𝜋∈𝑟2 4𝜋𝑋8.854𝑋10−12 𝑋√131

V = -0.536 + 0.785 = 0.249 V

Electric field intensity, 𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2
𝑄1 𝑄2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 = 𝑎̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and 𝐸2 = 𝑎̂
𝑟2
4𝜋∈𝑟12 4𝜋∈𝑟22

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎̂
𝑟1 + 𝑎̂
𝑟2
4𝜋∈𝑟12 4𝜋∈𝑟22

−10−9 6𝑎̂𝑥 − 7𝑎̂𝑦 − 14𝑎̂𝑧 10−9 −3𝑎̂𝑥 − 𝑎̂𝑦 − 11𝑎̂𝑧

𝐸⃗ = 2 + 2
4𝜋𝑋8.854𝑋10−12 𝑋√281 √281 4𝜋𝑋8.854𝑋10−12 𝑋√131 √131

⃗⃗ = (−𝟔. 𝟔 𝒂
𝑬 ̂𝒙 – 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝒂
̂𝒚 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟐𝒂
̂) -3
𝒛 x 10 N/C

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the work done in moving a charge of +2C from (2,0,0)m to

(0,2,0)m along a straight line path joining two points, if the
electric field is 𝑬
⃗⃗ = 𝟏𝟐𝒙 𝒂 ̂𝒚 V/m.
̂𝒙 – 𝟒𝐲 𝒂

𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗
W = -Q ∫𝐵 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐿

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = dx𝑎̂𝑥 − dy𝑎̂𝑦 − dz𝑎

𝑑𝐿 ̂𝑧
(0,2,0)
W = - 2 ∫(2,0,0) (12𝑥 𝒂
̂𝒙 – 4y 𝒂
̂).
𝒚 ( dx𝑎
̂𝑥 − dy𝑎̂𝑦 − dz𝑎
̂𝑧 )

pg. 7
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

(0,2,0)
W = - 2 ∫(2,0,0) (12𝑥 𝒅𝒙 – 4y 𝒅𝒚)

0 2
12𝑥 2 4𝑦 2
= - 2 {⌈ ⌉ -⌈ ⌉ }
2 2 2 0

 -2x(-32)

W = 64 J

______________________________________________________________________________

Determine the work done in carrying a -2 µc charge from P1 (2,

1,-1) to P2 (8, 2,-1) in the field ⃗𝑬
⃗ = y𝒂^𝒙 + x𝒂^𝒚 v/m along the
parabola x = 2y2.

𝑃2
⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
W = - 𝑄 ∫𝑃1 𝐸.

𝐸⃗ = y𝑎𝑥^ + x𝑎𝑦^

Differential length ⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙 is expressed as: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+
𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂𝑧

⃗⃗⃗ = (y𝑎𝑥^ + x𝑎𝑦^ ).( dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+

𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂)𝑧

𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ydx + xdy
𝑃2
W = - Q ∫𝑃1 (ydx + xdy)

Given, x = 2y2

Differentiating, dx = 4y.dy
𝑃2
W = - Q ∫𝑃1 (ydx + xdy)

𝑃2
= - Q[ ∫𝑃1 (4y 2 dy + 2y 2 dy)]
𝑃2
= - 6 Q∫𝑃1 y 2 dy

2
𝑦3
= -6 x -2 x 10-6 x ⌈ 3 ⌉
1

W = 28µJ

______________________________________________________________________________
pg. 8
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Determine the work done in carrying a -2 µc charge from P1 (2,

1,-1) to P2 (8, 2,-1) in the field ⃗𝑬
⃗ = y𝒂^𝒙 + x𝒂^𝒚 v/m along the
straight line joining P1 and P2.
Following the equation for straight line, we have,
𝑥−𝑥2 𝑦−𝑦2
=
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑦1 −𝑦2

𝑥−8 𝑦−2
=
2−8 1−2

(𝑥 − 8) (1 − 2) = (𝑦 − 2)(2 − 8)

-(𝑥 − 8) = −6(𝑦 − 2)

𝑥 − 8 = 6𝑦 − 12

𝑥 = 6𝑦 − 4

 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑑𝑦
𝑃2
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
W = - 𝑄 ∫𝑃1 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙

𝐸⃗ = y𝑎𝑥^ + x𝑎𝑦^

Differential length ⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙 is expressed as: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+
𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂𝑧

𝑑𝑙 = (y𝑎𝑥^ + x𝑎𝑦^ ).( dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+

𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂)𝑧

⃗⃗⃗ = ydx + xdy

𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑃2
W = - Q ∫𝑃1 (ydx + xdy)

Substituting values of x and dx,

𝑃2
W = - Q ∫𝑃1 (6𝑦𝑑𝑦 + (6𝑦 − 4)dy)

𝑃2
W = - Q ∫𝑃1 (12𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 4dy)

2 2
W = - Q[12 ∫1 𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 4 ∫1 𝑑𝑦 ]

2
𝑦2
W = -Q [ 12⌈ 2 ⌉ - 4 ⌈𝑦⌉12]
1

W = 2 x 10-6 [18 - 4]
pg. 9
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

W = 28µJ

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the work done in moving a point charge of Q = -20 µc charge

from origin to P (4, 2, 0) along the path x2 = 8y. Given the field
⃗ = 2(x+4y)𝒂^𝒙 + 8x𝒂^𝒚 v/m.
⃗𝑬

𝑃2
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
W = - 𝑄 ∫𝑃1 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙

𝐸⃗ = 2(x+4y)𝑎𝑥^ + 8x𝑎𝑦^

Differential length ⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙 is expressed as: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+
𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂𝑧

⃗⃗⃗ = (2(x+4y)𝑎𝑥^ + 8x𝑎𝑦^ ).( dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+

𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂)𝑧

𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 2(x+4y) dx + 8xdy
𝑃
W = - Q ∫𝑜 2(x + 4y) dx + 8xdy

Given, x2 = 8y

𝑥2 2𝑥
y= and dy = dx
8 8

𝑃 𝑥2 2𝑥
W = - Q ∫𝑜 2(x + 4( 8 )) dx + 8x( 8 dx)

𝑃
= - Q[ ∫𝑜 (2x + x 2 )dx + 2x 2 dx]

4
= - Q[ ∫0 (2x)dx + 3x 2 dx]

4 4
2𝑥 2 3𝑥 3
= 20 x 10-6 x ⌈ ⌉ ⌈ ⌉
2 0 3 0

= 20 x 10-6 x [16 + 64]

W = 1.6mJ

______________________________________________________________________________

pg. 10
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Determine the work done in carrying a charge of 2C from B(1, 0,

1) to A (0.8, 0.6, 1) in an electric field ⃗𝑬
⃗ = y𝒂^𝒙 + x𝒂𝒚^ + 2𝒂^𝒛 V/m
along the short arc of a circle x2 + y2 = 1, z = 1.

𝑃2
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
W = - 𝑄 ∫𝑃1 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙

𝐸⃗ = y𝑎𝑥^ + x𝑎𝑦^ + 2𝑎𝑧^

Differential length ⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙 is expressed as: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+
𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂𝑧

⃗⃗⃗ = (y𝑎𝑥^ + x𝑎𝑦^ + 2𝑎𝑧^ ).( dx𝑎̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂+

𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑎
̂)𝑧

𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ydx + xdy+ 2𝑑𝑧
𝐴
W = - Q ∫𝐵 ydx + xdy + 2𝑑𝑧

Given, x2 + y2 = 1, z = 1

y = √1 − 𝑥 2 , x = √1 − 𝑦 2
0.8 0.6 1
W = - Q{ ∫𝑥=1 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑦=0 √1 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 − ∫𝑧=1 2𝑑𝑧}

0.8 0.6
𝑥√1−𝑥 2+ sin−1 𝑥 𝑦√1−𝑦 2 + sin−1 𝑦
= -2 ⌈ ⌉ −2 ⌈ ⌉ − 4(1-1)
2 2
1 0

= -(0.48+0.927-1.571) – (0.48+0.644)

W = -0.96 J

______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2010, Jan 2014, July 2017, Jan 2018
______________________________________________________________________________

Potential field of system of charges

Potential if point charge not at origin:

pg. 11
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Let a charge Q1 be located at a distance 𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 from the origin. Consider a point P at distance 𝑟 from
the origin.

Then the magnitude of the distance of P from Q is |𝑟 − 𝑟1 |

The potential at P which is at a distance 𝑟 from the origin can be written as,
𝑸𝟏
⃗)=
V (𝒓
𝟒𝝅∈|𝒓 ⃗ 𝟏|
⃗−𝒓

__________________________________________________________________
Potential field due to many charges:

If there are a number of charges Q1, Q2, Q3, ------- then the potential at P will be the sum of the
potentials due to individual charges.
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3
V (𝑟) = + + + …………
4𝜋∈|𝑟− 𝑟1 | 4𝜋∈|𝑟− 𝑟2 | 4𝜋∈|𝑟 − 𝑟3 |

𝟏 𝑸𝒊
⃗)=
V (𝒓 ∑𝒊
𝟒𝝅∈ 𝟒𝝅∈|𝒓 ⃗ 𝒊|
⃗−𝒓

__________________________________________________________________
Potential field due to line charge:

Consider a line charge distribution with line charge density ρL in a coordinate system as shown
in figure below:

pg. 12
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Let dL’ be a differential line element in it at a distance ⃗⃗⃗

𝑟 ′ from the origin. The line charge density
at the element can be represented as ρL(𝑟⃗⃗⃗′ ).

Let dq be the differential charge associated with dL’, then,

dq = ρL(𝑟⃗⃗⃗′ ) dL’ (from Q = ρL L)

Let P be the point located at distance 𝑟 from the origin. Then the potential at P due to dq is,

𝑑𝑞 ρL(𝑟⃗ ′ ) dL’
=
4𝜋∈|𝑟 − ⃗𝑟′ | 4𝜋∈|𝑟 − ⃗𝑟′ |

Therefore the total potential V (𝑟) at P due to the entire line charge can be found by integrating
the above equation.

𝛒𝐋(𝒓⃗⃗⃗′ ) 𝐝𝐋’
⃗)=∫
V (𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟒𝝅∈|⃗𝒓⃗⃗ − 𝒓′|

______________________________________________________________________________

Potential field due to surface charge:

Consider a surface charge distribution with surface charge density ρs in a coordinate system as
shown in figure below:

pg. 13
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Let dS’ be a differential surface element in it at a distance ⃗⃗⃗

𝑟 ′ from the origin. The surface charge
density at the element can be represented as ρS(𝑟⃗⃗⃗′ ).

Let dq be the differential charge associated with dS’, then,

dq = ρS(𝑟⃗⃗⃗′ ) dS’

Let P be the point located at distance 𝑟 from the origin. Then the potential at P due to dq is,

𝑑𝑞 ρS(𝑟⃗ ′ ) dS’
=
4𝜋∈|𝑟 − ⃗𝑟′ | 4𝜋∈|𝑟 − ⃗𝑟′ |

Therefore the total potential V (𝑟) at P due to the entire surface charge can be found by
integrating the above equation.

𝛒𝐒(𝒓⃗⃗⃗′ ) 𝐝𝐒’
⃗)=∫
V (𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ − 𝒓′|
𝟒𝝅∈|𝒓

______________________________________________________________________________

Potential field due to volume charge:

Consider a volume charge distribution with volume charge density ρV in a coordinate system as
shown in figure below:

pg. 14
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Let dv’ be a differential surface element in it at a distance ⃗⃗⃗

𝑟 ′ from the origin. The surface charge
density at the element can be represented as ρV(𝑟⃗⃗⃗′ ).

Let dq be the differential charge associated with dv’, then,

dq = ρV(𝑟⃗⃗⃗′ ) dv’

Let P be the point located at distance 𝑟 from the origin. Then the potential at P due to dq is,

𝑑𝑞 ρv(𝑟⃗ ′ ) dv’
=
4𝜋∈|𝑟 − ⃗𝑟′ | 4𝜋∈|𝑟 − ⃗𝑟′ |

Therefore the total potential V (𝑟) at P due to the entire volume charge can be found by
integrating the above equation.

𝛒𝐯(𝒓⃗⃗⃗′ ) 𝐝𝐯’
⃗)=∫
V (𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ − 𝒓′|
𝟒𝝅∈|𝒓

______________________________________________________________________________

Potential Gradient
Consider an electric field due to positive charge. The potential decreases as we move away from
the charge as given by,
𝑄
V=
4𝜋∈𝑟

1
i.e. V ∝
𝑟

pg. 15
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Let us consider the plot of V versus the length of the path.

Considering the slope of AB, we get,

∆𝑉 𝑑𝑉
Slope = lim =
∆𝐿→0 ∆𝐿 𝑑𝐿

Hence, slope of the graph is nothing but potential gradient. It is defined as the rate of change
of potential with respect to the distance.

