UTILISATION OF ELECTRIC

POWER
(19-209-0806)
Prepared by
Mithra P S
MODULE 1
ILLUMINATION
 MAIN ASPECTS

• Terms-Luminous flux, Intensity, Candle Power, MHCP, MSCP,

Reduction Factor, Utilization Factor, Specific Height Ratio,
Maintenance Factor, Depreciation Factor etc.
• Laws of Illumination
• Solid Angle in terms of Plane Angle
• Street, factory, flood lighting etc.
• Lamps- Sodium Vapour Lamp, High Pressure Mercury Vapour
Lamp, Incandescent Lamp, Fluorescent Lamp
• Photometry and types of photometers
• Problems of Illumination
• Factors-Designing lighting scheme
 Illumination and its necessity
• Lighting up places or illuminating somewhere
• Indoor applications (domestic, factory lighting etc.)
• Outdoor applications ( highway, flood lighting etc.)
• Advantages of electrically produced light over other lighting
schemes.
 Nature of light
• Light- EM energy radiated from a luminous
body and human eye is capable of receiving it.
• Sources of light- various forms of incandescent
bodies.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Light
The radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual
sensation upon the human eye. Unit- lumen hours, symbol Q.
Color
The energy of radiation of the heated body is monochromatic,
i.e. the radiation of only one wavelength emits specific color.
Wavelength of visible light 4000-7500 Å
Relative Sensitivity
The reactive power of human eye to the light waves of a
specific wavelength
Most sensitive wavelength is 5500 Å, color yellowish green, relative
sensitivity for this wavelength is taken as Unity.
Relative sensitivity at any particular wavelength –Relative luminous
factor.
Luminous flux
The total quantity of energy in the form of light emitted
per second from a luminous body, Unit- Lumens, Symbol Φ
Radiant efficiency
Ratio of the energy radiated in the form of light which produces
sensation of vision to human eye to the total energy radiated out
by the luminous body
Plane Angle
A plane angle is subtended at a point and is
enclosed by two straight lines lying in the same
plane, unit- degrees/radians, symbol θ.
Plane angle= arc/radius
Solid Angle
The angle subtended at a point in space by an
area ie.,the angle enclosed in the volume, unit-
steradian, symbol-ω.
Solid angle= area/radius^2
Luminous intensity
Luminous intensity in a given direction is the luminous
flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle ,Unit-Candela or
Candle power, Symbol I.
df –luminous flux emitted, dω – solid angle
Luminous intensity= df/ dω lumen/steradian or candela
Lumen
It is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the
amount of luminous flux emitted by a source having an
intensity of one candle power per unit solid angle in all
directions.
Candle power
The number of lumens emitted per second by source
in a unit sold angle in a given direction
Illumination
Luminous flux received by a surface per unit area, Unit-
lux or lumen/m^2 or meter candle or foot candle. Symbol E
E= luminous flux/area
Brightness
Brightness of a surface is defined as the luminous intensity
per unit projected area of the surface in the given direction,
Unit Candela per meter square, Symbol L
MHCP (Mean Horizontal Candle Power)
It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions
in the horizontal plane containing the source of light

MSCP (Mean Spherical Candle Power)

It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions
and in all planes from the source of light

Mean Hemi Spherical Candle Power

It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions
above or below the horizontal plane passing through the source
of light
Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean
spherical candle power to its mean horizontal candle power
Reduction Factor = MSCP/MHCP

Lamp efficiency
it is defined as the ratio of luminous flux to the power
input

Specific consumption
It is defined as the ratio of power input to the average candle
power
Space height ratio
it is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between
adjacent lamps and height of their mountings
Coefficient of Utilization/Utilization factor
The ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to
total lumens emitting from the lamp.

