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To my wife, Beth, for her unending love, constant support, and beautiful
smile.
Contents
Preface
How to Use This Book
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Chapter 1 What Is a DBA?
Why Learn Database Administration?
A Unique Vantage Point
DBA Salaries
Database Technology
The Management Discipline of Database Administration
A Day in the Life of a DBA
Evaluating a DBA Job Offer
Database, Data, and System Administration
Data Administration
Database Administration
System Administration
DBA Tasks
Database Design
Performance Monitoring and Tuning
Ensuring Availability
Database Security and Authorization
Governance and Regulatory Compliance
Backup and Recovery
Ensuring Data Integrity
DBMS Release Migration
Jack-of-All-Trades
 The Types of DBAs
System DBA
Database Architect
Database Analyst
Data Modeler
Application DBA
Task-Oriented DBA
Performance Analyst
Data Warehouse Administrator
Staffing Considerations
How Many DBAs?
DBA Reporting Structures
Multiplatform DBA Issues
Production versus Test
The Impact of Newer Technology on DBA
Procedural DBAs: Managing Database Logic
The Internet: From DBA to eDBA
The Personal DBA and the Cloud
NoSQL, Big Data, and the DBA
New Technology Impacts on DBA
DBA Certification
The Rest of the Book
Review
Bonus Question
Chapter 2 Creating the Database Environment
Defining the Organization’s DBMS Strategy
Choosing a DBMS
DBMS Architectures
DBMS Clustering
DBMS Proliferation
 Hardware Issues
Cloud Database Systems
Installing the DBMS
DBMS Installation Basics
Hardware Requirements
Storage Requirements
Memory Requirements
Configuring the DBMS
Connecting the DBMS to Supporting Infrastructure Software
Installation Verification
DBMS Environments
Upgrading DBMS Versions and Releases
Features and Complexity
Complexity of the DBMS Environment
Reputation of the DBMS Vendor
Support Policies of the DBMS
Organization Style
DBA Staff Skill Set
Platform Support
Supporting Software
Fallback Planning
Migration Verification
The DBMS Upgrade Strategy
Database Standards and Procedures
Database Naming Conventions
Other Database Standards and Procedures
DBMS Education
Summary
Review
Bonus Question
 Suggested Reading
Chapter 3 Data Modeling and Normalization
Data Modeling Concepts
Entity-Relationship Diagramming
The Components of a Data Model
Entities
Attributes
Keys
Relationships
Discovering Entities, Attributes, and Relationships
Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Data Models
What Is Normalization?
The Normal Forms
First Normal Form
Second Normal Form
Third Normal Form
A Normalized Data Model
Further Normal Forms
Normalization in Practice
Additional Data Modeling Issues
Summary
Review
Bonus Question
Suggested Reading
Chapter 4 Database Design
From Logical Model to Physical Database
Transform Entities to Tables
Transform Attributes to Columns
Build Referential Constraints for All Relationships
Build Physical Data Structures
 Database Performance Design
Designing Indexes
Hashing
Clustering
Interleaving Data
Denormalization
When to Denormalize
Prejoined Tables
Report Tables
Mirror Tables
Split Tables
Combined Tables
Redundant Data
Repeating Groups
Derivable Data
Hierarchies
Special Physical Implementation Needs
Denormalization Summary
Views
Data Definition Language
Temporal Data Support
A Temporal Example
Business Time and System Time
Summary
Review
Bonus Question
Suggested Reading
Chapter 5 Application Design
Database Application Development and SQL
SQL
 Set-at-a-Time Processing and Relational Closure
Embedding SQL in a Program
SQL Middleware and APIs
Application Infrastructure
Object Orientation and SQL
Types of SQL
SQL Coding for Performance
Querying XML Data
Defining Transactions
Transaction Guidelines
Unit of Work
Transaction Processing Systems
Application Servers
Locking
Types of Locks
Lock Time-outs
Deadlocks
Lock Duration
Lock Escalation
Programming Techniques to Minimize Locking Problems
Locking Summary
Batch Processing
Summary
Review
Bonus Question
Suggested Reading
Chapter 6 Design Reviews
What Is a Design Review?
Rules of Engagement
Design Review Participants
 Knowledge and Skills Required
Types of Design Reviews
Conceptual Design Review
Logical Design Review
Physical Design Review
Organizational Design Review
SQL and Application Code Design Review
Pre-Implementation Design Review
Post-Implementation Design Review
Design Review Output
Additional Considerations
Dealing with Remote Staff
Mentorship and Knowledge Transfer
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 7 Database Change Management
Change Management Requirements
The Change Management Perspective of the DBA
Types of Changes
DBMS Software
Hardware Configuration
Logical and Physical Design
Applications
Physical Database Structures
Impact of Change on Database Structures
The Limitations of ALTER
Database Change Scenarios
Comparing Database Structures
Requesting Database Changes
 Standardized Change Requests
Communication
Coordinating Database and Application Changes
Compliance
DBA Scripts and Change Management
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 8 Data Availability
Defining Availability
Increased Availability Requirements
Cost of Downtime
How Much Availability Is Enough?
