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Definition 1.1 (Set). A set is a well-defined collection of objects.

The objects contained in the set are called elements or members of the set. We usually
use capital letters A, B, C, . . . to denote sets and lowercase letters a, b, c, . . . to represent
elements of sets. If a is an object in the set A, we say that a is an element of A or that a is
a member of A or that a belongs to A. This will be denoted

a ∈ A.

If a is not a member of the set A, we write

a∈
/ A.

Usually, we use the shorthand

A = {x | x has property P }, (1.1)

which is to be read “A is the set of all objects x such that x has property P.” This is called
the set builder notation. In Equation (1.1), the letter x is a dummy variable and so must
NOT be used outside the set builder notation without being defined again.
When it is possible to list the elements of A, or at least to list sufficiently many to make
clear just what the elements of A are, we write

A = {x, y, z, . . .}. (1.2)

The set that does not have any elements in it is called the empty set or the null set,
denoted by { } or ∅. A set containing one element is called a singleton set.
Given any set S and any object x, we assume that exactly one of x ∈ S or x ∈
/ S holds.
Also, observe that a set can be an element of another set.

Definition 1.2 (Family of sets). Let F be a set. The set F is called a family of sets if all
the elements of F are sets. The family of sets F is indexed by a non-empty set I, denoted
F = {Ai }i∈I , if there is an element Ai ∈ F for each i ∈ I, and that every element of F
equals Ai for exactly one i ∈ I.

It is worth noting that the empty set is a family of sets. That is, the family of sets F
could be empty. Now, we make mention of some special sets that we shall come across often.
The sets are the following:
The set N of natural numbers is given by

N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}. (1.3)

The set Z of integers is given by

Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}. (1.4)

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+
The set of positive integers is denoted by Z while the set of negative integers is denoted by
Z− . It is quite obvious that Z+ is precisely N.
The set Q of rational numbers is given by
nm o
Q= m ∈ Z, n ∈ Z, and n ̸= 0 . (1.5)
n
The set of positive rational numbers and the set of negative rational number are denoted by
Q+ and Q− respectively.
The set R of real numbers is the set of all numbers that are informally thought of as forming
the number line. The set of positive real numbers and the set of negative real number are
denoted by R+ and R− respectively.
An open bounded interval is a set of the form

(a, b) = {x ∈ R | a < x < b}, (1.6)

where a, b ∈ R with a < b. Diagrammatically, we may depict the interval (a, b) as shown in
Figure 1.1.

a b

Figure 1.1: The interval (a, b).

A closed bounded interval is a set of the form

[a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}, (1.7)

where a, b ∈ R with a < b. We illustrate the interval [a, b] with Figure 1.2.

a b

Figure 1.2: The interval [a, b].

A half-open interval is a set of the form

[a, b) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b} or (a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b}, (1.8)

where a, b ∈ R with a < b. Figure 1.3 shows the interval [a, b).

a b

Figure 1.3: The interval [a, b).

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An open unbounded interval is a set of the form

(a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x > a} or (−∞, b) = {x ∈ R | x < b} or (−∞, ∞) = R (1.9)

where a, b ∈ R. We display the interval (−∞, b) in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: The interval (−∞, b).

A closed unbounded interval is a set of the form

[a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x ≥ a} or (−∞, b] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ b} (1.10)

where a, b ∈ R. We show the interval [a, ∞) in 1.5.

Figure 1.5: The interval [a, ∞).

NB: The symbol ∞ does not represent a real number, that is, ∞ ∈
/ R. It is just a symbol
denoting some unknown arbitrarily large number.

Example 1.1. Which of the following assertions are true, or false?

1. 0 ∈ (0, 1].

2. 11 ∈ {4, 5, 6, . . . , 13}.

3. −1.3 ∈ {. . . , −3, −2, −1}.

4. −1.5 ∈
/ (−∞, −1).

Solution.

1. We see that (0, 1] = {y ∈ R | 0 < y ≤ 1}. Thus, 0 ∈

/ (0, 1]. Hence, 0 ∈ (0, 1] is false.

2. Notice that {4, 5, 6, . . . , 13} = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13}. It follows that
11 ∈ {4, 5, 6, . . . , 13} is true.

3. Since {. . . , −3, −2, −1} = {m ∈ Z | m ≤ −1} and −1.3 ∈

/ Z, we conclude that the
claim −1.3 ∈ {. . . , −3, −2, −1} is false.

4. We have, by definition, that (−∞, −1) = {t ∈ R | t < −1}. This means that −1.5 ∈
(−∞, −1). Consequently, the assertion −1.5 ∈
/ (−∞, −1) is false.