______________________________________________________________________________

Relation between electric field intensity and electric potential:

Consider two neighbouring points A and B separated by a small distance in an electric field. Let
the potential at B higher than that at A by an amount dV. Then, the potential difference, dV can
be considered as change in potential, V as we move from A to B, which is expressed in Cartesian
system as,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
dV = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧

------------- (1)

By the definition of potential, we know that,

⃗⃗⃗⃗
dV = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐿

dV = −(Ex𝑎̂𝑥 + Ey𝑎̂𝑦 + Ez𝑎̂

𝑧 ) . (dx𝑎
̂𝑥 + dy𝑎̂𝑦 + dz𝑎
̂𝑧 )

pg. 16
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

dV = −(Ex𝑑𝑥 + Ey𝑑𝑦 + Ez𝑑𝑧)

------------- (2)

Now, comparing (1) and (2), we get,

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
Ex = − 𝜕𝑥 ; Ey = − 𝜕𝑦 ; Ez = − 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
 𝐸⃗ = −(𝜕𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑎
̂)𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 𝐸⃗ = −(𝜕𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑎
̂)𝑧 V

⃗⃗ = −𝛁 V
 𝑬

Where, 𝜵 is known as del operator and the operation of del on a scalar V is called gradient V
or grad V. So the electric field intensity is negative gradient of potential.

The 𝛻 operators in other two coordinate systems are given as:

Cylindrical system

𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
∇= ̂
𝑎𝜌+ 𝑎̂
Ф + 𝑎
̂𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕Ф 𝜕𝑧

Spherical system

𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
∇= ̂+
𝑎
𝜕𝑟 𝑟
̂𝜃 +
𝑎 𝑎̂
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕Ф Ф

______________________________________________________________________________

Potential of an Electric Dipole

The two point charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign, separated by a very amall distance
give rise to an electric dipole.

Consider an electric dipole as shown in the figure. The two point charges +Q and –Q are
separated by a very small distance d.

pg. 17
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Consider a point P (r, θ, Ф) in spherical coordinate system. Let O be the midpoint of AB. The
distance of P from A is r1 while the distance of P from B is r2. The distance of point P from O is
r. The distance of separation of charges is very small compared to these distances.

In spherical coordinates, the potential at P due to the charge +Q is given by,

+𝑄
V1 =
4𝜋∈𝑟1

The potential at P due to the charge -Q is given by,

−𝑄
V2 =
4𝜋∈𝑟2

The total potential at point P is the algebraic sum of V1 and V2

+𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 1 1
V= − = [ − ]
4𝜋∈𝑟1 4𝜋∈𝑟2 4𝜋∈ 𝑟1 𝑟2

𝑄 𝑟2 −𝑟1
V= [ ]
4𝜋∈ 𝑟1 𝑟2

Now consider that P is located far away from electric dipole. Thus𝑟1 , 𝑟2 and r can be assumed to
be parallel to each other as shown in figure.

pg. 18
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

AM is drawn perpendicular on 𝑟2 . The angle made by 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 and r with z axis is θ.

BM = ABcosθ = dcosθ

Now, PB = PM + BM

PA = PM (refer figure)

 PB = PA + BM
 BM = PB – PA
 BM = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1

dcosθ = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1

Therefore, potential becomes,

𝑄 dcosθ
V= [ ]
4𝜋∈ 𝑟1 𝑟2

Also as d is very small, we can approximate, 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = r. Then 𝑟1 𝑟2 = r2

𝑸 𝐝𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
V= [ ]
𝟒𝝅∈ 𝒓𝟐

__________________________________________________________________
Dipole Moment:

The vector length directed from –Q to +Q is 𝑑 , then the product Q𝑑 is called dipole moment and
is denoted by 𝑝.

⃗⃗
⃗ = Q𝒅
𝒑

pg. 19
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

⃗ acts in radial direction, 𝒑

Considering, 𝒑 ⃗ .𝒂
̂𝒓

Potential in terms of dipole moment is given as:

⃗ .𝒂
𝒑 ̂𝒓
V= where, Qdcosθ = Q𝑑. 𝑎̂𝑟
𝟒𝝅∈𝒓𝟐
____________________________________________________________________________________

Energy density in an electrostatic field

It is well known fact that, to move a unit positive charge from infinity to a point in the field, a
work has to be done by external source. Now, if the external source is removed, this point charge
will move in the direction of force of the field. So, to hold the charge at a point in this field,
external source should continue to do the work. This work gets stored in the form of potential
energy in a field.

Consider an empty space where there is no electric field. The charge Q 1 is moved from infinity to
a point P1 in this space. This requires no work as there is any electric field. But, this Q 1 will
create its field in this space. Now, to place another charge Q2, in this space, it is required to be
moved against the field of Q1. Hence the work is required to be done.

Potential = work done per unit charge (W/Q)

Therefore, Work done = Potential (V) x Charge (Q)

Work done to position Q2 at P2 = V21Q2, where V21 is potential at P2 due to P1.

Now, to move Q3 from infinity to P3, work has to be done against fields of both Q1 and Q2.

Work done to position Q3 at P3 = V31Q3 + V32Q3

pg. 20
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Thus for charge Qn to be placed at Pn,

Work done = Vn1Qn + Vn2Qn + …….

Hence the total work done in positioning all the charges which is equal to potential energy in the
system of charges is given by,

WE = V21Q2 + V31Q3 + V32Q3 + ……..

------------ (1)

If charges are placed in reverse order, i.e., Qn is placed first and Qn-1 next and finally Q1.

WE = ………. + V23Q2 + V13Q1 + V12Q1

------------ (2)

So, the total potential can be obtained by adding (1) and (2),

2 WE = Q1 (V12 + V13 + ……) + Q2 (V21 + V23 + …….) + Q3 (V31 + V32 + ………) + ….

Sum of the potentials is the total potential due to all charges at that point,

i.e. V12 + V13 + …… + V1n = V1

Therefore, 2 WE = Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3 + …….. + Qn Vn

2 WE = ∑𝑛𝑚=1 𝑄𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝟏
WE = ∑𝒏𝒎=𝟏 𝑸𝒎 𝑽𝒎
𝟐

This is the potential energy stored in the system of n point charges.

Instead of point charges, the region can have continuos distribution of charges also. Considering
volume charge distribution, the total energy stored is given by,
1
WE = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑉 𝑑𝑣 (In the above equation summation becomes integral and Q = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣)
2

According to Maxwell’s first equation,

⃗
𝜌𝑣 = ∇. 𝐷
1
WE = ⃗ )𝑉 𝑑𝑣
∫(∇. 𝐷
2

⃗ and any scalar V,

Now, taking the vector identity for any vector 𝐷

⃗ = (𝐷
∇. 𝑉𝐷 ⃗ ). ∇𝑉+ (∇. 𝐷
⃗ )𝑉

pg. 21
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

⃗ )𝑉 =∇. 𝑉𝐷
 (∇. 𝐷 ⃗ − 𝐷
⃗ . ∇𝑉

1
Therefore, WE = ⃗ − 𝐷
∫(∇. 𝑉𝐷 ⃗ . ∇𝑉 ) 𝑑𝑣
2

1
WE = ⃗ )𝑑𝑣 − 1 ∫( 𝐷
∫(∇. 𝑉𝐷 ⃗ . ∇𝑉 )𝑑𝑣
2 2

1
According to divergence theorem, ⃗ )𝑑𝑣 = 1 ∮(𝑉𝐷
∫(∇. 𝑉𝐷 ⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆
2 2

1 1
 WE = ∮(𝑉𝐷 𝑑𝑆 - ∫( ⃗𝐷 . ∇𝑉 )𝑑𝑣
⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 2

1
We know that V∝ ⃗ ∝ 1 for point charge. Also ⃗⃗⃗⃗
and 𝐷 𝑑𝑆 ∝ 𝑟2 . So, first term in above integral
𝑟 2 𝑟
1 1
varies as . As surface becomes very large, r ->∞ and -> 0. Hence closed surface integral
𝑟 𝑟
evaluates to zero.
1
 WE = - ⃗ . ∇𝑉 )𝑑𝑣
∫( 𝐷
2

We know that, 𝐸⃗ = −∇𝑉

1
 WE = - ⃗ . −(𝐸
∫𝐷 ⃗ ) 𝑑𝑣
2

𝟏
 WE = ⃗ . ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒗 Joules
∫𝑫
𝟐

Representing above equation in differential form,

1
dWE = ⃗ . 𝐸⃗ dv
𝐷
2

𝒅𝐖𝐄 𝟏
 = ⃗⃗ . 𝑬
𝑫 ⃗⃗ J/m3
𝒅𝒗 𝟐

This is called energy density in the electric field in J/m3.

Further, WE can be written in various forms.

𝟏
WE = ⃗ . ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒗 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷
∫ 𝜺𝑬 ⃗ = 𝜀𝐸⃗ )
𝟐

𝟏 𝟐
 WE = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒗
∫ 𝜺 |𝑬|
𝟐

(or)

pg. 22
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

𝟏 𝑫
WE = ⃗ . 𝒅𝒗
∫𝑫
𝟐 𝜺

𝟐
𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑫|
 WE = ∫ 𝒅𝒗
𝟐 𝜺

______________________________________________________________________________

Zero in on:

Gradient of a scalar is a vector.

Potential is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from dipole
______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: June 2012, Jan 2015, Jan 2016, July 2016,
July 2017, Jan 2018, July 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Numerical Problems
Derive potential difference due to infinite line charge and calculate
potential difference for a line charge ρ L = 5nC/m on the z axis
𝝅
where A(2, , 0) and B(4, π, 5).
𝟐

Consider an infinite line charge along z axis having uniform charge density 𝜌𝐿 C/m.

The point B is at a radial distance r B while point A is at radial distance rA from the charge, as
shown in the figure.

pg. 23
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

In cylindrical coordinate system, Electric field intensity due to infinite line charge,
𝜌𝐿
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎
̂𝜌
2𝜋𝜀0 𝜌

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = dρ𝑎
Also, 𝑑𝐿 ̂𝜌
𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∫𝑟𝐴 𝜌𝐿 . dρ
Therefore, VAB = − ∫𝐵 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐿 𝑟𝐵 2𝜋𝜀 𝜌
0

𝜌 𝑟𝐴 1
= − 2𝜋𝜀𝐿 ∫𝑟𝐵 𝜌 . dρ
0

𝜌
= − 2𝜋𝜀𝐿 ⌈ln 𝜌⌉𝑟𝐴
𝑟𝐵
0

𝜌
= − 2𝜋𝜀𝐿 [ln rA – ln rB]
0

𝝆𝑳 𝐫𝐁
VAB = ln
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝐫𝐀

pg. 24
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Here, rA = 2 and rB = 4

5𝑥10−9 4
VAB = ln
2𝜋𝜀0 2

VAB = 62.3 V

______________________________________________________________________________

𝟔𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
An electrostatic potential is given by, V = volts. Find ⃗𝑬
⃗ at
𝒓𝟐
P(3, 600, 250).

We know that, 𝐸⃗ = −∇𝑉

𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣
𝐸⃗ = − ( 𝑎 ̂𝑟 + 𝑎̂
𝜃 + 𝑎̂
𝜑)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜑

120𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 60𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=( 𝑎
̂𝑟 − 𝑎̂
𝜃)
𝑟3 𝑟3

⃗⃗ at (3,60,25) = 3.849𝒂
𝑬 ̂𝒓 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒂̂𝜽 V/m

______________________________________________________________________________

Let V = (cos 2Ф)/ρ in free space, find the surface charge density
on a conductor surface passing through B(2, 300, 1).
We know that, 𝐸⃗ = −∇V

𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
In cylindrical coordinates, −∇V = - [𝜕𝜌 𝑎̂𝜌 + 𝑎̂ + 𝑎̂𝑧 ]
𝜌 𝜕Ф Ф 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣
Here, V is not a function of z. So, 𝑎̂ = 0
𝜕𝑧 𝑧

𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣
𝐸⃗ = - 𝑎̂𝜌 - 𝑎̂Ф
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕Ф

cos2Ф 2sin2Ф
= 𝑎
̂𝜌 + 𝑎̂
Ф
ρ2 ρ2
cos60 2sin60
At given point, 𝐸⃗ = 4 𝑎̂𝜌 + 4 𝑎̂ Ф

= 0.125𝑎̂𝜌 + 0.433𝑎̂
Ф

pg. 25
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Surface charge density, ρs= |𝐷

⃗ | (Since, magnitude of flux per unit surface is equal to total charge
there)

⃗ |= ε|𝐸⃗ |
|𝐷

|𝐸⃗ |= √0.1252 + 0.4332 = 0.451

⃗⃗ |= 0.451ε = 0.399 pC/m2

|𝑫

______________________________________________________________________________

For a potential field V = 2x2y-5z, determine flux density and

volume charge density at point P (-4, 3, 6).