Availability Problems
Loss of the Data Center
Network Problems
Loss of the Server Hardware
Disk-Related Outages
Operating System Failure
DBMS Software Failure
Application Problems
Security and Authorization Problems
Corruption of Data
Loss of Database Objects
Loss of Data
Data Replication and Propagation Failures
Severe Performance Problems
Recovery Issues
DBA Mistakes
Outages: Planned and Unplanned
 Ensuring Availability
Perform Routine Maintenance While Systems Remain Operational
Automate DBA Functions
Exploit High-Availability Features
Exploit Clustering Technology
Database Architecture and NoSQL
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 9 Performance Management
Defining Performance
A Basic Database Performance Road Map
Monitoring versus Management
Reactive versus Proactive
Preproduction Performance Estimation
Historical Trending
Service-Level Management
Types of Performance Tuning
System Tuning
Database Tuning
Application Tuning
Performance Tuning Tools
DBMS Performance Basics
Summary
Review
Bonus Question
Suggested Reading
Chapter 10 System Performance
The Larger Environment
Interaction with the Operating System
 Allied Agents
Hardware Configuration
Components of the DBMS
DBMS Installation and Configuration Issues
Types of Configuration
Memory Usage
Data Cache Details
“Open” Database Objects
Database Logs
Locking and Contention
The System Catalog
Other Configuration Options
General Advice
System Monitoring
Summary
Review
Bonus Question
Suggested Reading
Chapter 11 Database Performance
Techniques for Optimizing Databases
Partitioning
Raw Partition versus File System
Indexing
Denormalization
Clustering
Interleaving Data
Free Space
Compression
File Placement and Allocation
Page Size (Block Size)
 Database Reorganization
Determining When to Reorganize
Automation
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 12 Application Performance
Designing Applications for Relational Access
Relational Optimization
CPU and I/O Costs
Database Statistics
Query Analysis
Joins
Access Path Choices
Additional Optimization Considerations
View Access
Query Rewrite
Rule-Based Optimization
Reviewing Access Paths
Forcing Access Paths
SQL Coding and Tuning for Efficiency
A Dozen SQL Rules of Thumb
Additional SQL Tuning Tips
Identifying Poorly Performing SQL
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 13 Data Integrity
Types of Integrity
Database Structure Integrity
 Types of Structural Problems
Managing Structural Problems
Semantic Data Integrity
Entity Integrity
Unique Constraints
Data Types
Default Values
Check Constraints
Triggers
Referential Integrity
Temporal Database Systems
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 14 Database Security
Data Breaches
Database Security Basics
Database Users
Granting and Revoking Authority
Types of Privileges
Granting to PUBLIC
Revoking Privileges
Label-Based Access Control
Security Reporting
Authorization Roles and Groups
Roles
Groups
Other Database Security Mechanisms
Using Views for Security
Using Stored Procedures for Security
 Encryption
Data at Rest Encryption
Data in Transit Encryption
Encryption Techniques
SQL Injection
SQL Injection Prevention
Auditing
External Security
Job Scheduling and Security
Non-DBMS DBA Security
DBMS Fixpacks and Maintenance
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 15 Regulatory Compliance and Database Administration
A Collaborative Approach to Compliance
Why Should DBAs Care about Compliance?