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Definition 1.3 (Perfect squares). Let a ∈ Z . If a is expressible as a = k 2 for some
+

k ∈ Z+ then a is called a perfect square.

The set of perfect squares is

{x ∈ Z+ | x = k 2 for some k ∈ Z+ } = {k 2 | k ∈ Z+ }
= {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . .}.

Definition 1.4 (Multiples of an integer). The integer b is a multiple of the integer a if

b = ea for some e ∈ Z.
For instance, the set of multiples of 3 is

{a ∈ Z | a = 3t for some t ∈ Z} = {3t | t ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .}

Definition 1.5. Let m, n ∈ Z. We say that m divides n if n is a multiple of m. That is,

n = mk for some k ∈ Z. When m divides n, denoted by m | n, m is called a factor or
divisor of n.
We must be careful not to confuse the notation m | n with m/n (which is also written
m
or m ÷ n). Note that for any two integers m and n, m | n is the statement “m divides
n
n” with m ̸= 0, whereas m/n is a rational number whenever n ̸= 0.
Definition 1.6 (Even integers). An integer a is even if it is a multiple of 2. That is,
a = 2d for some d ∈ Z.
The set of even integers is given by

{w ∈ Z | w = 2r and r ∈ Z} = {2r | r ∈ Z}
= {. . . , −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . .}.

Definition 1.7 (Odd integers). Let x be any integer. If x can be written in the form
x = 2y + 1 for some y ∈ Z then x is an odd integer.
The set of odd integers is

{k ∈ Z | k = 2d + 1 for some d ∈ Z} = {2d + 1 | d ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −7, −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .}.

NB: Any given integer is either odd or even, but not both.
Definition 1.8 (Composite numbers). A composite number is a positive integer n ex-
pressible as n = ab, where a and b are positive integers satisfying 1 < a < n and 1 < b < n.
The integer 12 is a composite number since 12 = 3 × 4 where 1 < 3 < 12 and 1 < 4 < 12.
Definition 1.9 (Prime numbers). A prime number p is a positive integer greater than 1
whose only positive divisors are 1 and p.
Examples of primes numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13. The integer 2 is the only even
prime number.

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NB: If a positive integer > 1 is not a prime number then it is a composite number, and
conversely.
Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams. In Venn diagrams the univer-
sal set U , which contains all the objects under consideration, is represented by a rectangle.
Inside this rectangle, circles or other geometrical figures are used to represent sets. Some-
times points are used to represent the particular elements of the set.
Example 1.2. Let U and H be given by U = {x ∈ Z+ | x < 10} and
H = {y ∈ N | y is a perfect square less than or equal to 9}, where U is the universal set.
Draw a Venn diagram for the sets U and H.
Solution. We observe that U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and H = {1, 4, 9}. Thus, we obtain
the Venn diagram in Figure 1.6.

U
2 8
3 H
4
1
9
5
7 6

Figure 1.6:

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Definition 1.10 (The cardinality of a set). The cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S|,
is the number of elements in S.
Definition 1.11 (Subset). Let A and B be sets. The set A is a subset of the set B, denoted
by A ⊆ B, if every element of A is also an element of B. In other words, the set A is a
subset of the set B if x ∈ A implies x ∈ B. If A is not a subset of B, we write A ⊈ B.

U B U U
B B
A A
A

(a) A ⊆ B (b) A ⊈ B (c) A ⊈ B

Figure 1.7:

We shall show in Lemma ?? that for any set S, we have that ∅ and S are subsets of S.
The set S is called the improper subset of S. Note that if A and B are sets and if A ⊈ B,

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then it may still be possible that some of the elements of A are in B, just not all. We show
this in Figure 1.7. The sets A and B are said to be disjoint in Figure 1.7 (b).
The notion of an object being an element of a set, and the notion of a set being a subset
of another set are not the same and should be clearly understood. Consider Example ??
below.
Example 1.3. Let the sets A and B be given by A = {a, b, c} and B = {{a}, b, c}. Which
of the following statements are true and which are false?
1. a ∈ A 5. {a} ∈ B