⃗ = ε𝐸⃗
Electric flux density, 𝐷

𝐸⃗ = −∇ V
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗ = −(𝜕𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑎
̂)𝑧

𝜕(2x2y−5z) 𝜕(2x2y−5z) 𝜕(2x2y−5z)

𝐸⃗ = −( 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎
̂)𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐸⃗ = -[4xy 𝑎̂𝑥 + 2x2 𝑎̂𝑦 - 5𝑎

̂]𝑧

At P (x=-4, y=3, z=6)

𝐸⃗ = 48 𝑎̂𝑥 - 32 𝑎̂𝑦 + 5𝑎
̂𝑧

⃗ = 8.854x10-12 [48 𝑎̂𝑥 - 32 𝑎̂𝑦 + 5𝑎

Now, 𝐷 ̂]𝑧

⃗⃗ = 0.425 𝒂
𝑫 ̂𝒙 – 0.283 𝒂
̂𝒚 + 0.044𝒂
̂𝒛

⃗
To find volume charge density, we have, ρv = ∇. 𝐷
𝜕𝐷𝑥 𝜕𝐷𝑦 𝜕𝐷𝑧
ρv = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗ = - ε [4xy 𝑎̂𝑥 + 2x2 𝑎̂𝑦 - 5𝑎

𝐷 ̂]𝑧

𝜕4xy 𝜕2x2 𝜕(−5)

ρv = - ε [ + + ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

pg. 26
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

ρv = - ε [ 4𝑦 + 0 + 0]

At P (x=-4, y=3, z=6)

ρv = - 12 ε = -12 x 8.854x10-12

ρv = -0.106 nC/m3

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the stored energy in a system of four identical charges of 4nC

at the corners of a square of side 1 m. What is the stored energy
if only two charges are placed at the diagonally opposite corners of
the square?
The arrangement is shown in the figure.

Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = 4 nC

R12 = 1 m = R23 = R34 = R41

R31 = R24 = √2

When Q1 is placed first, W1 = 0

𝑄1
For Q2, W2 = Q2V21 = Q2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅21

4𝑥10−9 𝑋4𝑥10−9
W2 = = 143.803 nJ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑋1

𝑄1 𝑄2
For Q3, W3 = Q3V31 + Q3V32 = Q3 [ + ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅31 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅32

pg. 27
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

4𝑥10−9 𝑋4𝑥10−9 1 1
W3 = [√2 + 1] = 245.488 nJ
4𝜋𝜀0

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3
For Q4, W4 = Q4V41 + Q4V42 + Q4V43 = Q4 [ + + ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅41 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅42 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅43

4𝑥10−9 𝑋4𝑥10−9 1 1 1
W4 = [1 + √2 + 1] = 389.292 nJ
4𝜋𝜀0

W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 = 778.58 nJ

If only two charges are placed at the corners,

W1 = 0, when Q1 is placed.
𝑄1
For Q2, W2 = Q2V21 = Q2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅21

4𝑥10−9 𝑋4𝑥10−9
W2 = = 101.68 nJ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑋√2

W = W1 + W2 = 101.68 nJ

______________________________________________________________________________

A metallic sphere of radius 0.1 m has a surface charge density of

10 nC/m2. Calculate electric energy stored in the system.

𝟐
𝟏 ⃗𝑫
From the given data, stored electric energy can be found using WE =
𝟐
∫ 𝜺
𝒅𝒗

pg. 28
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

⃗ , we should know total charge enclosed by the sphere.

To find 𝐷

Total charge enclosed by the sphere will be, Q = ρs x 4πr2

Q = 10x10-9 x 4π x 0.12 = 1.26 nC

𝑄
⃗ =
𝐷 𝑎
̂𝑟
4πr2

1.26 x10−9
= 𝑎
̂𝑟
4πr2

0.1 x10−9
⃗ =
𝐷 𝑎
̂𝑟
r2

2
1 ⃗
𝐷
WE =
2
∫ 𝜀
𝑑𝑣

1 1 2
𝑟=∞,𝜃=𝜋,Ф=2𝜋 0.1 x10−9
= ⃗ 2 𝑑𝑣 =
∫𝐷 ∭𝑟=0.1,𝜃=0,Ф=0 ( ) r2sinθdrdθdФ
2𝜀 2𝜀 r2

2
(0.1 x10−9 ) 1 ∞
= ⌈− ⌉ ⌈−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃⌉𝜋0 ⌈𝜑⌉2𝜋
0
2𝜀 𝑟 0.1

2
(0.1 x10−9 ) 1 1
= ⌈− + ⌉ [2][2π]
2 𝑋8.854𝑥10−12 ∞ 0.1

WE = 70.96 nJ

______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2015, July 2014, Jan 2016, July 2016,
July 2017, Jan 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Review Questions
1. A circular disc of radius 'a' carries a uniform surface charge density as shown in
figure. Determine the potential and electric field at a point P(0,0,z) on the axis (z > 0) .

pg. 29
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

2. Determine the work done in carrying charge from P1((1,1,-3) to P2(4,2,-3) in an

electric field

3. An electrostatic field is given by 𝐸⃗ = -8xy 𝑎̂𝑥 - 4x2 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎

̂𝑧 V/m. The charge of 6 C is to
be moved from B (1, 8, 5) to A (2, 18, 6). Find the work done in each of the following
cases: (a) The path selected is y = 3x2 + z, z = x+4 (b) The straight line from B to A.
Show that the work done remains same and is independent of the path selected.

4. Define electric potential and potential difference.

5. Show that line integral is not dependant on the path selected between B to A but only
depends on end points B and A.

6. A point charge of 1µC is at y= -3 m and another point charge of 2µC is at y = +3 mt.

Find the electric potential at a point P(4, 0 ,0)m.

7. Explain the concept of work and potential and hence obtain an expression for the
potential difference between two points in an electric field produced due to point charge.

8. Define electric potential. Derive an expression for potential due to several point charges.

9. Determine the potential difference between two points due to a point charge at the origin.

pg. 30
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

10. Explain absolute potential with mathematical expression.

11. Derive an expression for the potential at a point due to infinite line charge.

12. Let V = (cos 2Ф)/ρ in free space. (i) Find 𝐸⃗ at B(2, 300, 1) (ii) Find the volume charge
density at point A(0.5, 600, 1).

13. Find an expression establishing the relationship between electric field intensity and potential
gradient.

𝜋 𝜋
14. Find the energy stored in free space for the region 2x10-3 m< r < 3x10-3 m, 0 < θ < ,0<Ф< .
2 2
200
Given the potential field is V = volts.
𝑟

15. Write a note on energy density in an electrostatic field.

16. Derive an expression for the energy stored in an electrostatic field having electric field intensity

𝐸⃗ .

17. What is an electric dipole? Derive an expression for potential due to an electric dipole.

pg. 31
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

MODULE 3

POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS

Syllabus: Derivations and problems, Uniqueness theorem.

______________________________________________________________________________

Recommended readings:
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck,
Tata McGraw-Hill,2014.
2. Electromagnetics, J A Edminister, McGraw-Hill,2010.
______________________________________________________________________________

Contents
Laplace’s and Poisson’s Equations ................................................................................................. 1
Uniqueness Theorem ...................................................................................................................... 3
Numerical Problems........................................................................................................................ 5
Applications of Laplace’s Equation .............................................................................................. 11
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 14

______________________________________________________________________________

Laplace’s and Poisson’s Equations

From the Gauss’s law in the point form, Laplace’s and Poisson’s Equations can be derived.
Consider the Guass’s law in the point form as,
▼. 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
⃗ = flux density and 𝜌𝑣 = volume charge density
Where, 𝐷

It is known that for a homogenous, isotropic and linear medium, flux density and electric field
intensity are directly proportional. Thus,
⃗ = ε𝐸⃗
𝐷
Therefore, ▼.ε𝐸⃗ = 𝜌𝑣

From the gradient relationship, 𝐸⃗ = -▼V

pg. 1
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Then, ▼.ε (− ▼ V) = 𝜌𝑣

 - ε (▼.▼V) = 𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣
 ▼.▼V = -
ε

▼.▼operation is called ‘del squared’ operation and denoted as 𝑑𝑒𝑙 2

𝜌𝑣
i.e. ▼2 V = -
ε

This is called Poisson’s Equation.

If in a certain region, volume charge density is zero, 𝜌𝑣 = 0, such as in dielectric medium, then
the above equation takes the form,

▼2 V = 0

This is called Laplace’s Equation.

Note: del2 operation is also called Laplacian.

______________________________________________________________________________

Laplacian in different coordinate systems

In Cartesian coordinate system,

Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = + +
Ə𝑥 2 Ə𝑦 2 Ə𝑧 2

In Cylindrical coordinate system,

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = (𝜌 )+ +
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌2 ƏФ2 Ə𝑧 2

In Spherical coordinate system,

pg. 2
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = ( 𝑟 )+ (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) +
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ƏФ2
__________________________________________________________________
Zero in on:

Laplace’s and Poisson’s equations are used to solve boundary value problems.
Laplace's equation is a second-order partial differential equation named after Pierre-Simon Laplace.
_______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2018, July 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Uniqueness Theorem

Uniqueness theorem states that under the given boundary conditions Laplace and Poisson’s
equations has one and only one solution.

Let us assume that we have two solutions of Laplace’s equation V1 and V2.

Thus, ∇2 V1 = 0 and ∇2 V2 = 0

This indicate that ∇2 (V1 - V2) = 0 ------ (1)

Each solution must also satisfy boundary conditions and if we represent the given potential
values on the boundaries by Vb, then the value of V1 on the boundary is V1b and value of V2 on
the boundary is V2b must both be identical i.e. Vb.

V1b = V2b = Vb

(or) V1b - V2b = 0 ------ (2)

By using vector identity,

∇.(V D) = V (∇. D) + D. (∇V)

This holds for any scalar V and any vector D.

For the present application we shall select V1- V2 as scalar and ∇(V1 − V2 ) as the vector,

pg. 3
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

∇.( V1- V2 ∇(V1 − V2 )) = V1- V2 (∇. ∇(V1 − V2 )) + ∇(V1 − V2 ) . ∇(V1 − V2 ) ----- (3)

Integrate throughout the volume enclosed by the boundary surface specified,

∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∇. ( V1 − V2 ∇(V1 − V2 ))dv = ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 V1 − V2 (∇. ∇(V1 − V2 )) 𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∇(V1 −

V2 ) . ∇(V1 − V2 ) dv ------ (4)

Using divergence theorem, we can replace the volume integral on the left side of the equation (4)
by closed surface integral over the surface surrounding the volume. This surface consists of the
boundaries already specified on which V1b = V2b.

∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∇. ( V1 − V2 ∇(V1 − V2 ))dv = ∮𝑠 ∇. ( V1b − V2b ∇(V1b − V2b ))ds = 0

(from (2))

One of the factor of the first integral on the right hand side of (4) is ∇. ∇(V1 − V2) which is zero
by hypothesis (refer (1)) and that integral is zero. Hence remaining volume integral must be zero.

∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∇(V1 − V2 ) . ∇(V1 − V2 ) dv = 0

∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∇(V1 − V2 ) 2 = 0
This indicates that ∇(V1 − V2 ) 2 = 0
Or ∇(V1 − V2 ) = 0

If the gradient of V1- V2 is everywhere zero, then V1- V2 cannot change with any coordinates.
Therefore,
V1- V2 = a constant

Now to prove uniqueness theorem we should show that this constant is zero. Consider the point
at the boundary where V1- V2 = V1b- V2b = 0 (refer (2))
 V1- V2 = 0
 V1 = V2, giving two identical solutions.

Zero in on:

Uniqueness theorem is proved by contradiction method.

______________________________________________________________________________

pg. 4
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2018, July 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Numerical Problems

Verify that the potential field given below satisfies Laplace’s

equation:
V=2x2-3y2+z2
Given field is in Cartesian system,

Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = + +
Ə𝑥 2 Ə𝑦 2 Ə𝑧 2

Ə2 Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉
= (2x2-3y2+z2) + (2x2-3y2+z2) + (2x2-3y2+z2)
Ə𝑥 2 Ə𝑦 2 Ə𝑧 2

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= (4x) + (-6y) + (2z)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

=4–6+2=0

As ▼2 V = 0, the field satisfies Laplace’s equation.

______________________________________________________________________________

Determine whether or not following potential fields satisfy the

Laplace’s equation:
(i) V= rcosФ + z
(ii) V= rcosθ + Ф

(i) Given field is in cylindrical system,

pg. 5
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = (𝜌 )+ +
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌2 ƏФ2 Ə𝑧 2

𝜕𝑉 𝜕
= (rcosФ + z) = cosФ
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑉 𝜕
= (rcosФ + z) = -rsinФ
𝜕Ф 𝜕Ф

Ə2 𝑉 𝜕
= (-rsinФ) = -rcosФ
ƏФ2 𝜕Ф

𝜕𝑉 𝜕
= (rcosФ + z) = 1
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟

Ə2 𝑉 𝜕
= (1) = 0
Ə𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕 1
 ▼2 V = (𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф)+ (-rcosФ) + 0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟2

1 1
 ▼2 V = 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф - cosФ = 0
𝑟 𝑟

As ▼2 V = 0, the field satisfies Laplace’s equation.

(ii) Given field is in spherical system,

1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = ( 𝑟 )+ (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) +
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ƏФ2

𝜕𝑉 𝜕
𝑟2 = 𝑟2 (rcosθ + Ф) = 𝑟 2 cos θ
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑉 𝜕
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 (rcosθ + Ф) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (-r sin𝜃) = -rsin2𝜃

pg. 6
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

1 Ə2 𝑉 1 Ə2
= (rcosθ + Ф) = 0
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ƏФ 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ƏФ2

1 𝜕 2 1 𝜕
 ▼2 V = (𝑟 cos θ)+ (-r sin2𝜃) + 0
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃

1 1
 ▼2 V = (2rcos θ) + 𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (-2r si𝑛θ cos θ)
𝑟2

2 2
 ▼2 V = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ - 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ = 0
𝑟 𝑟

As ▼2 V = 0, the field satisfies Laplace’s equation.