Metadata Management, Data Quality, and Data Governance
Metadata
Data Quality
Data Governance
Database Auditing and Data Access Tracking
Database Auditing Techniques
Privileged User Auditing
Data Masking and Obfuscation
Data Masking Techniques
Database Archiving for Long-Term Data Retention
The Life Cycle of Data
Database Archiving
Components of a Database Archiving Solution
 The Impact of e-Discovery on DBA
Closer Tracking of Traditional DBA Tasks
Database Change Management
Database Backup and Recovery
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 16 Database Backup and Recovery
The Importance of Backup and Recovery
Preparing for Problems
Backup
Full versus Incremental Backups
Database Objects and Backups
DBMS Control
Concurrent Access Issues
Backup Consistency
Log Archiving and Backup
Determining Your Backup Schedule
DBMS Instance Backup
Designing the DBMS Environment for Recovery
Alternate Approaches to Database Backup
Document Your Backup Strategy
Database Object Definition Backups
Recovery
Determining Recovery Options
General Steps for Database Object Recovery
Types of Recovery
Index Recovery
Testing Your Recovery Plan
Recovering a Dropped Database Object
 Recovering Broken Blocks and Pages
Populating Test Databases
Alternatives to Backup and Recovery
Standby Databases
Replication
Disk Mirroring
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 17 Disaster Planning
The Need for Planning
Risk and Recovery
General Disaster Recovery Guidelines
The Remote Site
The Written Plan
Personnel
Backing Up the Database for Disaster Recovery
Tape Backups
Storage Management Backups
Other Approaches
Some Guidelines
Disaster Prevention
Disaster and Contingency Planning Web Sites
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 18 Data and Storage Management
Storage Management Basics
Files and Data Sets
File Placement on Disk
 Raw Partitions versus File Systems
Temporary Database Files
Space Management
Data Page Layouts
Index Page Layouts
Transaction Logs
Fragmentation and Storage
Storage Options
RAID
JBOD
Storage Area Networks
Network-Attached Storage
Tiered Storage
Planning for the Future
Capacity Planning
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 19 Data Movement and Distribution
Loading and Unloading Data
The LOAD Utility
The UNLOAD Utility
Maintaining Application Test Beds
EXPORT and IMPORT
Bulk Data Movement
ETL Software
Replication and Propagation
Messaging Software
Other Methods
Distributed Databases
 Setting Up a Distributed Environment
Data Distribution Standards
Accessing Distributed Data
Two-Phase COMMIT
Distributed Performance Problems
Summary
Review
Bonus Question
Suggested Reading
Chapter 20 Data Warehouse Administration
What Is a Data Warehouse?
Analytical versus Transaction Processing
Administering the Data Warehouse
Too Much Focus on Technology?
Data Warehouse Design
Data Movement
Data Cleansing
Data Warehouse Scalability
Data Warehouse Performance
Data Freshness
Data Content
Data Usage
Financial Chargeback
Backup and Recovery
Don’t Operate in a Vacuum!
Summary
Review
Suggested Reading
Chapter 21 Database Connectivity
Multitier, Distributed Computing
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 Fig. 59. The veins of the posterior region of the Florida alligator. The postcaval
system and its associated veins are shown in the main figure; the hepatic portal
system is shown in the smaller figure to the left.—For lettering, see pages 224-25.

The Venous System

The Posterior Vena Cava and its Branches. The postcava, Fig.
59, pc, as noted above, is a wide, thin-walled vessel seen extending
across the short space between the anterior face of the right lobe of
the liver and the sinus venosus. As was also noted above, the
hepatic veins, vh,—at any rate that from the left lobe of the liver,—
enter the postcava so close to the heart that they may be considered
to have one or more distinct openings into the sinus venosus.
Followed caudad, the postcava may be traced through the large right
lobe of the liver, from which it receives several branches. Emerging
from the posterior border of the liver, it is seen to extend caudad, in
the median line, as a rather inconspicuous vessel that receives blood
from the reproductive organs and the kidneys that lie close on either
side of it.
The hepatic portal vein, h, has the usual distribution for that
vessel. Entering the liver in the neighborhood of the bile duct, it
receives first (i.e., nearest the liver) a small branch from the
pancreas, pv; near the pancreatic are one or two branches from the
stomach, g, and a branch from the spleen, sp. A short distance
caudad to these vessels are two or three mesenteric veins, m,
leading from the mesentery and small intestine. Caudad to the
mesenterics, the portal system may be seen as a vein of diminished
caliber, i, leading from the posterior part of the small intestine and
from the large intestine.
The connection mentioned by Bronn between the rectal branch of
the portal vein and the caudal vein could not be demonstrated. After
entering the liver, the portal, of course, breaks up into capillaries, and
the blood thus distributed is re-collected by the capillaries of the
hepatic veins above mentioned.
The internal epigastric veins, ep, are, perhaps, the most
conspicuous vessels of the postcaval system. When the ventral
abdominal wall of the animal is removed, they may be seen
extending forward from the pelvic region, on each side of the body,
to enter the posterior edge of the liver. The epigastric of the right side
enters the large or right lobe of the liver, where it breaks up into
capillaries; the left epigastric sends its main branch into the left lobe
of the liver, but also sends a branch over to enter the right lobe.