2. {a} ⊆ A 6. {{a}} ⊆ B

3. a ⊆ A 7. {a} ⊆ B

4. {a} ∈ A 8. a ∈ B
Solution. Let the sets A and B be given by A = {a, b, c} and B = {{a}, b, c}. Then, the
statements a ∈ A and {a} ⊆ A are true, whereas the statements a ⊆ A and {a} ∈ A are
false. We see that B is not the same as the set A because a ̸= {a}. We have that {a} ∈ B
and {{a}} ⊆ B are true, but {a} ⊆ B and a ∈ B are false. ■
Example 1.4. Let the set S be given by S = {2, {2}, ∅, {0}}. Given that the set T is defined
by
T = {D ∈ S | D ⊆ S},
find the elements of T .
Solution. We observe that even though 2 ∈ S, 2 is not a set. Thus, we see that 2 ⊆ S does
not hold. Consequently, 2 ∈
/ T . Next, we find that {2} ∈ S. Moreover, we see that 2 ∈ S,
which means that {2} ⊆ S. We conclude that {2} ∈ T . Now, the empty set ∅ ∈ S and
∅ ⊆ S. Hence, ∅ ∈ T . Finally, we note that even though {0} ∈ S, its only element 0 ∈/ S.
Thus, {0} ̸⊆ S. We deduce that {0} ∈/ T . Therefore, we infer

T = {∅, {2}}.

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Definition 1.12 (The power set). Let S be a set. The power set of S, denoted P (S), is
the set defined by
P (S) = {H | H ⊆ S}.
That is, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of the set S.
Example 1.5. Find the power set of the set Y given by Y = {a, b, c}.
Solution. Let Y = {a, b, c}. Then, we obtain

P (Y ) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, Y } .

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Definition 1.13 (Equality of sets). Let A and B be sets. The two sets A and B are equal
if they have the same elements. That is, the set A equals the set B if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.

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To indicate that a set A is a subset of the set B but that A ̸= B, we write A ⊂ B and
say that A is a proper subset of B. For A ⊂ B to be true, we must have that A ⊆ B and
B contains an element x such that x ∈/ A.
Example 1.6. Let the sets A, B and C be given by
A = {4, 9, 16, 25}, B = {22 , 32 , 42 , 52 }, C = {a, b, c, d}.
We see that A = B, since every element of A belongs to B and every element of B is a
member of A. Additionally, we observer that |A| = |B|. Furthermore, we note that A ̸= C
because A ⊈ C. To see this, observe that 4 ∈ A but 4 ∈/ C. Even though A ̸= C, we find
that |A| = |C| = 4.
Definition 1.14 (The union of two sets). Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A
and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that contains those elements that are either in A or in
B, or in both. That is, the union A ∪ B of A and B is the set defined by
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

A B U

Figure 1.8: The union of the sets A and B.

Example 1.7. Let S = {u, w, x, y, z} and T = {u, v, z}. Find S ∪ T .

Solution. Let S = {u, w, x, y, z} and T = {u, v, z}. Then, we find that
S ∪ T = {u, v, w, x, y, z}.
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Definition 1.15 (The union S of a family of sets). Let F be a family of sets. The union
of the sets in F, denoted by X∈F X, is defined as follows. If F ̸= ∅, then
[
X = {x | x ∈ A for some A ∈ F};
X∈F
S
if F = ∅, then X∈F X = ∅. If F = {Ai }i∈I is indexed by a set I, then we write
[
Ai = {x | x ∈ Ai for some i ∈ I}.
i∈I

Furthermore, if I = N or I = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}, where n ∈ N, then we write

∞
[ n
[
Ai or Ai
i=1 i=1

respectively.

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Definition 1.16 (The intersection of two sets). Let A and B be sets. The intersection
of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set containing those elements in both A and
B. That is, the intersection A ∩ B of A and B is the set defined by

A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

A B U

Figure 1.9: The intersection of the sets A and B.

Example 1.8. Let S = {u, w, x, y, z} and T = {u, v, z}. Find S ∩ T .

Solution. Let S = {u, w, x, y, z} and T = {u, v, z}. Then, we obtain S ∩ T = {u, z}. ■
Definition 1.17 (Disjoint sets). Let A and B be sets. The sets A and B are disjoint if
A ∩ B = ∅.
Definition 1.18 (The intersection of a T family of sets). Let F be a family of sets. The
intersection of the sets in F, denoted by X∈F X, is defined as follows. If F ̸= ∅, then
\
X = {x | x ∈ A for all A ∈ F};
X∈F
T
if F = ∅, then X∈F X is not defined. If F = {Ai }i∈I is indexed by a set I, then we write
\
Ai = {x | x ∈ Ai for all i ∈ I}.
i∈I

Furthermore, if I = N or I = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}, where n ∈ N, then we write

∞
\ n
\
Ai or Ai
i=1 i=1

respectively.
Definition 1.19 (Set difference). Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B,
denoted by A \ B, is the set containing those elements that are in A but not in B. That is,
the difference of A and B is the set defined by

A \ B = {x ∈ A | x ∈
/ B}.

The difference of A and B is also called the complement of B with respect to A.

NB: The set A \ B is defined for any two sets A and B. It is not necessary to have B ⊆ A.

