Seismic Surveys

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WCP1 - 005
Oil and Gas Accumulation
Requirements for oil to accumulate:
y Source Rock - contains organic material from which
hydrocarbon is derived
y Migration Path - a channel which allows oil to "flow" from the
source rock to the reservoir rock

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y Reservoir Rock - "stores" the accumulated hydrocarbons
y Cap Rock - structure or rock material change which is required
for hydrocarbons to accumulate

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 2

 The Reservoir
y A reservoir is a porous rock which contains fluids
y The reservoir has porosity and permeability

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Gas
Oil

Cap
Water
Reservoir

Migrating hydrocarbon
Source

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 3

Rock Types Relevant to OIL
y The source and reservoir rocks need to be porous and
permeable
y Pores are needed to store the oil
y Permeability is necessary for oil to enter the rock
y The cap rock needs to be impermeable

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y Impermeability is necessary to prevent the flow of oil

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 4

Geological Structures
y Some geological structures are particularly conducive to
accumulation of oil

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Example Unconformity

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Example Folding

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Anticlinal Trap

Free Gas Cap

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Gas-Oil Contact

Oil-Water
Contact

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Example Faulting

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Fault Trap

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Traps can form on either side of the fault
WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 10
So to Find Oil we need to ….
y Find a likely Structure
y Determine the rock types
y Determine Lithology

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WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 11
So How do we Start ?
y Sink an oil well
y Problem - COST
y $ 8 - 10 million per well
y Want a cheaper and more reliable solution

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1) Need to look into the Earth
2) Locate suitable rock structures
3) THEN sink an oil well

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 12

Problem …
y Surface area of the Earth
y 183,322,724 sq.km. = 2x108 km2

y Where do we start ?

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y Geologists walk around looking at rocks

y Measure PHYSICAL properties of the Earth

y GEOPHYSICS

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 13

Different rocks have different properties

MAGNETISM - magnetometer
DENSITY - gravimeter
RADIOACTIVITY - geiger counter

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spectrometer
ACOUSTICS - seismic exploration

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 14

Contents
y Geology Review
y Seismic Data Acquisition
y Seismic Data Processing
y Seismic Data Interpretation

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Seismic Acquisition

Ideal Primaries
Receiver Trace
Source

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A way to Generate Seismic Waves

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WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 17
A Better Way

Marine Vibroseis
Land Vibroseis
Explosive

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Vibrational

Dynamite (Land)
Airguns (Marine)

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Seismic Waves

Surface Waves

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Body Waves

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 19

Body Wave Types
y 2 types defined by the direction of particle motion

wave
direction

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1. P-waves
Particle motion parallel to wave propagation

2. S-waves
Particle motion perpendicular to wave propagation

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 20

Surface Waves

Wave
direction

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y Particle motion is complex, may be ellipt
y Surface waves are noise
y Low velocity, less than S-waves
y Ground roll in land surface seismic

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 21

Wave Energy
y On land, the energy division can be as poor as:

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P-wave 6%

S-wave 26%

Surface waves 68%

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Wavefronts and Raypaths

surface wave

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Reflection
points
Wavefronts Raypaths
• How waves actually travel •Rays perpendicular to wavefronts
• Surface of equal travel time •Simple to use
• Surface of equal phase •Ray trace modelling

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A Seismic Trace

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Seismic Acquisition

Ideal Primary
Source Receiver Traces

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Some problems
y We measure time rather than depth
y Velocity relates the two
y Finding the right velocity is CRITICAL and impossible with
this type of acquisition

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y Many types of noise are also recorded and are difficult to
attenuate with this type of acquisition

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 26

Flat Earth Society - Multiples

Ideal P+M
Source Receiver Trace

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Flat Earth Society - Common Shot Gather

Ideal Offset
Source Traces
Receivers

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Multiple Coverage

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Information about any single point within the earth is recorded
several times using the Multiple Coverage technique

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 29

Flat Earth Society - CMP gather

Common mid-point

Source Receiver
Ideal cmp Traces

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WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 30
Flat Earth Society - CMP Stack