Following the epigastrics caudad, they are seen to receive vessels
from nearly all parts of the posterior region of the body. The left
epigastric, which extends across the ventral side of the stomach,
receives from that organ four or five branches, g¹; while the farther
removed right epigastric receives only one or two branches from the
stomach. Posterior to these gastric veins the epigastrics receive one
or more veins, b, from the body wall and skin. Posterior, again, to the
last-named veins, each epigastric receives, in the pelvic region, a
large vein, the iliac, il, which receives, in turn, a vein from the pelvis,
pl, and continues down the thigh and lower leg to the foot as the
femoral, f, the chief vein of the posterior appendage. After receiving
small branches from the muscles of the thigh, the femoral receives
near the knee a small branch from the posterior surface of the lower
leg, fb, and a larger one, t, that leads from the anterior surface of the
lower leg and foot.
The veins of the pes were so small, in the comparatively small
animals it was necessary to use, that their distribution could not be
determined with certainty, though they seemed to parallel very
closely their corresponding arteries to be described below.
A short distance caudad to the iliac veins, each epigastric receives
one or two fairly large branches from the pelvic region, called by
Bronn the ischiadic veins, is. Caudad to the ischiadics and dorsal to
the cloaca, each epigastric is united with a short but wide renal portal
or renal advehente vein, rp, leading to the posterior border of its
respective kidney and receiving, on the way, a short branch from the
pelvic region, shown just cephalad to the reference lines rt and rp.
Very close to its junction with the renal portals each epigastric
gives off a small branch which unites with its fellow of the opposite
side to form a median vein, rt, the rectal leading from the posterior
part of the large intestine. A very short distance caudal to these last
veins, in the region just dorsal to the anal opening, the epigastrics
are formed by the division of the caudal vein, cv, which, of course,
brings blood from the tail and is, on account of the large size of that
organ, of considerable caliber.
The Anterior Venæ Cavæ and their Branches. The entrance of
the precaval veins into the heart was mentioned above; their
branches, in order from the heart cephalad, will now be described.
Since the two precavæ are alike, it will be necessary to describe the
branches of only one side of the body. After leaving the heart, the
precava may be traced forward, for a short distance, at the side of
the trachea and œsophagus, as a wide, thin-walled trunk, Fig. 60,
vca. The first tributaries that it receives are the internal mammary
and vertebral veins, which join it at the base of the neck at almost
the same place.
The internal mammary, Fig. 60, im, is a rather small vein, bringing
blood from the ventral wall of the thorax. It may be followed along the
inner surface of the ribs, near the sternum, in company with its
corresponding artery.
The vertebral vein, Fig. 60, v, is also of small diameter and
extends to the dorsal body wall near the spinal column, from which
region it returns blood to the anterior vena cava; it is drawn too large
in the figure.
 Fig. 60. The veins of the anterior region of the Florida alligator. The veins of the
left foreleg are shown at A.—For lettering, see pages 224-25.

Just cephalad to the vertebral and internal mammary, the internal

jugular, j, enters the precava. The internal jugular may be followed
directly forward, close to the side of the trachea and œsophagus,
from which it receives numerous branches. Near its point of entrance
to, or rather exit from, the skull, it anastomoses, by two or three short
branches, with the external jugular, ej, to be described later. Its
distribution in the cranial cavity could not be determined in the
available material. At the point of entry of the internal jugular the
precava passes laterad for a short distance and then divides into two
more or less equal branches, the above-mentioned external jugular,
ej, and the subclavian, s, of which the latter will first be described.
The subclavian, s, of course, returns blood from the regions of the
shoulder and arm. On reaching the body wall, where it might be
called the axillary, ax, it receives, on its posterior side, a large
thoracic vein, t, which returns blood from the thorax, shoulder, and
skin. The thoracic receives a branch from the posterior surface of the
arm, which might be called the postbrachial, pb; this postbrachial
may be traced, as a rather small vessel, to the hand; at the elbow it
is connected, by one or more small branches, with the brachial.
Just distal to the thoracic the axillary vein receives two fairly large
vessels, the subscapulars, sc, that return blood from the shoulder
and upper arm. After receiving the subscapulars, the axillary may be
followed into the upper arm as the brachial, br. As has been said, the
brachial and postbrachial anastomose near the elbow, and in this
region the former receives a small vessel that extends parallel to it
from the manus.
In the forearm the brachial may be called the radial, Fig. 60, A, ra;
on the back of the manus the radial receives branches from the
various digits and from a rather complex plexus of vessels in the
carpal region.
The external jugular, Fig. 60, ej, after separating from the
subclavian, may be traced cephalad, close beneath the skin, to the
base of the skull, where it is connected with the internal jugular by
short branches, as has already been noted. It receives several small
branches from the skin and muscles of the neck and shoulder
regions. At the region of its anastomosis with the internal jugular it
receives a large branch, the muscular, ms, from the massive muscle
at the angle of the jaw and from the skin of that region.