______________________________________________________________________________

Given the potential field V = (Aρ4+ Bρ-4) sin4Ф. Show that 2

V =
0.

Given, V = (Aρ4+ Bρ-4) sin4Ф

In cylindrical system,

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = (𝜌 )+ +
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌2 ƏФ2 Ə𝑧 2

1 𝜕 𝜕 (Aρ4+ Bρ−4) sin4Ф) 1 Ə2 (Aρ4+ Bρ−4)sin4Ф)

▼2 V = (𝜌 )+ +0
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌2 ƏФ2

1 𝜕 1
▼2 V = (𝜌 (4Aρ3 – 4Bρ-5)) sin4Ф - 16 (Aρ4 – Bρ-4)) sin4Ф
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌2

16 16
▼2 V = (Aρ3 – Bρ-5)) sin4Ф - (Aρ4 – Bρ-4)) sin4Ф = 0
𝜌 𝜌2

Therefore, ▼2 V = 0
______________________________________________________________________________

Using Poisson’s equation, obtain the volume charge density ρv inside

a sphere of radius ‘a’ if given field intensity is
pg. 7
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Er = Ar4 for r < a

Er = Ar-2 for r > a

The field intensity is a function of r only. From Poisson’s equation using spherical coordinate
system,
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜌𝑣
(r2 )=-
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜀

We know that, 𝐸⃗ = - ▼V

𝜕𝑣
𝐸⃗ = - 𝑎
̂𝑟 = Er 𝑎
̂𝑟
𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑣
Er = -
𝜕𝑟

(i) For r < a, Er = Ar4

𝜕𝑣
Ar4 = -
𝜕𝑟

Multiplying both sides by r2,

𝜕𝑣
r2 = - Ar6
𝜕𝑟

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑣
(r2 )= (- Ar6) = -
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜀

1 𝜌𝑣
(- 6Ar5) = -
𝑟2 𝜀

i.e. 𝜌𝑣 = 6𝜀 Ar3 c/m3

(ii) For r > a, Er = Ar-2

𝜕𝑣
Ar-2 = -
𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑣
r2 =-A
𝜕𝑟

pg. 8
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

1 𝜕 𝜌𝑣
(- A) = -
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝜀
𝜌𝑣
0=-
𝜀

i.e. 𝜌𝑣 = 0

__________________________________________________________________

Given the potential field V = (Aρ4+ Bρ-4) sin4Ф. Select A and B so

that V = 100V and |𝑬⃗⃗ |= 500 V/m at P(ρ=1,Ф=22.50, z=2).

𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣
We know that, 𝐸⃗ = - ▼V = - 𝑎̂𝜌 - 𝑎̂Ф
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕Ф

= -4[(Aρ3- Bρ-5) sin4Ф𝑎

̂𝜌 + (Aρ3+ Bρ-5) cos4Ф𝑎̂Ф ]

At P, 𝐸⃗ = -4(A-B) 𝑎
̂𝜌

Magnitude of 𝐸⃗ = ±4(A-B).

Also, with ρ = 1, V = A + B

Therefore, 4 (A - B) = ±500

And A+B = 100

Solving above two equations, we get two pairs of values for A and B,

A=112.5, B = -12.5 and A= -12.5, B = 112.5

______________________________________________________________________________

Given the potential field V = 3x2yz + ky3z volts:

i) Find k if potential field satisfies Laplace’s equation ii) Find 𝑬

⃗⃗ at
(1,2,3)
Given, V = 3x2yz + ky3z

Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = + +
Ə𝑥 2 Ə𝑦 2 Ə𝑧 2

= 6yz + 6kyz + 0

pg. 9
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

It is given V satisfies Laplace’s equation. So, ▼2 V = 0

6yz + 6kyz = 0

6yz = - 6kyz

 K = -1

ii) 𝐸⃗ = - ▼V
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
=-[ 𝑎
̂+
𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎
̂𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

= - [6xyz 𝑎
̂𝑥 + (3x2z + 3ky2z) 𝑎̂𝑦 + (3x2yz + ky3) 𝑎
̂]
𝑧

At (1,2,3), x=1,y=2,z=3 and using k = -1

𝐸⃗ = - [36 𝑎
̂𝑥 -27 𝑎̂𝑦 -2 𝑎
̂]𝑧

⃗𝑬
⃗ = - 36 𝒂
̂𝒙 + 27 𝒂
̂𝒚 + 2 𝒂
̂𝒛 V/m

______________________________________________________________________________

Given the vector field 𝑬

⃗⃗ = (12yx2 – 6z2x) 𝒂
̂𝒙 + (4x3 + 18zy2) 𝒂
̂𝒚 +
(6y3 -6zx2) 𝒂
̂.𝒛 Check for Laplace or Poisson’s field.

𝐸⃗ = - ▼V

▼V = - 𝐸⃗ = (-12yx2 + 6z2x) 𝑎
̂𝑥 - (4x3 + 18zy2) 𝑎̂𝑦 + (-6y3 + 6zx2) 𝑎
̂𝑧

To evaluate Laplace or Poisson field, ▼2 V need to be known.

▼2 V = ▼.▼V = ▼. (- 𝐸⃗ ) = ▼. [(-12yx2 + 6z2x) 𝑎

̂𝑥 - (4x3 + 18zy2) 𝑎̂𝑦 + (-6y3 + 6zx2) 𝑎
̂]𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=[ 𝑎
̂+
𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎
̂𝑧 ]. [(-12yx2 + 6z2x) 𝑎̂𝑥 - (4x3 + 18zy2) 𝑎̂𝑦 + (-6y3 + 6zx2) 𝑎̂]
𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= (-12yx2 + 6z2x) + - (4x3 + 18zy2) + (-6y3 + 6zx2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

pg. 10
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

▼2 V = -24yx + 6z2 – 36 zy + 6 x2, which is not equal to 0

So the potential field in the region is not satisfying the Laplace’s equation. Hence it is Poisson’s
field.

______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2015, Jan 2016, July 2016, Jan 2018,
July 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Applications of Laplace’s Equation

Solve the Laplace’s equation for the potential field in the

homogenous region between the two concentric conducting spheres
with radii a and b, such that b > a if potential V = 0 at r = b and
V = V0 at r = a. And find the capacitance between two concentric
spheres.

The concentric conductors are shown in figure below.

At r = b, V = 0 hence the outer sphere is shown at zero potential.

The field intensity will be only in radial direction hence V is changing only in radial direction as
the radial distance r, and not the function of θ and Ф.

According to Laplace equation,

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 Ə2 𝑉
▼2 V = 2 (𝑟 2 )+ 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) + 2 2 =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ƏФ2

pg. 11
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑣
 (r2 ) = 0 (not the function of θ and Ф)
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕 𝜕𝑣
 (r2 )=0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑣
Integrating, r2 = C1
𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑣
 = 𝐶1⁄𝑟 2
𝜕𝑟
----------- (1)
Integrating again,
V= ∫ 𝐶1 𝑟 −2 dr + C2

𝐶1⁄
 V=− 𝑟 + C2
----------- (2)
Using the boundary conditions,
V = 0 at r = b and V = V0 at r = a

𝐶1⁄ 𝐶1⁄
(2) becomes, 0 = − 𝑏 + C2 and V0 = − 𝑎 + C2
Subtracting these two, we get,

𝐶1⁄ 𝐶1
V0 = − 𝑎 + ⁄𝑏
V0 = 𝐶1 [ 1⁄𝑏 - 1⁄𝑎 ]

𝑉0
Or 𝐶1 = 1
[ ⁄𝑏 − 1⁄𝑎]

𝐶1⁄ 𝑉0
Now, C2 = 𝑏 = b [ 1⁄𝑏 − 1⁄𝑎]

Substituting values of C1 and C2 in (2),

𝑉0 𝑉0
V=− +
r [ ⁄𝑏 − 1⁄𝑎]
1 b [ ⁄𝑏 − 1⁄𝑎]
1

This is the potential field in the region between two spheres.

Therefore, 𝐸⃗ = - ▼V

pg. 12
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

𝜕𝑉
 𝐸⃗ = - 𝑎
̂𝑟
𝜕𝑟

𝜕 𝑉0
 𝐸⃗ = - [− ] 𝑎
̂𝑟
𝜕𝑟 r [ ⁄𝑏 – 1⁄𝑎]
1

𝑉0 𝜕 1
 𝐸⃗ = 1 ( ⁄𝑟) 𝑎̂𝑟
[ ⁄ – 1⁄𝑎] 𝜕𝑟
𝑏

−𝑉0
 𝐸⃗ = V/m
r2 [ ⁄𝑏 – 1⁄𝑎]
1

−𝜀 𝑉0
⃗ = ε𝐸⃗ =
Therefore, 𝐷
r2 [ ⁄𝑏 – 1⁄𝑎]
1

𝜀 𝑉0
⃗ =
 𝐷 C/m2
r2 [ ⁄𝑎 – 1⁄𝑏 ]
1

⃗ exist only normal to the

As per the boundary conditions between conductor and dielectric, the 𝐷
⃗ = DN and DN = ρs
surface i.e. 𝐷

𝜀 𝑉0
 ρs = C/m2
r2 [ ⁄𝑎 – 1⁄𝑏]
1

Total charge on the surface of sphere of radius, r is Q and Q = ρs x surface area

𝜀 𝑉0
Therefore, Q = x 4πr2
r2 [ 1⁄𝑎 – 1⁄𝑏]
4π𝜀 𝑉0
 Q= C
[ ⁄𝑎 – 1⁄𝑏]
1

𝑄
Capacitance, C = ⁄𝑉 , where V is the potential between two spheres = V0

𝑄 4π𝜀 𝑉0
C = ⁄V0 = 1
[ ⁄𝑎 – 1⁄𝑏] 𝑉0

4πε
 C= 1 F
[ ⁄𝑎 – 1⁄𝑏]

pg. 13
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Zero in on:

Laplace equation can be used to find capacitance under various conditions.

______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: July 2013, Jan 2016

______________________________________________________________________________

Review Questions

1. It is known that V = XY is a solution of Laplace’s equation, where X is a function of x

alone, and Y is a function of y alone. Determine which of the following potential function
are also solutions of Laplace’s equation:
(i) V = 100X
(ii) V = 50XY
(iii) V = X2Y

2. Let V = (cos 2Ф)/ρ in free space, Find the surface charge density on a conductor surface
passing through B(2, 300, 1).

3. −𝜋 𝑍 𝜋
The region < 𝑍0 < has a charge density ρ= 10-8cos(z/z0) C/m3. Elsewhere the charge
2 2

density is zero. Find V and 𝐸⃗ from poisson’s equation

4. Let V = (cos 2Ф)/ρ in free space, Find the volume charge density at point A(0.5, 600, 1)

5. The region between two concentric right circular cylinder contains an uniform charge
density ρv. Solve the Poisson’s equation for potential in the region.

6. Derive Poisson’s and laplace equation starting from Gauss’s law. Represent the equations

pg. 14
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

in all the coordinate systems.

7. State and prove uniqueness theorem.

8. Find the capacitance of a co-axial cable with inner radius a and outer radius b where
b>a, using laplace equation.

___________________________________________________________________________________

pg. 15
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

MODULE 4
MAGNETIC FORCES

Syllabus: Force on a moving charge and differential current element, Force between
differential current elements, Force and torque on a closed circuit
______________________________________________________________________________

Recommended readings:
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck,
Tata McGraw-Hill, 2014.
2. Electromagnetics, J A Edminister, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
3. Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics, David K Cheng,
Pearson, 2014.
______________________________________________________________________________

Contents

Force on a moving charge ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Force between differential current elements ............................................................................................. 3
Force between two parallel conductors .................................................................................................... 4
Numerical Problems ................................................................................................................................ 6
Magnetic Torque ................................................................................................................................... 10
Numerical Problems .............................................................................................................................. 14
Review Questions .................................................................................................................................. 16

______________________________________________________________________________
This part of module discusses the forces and torques exerted by the magnetic field on other
charges. The electric field causes a force to be exerted on a charge which may be either
stationary or in motion but the steady magnetic field is capable of exerting a force only on a
moving charge. A magnetic field cannot arise from stationary charges and cannot exert any force
on a stationary charge.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Force on a moving charge

pg. 1
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

In an electric field the definition of electric field intensity shows us that the force on a charged
particle is
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝒆 = Q𝑬 ⃗⃗
The force is in same direction as the electric field intensity (for a positive charge) and is directly
proportional to both 𝐸⃗ and Q.

A charged particle in motion in a magnetic field of flux density 𝐵 ⃗ is found experimentally to

experience a force whose magnitude is proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the
⃗ , and to the sine of the angle between the vectors
charge Q, its velocity 𝑣 , and the flux density 𝐵
𝑣 and 𝐵⃗ . The direction of the force is perpendicular to both 𝑣 and 𝐵
⃗ and is given by a unit vector
⃗ . The force may therefore be expressed as,
in the direction of 𝑣 x 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ x𝑩
𝑭𝒎 = Q 𝒗

The electric force exerted on the moving charge by the electric field is independent of the
direction in which charge is moving. Thus the electric force performs work on charge. On the
other hand, magnetic force is dependent on the velocity of the moving charge. But it cannot
perform work on a moving charge as it is at right angle to the direction of motion of charge.

