Notes on Determinants

Introduction
Each n-square matrix A = [aij ] is assigned a special scalar called
the determinant of A, denoted by det(A) or |A| or

a11 a12 · · · a1n

a21 a22 · · · a2n
.. .. .. .. .
. . . .
an1 an2 · · · ann

We emphasize that an n × n array of scalars enclosed by straight

lines, called a determinant of order n, is not a matrix but denotes
the determinant of the enclosed array of scalars (i.e., the enclosed
matrix).
Properties and Applications
▶ The determinant function was first discovered during the
investigation of systems of linear equations. It is an
indispensable tool in investigating and obtaining properties of
square matrices.
▶ The definition of the determinant and most of its properties
also apply in the case where the entries of a matrix come from
a commutative ring.

Determinants of Orders 1 and 2

Determinants of orders 1 and 2 are defined as follows:
▶ |a11 | = a11 ,
a11 a12
▶ = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22
Thus, the determinant of a 1 × 1 matrix A = [a11 ] is the scalar a11 ,
i.e., det(A) = |a11 | = a11 .
Example 8.1
1. Because the determinant of order 1 is the scalar itself, we
have:

det(27) = 27; det(−7) = −7; det(t − 3) = t − 3.

2.
5 3
= 5(6) − 3(4) = 30 − 12 = 18;
4 6
3 2
= 3(7) − 2(−5) = 21 + 10 = 31.
−5 7
Determinant of Order 3: Co-factor method

 
a11 a12 a13
The determinant of the 3 × 3 matrix A = a21 a22 a23  may be
a31 a32 a33
rewritten as follows:
a22 a23 a a23 a a22
det(A) = a11 − a12 21 + a13 21
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
= a11 a22 a33 − a11 a23 a32 − a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 − a13 a22 a31

which is a linear combination of three determinants of order 2

whose coefficients (with alternating signs) form the first row of the
given matrix.
Example
 
1 2 3      
−2 3 4 3 4 −2
det 4 −2 3  = 1 det − 2 det + 3 det
5 −1 0 −1 0 5
0 5 −1
     
2 3 1 3 1 2
= det − 2 det + 3 det
−2 3 0 −1 0 5

1(2 − 15) − 2(−4 + 0) + 3(20 + 0) = −13 + 8 + 60 = 55

 
2 1 1
Exercise Let A = 0 5 −2
1 −3 4
 
3 2 1
and B = −4 5 −1.
2 −3 4
Find det(A) and det(B).
Minors and Cofactors

Definition
Consider an n-square matrix A = [aij ]. Let Mij denote the
(n − 1) × (n − 1) submatrix of A obtained by deleting its ith row
and jth column. The determinant |Mij | is called the minor of the
element aij of A, and we define the cofactor of aij , denoted by Aij ,
to be the ’signed’ minor: Aij = (−1)i+j |Mij |.

Remark
The sign (−1)i+j of the cofactor Aij is frequently obtained using
the checkerboard pattern.

+ − + − ...
− + − + ...
+ − + − ...
... ... ... ... ...
Example

 
1 2 3
Let A = 4 5 6
7 8 9
Find the following minors and cofactors:
(a) |M23 | and A23 ,
(b) |M31 | and A31 .
1 2
(a) |M23 | = = 8 − 14 = −6,
7 8
A23 = (−1)2+3 |M23 | = (−1)5 (−6) = 6.
2 3
(b) |M31 | = = 12 − 15 = −3,
5 6
A31 = (−1)3+1 |M31 | = (−1)4 (−3) = −3.
Determinant by Laplace Expansion/Cofactor Method

(Laplace)
The determinant of a square matrix A = [aij ] is equal to the sum
of the products obtained by multiplying the elements of any row
(column) by their respective cofactors:
Using a row i:
n
X
|A| = ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + · · · + ain Ain = aij Aij
j=1

Using a Column j.
n
X
|A| = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + · · · + anj Anj = aij Aij
i=1

The above formulas for |A| are called the Laplace expansions of the
determinant of A by the ith row and the jth column respectively.
Example: Determinant Calculation By L.E/C.F Method
We find the determinant of
 
2 1 3
A = 1 2 1  .
2 2 3
We make the arbitrary choice to expand along the first row. We
compute the minors as
     
2 1 1 1 1 2
|M11 | = det , |M12 | = det , |M13 | = det .
2 3 2 3 2 2
Computing these 2 × 2 determinants, we have
|M11 | = 4, |M12 | = 1, |M13 | = 6.
By inserting signs, we find that the cofactors are
A11 = 4, A12 = −1, A13 = 6.
Thus,
det A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 = 2(4) + (1)(−1) + 3(6) = 25.
Example: Determinant Calculation using Laplace
Expansion
Example: Find the determinant of the following matrix using
Laplace expansion method
 
1 2 3
A = 4 3 2
1 0 3

Solution:

a11 = 1, a12 = 2, a13 = 3,

|M11 | = 9, |M12 | = 10, |M13 | = −3
1+1
A11 = (−1) ×9 = 9,
A12 = (−1)1+2 × 10 = −10,
1+3
A13 = (−1) × −3 = −3.
Therefore,

det(A) = a11 · A11 + a12 · A12 + a13 · A13

= 1 · 9 + 2 · (−10) + 3 · (−3)
= −20.