A short distance cephalad to the muscular the external jugular
receives, on its mesial side, two or three branches from the trachea,
larynx, and œsophagus, tr. Anterior to these vessels the external
jugular is formed by the union of two chief veins, the lingual, l, from
the ventro-lateral surface of the tongue, and the inferior dental, id,
from the mesial surface of the lower jaw. The connection of the
superior dental (extending along the bases of the maxillary teeth)
with the jugular could not be determined with certainty, hence that
vessel is not shown in the figure. The same is true of the small veins
in the region of the cranium.

The Arterial System

The Abdominal Aorta and its Branches. The right and left aortic
arches, Fig. 61, Aod, Aos, arising from the heart in the manner
already described, form a rather long loop and approach each other
in the middorsal line. Here they are united by a short, wide
connective in such a way that the left arch seems continued into the
cœliac artery and the right into the dorsal aorta proper. Each arch,
anterior to the connective, gives off two fairly large branches, oe, to
the posterior region of the œsophagus.
The cœliac artery, Fig. 61, c, is the largest branch of the
abdominal aortic system. After giving off a couple of small branches,
oe, to the posterior region of the œsophagus, it gives off a large
spleno-intestinal artery, si, to the spleen and small intestine.
The cœliac then breaks up into three arteries of about the same
size: the gastro-hepatico-intestinal, ghi, carrying blood to the
stomach, liver, and small intestine; the pancreo-intestinal, pi, leading
to the pancreas and small intestine; and the gastric, ga, to the
greater part of the stomach.
 From the dorsal aorta proper, da, which, as has been said, seems
to be the direct continuation of the right aortic arch, several arteries
are given off; these will be described as they occur in an antero-
posterior direction.
At about the point of union of the two aortic arches arises the most
anterior of seven or eight pairs of lumbar arteries, lu 1-7; this first
lumbar artery is continued cephalad for some distance as a
longitudinal trunk that gives off several lateral branches to the walls
of the thoracic region. The other six or seven lumbars are distributed
to the dorsal body wall, and arise, at more or less regular intervals,
as far caudad as the sacrum, or even back of that point.
Fig. 61. The arteries of the posterior region of the Florida alligator.—For lettering,
see pages 224-25.

The first large branch of the aorta is the unpaired mesenteric

artery, m¹, which is given off in about the region of the fourth pair of
lumbars; it carries blood through the mesentery to the greater part of
the small intestine and also sends a small branch to the large
intestine.
Posterior to the mesenteric, the aorta gives off four or five pairs of
short arteries, the urogenitals, u 1-4, that lead to the nearby
reproductive organs and kidneys.
About the middle region of the kidneys, a short distance anterior to
the sacrum, is given off a pair of rather large arteries, called by
Bronn the ischiadicæ, is¹; each ischiadica, after giving off a couple of
small branches to the back, passes laterad and divides into three
main branches: (1¹) to the ventral body wall, (3¹) to the anterior
border and deeper region of the thigh, and (2¹) to the pelvis.
In the region of the sacrum is given off a pair of iliac arteries, il¹.
Each iliac is of about the same diameter as the ischiadica and gives
off, soon after leaving the aorta, an artery, ab, that apparently leads
chiefly to the abdominal muscles. Distal to the origin of the
abdominal, the iliac gives off a small pelvic artery, pa, which leads,
as the name would indicate, to the pelvis. The iliac then passes into
the thigh, where it gives off several large branches and may be
called the sciatic, sc. At the knee the sciatic gives off two rather small
branches: one, the fibular artery, f¹, extends down along the posterior
side of the lower leg; the other is parallel to the first and may be
called the tibial artery, tb, since it extends along the anterior or tibial
side of the shank. These two arteries give off numerous branches to
the muscles of the lower leg. After giving off the fibular and tibial
arteries, the sciatic passes, as a large vessel, through the lower leg,
to which it gives but few branches, and may here be called the crural
artery, cr. At the tarsus it divides rather suddenly and, perhaps,
variably, into four chief branches, leading to the toes.
 Fig. 62. The arteries of the anterior region of the Florida alligator. The arteries of
the left foreleg shown at A.—For lettering, see pages 224-25.

A short distance caudad to the origin of the iliacs the dorsal aorta
gives off a pair of small pelvic arteries, pa¹, going to the muscles of
that region. Caudal to these pelvic arteries is given off the unpaired
first hæmorrhoidal artery, he¹, which divides into a rectal, rt¹, and a
cloacal, cl, branch.
Caudal to the first hæmorrhoidal arises the second hæmorrhoidal,
he²; also unpaired, leading to the cloaca.
Posterior to the second hæmorrhoidal, the aorta continues into the
tail as the large caudal artery, ca.
