CHAPTER 1

CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES

Statistics De ned
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting numerical facts,
which we call data.

Divisions of Statistics and Levels of Measurement

A. Descriptive Statistics is used to reveal patterns through the analysis of numeric data. Descriptive
statistics, not surprising, “describe” data that have been collected. Commonly used descriptive
statistics include frequency counts, ranges (high and low scores or values), means, modes, median
scores, and standard deviations. Two concepts are essential to understanding descriptive
statistics: variables (Levels of Measurement) and distributions.

Variables (Levels of Measurement)

Statistics are used to explore numerical data. Numerical data are observations, which are
recorded in the form of numbers. Numbers are variable in nature, which means that quantities vary
according to certain factors. For example, when analyzing the grades on student essays, scores will
vary for reasons such as the writing ability of the student, the student’s knowledge of the subject, and
so on. In statistics, these reasons are called variables. Variables are divided into four basic categories:

1. Nominal Variables (Categorical)

Nominal variables classify data into categories. This process involves labeling categories and
then counting frequencies of occurrence. Sometimes called “categorical”. Numbers used to classify
things, with no implication that one number is better than another.

2. Ordinal Variables
Ordinal variables order (or rank) data in terms of degree. Ordinal variables do not establish the
numeric di erence between data points. They indicate only that one data point is ranked higher or
lower than another.

3. Interval Variables
Interval variables score data. Thus, the order of data is known as well as the precise numeric
distance between data points.

4. Ratio Scales
Like Interval scale but with absolute (true) zero.

Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

A variable is anything that can take on di ering or varying values, e.g. height of students; sugar
content of soft drink, age of customers in a store.
Variables can be grouped in di erent ways: Qualitative and Quantitative.

A qualitative variable is one, which describes a characteristics for example: small, wide, attractive,
etc.
A quantitative variable is one, which can be given a numerical value.

Two main types of quantitative variables: discrete and continuous: Discrete variable one
which can only have certain de nite values, often whole numbers (but e.g. shoe size 5½, 6, 6½, 7, 7½
are discrete). Continuous variable is one, which can take up any value within a certain range and
usually obtained by measuring, e.g. foot size of a child. Aged 10= 20 cm; Aged 12= 25 cm.

B. Inferential Statistics is used to draw conclusions and make predictions based on the analysis of
numeric data.

1. Experiments
A typical experimental study involves collecting data on the behaviors, attitudes, or actions of
two or more groups and attempting to answer a research question (often called a hypothesis). Based

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 on the analysis of the data, a researcher might then attempt to develop a casual model that can be
populations: Dependent Variable and Independent Variable.

In an experimental study, a variable whose score depends on (or is determined or caused by)
another variable is a dependent variable.
In an experimental study, a variable that determines (or causes) the score of a dependent
variable is called an independent variable.

Identi cation of Variables based on Hypothesis

A hypothesis can be described as “a tentative answer to a research question” or a “Provisional

prediction”

Characteristics of a Hypothesis:

• Stated clearly, using appropriate terminology

• Testable
• Statement of relationships between variables
• Limited in score

Examples of hypotheses:

• Health education programs in uence the number of people who smoke

• Newspapers a ect people’s voting patterns
• Attendance at lectures in uences exam marks
• Diet in uences intelligence

In the above examples, “something” (diet, lecture attendance) a ects “something else”
(intelligence, exam marks). These are variables.

A variable is anything, which is free to vary, and in order to describe them quantitatively, they
have to be expressed in appropriate units (IQ scores, exam percentages).

The pairs of variables in the above examples have separate names. The variable we manipulate
is called the independent variable. The variable we are hypothesizing will alter as a result of our
manipulation is called dependent variable. The dependent variable alters as a consequence of the
value of the independent variable — its value is dependent on this. The value of the independent
variable is free to vary according to the whims of the experimenters.

2. Probability
Beginning researchers most often use the word probability to express a subjective judgement
about the likelihood, or degree of certainty, that a particular event will occur. It is possible to assign a
number to the event being predicted, a number between 0 and 1, which represents degree of
con dence that the event will occur.