Maintenance factor
It is the ratio of illumination under normal working
conditions to the illumination when the things are perfectly
clean.
Depreciation factor
This is merely the reverse of the maintenance factor and
is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate
maintained illumination on the working plane.
Waste Light factor
Whenever a surface is illuminated by a number of sources of
light, there is always a certain amount of waste of light on account of
overlapping oh light waves. The effect is taken into account depending
upon the type of area to be illuminated (1.2 for rectangular areas and
1.5 for irregular areas and objects such as statues, monuments etc.)
Absorption factor
In the places where atmosphere is full of smoke fumes, such
as in foundries, there is a possibility of absorption of light. The ratio of
total lumens available after absorption to the total lumens emitted by
the source of light is called the absorption factor.
Beam factor
The ratio of lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens
given out.
Reflection factor/Coefficient of reflection
The ratio reflected light to the incident light.
Relationship between plane angle and
solid angle
Consider a curved surface of a spherical
segment ABC of height h and radius of the
sphere r,
Surface area of the ABC = 2πrh
BD =OB-OD
h = r-r cos(θ/2)
h = r(1-cos(θ/2)
Surface area of the ABC = 2πrh
= 2πr*r(1-cos(θ/2)
= 2πr^2(1-cos(θ/2)
Solid angle ω = Area/(radius)^2
=(2πr^2(1-cos(θ/2))/r^2
= 2π(1-cos(θ/2)
This is the relation between plane angle θ
and solid angle ω.
 Laws of Illumination
• Inverse square law
• Illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the surface and a point
source.
E= I/d^2,Where d = the distance from the light source
• As a surface that is illuminated by a light source moves
away from the light source, the surface appears
dimmer. In fact, it becomes dimmer much faster than it
moves away from the source. The inverse square law,
which quantifies this effect
• Mathematically it can be proved as follows:
Let us consider surface area A1 and surface area A2 at distances
r1 and r2 respectively from the point source S of luminous
intensity I and normal to the rays,
Let the solid angle subtended be ω steradians = I
• For area A1,solid angle ω=A1/r1^2
• Luminous flux reaching area A1,
= luminous Intensity* solid angle
= I* ω
= (I*A1)/r1^2
• Illumination E1= flux/area
= (I A1/r1^2)*(1/A1)
E1= I /r1^2
Similarly E2= I /r2^2
Hence Illumination on any surface is inversely proportional
to square of the distance between the surface and the source.
• Lambert’s cosine law
Illumination E at any point on a surface is
directly proportional to the cosine of the angle
between the normal at that point and the line
of the flux. As per lambert cosine law,
Relationship between I, L and E
Consider a uniform diffuse sphere of radius r meters, at the
center a source of 1 CP and luminous intensity I candela.
Brightness L = I/𝜋𝑟 2
Illumination E = Φ/ A
= (CP*ω)/A
= (I/4𝜋𝑟 2 ) ∗ 4𝜋
= I/𝑟 2
E = I/𝑟 2
= (I/𝜋𝑟 2 ) ∗ π
= L* π
E= πL
 Various Lighting Schemes
• Street Lighting
• Factory Lighting
• Flood Lighting
 Street Lighting
• The main objectives of street lighting are

(i) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly visible in order to
promote safety and convenience.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To increase the community value of the street.

❖ The principle employed for street lighting is different from that of

interior lighting. There are no walls and ceiling which reflect or diffuse
light, hence only direct lighting scheme can be employed and hard
shadows and high contrast can not be avoided.

❖ Mercury vapour and sodium discharge lamps have been found to have
certain particular advantages for street lighting purposes. The most
important of these low power consumption for a given amount of light.
 Flood Lighting
❖ Flood light means flooding of large surfaces
with light from powerful projectors.
❖ It is employed to serve one or more of the following purposes.

I. For enhancing beauty of building at night such as

public places, ancient buildings.
II. For illuminating railway yards, sports stadiums, car parks, constructions
sites, quarries etc.

III. Flood lighting it is necessary to concentrate the light from the light
source into a narrow beam. The particular type of reflector and
its housing used for concentrating the light into narrow beam is known
as flood light projection.
 Factors considered for designing good
lighting scheme
1. Illumination Level :

❖ This is the most vital factor because a sufficient illumination is the basic
means where by we are able to see our surroundings.
❖ For each type of work there is a range of brightness most favorable to
output i.e., which causes minimum fatigue and gives maximum output in
terms of quality and quantity.
2.Uniformity of illumination :

❖ The human eye adjusts itself automatically to the brightness within the
field of vision. If there is a lack of uniformity, pupil or iris of the eye has to
adjust more frequently and thus fatigue is caused to the eye and
productivity is reduced.
•
3.Color of light :

❖ The appearance of the body color entirely depends upon the color
of the incident light. In general the composition of the light should
be such that the color appears natural i. e . its appearance by
artificial light is not appreciable different from that by day light.
4.Shadows:

❖ In lighting installations, formation of long and hard shadows causes

fatigue of eyes and therefore is considered to be a short-coming.
❖ Hard and long shadows can be avoided by (i) using large no of small
luminaries mounted at height not less than 2.5 meters and (ii) by
using wide surface sources of light using globes over filament lamps
or by using indirect lighting system.
5.Glare :

❖It may be direct or reflected i.e; it may come directly

from the light source or it may be reflected brightness
such as from a desk top, nickeled machine parts.