The Anterior Arteries. The origin of the great arterial trunks—the
pulmonary, aortic arches, primary carotid, and right subclavian has
already been given and the distribution of the pulmonary arteries and
aortic arches has been described, so that it now remains to describe
the distribution of the right subclavian, Fig. 62, sc.d., and the primary
carotid, capr.
The right subclavian, sc.d., since it has an independent origin from
the heart, instead of arising as a branch of the primary carotid, will
be described first. After leaving the heart it passes cephalad and
laterad and gives off the following branches in order, beginning at the
heart: an œsophageal artery, oe, a small, caudally directed vessel
carrying blood to the posterior region of the œsophagus. Close to the
œsophageal arises another small, caudally directed vessel, the
pleural artery, plu, extending to the pleura and possibly to the
pericardium. From the same region as the preceding two arteries,
but extending cephalad along the trachea and œsophagus, arises
the much larger branch of the right subclavian, the right collateralis
colli, cc, whose course and distribution will be described later.
Close to the distal side of the collateralis colli arises the very small
thyroid artery, th, leading to the oval thyroid gland that lies against
the ventral surface of the trachea a short distance anterior to the
heart.
A short distance distal to the thyroid artery the subclavian gives off
a fairly large artery, the internal mammary, im¹ (shown too large in
the figure), that passes to the inner surface of the ribs near the
sternum and lies parallel to the vein of the same name, described
above.
A short distance distal to the internal mammary arises an artery of
about the same diameter, the vertebral, v¹; it passes dorsad and
caudad to the region of the thoracic vertebræ.
After giving off the five vessels just described, the subclavian
artery passes into the shoulder where it divides into three main
branches: (a) the subscapular, sc¹, going to the skin and muscles of
the shoulder; (b) the thoracic, t¹, carrying blood to the posterior
muscles of the shoulder and to the posterior region of the upper arm;
(c) the brachial, br¹, which is really the continuation of the subclavian
and is the chief artery of the anterior appendage.
After sending several branches to the upper arm the brachial
divides, in the region of the elbow, into two main vessels, the radial,
ra¹, and ulnar, ul¹, arteries, Fig. 62, A. The radial artery, in the carpal
region, divides in a complicated way into five main vessels that
extend into the digits. The ulnar artery gives off several branches to
the forearm, but apparently does not connect directly with the
branches to the digits.
The primary carotid, capr. After leaving the heart, this very large
vessel passes cephalad and laterad for some distance on the left
side of the body and then gives off, from its anterior side, the large
left subclavian artery, sc.s., to be described later. After giving off the
subclavian artery, it makes a short loop, still farther to the left, and
then turns sharply mediad to pass to the head in the median plane
directly dorsal to the œsophagus. Its distribution in the cervical and
cephalic region will be described later. The mate to the œsophageal
branch, oe (near heart), of the right subclavian which was mentioned
above is apparently sometimes given off from the primary carotid
near its base (as shown in Fig. 62) and sometimes as a branch of
the left pleural artery.
The left subclavian artery, sc.s., although it has a different origin,
has the same branches as described in connection with the right
subclavian. The exact order in which the first of these (the thyroid, th;
the internal mammary, im¹; the collateralis colli, cc; the pleural, plu;
and the vertebral, v¹) are given off is, as might be expected, subject
to some variation.
The collateralis colli, cc (following Bronn’s nomenclature), whose
origin was noted above, will now be discussed; since the two are
alike only one need be described. After leaving the subclavian, it
passes cephalad, at the side of the trachea and œsophagus, in
company with the internal jugular vein, so that in this part of its
course it would seem to be the internal carotid artery. It gives
numerous small twigs to the trachea and œsophagus, oe. In the
region of the posterior part of the huge jaw muscle it is connected
directly, x, with the adjacent branch, cm (called by Bronn the
common carotid) of the primary carotid, and indirectly, x¹, with a
complicated group of branches from the common carotid. Cephalad
to the connective x¹, which extends dorsad and is hence
foreshortened in the figure, the collateralis colli gives off a small
vessel, y (too large in Fig. 62), to the shoulder and skin; it then sends
a fairly large branch, jm, into the large jaw muscle, close to which it
now lies. Next a small branch, lg, is sent to the larynx. Continuing
cephalad and laterad (in Fig. 62 it is drawn farther to the side than it
actually lies) for a short distance farther, it divides into three
branches: (1) a short twig, mg, that goes to the musk gland on the
side of the mandible and to the skin of that region; (2) a large
branch, the mandibular, md, that enters the large foramen on the
mesial side of the mandible and extends in the cavity of that bone
throughout its entire length; (3) the lingual artery, l¹, which in turn
divides, some distance cephalad, into two branches, one extending
along the lateral region, the other nearer the mid-ventral surface of
the tongue. It is seen, then, that the collateralis colli arteries supply
directly the lower side of the head—tongue, mandible, etc.—though
they may also send blood through the above-mentioned connectives
to the brain and dorsal regions of the skull.