Lorentz Force Equation:

The force on a moving particle due to combined electric and magnetic fields is obtained easily by
superposition,
𝐹=𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗𝑒 + 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚

𝐹 = Q𝐸⃗ + Q 𝑣 x 𝐵
⃗

⃗⃗ = Q (𝑬
𝑭 ⃗⃗ + 𝒗 ⃗⃗ )
⃗ x𝑩

This equation is called Lorentz Force Equation.

______________________________________________________________________________
Force on a differential current element

The force on a charged particle moving through a steady magnetic field may be written as the
differential force exerted on a differential element of charge,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = dQ 𝑣 x 𝐵
𝑑𝐹 ⃗

pg. 2
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

We know that, convection current density in terms of the velocity of the volume charge density
is
𝐽 = ρv 𝑣

The differential element of charge may also be expressed in terms of volume charge
density as,
dQ = ρv dv

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ρv dv 𝑣 x 𝐵
Thus, 𝑑𝐹 ⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐽 x 𝐵
or 𝑑𝐹 ⃗ dv
Now, 𝐽 dv can be interpreted as differential current element, as discussed in distributed sources
for Biot-Savat law.
⃗⃗⃗
𝐽 dv = I 𝑑𝑙

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = I ⃗⃗⃗
Therefore, 𝑑𝐹 ⃗
𝑑𝑙x 𝐵

⃗⃗⃗ x 𝐵
Integrating over a closed path, 𝐹 = ∮ I 𝑑𝑙 ⃗

If the differential length is known and field is uniform, the integration gives,
⃗⃗𝑭 = I ⃗𝑳x ⃗⃗𝑩

Using cross product rule, the magnitude of the force will be,

F = B I L sinθ
Where, θ is the angle between the vectors representing the direction of the current flow and the
direction of the magnetic flux density.
______________________________________________________________________________

Force between differential current elements

Let us consider two current elements I1⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿1 and I2⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿2 as shown in the figure. Note that
directions of current through the current elements are same.

pg. 3
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

Both the current elements produce their own magnetic fields. The force on current element 1 due
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 produced by current element 2 can be written as:
to the magnetic field 𝑑𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1) = I1⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
d(𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐿1 x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵2

According to Biot-Savat’s law, the magnetic field produced by I2⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐿2 is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
I2 𝑑𝐿2 X â
R21
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐻2 = 2
4𝜋𝑅21

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
I2 𝑑𝐿2 X â
R21
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵2 = µ 2
4𝜋𝑅21

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1) , we get,
Substituting this expression in d(𝑑𝐹

𝑑𝐿1 x (I2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

I ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐿2 X â R21 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1) = µ 1
d(𝑑𝐹
4𝜋𝑅21 2

By integrating above equation twice, we will get total force on current element 1 due to current
element 2.
µ 𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐗 𝐚̂ )
𝒅𝑳𝟏 𝒙( 𝒅𝑳
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟐 𝐑𝟐𝟏
𝑭𝟏 = ∯
𝟒𝝅 𝑹𝟐𝟏 𝟐
Similarly,
µ 𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐗 𝐚̂ )
𝒅𝑳𝟐 𝒙( 𝒅𝑳
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟏 𝐑𝟏𝟐
𝑭𝟐 = ∯
𝟒𝝅 𝑹𝟏𝟐 𝟐
_______________________________________________________

Force between two parallel conductors

Consider two long parallel conductors of length 𝑙 each placed in a medium. Conductors are
separated by distance d as shown in the figure.
pg. 4
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

Assume that conductors carry current in opposite directions. Now the magnitude of force exerted
on conductor 1 due to magnetic field produced by conductor 2 is given by,

F1 = I1 𝑙 B2 sin 90 = I1 𝑙 B2

Using Ampere circuital law, the magnitude of magnetic field intensity due to straight conductor
𝐼2
is H2 =
2𝜋𝑑

Hence by definition,
µ𝐼2
B2 = µ H2 =
2𝜋𝑑

µ 𝑙 𝐼1 𝐼2
Therefore, F1 =
2𝜋𝑑

Similarly, the magnitude of force exerted on conductor 2 due to magnetic field produced by
conductor 1 is,
µ 𝑙 𝐼1 𝐼2
F2 =
2𝜋𝑑

So the magnitude of both forces is same. Thus, in general, for two parallel conductors of equal
length carrying same or different currents, force exerted can be written as,
µ 𝒍 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
F=
𝟐𝝅𝒅

Note that, if the two currents flow in same direction, force is of attractive nature.

______________________________________________________________________________

Zero in on:

No work is done by magnetic force when a point charge is displaced.

Magnetic force is always perpendicular to magnetic field.

pg. 5
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

_______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2015, Jan 2016, July 2016, July 2017,
Jan 2018, July 2018, Jan 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Numerical Problems
A point charge Q = 18nC has a velocity of 5x10 6 m/s in the
direction 𝒂
̂𝒗 = 0.6 𝒂
̂𝒙 + 0.75 𝒂
̂𝒚 + 0.3 𝒂
̂.𝒛 Calculate the magnitude

of force exerted on the charge by the field, (i) ⃗𝑬

⃗ =-3 𝒂̂𝒙 + 4 𝒂 ̂𝒚 +
6 𝒂̂𝒛 kV/m (ii) 𝑩
⃗⃗ =-3 𝒂
̂𝒙 + 4 𝒂̂𝒚 + 6 𝒂̂𝒛 mT (iii) 𝑩 ⃗⃗ and 𝑬⃗⃗ acting
together.

(i) ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 = Q𝐸⃗

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 = 18 x 10-9 [(-3 𝑎̂𝑥 + 4 𝑎̂𝑦 + 6 𝑎
̂) 3
𝑧 x 10 ]

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 = (-54 𝑎̂𝑥 + 72 𝑎̂𝑦 + 108 𝑎
̂) -6
𝑧 x 10 N

The magnitude of force exerted by electric field will be,

⃗⃗⃗𝑒 | = √(−54x10−6 )2 + (72x10−6 )2 + (108x10−6 )2
|𝐹

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒆 | = 140.6 x 10-6 N

|𝑭

(ii)

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
𝐹𝑚 = Q 𝑣 x 𝐵

𝑣 = 5x106 [0.6 𝑎̂𝑥 + 0.75 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.3 𝑎

̂]𝑧

pg. 6
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 = 18 x 10-9 (5x106 [0.6 𝑎̂𝑥 + 0.75 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.3 𝑎
̂]𝑧 x [-3 𝑎
̂𝑥 + 4 𝑎̂𝑦 + 6 𝑎
̂] -3
𝑧 x 10 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 = [0.054 𝑎̂𝑥 + 0.0675 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.027 𝑎
̂]𝑧 x [-3 𝑎
̂𝑥 + 4 𝑎̂𝑦 + 6 𝑎
̂]𝑧 x 10
-3

𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧
= |0.054 0.0675 0.027| x 10-3
−3 4 6

-3
= [0.297 𝑎̂𝑥 - 0.405 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.418 𝑎
̂]𝑧 x 10 N

The magnitude of force exerted by magnetic field will be,

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚 | = √(0.297x10−3 )2 + (−0.405x10−3 )2 + (0.418x10−3 )2
|𝐹

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒎 | = 653.7 x 10-6 N

|𝑭

(iii)

𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚

𝐹 = Q𝐸⃗ + Q 𝑣 x 𝐵
⃗

-6 -3
= (-54 𝑎̂𝑥 + 72 𝑎̂𝑦 + 108 𝑎
̂)𝑧 x 10 + (0.297 𝑎̂𝑥 - 0.405 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.418 𝑎
̂)𝑧 x 10

-6
= (243 𝑎̂𝑥 - 333 𝑎̂𝑦 + 526 𝑎
̂)𝑧 x 10 N

|𝐹 | = √(243x10−6 )2 + (−333x10−6 )2 + (526x10−6 )2

⃗⃗ | = 668 x 10-6 N
|𝑭
______________________________________________________________________________
A conductor 4 m long lies along the y-axis with a current of 10 A
in the 𝒂
̂𝒚 direction. Find the force on the conductor if the field in
the region is ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 0.005 𝒂
̂𝒙 Tesla.

𝐹 = I 𝐿⃗x 𝐵
⃗

pg. 7
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

𝐿⃗ = 4𝑎̂𝑦 and 𝐵
⃗ = 0.005 𝑎̂𝑥

𝐹 = 10 [4𝑎̂𝑦 x 0.005 𝑎
̂]
𝑥

𝐹 = 10 x 4 x 0.005 (𝑎̂𝑦 x 𝑎̂)

𝑥

⃗𝑭
⃗ = - 2̂
𝒂𝒛
______________________________________________________________________________
A current element I1𝜟𝑳⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 = 10-5 𝒂 ̂𝒛 A-m is located at P1(1,0,0)
while a second element I2𝜟𝑳 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐 = 10-5 (0.6𝒂
̂𝒙 - 2𝒂
̂𝒚 + 3𝒂𝒛 A-m is at
̂)
P2 (-1,0,0) both in free space. Find the vector force exerted on
I2𝜟𝑳
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐 by I1𝜟𝑳
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 .

pg. 8
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

______________________________________________________________________________
Find the force per meter length between two long parallel wires
separated by 10 cm in air and carrying a current of 10 A in same
directions.

Force between two parallel conductors is given by,

µ 𝑙 𝐼1 𝐼2
F=
2𝜋𝑑

Force per unit length,

𝐹 µ 𝐼1 𝐼2
=
𝑙 2𝜋𝑑

𝐹 4πx10−7 𝑥10 𝑥10

=
𝑙 2𝜋x10x10−7

𝑭
= 0.2 mN/m
𝒍

______________________________________________________________________________

pg. 9
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

Magnetic Torque
Any closed circuit carrying direct current experiences a total vector force of zero in a uniform
magnetic field. Even though force is zero, torque is not generally zero. So, while dealing with
magnetic field, it is necessary to define magnetic torque or moment of a force.

In defining the torque, it is necessary to consider both the point about which torque is to be
calculated and the point at which the force acts. Then, torque is defined as the vector product of
the moment arm 𝑅⃗ and the force𝐹. It is measured in Newton meter (Nm).

⃗𝑻 = ⃗𝑹
⃗ x ⃗𝑭
⃗

Consider point A at which force 𝐹 is applied as shown in the figure above. Let 𝑅⃗ be the arm
from origin O to point A. Then torque ⃗𝑻 about the origin is nothing but vector product of ⃗𝑹
⃗ and
⃗⃗𝑭. Note that ⃗𝑻 is normal to both 𝑅⃗ and 𝐹.

Now consider that two forces namely ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹1 and 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗2 are applied at points A1 and A2 respectively. The
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and 𝑅
arms drawn from the origin be 𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 respectively as shown in the figure below.

pg. 10
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

⃗⃗⃗2 = −𝐹
Assume that 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗1 . Then total torque about the origin due to two forces can be found as,

⃗ =𝑇
𝑇 ⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑇2

⃗⃗⃗1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇 𝑅1 x ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝑇2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗2
𝑅2 x 𝐹

⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇 𝑅1 x ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗2
𝑅2 x 𝐹

⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇 𝑅1 x ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1
𝑅2 x −𝐹

⃗ = ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ) x ⃗⃗⃗
𝑅1 - 𝑅 𝐹1

⃗𝑻 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑹𝟐𝟏 x ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝟏

Therefore, when total force is zero, the torque is independent of the choice of the origin.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Magnetic moment of a planar coil:

Consider a rectangular loop DEFG of length ‘L’ and breadth ‘b’ carrying current ‘I’. Let the
⃗ be applied perpendicular to the axis of the coil. θ is the angle
magnetic field of flux density 𝐵
between the field and normal drawn to the plane of the loop as shown in the figure.

pg. 11
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

Now, consider force acting on each conducting arm of the loop. The force acting on the arm EF
can be obtained from force acting on a conductor in magnetic field.

𝐹𝐸𝐹 = I (𝑏⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ )

Considering the magnitude of force,

⃗.
FEF = IBb x sine of angle between conducting arm EF and 𝐵

⃗ is 900-θ.
Referring the figure, angle between EF and 𝐵

FEF = IBb sin (900-θ)

FEF = IBb cos θ

Using Fleming’s left hand rule, we find that direction of this force is acting downwards through
the axis of planar coil.

Similarly, the force acting on the arm DG,

pg. 12
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

FDG = IBb cos θ

This force will be acting through the axis of coil but upwards. Forces, FEF and FDG have equal
magnitude but opposite directions acting through the axis of the coil, thereby cancelling each
other.

Now, the magnitude of force acting on the arm DE,

⃗.
FDE = IBL x sine of angle between conducting arm DE and 𝐵

⃗ is 900.
Angle between DE and 𝐵

FDE = IBL sin 900

FDE = BIL

This force acts outwards from the plane of paper by sign convention.