Alternatively, for i = 2, we have

det(A) = a21 · A21 + a22 · A22 + a23 · A23

= 4 · (−1)2+1 × 6 + 3 · (−1)2+2 × 0 + 2 · (−1)2+3 × (−2)

= −24 + 0 + 4
= −20.
Rule of Sarrus

Definition
The Rule of Sarrus is a mnemonic rule for solving the determinant
of a 3 × 3 matrix.

Key Points
▶ Also known as scheme of Sarrus or method of Sarrus, named
after Pierre Frédéric Sarrus, a French mathematician of the
19th century.
▶ To find the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix using the Rule of
Sarrus, duplicate the first two columns of the matrix to the
right of its third column. Then, add the products of the main
diagonals going from top to bottom and subtract the products
of the main diagonals going from bottom to top.
Figure: Sarrus
Example

2 1 3 2 1
−1 1 0 · −1 1 =
−2 4 1 −2 4

= 2 · 1 · 1 + 1 · 0 · (−2) + 3 · (−1) · 4

−{(−2) · 1 · 3} − {4 · 0 · 2} − {1 · (−1) · 1}

= 2 + 0 − 12 + 6 − 0 + 1

= −3
Problem 1: Determinant using Rule of Sarrus
Problem
Find the determinant of the following 3 × 3 matrix using the rule
of Sarrus:
5 0 2
1 3 4
−1 1 0

Solution
First of all, we duplicate the first two columns of the matrix to its
right:
5 0 2 5 0
1 3 4 1 3
−1 1 0 −1 1
And then we apply the Sarrus’ rule:
5 0 2 5 0
1 3 4 1 3 = 5 · 3 · 0 + 0 · 4 · (−1) + 2 · 1 · 1
−1 1 0 −1 1 −{(−1) · 3 · 2} − {1 · 4 · 5} − {0 · 1 · 0}

= 0 + 0 + 2 + 6 − 20 + 0

= −12
Properties of Determinants

Theorem
The determinant of a matrix A and its transpose AT are equal;
that is, |A| = |AT |.
By this theorem, any theorem about the determinant of a matrix A
that concerns the rows of A will have an analogous theorem
concerning the columns of A.
Theorem
Let A be a square matrix.
1. If A has a row (column) of zeros, then |A| = 0.
2. If A has two identical rows (columns), then |A| = 0.
3. If A is triangular (i.e., A has zeros above or below the
diagonal), then |A| = product of diagonal elements. Thus, in
particular, |I | = 1, where I is the identity matrix.
Theorem
Suppose B is obtained from A by an elementary row (column)
operation.
1. If two rows (columns) of A were interchanged, then
|B| = −|A|.
2. If a row (column) of A were multiplied by a scalar k, then
|B| = k|A|.
3. If a multiple of a row (column) of A were added to another
row (column) of A, then |B| = |A|.
Major Properties of Determinants
▶ Theorem: The determinant of a product of two matrices A
and B is the product of their determinants; that is,
det(AB) = det(A) det(B).
▶ Theorem: Let A be a square matrix. Then the following are
equivalent:
1. A is invertible; that is, A has an inverse A−1 .
2. AX = 0 has only the zero solution.
3. The determinant of A is not zero; that is, det(A) ̸= 0.
  
1 2 3 4
 5 1 2 3 
A=
 4

5 4 3 
2 2 −4 5
R2-5R1, R3-4R1, R4-2R1, Yields,
 
1 2 3 4
 0 −9 −13 −17 
B=  0 −3 −8 −13


0 −2 −10 −3
Note the above row operations do not change the
Determinant of A, det B = det A.
9R3 − 3R2 , 9R4 − 2R2 , Yields,
 
1 2 3 4
 0 −9 −13 −17 
C = 
 0 0 −33 −66 
0 0 −64 7
det C = 9 × 9 det B
1
33 R3 Yields
 
1 2 3 4
 0 −9 −13 −17 
D= 
 0 0 −1 −2 
0 0 −64 7
1
det D = 33 det C and finally,
R4 − 64R3 Yields,
 
1 2 3 4
 0 −9 −13 −17 
E = 
 0 0 −1 −2 
0 0 0 135

det E = det D = 1. − 9. − 1.135 = 1215

Evaluating Reverse wise yields, det A = 495
Compute the determinant
 
1 1 4 4
 2 0 −2 1 
B=
 4

3 1 3 
−2 0 −3 1
Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix

Given the matrix A:  

a b
Matrix A is a 2 × 2 matrix. That is, A = .
c d
Its inverse iscalculated
 using the formula:
d −b
A−1 = detA1
.
−c a
where det A is read as the determinant of matrix A.
Inverse of 3 by 3 Matrix by Cofactor Method
Classical Adjoint

Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix over a field K and let Aij denote

the cofactor of aij . The classical adjoint of A, denoted by adjA, is
the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of A. Namely,

adjA = [Aij ]T

We say ”classical adjoint” instead of simply ”adjoint” because the

term ”adjoint” is currently used for an entirely different concept.
Example
Let  
2 3 −4
A = 0 −4 2 
1 −1 5
The cofactors of the nine elements of A follow:
−4 2
A11 = + = −18;
−1 5
3 −4
A21 = − = −11;
−1 5
3 −4
A31 = + = −10;
−4 2
0 2
A12 = − = 2;
1 5
2 −4
A22 = + = 14;
1 5
2 −4
A32 = − = −4;
0 2
0 −4
A13 = + = 4;
1 −1
2 3
A23 = − = 5;
1 −1
2 3
A33 = + = −8.
0 −4
The transpose of the matrix of cofactors yields the classical adjoint
of A:  
−18 −11 −10
adjA =  2 14 −4 
4 5 −8
INVERSE OF A:
1
A−1 = (adjA)
|A|
We require |A|

|A| = −40 + 6 + 0 − 16 + 4 + 0 = −46

1
A−1 = (adjA)
|A|
 
−18 −11 −10
1 
= 2 14 −4 
−46
4 5 −8
Exercise: Finding Inverses
Problem 1: Find the inverse of the matrix
 
1 2 3
A = 4 3 2
1 0 3

Problem 2: Find the inverse of the following matrices by first

getting the adjoint:
 
1 3 −4
1. B = 0 −2 3 
1 1 1
 
6 0 1
2. C =  4 0 2
−1 4 3
 
1 1 1
3. D = −2 1 3
6 7 4
What is Cramer’s Rule?

Definition
Cramer’s rule is one of the methods used to solve a system of
equations. This rule involves determinants, where the values of the
variables in the system are found with the help of determinants.
▶ The system of equations is typically written in the matrix form
AX = B, where:
▶ A is the coefficient matrix, which is a square matrix,
▶ X is the column matrix with variables, and
▶ B is the column matrix with the constants (which are on the
right side of the equations).
Cramer’s Rule Formula

Cramer’s Rule
Here is the Cramer’s rule formula to solve the system AX = B (or)
to find the values of the variables x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn :
1. Find det |A| and represent it by D.
2. Find the determinants Dx1 , Dx2 , Dx3 , . . . , Dxn , where Dxi is the
determinant of matrix A where the ith column is replaced by
the column matrix B.
3. We divide each of these determinants by D to find the value
of the corresponding variables, i.e.,
Dx1 Dx Dx
x1 = , x2 = 2 , . . . , xn = n .
D D D
Note that the system of equations has a unique solution only when
D ̸= 0.
Example 1: Solving a System of Equations
Problem: Solve the following system of 2x2 equations: x + y = 5
and 2x − 3y = −4.
Solution:
The given system can be written in the matrix form AX = B
where,
     
1 1 x 5
A= , X = , and B = .
2 −3 y −4
Now, we will find the determinants.

1 1
D = det(A) = = 1(−3) − 1(2) = −3 − 2 = −5.
2 −3
5 1
Dx = = 5(−3) − 1(−4) = −15 + 4 = −11.
−4 −3
1 5
Dy = = 1(−4) − 5(2) = −4 − 10 = −14.
2 −4
Now, by Cramer’s rule for 2 equations,
Dx −11 11 Dy −14 14
x= = = , y= = = .
D −5 5 D −5 5
11 14
Answer: The solution of the given system is x = 5 and y = 5 .
Example 2: Solving a System of Equations using Cramer’s
Rule (Part 1)
Problem: Solve the following system of 3 equations in 3 variables
using Cramer’s rule:

x + y + z = 2,
2x + y + 3z = 9,
x − 3y + z = 10.

Solution (continued):
The given system can be written in the matrix form AX = B
where,
     
1 1 1 x 2
A = 2 1 3 , X = y  , and B =  9  .
1 −3 1 z 10
Example 2: Solving a System of Equations using Cramer’s
Rule (Part 2)

Solution (continued): We will compute the determinants.

1 1 1
D = det(A) = 2 1 3 = 4.
1 −3 1
Continuing similarly, we find Dx = 4, Dy = −8, and Dz = 12.
Now, we apply the formulas:

Dx 4 Dy −8 Dz 12
x= = = 1, y= = = −2, z= = = 3.
D 4 D 4 D 4
Answer: The solution of the given system is x = 1, y = −2, and
z = 3.
Figure: Cramers R
Figure: Cramers R