The primary carotid, capr, as was noted above, makes a curve to
the left after leaving the heart and then passes back to the median
plane, where it may be seen lying against the ventral side of the
neck muscles and dorsal to the œsophagus; in this place it gives off
a series of unpaired cervical arteries, Fig. 62, ce, each of which
almost immediately divides into an anterior and a posterior branch,
that carry blood to the cervical vertebræ. At the base of the skull, in
the region where it is united by the first connective, x, with the
collateralis colli, as described above, the primary carotid divides into
two similar branches, called by Bronn the common carotids, cm. The
distribution of these two vessels is symmetrical, so that only one
need be described. While the collateralis colli, as has been said,
carry blood chiefly to the tongue and lower jaw, the common carotids
supply the cranium and upper jaw.
Soon after its formation by the division of the primary carotid, the
common carotid is joined, as noted above, with the collateralis colli
of that side by the connective, x; since the common carotid and its
branches all lie dorsal to the collateralis colli and its branches, the
connectives x and x¹ extend in a more or less dorso-ventral direction.
The two common carotids, almost completely surrounded by bone, in
passing cephalad sweep first laterad, then mediad, so that they
together form almost a complete ellipse, as seen in Fig. 62; there is,
however, no apparent connection between them at the anterior
region where they lie so close together.
A short distance cephalad to the connective x the common carotid
is connected laterally, z, with a rather complicated plexus of vessels
lying at the base of the skull; it is through this plexus that the
common carotid is connected with the collateralis colli by the second
connective, x¹.
The short branch z quickly divides into three parts: (1) a small
anteriorly directed vessel which may be called the internal carotid, ic,
since it enters the skull through the most ventral of the three
foramina in the exoccipital, and probably supplies the brain, though
its further course could not be followed; (2) a somewhat larger
posteriorly directed artery, oc, going to the muscles at the occipital
region of the skull; (3) a short laterally directed stem, z¹. The last-
named branch, z¹, in turn, leads in three directions: (a) to the
collateralis colli artery through the connective x¹; (b) a short
anteriorly directed vessel, e, that passes into the skull, possibly to
the ear, through the large foramen that lies between the exoccipital
and quadrate bones; it gives off a small twig, q, to the muscles in the
region of the jaw articulation (quadrate); (c) the main stem of the
branch z continues laterad and cephalad as one of the chief arteries,
z², to the anterior region of the skull, giving off a fairly wide branch,
jm¹, to the large jaw muscle, and then two branches, o¹ and o², to the
lateral surface of the eyeball and socket; it then anastomoses, just
cephalad and laterad to the eye, with the forward continuation, cm¹,
of the corresponding main stem, cm, of the common carotid, already
mentioned. The vessel cm¹, after almost meeting its fellow in the
middle line, passes cephalad and laterad across the ventral surface
of the eye to the union, above mentioned, with the lateral branch, z²;
at the posterior-mesial border of the eye it gives off a branch that
divides into two twigs, one, o³, for the posterior eye muscles, and
one, e¹ to the region of the ear and the top of the skull.
At the point of union of the branches cm¹ and z² a sort of simple
plexus may be formed from which two vessels, n, pass to the
posterior nasal region, and two vessels pass forward along the side
of the upper jaw. Of the latter two vessels one, which may be called
the inferior dental of the maxilla, dm, is very small and extends along
the maxilla to its very tip, at the base of the teeth and ventral to the
palatine bone; the other, which is larger and may be called the
superior dental of the maxilla, dm¹, extends cephalad along the
mesial side of the maxilla, dorsal to the palatine bone; it sends
numerous twigs into the maxillary bone among the roots of the teeth.
After passing nearly to the end of the snout, the superior dental, dm¹
suddenly forms a loop towards the median line and passes as a
straight branch, n¹, directly caudad, near and parallel to the median
plane. The branch n¹ extends along the floor of the nasal cavity and,
after giving off twigs to this chamber, ends in a network of vessels,
o⁴, on the anterior surface of the eyeball and socket.
A pair of very small arteries, n², may be seen in the nasal chamber
between and parallel to the branches, n¹; they lie close to each side
of the nasal septum and supply the anterior nasal region. They
apparently arise, as shown by the broken lines, from the loop of the
superior dental artery, dm¹, though this could not be definitely
determined.