Similarly, the magnitude of force acting on the arm GF will be,

FGF = BIL

This force acts inwards to the plane of paper by sign convention. (Shown in figure)

These two equal and opposite forces acting at different points give rise to a torque. The
magnitude of torque is given as,

𝑇 = F x perpendicular distance between the two forces

pg. 13
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

T = BIL (bsinθ)

L x b = A, area of the loop.

T = BIA sinθ

⃗ = I (𝑨
In vector notation, 𝑻 ⃗⃗ x 𝑩
⃗⃗ )

Now, the magnetic dipole moment of a current loop is defined as the product of current through
the loop and the area of the loop, directed normal to the current loop.

⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = I𝑨
𝒎

Using this, torque can also be expressed as,

⃗ =𝒎
𝑻 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑩

_____________________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: July 2011, Jan 2018, July 2018

________________________________________________________________

Numerical Problems

Find the maximum torque on 85 turns rectangular coil 0.2 m by 0.3

m carrying a current 2A in a field B = 6.5 T.

pg. 14
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

Area of loop = 0.2 x 0.3 = 0.06 m2

Total area with 85 turns = 85 x 0.06 = 5.1 m2

Magnitude of dipole moment, m = IA

m = 2 x 5.1 = 10.2 Am2

Therefore, max torque = mB

Tmax = 10.2 x 6.5

Tmax = 66.3 Nm

______________________________________________________________________________

A rectangular coil as shown in the figure is in the magnetic field

̂𝒙 + 𝒂
𝒂 ̂𝒚
given by, 𝑩
⃗⃗ = 0.05 T.
√𝟐

Find the torque about z axis when the coil is in the position shown
and carries a current of 5 A.

𝑚
⃗⃗ = I𝐴

A = 0.08 x 0.04 = 3.2 x 10-3 m2

𝐴 = 3.2 x 10-3 𝑎̂𝑥

⃗⃗ = 5 x 3.2 x 10-3 𝑎̂𝑥

𝑚

⃗⃗ = 0.016 𝑎̂𝑥 Am2

𝑚

Magnetic torque is given by,

pg. 15
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

⃗𝑻 = 𝒎
⃗⃗⃗ x ⃗𝑩
⃗

𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝑎̂𝑦
= 0.016 𝑎̂𝑥 x [0.05 ]
√2

= 5.66 x 10-4 [𝑎̂𝑥 x 𝑎̂𝑦 ]

⃗ = 5.66 x 10-4 𝒂
𝑻 ̂𝒛

______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2014, July 2018

______________________________________________________________________________

Review Questions

1. State and explain Lorentz force equation.

2. Derive Lorentz force equation and mention the application of the solution.

3. Derive expression for magnetic force on moving point charge.

4. Find the expression for force on differential current element moving in a steady magnetic
field. Deduce the result to a straight conductor in a uniform field.

5. Derive an expression for the force on a differential current element placed in a magnetic
field.

6. Derive an expression for the magnetic force between the two differential current
elements.

7. Write a note on magnetic force and torque on a closed circuit.

pg. 16
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

8. Derive the expression for the torque on a rectangular current loop carrying current I.

6
9. A point charge Q = -40µC is moving with a velocity of (-3 𝑎̂𝑥 -4 𝑎̂𝑦 + 4.5 𝑎
̂)x10
𝑧 m/s

Find the magnitude of vector force exerted on the charge by the field, (i) 𝐸⃗ =2 𝑎̂𝑥 + 3
𝑎̂𝑦 -4 𝑎 ⃗ = 2 𝑎̂𝑥 -3 𝑎̂𝑦 + 5 𝑎
̂𝑧 kV/m (ii) 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝐸⃗ acting together.
̂𝑧 mT (iii) 𝐵

10. ⃗ = -0.4 𝑎̂𝑥

A charge of Q = 5 x 10-18 C is moving through a uniform magnetic field of 𝐵
5
+0.2 𝑎̂𝑦 -0.1 𝑎
̂𝑧 T with a velocity of (2 𝑎̂𝑥 -3 𝑎̂𝑦 + 6 𝑎
̂)𝑧 x10 m/s at t=0.

(i) What is the electric field present at t=0 if the net force is zero.
(ii)If the electric field intensity is in the 𝑎̂𝑥 direction entirely, find Ex if |𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 | = 2 pN.

11. A conductor 6 m long lies along z direction with a current of 2 A in 𝑎

̂𝑧 direction. Find
⃗ = 0.008 𝑎̂𝑥 T.
the force experienced by the conductor if 𝐵

12. A conductor of length 2.5 m in z =0 and x=4 m carries a current of 12A in −𝑎̂𝑦
direction. Calculate the uniform flux density in the region, if the force on the conductor
̂+
−𝑎 ̂𝑧
𝑥 𝑎
is 12 x 10-2 N in the direction specified by .
√2

13. A current element 4 cm long lies along y axis with a current of 10 mA in 𝑎̂𝑦 direction.
⃗ = 5 𝑎̂𝑥 T.
Find the force experienced by the current element if 𝐵

14. A current element I1⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐿1 = 10-4 𝑎
̂𝑧 A-m is located at P1(2,0,0) while a second element
I2⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿2 = 10-6 (𝑎̂𝑥 - 2𝑎̂𝑦 + 3𝑎
̂)𝑧 A-m is at P2 (-2,0,0) both in free space.

(i) Find the vector force exerted on I2⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐿2 by I1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿1
(ii) Find the vector force exerted on I1⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿1 by I2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿2 .

15. Two infinitely long straight conductors are located at x =0, y = 0 and x = 0, y = 10m.

pg. 17
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY BEC401

Both carry current of 10 A in positive 𝑎

̂𝑧 direction. Determine force experienced per
meter between them.

16. Current flowing in conductor A and B are 500 A and 800 A respectively. Net force
acting on conductor B is 2 N/m. Find current in conductor C and also its direction.
Refer the given figure.

17. A loop wire is bent in the form of triangle as shown in the figure.

A current of 100 mA flows in 𝑎̂𝑥 direction in the segment AB. If the uniform magnetic
⃗ = 0.2 𝑎̂𝑥 -0.1 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0.2 𝑎
field is 𝐵 ̂𝑧 T, find (i) force on segment AB (ii) torque on the
loop if origin is at (0, 0, 0).

18. A circular loop of radius r and current I lies in z = 0 plane. Find the torque which results

⃗ = 𝐵0 (𝑎
if the current is in 𝑎̂𝜑 direction and there is uniform field 𝐵 ̂𝑥 + 𝑎
̂).
𝑧
√2

___________________________________________________________________________________

pg. 18
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

MODULE 5
TIME VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S
EQUATIONS

Syllabus: Faraday’s law, Displacement current, Maxwell’s equation in point and Integral
form.
______________________________________________________________________________

Recommended readings:
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck,
Tata McGraw-Hill, 2014.
2. Electromagnetics, J A Edminister, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
3. Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics, David K Cheng,
Pearson, 2014.
______________________________________________________________________________

Contents

Faraday’s Law ......................................................................................................................................... 2

Maxwell’s Equations for Time Varying Fields ......................................................................................... 3
Displacement current and its physical significance ................................................................................... 6
The Retarded Potentials ........................................................................................................................... 8
Numerical Problems .............................................................................................................................. 11
Review Questions .................................................................................................................................. 21

______________________________________________________________________________

The time varying fields or dynamic fields are produced by time varying currents. Unlike static
fields, in time varying fields, electric and magnetic fields are interdependent.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

pg. 1
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s law states that a time varying magnetic field produces an e.m.f. An e.m.f is the
voltage which arises from conductor moving in a magnetic field or from a changing magnetic
field or both.
It is customarily stated as,
𝑑𝜑𝑚
e.m.f = −
𝑑𝑡
i.e. e.m.f induced in a closed path is proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux enclosed by
the closed path.
If the conductor circuit is closed, e.m.f can be represented as ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙. Then,
𝑑𝜑𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ = −
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑡

The negative sign indicates that the direction of induced e.m.f is such that to produce a current
which will produce magnetic field which will oppose original field. This was later postulated by
Henri Lenz and he stated that direction of induced e.m.f is such that it opposes the cause
producing it. This is famously known as Lenz’s law.

When e.m.f is induced in a stationary closed path due to time varying magnetic field, the e.m.f is
called statically induced e.m.f or transformer e.m.f. When the e.m.f is induced in a time varying
closed path due to static magnetic field, then the e.m.f is called dynamically induced e.m.f or
motional e.m.f.

𝒅𝝋𝒎
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
So, ∮ ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒍 = − , statically induced e.m.f.
𝒅𝒕

Now, to find expression for dynamically induced e.m.f, consider that a charge Q is moved in a
⃗ at a velocity of 𝑣 . Then force on charge is given by,
static magnetic field, 𝐵
⃗
𝐹=Q𝑣x𝐵
The motional electric field intensity can be represented as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑚 and is defined as force per unit
charge.
𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
𝐸𝑚 = = 𝑣 x 𝐵
𝑄

Thus, induced motional e.m.f is given by,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒎 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑬 𝒅𝒍 = ∮( 𝒗 ⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ 𝐱 ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍

A moving closed path in a time varying field will have both the e.m.f’s induced. Therefore, for
time varying fields,
Total induced e.m.f = transformer e.m.f + motional e.m.f

pg. 2
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

𝑑𝜑𝑚
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − + ∮( 𝑣 x 𝐵⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑡

𝑑
𝑑𝑙 = − (∫𝑆 ⃗𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠) + ∮( 𝑣 x 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗
𝝏𝑩
∮𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∫
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∮( 𝒗
. 𝒅𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ). 𝒅𝒍
⃗ 𝐱𝑩
𝑺 𝝏𝒕
______________________________________________________________________________

Maxwell’s Equations for Time Varying Fields

The equations describing relationships between time varying electric and magnetic fields are
known as Maxwell’s equations. They are set of four expressions derived from Gauss’s law in
electric and magnetic fields, Faraday’s law and Ampere’s circuital law. These expressions can be
written in following forms:

1) Maxwell’s equation from Gauss’s law for electric field:

According to Gauss’s law, the total flux out of the closed surface is equal to the net charge
within the surface. This can be written in integral form as:
ψ=Q=∫ 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝑆

If the charge is volume charge enclosed by a surface then, Q = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑑𝑣

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
This implies that, ∫𝑺 𝑫 𝒅𝒔 = ∫𝑽 𝝆𝒗 𝒅𝒗

This is Maxwell’s equation from Gauss’s law in integral form and is stated as total flux leaving
out of a closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by a finite volume.

Now to obtain point form, apply divergence theorem to L.H.S of above integral form equation.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ ∇. 𝐷 ⃗ 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑉

⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Therefore, ∫𝑉 ∇. 𝐷 𝑉

Assuming integral over same volume,

⃗⃗ = 𝝆𝒗
𝛁. 𝑫
This is Maxwell’s equation from Gauss’s law in point form or differential form.
______________________________________________________________________________
2) Maxwell’s equation from Gauss’s law for magnetic field:

pg. 3
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Remember that the magnetic flux lines always exist in the form of closed loop. Thus for a closed
surface the number of magnetic flux lines entering must be equal to the number of magnetic flux
lines leaving. This means no magnetic flux can reside in closed surface. This is mathematically
expressed as Gauss’s law for magnetic field.

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝑺 ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒔 = 0

This is Maxwell’s equation from gauss’s law for magnetic field in integral form. It states that,
the surface integral of magnetic flux density over a closed surface is always equal to zero.

Using divergence theorem, surface integral can be converted to volume integral as,
⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = 0
∫𝑉 ∇. 𝐵

But, for a finite volume, 𝑑𝑣 ≠ 0

Therefore, 𝛁. ⃗𝑩⃗ =0

This is differential form or point form of Maxwell’s equation from Gauss’s law for magnetic
field.
______________________________________________________________________________
3) Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law:
According to Faraday’s law,
𝑑𝜑𝑚
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = −
𝑑𝑡

Considering an open surface,

𝜑𝑚 = ∫ 𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑆

𝑑
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − (∫𝑆 𝐵 𝑑𝑠)
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗
𝝏𝑩
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫𝑺 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔
𝝏𝒕
This is Maxwell’s equation from faraday’s law in integral form which states that total e.m.f
induced in a closed path is equal to the negative surface integral of the rate of change of flux
density with respect to time over an entire surface bounded by the same closed path.

To find point form of this equation, use Stoke’s theorem. Applying Stoke’s theorem to L.H.S of
the integral form, line integral is converted to surface integral.
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ (∇ 𝑥𝐸⃗ ). 𝑑𝑠
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆

⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∫
∫𝑆 (∇ 𝑥𝐸⃗ ). 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
. 𝑑𝑠
𝑆 𝜕𝑡

pg. 4
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Assuming that the integration is carried out over the same surface,
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = − 𝝏𝑩
𝛁 𝒙𝑬 𝝏𝒕
This is Maxwell’s equation from faraday’s law expressed in point form.
______________________________________________________________________________
4) Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s Circuital law:
Point form of Ampere’s circuital law is given by,
∇x𝐻 ⃗ =𝐽

Taking divergence on both sides,

⃗ )=∇.𝐽
∇ . (∇ x 𝐻

Divergence of curl of any vector is zero. Thus, L.H.S becomes zero.