❖Direct glare from a source of light is the more common,

and is more often a hindrance to vision.
 Polar Curves
• The luminous intensity/candle
power in all directions can be
represented by polar curves.
• Horizontal Polar curve- If the
luminous intensity/candle
power is measured in a
horizontal plane about a
vertical axis. Curve is plotted
between candle power and
angular position.
• Vertical Polar curve- If the
luminous intensity/candle
power is measured in a
vertical plane.
 Rousseau’s Construction
• M.H.C.P is determined from
horizontal polar curve by
taking mean value of CP in
horizontal direction.
• M.S.C.P can be determined
from vertical polar curve by
Rousseau’s construction.
• By Rousseau’s construction,
MSCP =Mean ordinate of the
curve
= Area under Rousseau’s
curve/length(parallel to vertical
axis)
• The ordinates are drawn based
on the length of one lobe of
the symmetrical vertical polar
curve
 Integrating Sphere
• Hollow Sphere(D>>d)
• Smooth inner surface
• Uniform white paint
coating(Gloss)
• Translucent glass window.
• Brightness is measured.
• When we place lamp and
using the glass window, the
light will get integrated , so
called as integrating sphere.
• Brightness is measured with
the Illuminometer with test
lamp and standard lamp
separately
• Firstly brightness is measured with test lamp of which is the
lamp whose M.S.C.P is to be determined is placed at the
centre of the sphere and brightness is measured with the
help of some form of illuminometer.
• Then test lamp is replaced by a standard lamp whose M.S.C.P
is known and the brightness of the window is again measured.
• MSCP is proportional to brightness
〖𝑀.𝑆.𝐶.𝑃〗_(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝) 〖𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠〗_(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝)
• i.e., =
〖𝑀.𝑆.𝐶.𝑃〗_(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝) 〖𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠〗_(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝)
i.e., 〖𝑀. 𝑆. 𝐶. 𝑃〗_(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝)
〖𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠〗_(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝)
= * 〖𝑀. 𝑆. 𝐶. 𝑃〗_(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝)
〖𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠〗_(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝)
 Photometry
• The candle power of a source in any direction
is measured by comparison with a standard or
substandard source employing photometer
bench and some form of photometer.
• The photometer head or screen is moved in
between the fixed sources until the
illumination on both sides of the screen is
same.
 1 1
• 𝐸1 ∝ 2 ; 𝐸2 ∝
𝑙1 𝑙22
𝐸1 𝑙22 𝐼2 𝑙12
• = ⇒ =
𝐸2 𝑙12 𝐼1 𝑙22
𝑙12
⇒𝐼2 = 𝐼1 2
𝑙2
𝑙12
⇒ C.P of T = (C.P of S)
𝑙22
 Different types of Photometer Heads
• Same colour lamps
▪ Bunsen type (Grease Spot Photometer)
▪ Lummer Brodhun type ( Equality of Brightness Type and Contrast
Type)
• Different colour lamps
▪ Guild’s Flicker Photometer
• Photocells (Non-Visual Comparison Photometers)
▪ Photo Voltaic Cell
▪ Photo Emissive Cell
• Lumeter is used for the measurement of brightness or luminance
(e.g.., Holophane Lumeter)
• Illuminometer/Photometer is used for the measurement of
Illumination in lux (e.g.., Trotter IPM, Macbeth IM)
• Luminous Efficacy(𝛈)- Indicates the efficiency
with which the electrical power consumed
is converted into light.
Unit- Lumens/watts (lm/W)
• A light fitting is a type of assembly that
contains all of the features, fixtures, and
elements of a light. They will generally include
electrical connectors, as well as sockets, which
will hold the light bulb in place. ... Wherever
there are lights, one will find light fittings as
well.
 Colorimeter
• Colorimeter – Instrument
used for the measurement of
luminous intensity of light
• Used in biochemical
investigations which involves
the quantitative examination
of colours
• Can be operated in the
visible range of the EM
spectrum
• Principle of operation- When
a monochromatic light
passes through a coloured
solution some specific
wavelengths are absorbed.
 Artificial sources of light (Lamps)
• By temperature Incandescence(Incandescent lamp)
➢ Thin wire(Filament) in vacuum or inert gas
➢ Get heated enough to raise the temperature and produce
luminosity.
• By establishing arc between two carbon electrodes (eg.,
Carbon arc lamp)
• Discharge lamps
➢ Gas or vapour is made luminous by electric discharge
through them
➢ Colour and intensity of light depends on the nature of gas
➢ Sodium vapour lamp, Mercury vapour lamp, Fluorescent
Lamp
Incandescent lamp
• Evacuated glass globe and a fine wire known as filament.
• Materials used as filaments- Carbon, tantalum and tungsten.
• Carbon lamp works at 1800ᵒ C
• Tantalum is not commonly used
since its efficiency is low.
• Tungsten lamp works at 2000ᵒ C
and is used most
• Coiled or Coiled coil filament
• Incandescent lamp technology uses
electric current to heat a coiled tungsten
filament to incandescence.
• The glass envelope contains a mixture of nitrogen and a small
amount of other inert gases such as argon.
• Arc lamps
• Used for search lights and projection lamps
• Electric current is made to flow between two electrodes and an arc is being
struck.
• Eg., Carbon arc lamp
• +ve and –ve electrodes are of same size for AC and larger +ve rod for DC
supply (+ve is consumed earlier than –ve in case of same size)
• A resistance is used to stabilise the arc
Discharge lamps
❖ Discharge lamps produce light by passing an electric current through a
gas that emits light when ionized by the current.