Stack
cmp Traces cmp traces after NMO Trace

Primaries

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Primaries

NMO STACK

Multiple
Multiple
(attenuated)

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 31

Recorded Data
y Two bits of information are recorded on computer tape:
y The time for the energy to travel from the source to the
detector
y The strength of the signal as it reaches the detector

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A Marine Seismic Survey

NEAR TRACE FAR TRACE

GROUP 1 / TRACE 1 GROUP n

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NTO FTO

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Processing In-line

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2D Surveys

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2D Reconnaissance Survey 2D Detailed Survey

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 35

A Problem with 2D

Boat

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Deep Canyon

Three reflections from same structure

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A 3D survey Grid

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Volume of data

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 37

3D Answer
y Interesting Geological Structures

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3D Answer

1) Define Survey Area

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80kms

100 kms

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 39

3D Answer

12.5m line spacing

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2) Collect Many Parallel Lines of data
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3D Answer

12.5m line spacing

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3) Up to 500,000kms in a survey
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Volume of data on Typical Survey

60.000 kms of data collected

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2,400,000 Shot Records
2,750,000,000,000 Bytes of data
2,750,000 Megabytes of data
275 3590 cassettes

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 42

Marine Seismic Acquisition

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Marine 3D Acquisition

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SA
IL
L

TS
IN
E

SE
FF
O
L
RA
TE
LA

A bird’s eye-view
WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 44
3D Acquisition Technique
• 2 source, 6 streamer configuration
• 12 lines shot in 1 boat pass

Sea surface

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Sea bed

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 45

Data Acquisition – and finally ….
Data processing will usually commence with the receipt of the
following (or part thereof) :
y Tape containing recorded seismic data
(trace sequential or multiplexed)
y Observer logs/reports

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y Field Geophysicist logs/reports and listings
y Navigation/survey data
y Field Q.C. displays

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 46

Contents
y Geology Review
y Seismic Data Acquisition
y Seismic Data Processing
y Seismic Data Interpretation

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 Surface Seismic Processing

T D

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i e
m p
e t
h

Raw shot records Final Migration

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And in 3D ………

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Seismic Cross-sections

0.0

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1.0

2.0

3.0

timeslice at 2700ms
4.0

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 50

Data Processing – The Building Blocks
y Processing will usually be based on

y Client objectives
y Test results (Data dependant factors)
y Signal enhancement, noise rejection

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y To produce a final section representative of the geology
y Cost
y Turnaround requirements

y Most processing ‘routes’ will incorporate certain key

applications as standard. More specific procedures
are added based on the above factors.

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 51

Noise Mechanisms
y Seismic data contains 2 noise types:

y Coherent - related to the source

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y Random - not related to the source

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 52

Coherent Noise Mechanisms
y Coherent Land Noise y Coherent Marine Noise
y Multiples y Multiples
y Ground Roll y Mud roll
y Air Wave y Bubble oscillation

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y Vibroseis truck noise y Propellor noise
y Dynamite ‘ghosts’ y Mains hum
y Other seismic crews y Back-scatter
y Wave-guided energy
y Bulge wave

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 53

Random Noise Mechanisms
y Random Marine Noise y Random Land Noise
y Wave action y Wind noise
y Ship noise y Rain noise
y Streamer jerk y cultural noise

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y Instrument noise y (traffic, people walking
etc)
y Marine life
y Instrument noise
y Other seismic crews
y Other seismic crews
y Flow noise

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 54

 Sources of noise in marine surface seismic

RAIN
WIND
SEA STATE

SHIP VIBRATION BIRD

NODE

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INTERNAL

TAIL
PROPELLER
VIBRATION BUOY
NOISE
TURBULENCE FLOW NOISE VIBRATION

OTHER
FISH TRAFFIC

BRENT
SPA
REFLECTED
SEA BED
REFRACTED ANOMALIES

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 55

 Some Multiple Paths free-surface (ground or sea-level)

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Iinter-bed or
Water-bottom Water-bottom Pegleg Free-surface Internal
multiple pegleg multiple multiple multiple multiple
(receiver side)

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 56

Data Processing - raw shot data
Data corresponding to one shot (located somewhere on the earth) which was recorded into 96
(only data from 1-93 shown on plot) different receivers (also located somewhere on earth!)