0=∇.𝐽
𝜕𝜌𝑣
But from continuity equation of current we know that, ∇ . 𝐽 = − 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜌𝑣
This indicates that, 0 = ∇ . 𝐽 is true only if = 0. In time varying case, this cannot be true.
𝜕𝑡
Therefore, Ampere circuital law defined for steady magnetic field cannot be applied directly to a
time varying field. So, it is necessary to have a generalized form of Ampere circuital law in point
form which is valid for both static and dynamic fields.

Let us add an unknown term 𝐺 to point form of Ampere’s circuital law,

⃗ =𝐽+𝐺
∇x𝐻

Now, taking divergence on both sides,

⃗ )=∇.𝐽 +∇.𝐺
∇ . (∇ x 𝐻

0=∇.𝐽 +∇.𝐺

∇ . 𝐺 = −∇ . 𝐽

𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇.𝐺=
𝜕𝑡

⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
From one of the maxwell’s equation we have, ∇. 𝐷
⃗ )
𝜕(∇.𝐷
∇.𝐺=
𝜕𝑡

⃗ )
𝜕(𝐷
∇ . 𝐺 = ∇.
𝜕𝑡

pg. 5
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

⃗
𝜕𝐷
𝐺=
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
⃗ = 𝑱 + 𝝏𝑫
Therefore, 𝛁 x ⃗𝑯
𝝏𝒕

This is Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s circuital law in point form.

⃗⃗
𝝏𝑫
The term is known as displacement current density and is denoted by 𝐽𝐷 .
𝝏𝒕

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 + 𝑱𝑫
𝛁x𝑯

To obtain the integral form of this equation, integrate the differential form of the equation over a
surface.
⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠
⃗ ). 𝑑𝑠
∫𝑆 (∇𝑥𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
. 𝑑𝑠
𝑆 𝑆 𝜕𝑡

Applying stoke’s theorem to L.H.S,

⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑆 𝐽. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∫𝑆 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝝏𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ (𝑱 +
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍
∮𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
). 𝒅𝒔
𝑺 𝝏𝒕

This is Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s circuital law in integral form which states that the
m.m.f around a closed path is equal to the surface integral of the conduction and displacement
current densities over the entire surface bounded by the same closed path.

The integral form of this equation is also written as,

⃗⃗
𝝏𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑰 + ∫
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍
∮𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ since, ∫ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠
. 𝒅𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = I
𝑺 𝝏𝒕 𝑆

______________________________________________________________________________

Displacement current and its physical significance

Consider a parallel circuit of resistor, R and capacitor, C as shown in the figure. The parallel
combination is driven by the time varying i.e sinusoidal voltage, V.

pg. 6
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Let the current flowing through resistor be i1 and the current flowing through the capacitor is i2.
The nature of current flowing through R is different than that flowing through C. The current
through R can be written as,
𝑉
i1 =
𝑅

This current is called conduction current as the current is flowing because of actual motion of
charges.

If A is cross sectional area of resistor, then conduction current density is given by,
𝑖1
𝐽𝐶 =
𝐴

Now assume that the initial charge on a capacitor is zero. Then for time varying voltage applied
across parallel plate capacitor, current through the capacitor is given by,
𝑑𝑉
i2 = C
𝑑𝑡

If the capacitor is parallel plates separated by d and has an area A,

∈𝐴 𝑑𝑉
i2 =
𝑑 𝑑𝑡

This current is called displacement current denoted by iD.

The electric field produced by the applied voltage is given by,

𝑉
E=
𝑑

𝑉=Ed

pg. 7
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

∈𝐴 𝑑(E d)
iD =
𝑑 𝑑𝑡

𝑑E
iD = ∈ 𝐴
𝑑𝑡

Now, the displacement current density,

𝑖𝐷
𝐽𝐷 =
𝐴

⃗
𝑑E
∈𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝐽𝐷 =
𝐴

𝑑⃗E
𝐽𝐷 = ∈
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∈E⃗ )
𝐽𝐷 =
𝑑𝑡

Since field varies only with time, other parameters can be held constants. Thereby differential
can be written as partial differential.

⃗
𝝏𝐃
𝑱𝑫 =
𝝏𝒕

The total current density is given by,

𝑱 = 𝑱𝑪 + 𝑱𝑫

______________________________________________________________________________

The Retarded Potentials

The time varying potentials are known as retarded potentials.

⃗ = ∇ x 𝐴, where 𝐴 is vector magnetic potential.

We know that, 𝐵

Also, 𝐸⃗ = −∇Vm , where Vm is scalar magnetic potential.

Let us add an unknown term as applicable to time varying field,

𝐸⃗ = −∇Vm + 𝑁
⃗

Taking curl on both sides,

∇ x 𝐸⃗ = −∇ x ∇Vm + ∇ x 𝑁
⃗

pg. 8
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

∇ x 𝐸⃗ = 0 + ∇ x 𝑁
⃗

⃗
𝜕𝐵
From Maxwell’s equation, ∇ x 𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝑡

⃗ = − 𝜕𝐵⃗
Therefore, ∇ x 𝑁 𝜕𝑡

⃗ = − 𝜕 (∇ x 𝐴)
∇x𝑁 𝜕𝑡

𝜕
⃗ = −(∇ x
∇x𝑁 𝐴)
𝜕𝑡

⃗ = − 𝜕𝐴
 𝑁 𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝝏𝑨
Therefore, ⃗𝑬
⃗ = −𝛁𝐕𝐦 −
𝝏𝒕

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

Now, taking divergence on both sides,

𝜕𝐴
∇. 𝐸⃗ = −∇2 Vm −∇. 𝜕𝑡

⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
From Maxwell’s equation, ∇. 𝐷
𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝜀𝐸⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 => ∇. 𝐸⃗ = 𝜀

Substitute this in above equation,

𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝐴
= −∇2 Vm −∇. 𝜕𝑡
𝜀
𝝆𝒗 𝝏
− = 𝛁 𝟐 𝐕𝐦 + (𝛁. ⃗𝑨)
𝜺 𝝏𝒕

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

Now, consider Maxwell’s equation from Ampere circuital law,

⃗
⃗ = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷
∇x𝐻
𝜕𝑡

⃗ =1 ∇x𝐴
⃗ = ∇ x 𝐴 => 𝐻
We have 𝐵
µ

Substituting this result,

1 ⃗
𝜕𝐷
∇x∇x𝐴 =𝐽+
µ 𝜕𝑡

pg. 9
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐸
∇ x ∇ x 𝐴 = µ𝐽 + µ𝜀 𝜕𝑡

Taking value of 𝐸⃗ from (1),

𝜕 𝜕𝐴
∇ x ∇ x 𝐴 = µ𝐽 + µ𝜀 𝜕𝑡 (−∇Vm − 𝜕𝑡 )

𝜕V 𝜕2𝐴
∇ x ∇ x 𝐴 = µ𝐽 −µ𝜀 ∇ 𝜕𝑡m − µ𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2

Applying vector identity to L.H.S,

𝜕V 𝜕 2𝐴
∇( ∇. 𝐴 ) −∇2 𝐴 = µ𝐽 −µ𝜀 ∇ 𝜕𝑡m − µ𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

Consider first order terms only,

𝜕V
∇( ∇. 𝐴 ) = µ𝐽 −µ𝜀 ∇ 𝜕𝑡m

We know that Vm exist only if 𝐽 = 0.

𝜕V
∇( ∇. 𝐴 ) = −µ𝜀 ∇ 𝜕𝑡m

𝝏𝐕
(or) 𝛁. ⃗⃗𝑨 = −µ𝜺 𝝏𝒕𝐦

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

Substituting (4) in (2),

𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜕V
− = ∇2 Vm + (−µ𝜀 𝜕𝑡m )
𝜀 𝜕𝑡

𝝏𝟐 𝐕𝐦 𝝆𝒗
𝛁 𝟐 𝐕𝐦 −µ𝜺 =−
𝝏𝒕𝟐 𝜺

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (5)

Now, consider second order term of (3),

𝜕2 𝐴
−∇2 𝐴 = µ𝐽 − µ𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕 2𝐴
−∇2 𝐴 + µ𝜀 = µ𝐽
𝜕𝑡 2

𝝏𝟐 ⃗𝑨
⃗
⃗⃗ − µ𝜺 𝟐 = −µ𝑱
𝛁𝟐𝑨 𝝏𝒕

pg. 10
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (6)

(5) and (6) are wave equations whose solutions are found to be,

[𝝆 ] [𝑱]
𝒗
𝐕𝐦 = ∫𝒗 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹 𝒅𝒗 and ⃗𝑨
⃗ =∫ 𝝁
𝒗 𝟒𝝅𝑹
𝒅𝒗

These are potentials in time varying field and are known as retarded potentials because
retarded time is used to express them.

The terms [𝜌𝑣 ] and [𝐽] indicates that every ‘t’ appearing in the expression for 𝜌𝑣 has been
replaced by retarded time,
𝑅
𝑡′ = t − , where R is distance between differential element of charge being considered and
𝑣
point at which potential is to be measured.

______________________________________________________________________________

Zero in on:

If the ratio of magnitudes of current densities is greater than 1, the medium is conductor else it is
dielectric.
_______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: Jan 2015, Jan 2016, July 2016, July 2017,
Jan 2018, July 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Numerical Problems
The circular loop conductor at z = 0 plane has a radius of 0.1 mt
and resistance of 5 Ω. Given 𝑩 ⃗⃗ = 0.2sin103t 𝒂
̂𝒛 Tesla. Find the
current in the coil.
To find current in the loop it is necessary to find induced e.m.f.

The reference figure can be drawn as:

pg. 11
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Total flux, 𝜑𝑚 = ∫𝑆 𝐵 𝑑𝑠

Considering cylindrical coordinate systems,

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ρdρ d𝜑 𝑎̂𝑧

𝑑𝑠

𝜑𝑚 = ∫𝑆 0.2𝑠𝑖𝑛103 𝑡 𝑎̂𝑧 . ρdρ d𝜑 𝑎̂𝑧

2𝜋,0.1
𝜑𝑚 = ∬𝜑=0,𝜌=0 0.2𝑠𝑖𝑛103 𝑡 ρdρ d𝜑

0.1
𝜌2
𝜑𝑚 = (0.2𝑠𝑖𝑛103 𝑡) [𝜑]2𝜋
0 [2]
0

𝜑𝑚 = 6.283 x 10-3 sin 103t Wb

Now, induced e.m.f is given by,

𝑑𝜑𝑚
e=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
=− [6.283 x 10-3 sin 103t]
𝑑𝑡

= −6.283 x 10-3 x 103 x cos 103t

e = −6.283 cos 103t V

Hence the current in the conductor is given by,

e −𝟔.𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝐭
i= =
𝑅 5

i = −1.257 cos 103t A

______________________________________________________________________________

pg. 12
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Find the induced voltage in the conductor if ⃗𝑩

⃗ = 0.04 𝒂
̂𝒚 T and
⃗ = 2.5 sin103t 𝒂
𝒗 ̂𝒛 m/s. Find induced e.m.f if ⃗𝑩
⃗ is changed to
0.04 𝒂
̂ 𝒙 T.

e = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑚 . 𝑑𝑙

𝐸𝑚 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∮( 𝑣 x 𝐵 𝑑𝑙

0.2
𝑒 = ∫0 (2.5𝑠𝑖𝑛103 𝑡 𝑎̂𝑧 𝑥 0.04 𝑎̂𝑦 ) . dx 𝑎̂𝑥

0.2
𝑒 = ∫0 (0.1 𝑠𝑖𝑛103 𝑡 −𝑎
̂ 𝑥 ) . dx 𝑎̂𝑥

0.2
𝑒 = −0.1 𝑠𝑖𝑛103 𝑡 ∫0 ( dx)

𝒆 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒕 V

⃗ is changed to 0.04 𝑎̂𝑥 , then conductor and field is in same direction and the conductor
If 𝐵
cannot cut the field. Therefore induced e.m.f will be zero.

______________________________________________________________________________

For the Faraday disc generator shown in the figure, determine

open circuit voltage.

pg. 13
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

The circular disc is of radius ‘a’, rotates at a constant angular

̂𝒛 wb/m2. Two brushes
velocity ‘w’ rad/sec in a magnetic field of B 𝒂
are put, at the axis and rim of the disc.
The flux passing through area acda is the flux linking circuit bb’a’acdb.