For example, a student might say that the likelihood an instructor will give an exam next week
is about 90 percent, or 0.9. Where 100 percent, or 1.00, represents certainty, 0.9 would mean that
student is almost certain the instructor will give an exam.

The probability of a particular outcome or set of outcomes is called a p—value. In our

discussion, a p—value will be symbolized by a p followed by parentheses enclosing a symbol of the
outcome or set of outcomes. For example, p(x) should be read, “the probability of given x score”. Thus
p(exam) should be read, “The probability an instructor will give an exam next week.”

3. Population
A population is a group, which is studied. In educational research, the population is usually a
group of people. Researchers seldom are able to study every member of a population. Usually, they
instead study a representative sample or subset of a population. Researchers then generalize their
ndings about the sample to the population as a whole.

4. Sampling
Sampling is performed so that a population under study can be reduced to a manageable size.

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 WORKSHEET #1 [30 points]

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

De ne the following terms:

1. Statistics

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2. Descriptive Statistics

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3. Prediction

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4. Nominal Variable

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5. Ordinal Variable

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6. Interval Variable

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7. Ratio Scale

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8. Inferential Statistics

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9. Dependent Variable

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10. Independent Variable

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 WORKSHEET #2 [75 points]

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. Discuss the importance and uses of statistics in your eld of specialization.

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2. When can we consider if a variable is dependent and independent? Illustrate your answer by giving
concrete examples.

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3. A hypothesis can be described as “a tentative solution or answer to a research question”, give ve

examples of hypotheses based on the identi ed characteristics of a good hyothesis.

a)
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b)
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c)
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d)
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e)
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4. From the formulated hypotheses in Question #3, identify the dependent and independent
variables.

a) Statement of Hypothesis #1:

Dependent Variable: __________________________________________________________________

Independent Variable: _________________________________________________________________

b) Statement of Hypothesis #2:

Dependent Variable: __________________________________________________________________

Independent Variable: _________________________________________________________________

c) Statement of Hypothesis #3:

Dependent Variable: __________________________________________________________________

Independent Variable: _________________________________________________________________

d) Statement of Hypothesis #4:

Dependent Variable: __________________________________________________________________

Independent Variable: _________________________________________________________________

e) Statement of Hypothesis #5:

Dependent Variable: __________________________________________________________________

Independent Variable: _________________________________________________________________

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 WORKSHEET #3 [50 points]

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Indicate whether the variables concerned are Nominal, Ordinal, Interval or Ratio:

VARIABLES CLASSIFICATION
1. Gender: Male or Female
2. Skin Color
3. Temperature of the Room
4. Your Height (in centimeters)
5. Population of Mango Tree
6. Social Class
7. Your Blood Type
8. Number of Students in this Room
9. Enrollees from Elementary to College
10. Level of Aggressiveness
11. Salary Grade
12. Academic Ranks
13. Marital Status
14. Academic Performance
15. Political A liation
16. Attitude Toward Nuclear Plant
17. Family Size
18. Courses O ered in the College
19. Perception of Leadership Style
20. Weight of the Baby
21. Business Classi cation
22. Community of Cow
23. Your phone number
24. Residents in Marawi City
25. Volume of Water

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 WORKSHEET #4 [50 points]

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Indicate whether the following variables are Qualitative or Quantitative. If they are Quantitative,
indicate whether they are Discrete or Continuous.

VARIABLES CLASSIFICATION
1. The height of a plant between 1995 and 1996
2. The color of your professor’s shoes
3. Volume of water
4. Your Height (in centimeters)
5. The marks of a class of students in a course
6. Social Class
7. Your Blood Type
8. The shoe sizes of that child between 5 and 10
9. Community of Carabao
10. Weight of the baby
11. Salary Grade
12. Academic Ranks
13. Marital Status
14. Academic Performance
15. Political A liation
16. Attitude Toward Nuclear Plant
17. Residents in Iligan City
18. Courses O ered in the College
19. Perception of Leadership Style
20. Level of Aggressiveness
21. The scent of the owers of that plant
22. Enrollees from Elementary to College
23. Your phone number
24. Family Size
25. Temperature of the Room

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