Time zero
ref.
i.e. reference
is time when

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shot fired
Linear noise e.g. direct
arrivals

Reflection - hyperbolic

Loss of amplitude with time Loss of frequencies with time

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 57

 Processing Sequence
Where are the shots
and receivers located ? Geometry definition

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? ? ? ? ? ?

The most important values for data processing

are relative OFFSETS!

These may be source-receiver offsets, receiver

- receiver offsets etc

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 58

 Processing Sequence
What if the surface Geometry definition
elevation changes ? Static corrections

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datum i.e. remove the difference
in travel time caused by
shots and receivers being at
different elevations - change
our time-zero ref. point to
simulate the re-positioning
of shots and receivers

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 59

Where’s all the source Processing Sequence
energy gone ?
Geometry definition
Static corrections

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Amplitude recovery

Geometric spreading, absorption etc

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 60

 Factors which Affect Amplitudes
Instrument Balance

Superimposed Geophone
Noise Sensitivity
and Coupling
Source Strength
and Coupling Interference of Array Directivity
different Events

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Peg-Leg multiples
from thin reflectors Scattering

Spherical
divergence
Reflector Curvature
Absorption and rugosity

Reflection
Variation of Reflection
coefficient
Coefficient with
incident angle

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 61

What happens at boundaries

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 How to remove coherent
Processing Sequence
noise? Geometry definition
Offset Static corrections
Direct wave Amplitude recovery

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1500 m/s
Refractor
Velocity filtering
Time 1800 m/s
Mud Roll What about random noise?
500 m/s

Reflector - K-filter? Bandpass filter?

2000 m/s May leave until stacking process!

Multiple
< 2000 m/s

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 63

 How to improve the Processing Sequence
vertical resolution?
Geometry definition
Static corrections
Amplitude recovery

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Velocity filtering
Deconvolution

Compensate for the filtering effects of

the earth etc

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 64

How to order the data? Processing Sequence
Geometry definition
Static corrections

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Amplitude recovery
Velocity filtering
Deconvolution
CMP gather

Some processes must be carried out in the

CMP domain

‘Multiple Coverage’ Acquisition techniques

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 65

 Correct for time Processing Sequence
differences due to offset
in the CMP? Geometry definition
Static corrections
Offset
Amplitude recovery

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Velocity filtering
Time Deconvolution
CMP gather
Time Difference
NMO correction

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 66

Residual NMO
Raw 2264 m/s 2000 m/s 2500 m/s

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Overcorrected Undercorrected

uncorrected velocity correct velocity too slow velocity too fast

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 67

Velocity Analysis Tools

semblance CMP gather MVFS

Velocity
‘pick’
producing

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a ‘knee-
point’ on
the velocity
function

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 68

Do the reflections all come Processing Sequence
from a single point? Geometry definition
Static corrections
midpoint Amplitude recovery

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Velocity filtering
Deconvolution
CMP gather
NMO correction
DMO Correction

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 69

 Processing Sequence
How to reduce the
number of traces? Geometry definition
Static corrections
Amplitude recovery

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Velocity filtering
Deconvolution
CMP gather
NMO correction
DMO Correction
CMP stack

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 70

 Processing Sequence
Do the reflections all come
from vertically below? Geometry definition
Static corrections
midpoints Amplitude recovery

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Velocity filtering
Deconvolution
CMP gather
NMO correction
DMO Correction
CMP stack
Migration

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 71

Processing Flow is governed by …
y Signal to Noise Ratio
y Complexity of Velocity model