Hence we can write,

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ B 𝑎̂ 𝑧 . (ρdρ d𝜑 𝑎̂ 𝑧 )
⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝜑𝑚 = ∫𝑆 𝐵 𝑆

𝑎,𝑤𝑡
𝜑𝑚 = B ∬𝜌=0,𝜑=0 ρdρ d𝜑

𝑎
𝜌2
𝜑𝑚 = B [𝜑]𝑤𝑡
0 [2]
0

𝒂𝟐
𝝋𝒎 = B (𝒘𝒕) 𝟐

Open circuit voltage is given by,

𝑑𝜑
V = − 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2
= − 𝑑𝑡[B(𝑤𝑡) 𝑎2 ]

pg. 14
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

𝒂𝟐
V = −B 𝟐

______________________________________________________________________________

Show that the ratio of the amplitudes of the conduction current

𝝈
density and displacement current density is for the applied field
𝝎𝜺
⃗ = Em cos 𝝎𝒕. Assume µ = µ0.
⃗𝑬

The conduction current density is given by,

⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐶 = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ = 𝜎 Em cos 𝜔𝑡

The displacement current density is given by,

⃗
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝜀𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜕𝑡

𝜕
= 𝜀 𝜕𝑡 (Em cos 𝜔𝑡)

⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = −𝜔𝜀 Em sin 𝜔𝑡

The ratio of amplitudes of the two densities is given by,

|𝐽⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 | 𝜎 Em
=
|𝐽⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐷 | 𝜔𝜀 Em

|𝑱⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑪 | 𝝈
=
|𝑱⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑫 | 𝝎𝜺

__________________________________________________________________

Prove that the conduction current is very large as compared to the

displacement current in a conductor.
The conduction current density is given by,

⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐶 = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ = 𝜎 Em cos 𝜔𝑡

The displacement current density is given by,

⃗
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝜀𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

pg. 15
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

𝜕
= 𝜀 𝜕𝑡 (Em cos 𝜔𝑡)

⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = −𝜔𝜀 Em sin 𝜔𝑡

The ratio of amplitudes of the two densities is given by,

|𝐽⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 | 𝜎 Em
=
|𝐽⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐷 | 𝜔𝜀 Em

|𝑱⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑪 | 𝝈
=
|𝑱⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑫 | 𝝎𝜺

In conductor, 𝜎 will be much larger. This indicates that 𝐽⃗⃗⃗𝐶 is larger or ratio is much larger than 1.
𝐼𝐶 is directly proportion to 𝐽𝐶 and hence the proof.

_____________________________________________________________________________

In a given lossy dielectric medium, conduction current density ⃗⃗⃗

𝑱𝑪 =
0.02 sin 109t A/m2. Find the displacement current density if 𝝈 =
103 S/m and 𝜺r = 6.5
|𝐽⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 | 𝜎
=
|𝐽⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐷 | 𝜔𝜀

𝜔𝜀𝐽𝐶
𝐽𝐷 =
𝜎

109 x 6.5 x 8.854 x 10−12 x 0.02

𝐽𝐷 =
103

𝑱𝑫 = 1.151 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 A/m2

⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐶 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 are always perpendicular to each other, so we can write,

𝑱⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑫 = 1.151 cos 109t µA/m2

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the amplitude of displacement current density in air near a

car antenna where field strength of F.M signal is ⃗𝑬 ⃗ = 80 cos
(6.277 x 108t -2.092y) 𝒂
̂𝒛 V/m.

pg. 16
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

⃗
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐸 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜀
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = 𝜀 (80 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (6.277 𝑥 108 𝑡 − 2.092𝑦)𝑎̂𝑧 )
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 80 𝑥 − 6.277 𝑥 108 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (6.277 𝑥 108 𝑡 − 2.092𝑦)𝑎̂)
𝑧

⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 = −0.4446 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (6.277 𝑥 108 𝑡 − 2.092𝑦)𝑎̂)
𝑧

|𝑱⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑫 | = 0.4446 A/m2

______________________________________________________________________________

Find the amplitude of displacement current density in free space

within a large power distribution transformer where 𝑯⃗⃗⃗ = 106 cos
(377t + 1.2566 x 10-6z) 𝒂
̂𝒚 V/m.

According to Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s circuital law in free space,

⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗ =
∇x𝐻 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷
𝜕𝑡

𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧 𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗ =|
∇x𝐻 | = |𝜕𝑥 |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧 0 106 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (377𝑡 + 1.2566 𝑥 10−6 𝑧) 0

𝜕 𝜕
= [0 - (106 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (377𝑡 + 1.2566 𝑥 10−6 𝑧))] 𝑎̂𝑥 - [ 0 – 0 ] 𝑎̂𝑦 + [𝜕𝑥(106 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (377𝑡 +
𝜕𝑧
1.2566 𝑥 10−6 𝑧)) - 0] 𝑎
̂𝑧
𝜕
= - 𝜕𝑧(106 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (377𝑡 + 1.2566 𝑥 10−6 𝑧)) 𝑎̂𝑥

= −106 [−1.2566 𝑥 10−6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (377𝑡 + 1.2566 𝑥 10−6 𝑧))] 𝑎̂𝑥

⃗ = 1.2566 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (377𝑡 + 1.2566 𝑥 10−6 𝑧) 𝑎̂𝑥 = ⃗⃗⃗

∇x𝐻 𝐽𝐷

|𝑱⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑫 | = 1.2566 A/m2

______________________________________________________________________________

pg. 17
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Find the frequency at which conduction current density and

displacement current density are equal in a medium with
σ = 2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 and 𝜺𝒓 = 81.
|𝐽⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 | 𝜎
⃗⃗⃗⃗
=
|𝐽𝐷 | 𝜔𝜀

𝜎
Given that, =1
𝜔𝜀

𝜎
=𝜔
𝜀

2 x 10−4
𝜔=
(8.854 x 10−12 ) 𝑥 81

𝜔 = 0.2788 x 106 rad/sec

𝜔 = 2πf
𝜔
=f
2π

6
0.2788 x 10
f=
2π

f = 44.37 kHz

At this frequency conduction current density and displacement current density are equal.

______________________________________________________________________________
𝑬𝒎
Do the fields 𝑬
⃗⃗ = 𝑬𝒎 sinx sint 𝒂
̂𝒚 and 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ = cosx cost 𝒂
̂𝒁 satisfy
𝝁𝟎

Maxwell’s equations.
From Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law,
⃗
𝜕𝐵
∇ 𝑥𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝑡

⃗
𝜕𝐻
∇ 𝑥𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡

L.H.S

pg. 18
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧 𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ 𝑥𝐸⃗ = |𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|=| |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑧 0 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 0
𝜕 𝜕
= [0 - 𝜕𝑧(𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡) 𝑎̂𝑥 - [ 0 – 0 ] 𝑎̂𝑦 + [𝜕𝑥(𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡) - 0] 𝑎
̂𝑧

𝜕
= 𝜕𝑥(𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡) 𝑎
̂𝑧

⃗⃗ = 𝑬𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂
𝛁 𝒙𝑬 ̂𝒛

R.H.S
⃗
𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝐸
−𝜇 = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 ( 𝜇𝑚 cosx cost) 𝑎̂𝑍
𝜕𝑡 0

𝜕 𝐸
= −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 ( 𝜇𝑚 cosx cost) 𝑎̂𝑍
0

⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑯
̂𝒛
𝝁 𝝏𝒕 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂

L.H.S = R.H.S, so the given fields satisfy Maxwell’s equation.

______________________________________________________________________________

Determine value of k such that following pair of field satisfies

Maxwell’s equations in the region σ = 0, 𝝆𝒗 = 0.

⃗⃗ = 5𝒂
𝑫 ̂𝒙 – 2y𝒂 ̂𝒛 µC/m2
̂𝒚 + kz𝒂

⃗ = 2𝒂
⃗𝑩 ̂𝒙 mT
Consider Maxwell’s equation derived from Gauss’s law for electric fields,

⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝐷

From given condition, 𝜌𝑣 = 0

⃗ =0
∇. 𝐷

𝜕𝐷𝑥 𝜕𝐷𝑦 𝜕𝐷𝑧

+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

pg. 19
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

From given field, 𝐷𝑥 = 5x, 𝐷𝑦 = -2y, 𝐷𝑧 = kx

𝜕(5𝑥) 𝜕(−2𝑦) 𝜕(𝑘𝑥)

+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

5 -2 +k = 0

k = -3

⃗ is given in µ, k = -3 x 10-6
Since 𝐷

______________________________________________________________________________

For the given medium ε = 4 x 10-9 F/m and σ = 0, find k such that
following pair of field satisfies Maxwell’s equations.

⃗ = (20y – kt)𝒂
⃗𝑬 ̂𝒙 V/m

⃗⃗⃗ = (y + 2 x 106t) 𝒂
𝑯 ̂𝒛 A/m

According to Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s circuital law in free space,

⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗ =
∇x𝐻
𝜕𝑡

L.H.S

𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧 𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧
⃗ =|𝜕
∇x𝐻
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
| = |𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧 0 0 6
𝑦 + 2 𝑥 10 𝑡

𝜕
= [𝜕𝑦(𝑦 + 2 𝑥 106 𝑡)] 𝑎̂𝑥 - [ 0 – 0 ] 𝑎̂𝑦 + [0 - 0] 𝑎
̂𝑧

⃗ = 𝑎̂𝑥
∇x𝐻

R.H.S

𝜕𝐸⃗ 𝜕
𝜀 = 𝜀 𝜕𝑡 (20𝑦 – 𝑘𝑡)𝑎̂𝑥
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
= 𝜀 𝜕𝑡 (– 𝑘𝑡)𝑎̂𝑥

= (– 𝑘𝜀)𝑎̂𝑥

pg. 20
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

Therefore, 𝑎̂𝑥 = (– 𝑘𝜀)𝑎̂𝑥

1 1
k=− =−
𝜀 4𝑥10−9

k = - 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖

______________________________________________________________________________

VTU Question Papers: July 2011, Jan 2014, July 2015, Jan 2016,
July 2016, Jan 2017, July 2017, Jan 2018, July 2018, Jan 2019, July 2019
______________________________________________________________________________

Review Questions

1. State and explain faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

2. Using Faraday’s law, derive an expression for e.m.f induced in a stationary conductor
placed in a time varying field.

3. Explain transformer and motional induced e.m.fs.

4. Define displacement current density.

5. Starting from Ampere’s circuital law, derive the expression for displacement current density
for time varying fields.

6. List Maxwell’s equation in integral and point form for time varying field.

7. Starting from the concept of Faraday’s law, derive Maxwell’s equation.

8. Using the Faraday’s law, deduce the Maxwell’s equation, to relate time varying electric and

pg. 21
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

magnetic fields.

9. Derive Maxwell’s equations in point form from Guass’s law for electric and magnetic fields.

10. An area of 0.65 m2 in the plane z =0 encloses a filamentary conductor. Find the induced
̂+
−𝑎 ̂𝑧
𝑥 𝑎
⃗ = 0.05 cos 103t
voltage if 𝐵 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎.
√2

11. A circular conducting loop of radius 40 cm lies in x-y plane and has resistance of 20Ω. If the
magnetic flux density in the region is given as,
⃗ = 0.2 cos 500t 𝑎̂𝑥 + 0.75 sin400t 𝑎̂𝑦 + 1.2 cos314t 𝑎
𝐵 ̂𝑧 T.
Determine effective value of induced current in the loop.

12. The conduction current flowing through a wire with conductivity σ = 3 x 10 7 S/m and relative
permeability εr = 1 is given by Ic = 3 sin ωt mA. If ω = 108 rad/sec, find the displacement
current.

13. A parallel plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm has a voltage
of 50 sin 103t volts applied to its plates. Calculate displacement current assuming ε = 2ε0.
14. A lossy dielectric has µ = 4π x 10-9 H/m and ε = 10−8
F/m, σ = 2 x 10-8 S/m. The electric field
36𝜋

𝐸⃗ = 200 sinωt 𝑎
̂𝑧 V/m exists at certain point in the dielectric.
(i) At what frequency will the conduction current density and displacement current density
have equal magnitudes?
(ii) At this frequency calculate the instantaneous displacement current density.
(iii) What is the phase angle between the conduction current and displacement current.

15. A circular cross-section conductor of radius 1.5 mm carries a current i = 5.5 sin (4 x 10 10t) µA.
Find the amplitude of displacement current density if σ = 35 mho/m and ε r = 10.

16. In a certain dielectric media the relative permittivity ε r = 5, conductivity σ = 0. The

pg. 22
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY BEC401

displacement current density ⃗⃗⃗

𝐽𝐷 = 20cos[1.5 x 108t –bx]𝑎̂𝑦 µA/m2. Determine the electric flux
density and electric field intensity.

17. Determine value of k such that following pair of field satisfies Maxwell’s equations in the
region σ = 0, 𝜌𝑣 = 0, µ = 0.25 H/m, ε = 0.01 F/m.
𝐸⃗ = (kx – 100t)𝑎̂𝑦 V/m
𝐻⃗ = (x+ 20t) 𝑎
̂𝑧 A/m

⃗ = 𝐻𝑚 ej(ωt + βz) 𝑎̂𝑥 A/m in free space. Find 𝐸⃗

18. Given 𝐻

19. Given 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑚 sin(ωt – βz) 𝑎̂𝑦 in free space. Find 𝐷

⃗ ,𝐵
⃗ and 𝐻
⃗

20. If the electric field intensity in free space is given by, 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑚 sin𝛼𝑥 sin(ωt – βz) 𝑎̂𝑦 V/m. Find

⃗.
an expression for 𝐻

21. A homogenous material has ε = 2 x 10-9 F/m and µ = 1.25 x 10-6 H/m and σ = 0. Electric field
intensity is given as, 𝐸⃗ = 400 cos (109t – kz) 𝑎̂𝑥 V/m. If all the fields vary sinusoidally, find 𝐷
⃗,
⃗ and 𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ . Also find k using Maxwell’s equations.

___________________________________________________________________________________

pg. 23