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A B U

Figure 1.10: The difference of A and B.

Example 1.9. Let U , A and B be given by

U = {0, 1, a, 2, b, 3, c, 4, d}, A = {1, a, 2, b} and B = {2, b, 3, c}

respectively, where U is the universal set. Find the difference of A and B.

Solution. Let U , A and B be given by U = {0, 1, a, 2, b, 3, c, 4, d}, A = {1, a, 2, b} and

B = {2, b, 3, c}. respectively, where U is the universal set. Then, the difference A \ B of A
and B is given by A \ B = {1, a}. ■

Example 1.10.
Let X and Y be subsets of R given by X = (−1, 0] ∪ [1, 2) and Y = [−2, 1], respectively.
Find X ∩ Y , X ∪ Y and X \ Y .

Solution. To begin with, we present a pictorial representation of the sets X = (−1, 0] ∪ [1, 2)
and Y = [−2, 1] below.

−2 −1 0 1 2

From the above diagram we deduce that X ∩ Y = (−1, 0] ∪ {1}, X ∪ Y = [−2, 2) and
X \ Y = (1, 2). ■

Definition 1.20 (The complement of a set). Let U be the universal set and B a subset
of U . The complement of the set B, denoted by B ′ , is the complement of B with respect to
U . In other words, the complement of the set B is U \ B.

A B U

Figure 1.11: The complement of B.

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Example 1.11. Let U , A and B be given by

U = {0, 1, a, 2, b, 3, c, 4, d}, A = {1, a, 2, b} and B = {2, b, 3, c}

respectively, where U is the universal set. Find the complement of B.

Solution. Let U , A and B be given by

U = {0, 1, a, 2, b, 3, c, 4, d}, A = {1, a, 2, b} and B = {2, b, 3, c}

respectively, where U is the universal set. The complement B ′ of B is given by

B ′ = {0, 1, a, 4, d}.

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Definition 1.21 (Symmetric difference). Let A and B be sets. The symmetric difference
of A and B, denoted A △ B, is the set defined by

A △ B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

A B U

Figure 1.12: The symmetric difference of A and B.

Example 1.12. Let U , A and B be given by

U = {0, 1, a, 2, b, 3, c, 4, d}, A = {1, a, 2, b} and B = {2, b, 3, c}

respectively, where U is the universal set. Find the symmetric difference A △ B of A and B.
Solution. Let U , A and B be given by

U = {0, 1, a, 2, b, 3, c, 4, d}, A = {1, a, 2, b} and B = {2, b, 3, c}

respectively, where U is the universal set. The symmetric difference A △ B of A and B is

given by
A △ B = {1, a} ∪ {3, c} = {1, a, 3, c}.
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Definition 1.22 (Cartesian product). Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of
A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
That is, the Cartesian product A × B of A and B is the set

A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

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It is important to understand the notion of an ordered pair (a, b) ∈ A × B. The order
is important: the first entry is a member of A and the second entry is a member of B. Take
note that when A ̸= B, the sets A × B and B × A are different sets, that is, A × B ̸= B × A.
When A = B, we write A × B = A × A = A2 .
Example 1.13. Let the sets A and B be given by A = {x, y, z} and B = {a, b}. Find the
sets A × B and B 2 .
Solution. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {a, b}. Then, we get

A × B = {(x, a), (x, b), (y, a), (y, b), (z, a), (z, b)}

and
B 2 = B × B = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}.
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The notion of the Cartesian product of sets can be extended to more than two sets. For
instance, given that A, B, C are sets, we have that

A × B × C = {(a, b, c) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B and c ∈ C}.

More generally, if A1 , A2 , . . . , An are n sets where n is an integer ≥ 2, then

A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | ai ∈ Ai , 1 ≤ i ≤ n}.

For brevity, we write

n
Y
Ai = A1 × A2 × · · · × An .
i=1

If A1 = A2 = · · · = An = A, then we write

An = A
| ×A×
{z· · · × A} .
n times

We call (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) an n-tuple.

EXERCISE ONE

1. Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.

(a) x ∈ {x}
(b) {x} ∈ {x}
(c) {x} ∈ {{x}}
(d) ∅ ∈ {x}
(e) 0 ∈ ∅
(f) ∅ ∈ {0}

2. For each of the following sets, determine whether 2 is an element of that set.

(a) {{2}, {2, {2}}}

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(b) {2, {2}}
(c) {{{2}}}
(d) {{2}, {{2}}}

3. For each of the sets in Question 2, determine whether {2} is an element of that set.

4. List the distinct elements in each of the following sets.

(a) {x ∈ R : x2 = 5}
(b) {x ∈ Z | xy = 1 for some y ∈ Z}
(c) {x ∈ Q | x(x2 − 2)(2x + 3) = 0}

5. Let S = {x ∈ N : x > 3} and T = {x ∈ N | x2 > 4}. Determine whether S ⊆ T or

T ⊆ S.