❖ Neon-orange red light, mercury vapour -bluish and sodium vapour-

orange yellow.

❖ Type 1-colour of light is same as that of the discharge- sodium and

mercury vapour lamps

❖ Type 2- used the phenomenon of fluorescence- the discharge through

the vapour produce ultra violet waves which cause fluorescence in
phosphor( inside of fluorescent lamps are coated with phosphor)
 Sodium Vapour Lamp
❖ The lamp consists of a discharge tube having special composition of glass to
withstand the high temperature of the electric discharge.
❖ The discharge tube is surrounded by an outer tube as shown in fig.
❖ For heating the cathode a transformer is included.
❖ Sodium below 600ᵒC is in solid state.

❖ For starting the lamp the electric discharge is allowed to take place in neon
gas.
❖ The temperature inside the discharge tube rises and vaporizes sodium.

❖ Sodium vapour has the highest theoretical luminous efficiency and gives
monochromatic orange-yellow light.
• A choke is provided for stabilizing the electric discharge and a
capacitor for power factor improvement.
 Mercury Vapour Lamps
❖ It is similar to construction of the sodium vapour lamp.

❖ The electrodes are tungsten coils containing an electron emitting

material which may be small piece of thorium or an oxide mixture.

❖ The electric discharge first takes place through argon and this
vaporizes the mercury drops inside the discharge tube.
❖ The electron emitting material supplies electrons to maintain the arc.

❖ The space between two bulbs is filled with an inert gas.

❖ Mercury vapour lamps are used for lighting of roads, car parking
areas, parks and gardens, factory sheds, etc.
• Xenon may also be used in high-pressure mercury vapor lamps to aid
starting time, and does not significantly change the visible spectrum of the
lamp
 Fluorescent Lamp
❖ In the mercury vapour lamp considerable amount of radiation is in
ultra- violate range.
❖ By coating the inside of the tube by phosphor, this ultra violate
radiation is converted in visible light.
❖ Phosphors have definite characteristic colours, but when mixed
together, they produce a large variety of colours.
 Lighting Schemes
• Lighting schemes are classified according to
the location, requirement and purpose etc.
are as under:
1. Direct Lighting
2. Indirect Lighting
3. Semi direct Lighting
4. Semi indirect Lighting
5. General Lighting
 Direct Lighting
• As it is clear from the name, in this system
almost 90-95 % light falls directly on the
object or the surface.
• The light is made to fall upon the surface with
the help of deep reflectors.
• Most used in industries and commercial
buildings
• Efficient one but glare and shadows are
unavoidable
 Indirect Lighting
• Light does not fall directly on the surface but
more than 90% of light is directed upwards by
using diffusing reflectors.
• Ceiling acts as the source of light and this light
is uniformly distributed over the surface
• Glare is reduced to minimum.
• Shadow less illumination is provided
• Used for decoration purposes in cinema halls,
hotels etc.
 Semi direct Lighting
• Also an efficient system enabling glare
reduction
• Transparent type shades are used through
which 60% light is directed downward and
40% is directed upward
• Uniform distribution is provided
• Bets suited for rooms with high ceilings
 Semi indirect Lighting
• 60-90% of total light is thrown upward to
ceiling for diffused reflection and the rest
reaches the working plane directly
• Absorption is small
• Mainly used for interior decoration
 General Lighting
• Employs luminaries, shades and reflectors
which gives equal illumination in all directions