Lettering for Figures 59-62

Aos., Aod., left and right aortic arches.
ab, abdominal artery.
ax, axillary vein.
b, veins from body wall.
br, brachial vein.
br¹, brachial artery.
c, cœliac artery.
ca, caudal artery.
capr, primary carotid.
cc, collateralis colli artery.
ce, cervical artery.
cl, cloacal artery.
cm, cm¹, common carotid artery.
cr, crural artery.
cv, caudal vein.
da, dorsal aorta.
dm, inferior dental artery of maxilla.
dm¹, superior dental artery of maxilla.
e, e¹, artery into skull, perhaps to ear.
ej, external jugular vein.
ep, internal epigastric vein.
f, femoral vein.
f¹, fibular artery.
fb, fibular vein.
g, gastric vein of portal.
g¹, gastric vein of epigastric.
ga, gastric artery.
ghi, gastro-hepatico-intestinal artery.
h, hepatic portal vein.
he¹, he², hæmorrhoidal arteries.
i, intestinal vein.
ic, internal carotid artery.
id, inferior dental vein.
il, iliac vein.
il¹, iliac artery.
im, internal mammary vein.
im¹, internal mammary artery.
is, ischiadic vein.
is¹, ischiadic artery.
j, internal jugular vein.
jm, jm¹, artery to jaw muscle.
l, lingual vein.
l¹, lingual artery.
lg, laryngeal artery.
lu, 1-7, lumber arteries (numbers on left side of figure).
m, mesenteric vein.
m¹, mesenteric artery.
md, mandibular artery.
mg, artery to musk gland.
ms, muscular vein.
n, artery to posterior nasal region.
n¹, artery to anterior and mid-nasal region.
n², artery to anterior nasal region.
o¹-o⁴, arteries to eye.
oc, artery to muscles at base of skull.
oe, œsophageal arteries.
pa, pelvic artery.
pa¹, second pelvic artery.
pb, post brachial vein.
pc, post cava.
pd, right pulmonary artery.
pi, pancreo-intestinal artery.
pl, pl¹, pelvic vein.
plu, pleural artery.
ps, left pulmonary artery.
q, artery to muscle at angle of jaw.
ra, radial vein.
ra¹, radial artery.
re, reproductive vein or artery.
rp, renal portal vein.
rt, rectal vein.
rt¹, rectal artery.
rv, renal vein.
s, subclavian vein.
sc, sciatic artery (Fig. 61).
sc, subscapular vein (Fig. 60).
sc¹, subscapular artery.
sc.d., sc.s., right and left subclavian arteries.
si, spleno-intestinal artery.
sp, splenic vein.
s.v., sinus venosus.
t, thoracic vein.
t¹, thoracic artery.
tb, tibial artery.
th, thyroid artery.
tr, tracheal vein.
u, 1-4, urogenital arteries (numbers on right side of figure).
ul¹, ulnar artery.
v, vertebral vein.
v¹, vertebral artery.
vca, anterior vena cava.
vh, hepatic vein.
vpd, vps, right and left pulmonary veins.
x, x¹, connectives between collateralis colli and carotid.
y, artery to shoulder and skin.
z, z¹, z², branches of common carotid.
1¹, 2¹, 3¹, branches of ischiadic artery.
 CHAPTER IX
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ALLIGATOR
(A. mississippiensis)

Introduction
ith the exception of S. F. Clarke’s well-known paper, to which
W frequent reference will be made, practically no work has
been done upon the development of the American alligator.
This is probably due to the great difficulties experienced in obtaining
the necessary embryological material. Clarke, some twenty years
ago, made three trips to the swamps of Florida in quest of the
desired material. The writer has also spent parts of three summers in
the Southern swamps—once in the Everglades, once among the
smaller swamps and lakes of central Florida, and once in the
Okefinokee Swamp. For the first of these expeditions he is indebted
to the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund; but for the more
successful trip, when most of the material for this work was
collected, he is indebted to the Smithsonian Institution, from which a
liberal grant of money to defray the expenses of the expedition was
received.
The writer also desires to express his appreciation of the
numerous courtesies that he has received from Dr. Samuel F.
Clarke, especially for the loan of several excellent series of sections,
from which a number of the earlier stages were drawn.
In preparing the material several kinds of fixation were employed,
but the ordinary corrosive sublimate-acetic mixture gave about the
most satisfactory results. Ten per cent. formalin, Parker’s mixture of
formalin and alcohol, etc., were also used. In all cases the embryos
were stained in toto with borax carmine, and in most cases the
sections were also stained on the slide with Lyon’s blue. This double
stain gave excellent results. Transverse, sagittal, and horizontal
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