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Summary

Simple velocities, simple structure Simple velocities, complex structure

post-stack migration pre stack time migration

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Complex velocities, simple structure Complex velocities, complex structure
post stack depth migration pre stack depth migration

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 73

Salt
Post-stack time migration Pre-stack depth migration

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Complex structure
Post-stack time migration Pre-stack depth migration

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Accurate Velocity
y Can be used in Amplitude Correction
y Can be used in Multiple Attenuation
y Can be used in DMO Correction
y Is used in Stacking
y

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Is used in Imaging (Migration)

y Is considered as a volume of data just like the seismic

y QC-ed via in-lines, cross-lines, time-slices, horizon-slices
y It’s effect on the seismic data

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 76

Generic Processing Flow
y Reformat
y Geometry
y Signal Processing
y Velocity Processing
y Pre-stack Imaging

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y Stack
y Pre-conditioning for Migration
y Migration
y Post-migration Processing
y Final Products

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 77

 Basic Processes
Processing Field data in
Sequence (2D Geometry

land) Field statics

Amplitude recovery

Noise rejection

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Deconvolution

CMP gather

NMO correction
loop
Residual statics
Initial velocity field
Mute
2D DMO
2D DMO & Stack Final velocity field
Migration

Filtering

Amplitude scaling

Final products
WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 78
Testing Stage
y Processes and parameters are chosen using a subset of the
whole data

y As we proceed to other parts of the survey, we must verify

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that the processes/parameters are still working well -
without redoing a full-scale testing programme!

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 79

So, QC is required
y Make sure the processes and parameters are still solving
the problem and no other problems have been introduced

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WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 80
Seismic Data
y Selected In-lines & Cross-lines
y Selected Shot/CMP gathers
y Near-Trace Cube
y Time-Slices

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WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 81
Trace Attributes
y Maps of
y Amplitude
y Header Literals
y Position (X/Y Coords)
y Water Depth etc

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y Fold of Coverage
y Histograms of
y Amplitude

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 82

Defining the GRID of QC Lines

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Acronyms
y AVO
y Amplitude Versus Offset – pre-stack analysis to help define lithology
y 2D
y A single line processed in isolation
y 3D

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y Multiple ‘lines’ processed together
y 4D (Time-Lapse)
y 3D surveys repeated at time intervals
y 3C/4C (Multi-component)
y Specialised detectors to monitor returning energy in different
directions

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 84

Acronyms (contd)
y PSTM
y Pre-Stack Time Migration
y PSDM
y Pre-Stack Depth Migration

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y Inversion
y Converting seismic amplitudes to acoustic impedance or
velocity

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 85

Data Processing – and finally
y Interpretation used to be done on paper sections
y Nowadays the stack volume is given to the client on
magnetic tape (EXABYTE is popular!) for them to load up on
specialised workstations
y

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Other data may be requested to be saved and stored (for
future processing – e.g. merging 3D surveys, AVO)
y Final report

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 86

Contents
y Geology Review
y Seismic Data Acquisition
y Seismic Data Processing
y Seismic Data Interpretation

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WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 87
Interpretation Workflow

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WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 88
The Life of a Reservoir
First find your reservoir!
y Seismic exploration tools are used to identify structures which might - or
might not - contain a reservoir.

How big is it!

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y Reservoir confirmed by drilling
y More detailed seismic study carried out to determine the true nature and
extent of the field.

What’s happening inside my reservoir?

y What happens in the reservoir as the hydrocarbons are extracted?
y 4D seismic surveys can help to answer this question and help maximize
the recovered hydrocarbons.

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 89

Business Model and “Field Life Cycle”
Useful for planning and execution.
Breaks the Field Life Cycle down into discrete business processes.
Each business process should have a well defined product

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B D K

A P
? E

C
N E Breaking activities down into manageable

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 90

Module Control
Module ID WCP1_002 Introduction to E&P

Version 1a

Course WCP-1

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Date Created March 8, 2003

Creator Dave Brown, WesternGeco

Checked by

Date Checked

Comments

WCP1Seismic Surveys-005 – slide 91