6. Let the set M be given by M = {k 3 | k ∈ {0, 1}}. List all the elements in the set
T = {a + b | a, b ∈ M }.

7. List the members of these sets.

(i) {y ∈ R | x2 = 1}.
(ii) {x ∈ Z+ | x < 12}.
(iii) {a ∈ Z | a2 = 2}.
(iv) {w ∈ Q | w is a factor of 12}.

8. Which of the following are true and which are false?

/ (−∞, π 2 ).
(a) 10 ∈
(b) π ∈ (2, ∞).

9. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. List all subsets B of A such that

(a) {1, 2} ⊂ B
(b) B ⊂ {1, 2}
(c) {1, 2} is not a subset of B
(d) B is not a subset of {1, 2}

10. Let A = {{a, b}}. Are the following statements true of false? Explain your answer.

(a) a ∈ A
(b) A ∈ A
(c) {a, b} ∈ A
(d) there are no elements in A

11. Let S = {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}}. Which of the following are true?

(a) ∅ ⊆ S

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(b) ∅ ∈ S
(c) {∅} ∈ S
(d) {∅} ⊆ S
(e) {{∅}} ⊆ S
(f) {{∅}, {∅}} ⊆ S
(g) {{∅}, {∅}} ∈ S

12. Determine which of the following are true and which are false.

(a) 3 ∈ {1, 3, 5}
(b) {3} ∈ {1, 3, 5}
(c) {3} ⊂ {1, 3, 5}
(d) {3, 5} is not a subset of {1, 3, 5}
(e) {1, 3, 5} ⊆ {1, 3, 5}

13. Determine whether each of the following statement is true or false. Justify your answer.

(a) ∅ ⊆ ∅
(b) ∅ ⊂ ∅
(c) ∅ ∈ ∅
(d) ∅ ∈ {∅}
(e) {1, 2} is not a subset of {1, 2, 3, {1, 2, 3}}
(f) {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2, {{1, 2}}}

14. Find four examples of a set X with the property that every element of X is a subset
of X.

15. Find three sets U , V , W satisfying the conditions U ⊆ V ∈ W and U ∈ V ⊆ W .

16. List the elements of P (P (∅)) and of P (P (P (∅))).

17. Let the set E be given by E = {1, {1}, 2, {1, 2}}. Determine P (E).

18. Let A and B be sets. Suppose that A ⊆ B. Prove that P (A) ⊆ P (B).

19. Which of the following are true, or false?

(a) ∅ ⊆ P (G) for any set G

(b) ∅ ∈ P (G) for any set G
(c) {{∅}} ⊆ P (∅)
(d) {∅} ⊆ P (G) for any set G
(e) P ({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}
√ √
20. Let S = {2, 5, 2, 25, π, 52 } and T = {4, 25, 2, 6, 23 }.

(a) Find S ∩ T, S ∪ T .

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(b) Find Z ∪ S, Z ∩ S, Z ∪ T, and T ∩ Z.
(c) List the elements in each of the sets Z ∩ (S ∪ T ) and (Z ∩ S) ∪ (Z ∩ T ).
What did you notice?
(d) List the elements in each of the sets Z ∪ (S ∩ T ) and (Z ∪ S) ∩ (Z ∪ T ).
What did you notice?

21. Find
[
i. Bk
k∈N
\
ii. Bk
k∈N

given that

(a) Bk = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 2k}

k+1
(b) [0, k+2 ] ∪ [7, 7k+1
k
)
(c) Bk = {k − 1, k, k + 1}
(d) Bk = [ k3 , 5k+2
k
) ∪ {10 + k}
(e) Bk = (− k1 , 1] ∪ (2, 3k−1
k
]

22. Let A = {x ∈ N | x < 7}, B = {x ∈ Z : |x − 2| < 4} and C = {x ∈ R | x3 − 4x = 0}.

(a) List the elements in each of these sets.

(b) Find:
i. A ∪ B
ii. B ∩ C
iii. B\C
iv. (A \ B) \ C
v. A \ (B \ C)

23. Let A = {w, x, y, z}, B = {1, 3, 5} and C = {1, 9}. Determine the following.

(a) A × B
(b) B × C
(c) B 2
(d) A × B × C

24. List all the elements in the set M given that M = {(x, y) ∈ A2 | x − y = 1} and
A = {0, 1, 2}.

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