DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS- MODULE II

UNIT: CONTROL SYSTEMS- JAN – JULY 2016

INTRODUCTION-TERMS USED IN CONTROL SYSTEMS
Books:
1. Control Systems Engineering: A Practical Approach. by Frank Owen, PhD, P.E.

Introduction
Control means to regulate, direct, command or govern. Therefor Control is the process of causing a system
variable (e. temperature, position) to conform to some desired value or trajectory . Example: driving a car
implies controlling the vehicle to follow the desired path and arrive safely at a planned destination
A system consists of a number of components connected together to perform a specific function. Also we can
define a system as a combination of components that act together and perform a certain objective. Examples:
Electrical, Mechanical, Hydraulic, Pneumatic, Biological, Thermal, etc…
In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity then the system is called
control system.
A system can either be Natural or man made.
Man made system refers to something that was created by humans, as opposed to by God or nature. E.g
education system, metric system, railways, electrical system, computer system
Natural Systems: digestive system, immune system, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, reproductive system
Control systems are made up of components each of which
• Have input and output signal(s) (Examples of signals: position, velocity, acceleration, temperature,
voltage, current, concentration, etc.)

Types of inputs
Reference Input is an external signal applied to a feedback control system in order to command a specified
action of the plant. It often represents ideal plant output behavior.
Controlled variables -these are the variables which quantify the performance or quality of the final
product.Also called output variables.
Manipulated variables -these input variables are adjusted dynamically to keep the controlled variables at their
set-points.
Disturbance variables -represent input variables that can cause the controlled variables to deviate from their
respective set points. Also called "load" variables. DV are not adjusted.DV may or may not be measured

DEFINITION OF TERMS
A plant performs a particular operation. It is the physical object to be controlled
A process is any operation to be controlled. Processes can be chemical, economic, biological, etc.
Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the difference
between the output of a system and some reference input and does so on the basis of the difference.
A hybrid system is a dynamic system that exhibits both continuous and discrete dynamic behavior
Feedback signal A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control the system.
Feedback Element is the component required to establish the functional relationship between
the primary feedback signal and the controlled output .
Negative feedback The output signal is fed back so that it subtracts from the input signal.
Positive feedback The output signal is fed back so that it adds to the input signal.

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Set Point signal = desired level of a controlled variable.To implement a change in the operating conditions, the
set-point signal is changed and the manipulated variable is adjusted appropriately to achieve the new operating
conditions.
Examples. TubularHeat exchanger

Process fluid is cooled by cooling water

CV: (or output variable) - exit temperature of process fluid
MV: (or input variable) - flow rate of cooling water
DV: (or load variable)- inlet temperature, inlet flow rate

Example 2

Example (1) of an open-loop system

Control System Components

• System, plant or process (to be controlled)

• Actuators (converts the control signal to a power signal) Hardware devices that convert a controller command
signal into a change in a physical parameter. The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity). An
actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity into some alternative form.An
actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an amplifier may be required to provide
sufficient power to drive the actuator. Example: Electric motor, Electroactive polymer, Hydraulic cylinder
Piezoelectric actuator
• Sensors (provides measurement of the system output) eg resistor, LDR, photo transistor, thermocouple.
• Reference input (represents the desired output)
• Error detection (forms the control error)
• Controller (operates on the control error to form the control signal, sometimes called compensators)
Note: a transducer is a device that converts one energy form into another.

Open and Closed loop systems.

Open-loop control system A system that utilizes a device to control the process without using feedback. Thus
the output has no effect upon the signal to the process. Open loop system which is also called as Manual control
system. Most automatic toasters are open loop systems because they are controlled by a timer.

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Example 1: Open-loop Drying System

Example 2: An electric fire used to heat a room

Controlled variable: room temperature
Control element: the operator
Correction element: the switch and the fire
Process: the room

Example 3: Open-loop controlled speed motor

Controlled variable: motor speed
Control element: the operator
Correction element: the switch
Process: the motor

Main characteristics of an “Open-loop system” as being:

• The feedback element is absent.
• An error detector is not present.
• It is stable one.
• Easy to construct.
• It is an economical.
• Having small bandwidth.
• It is inaccurate.
• Less maintenance.
• It is unreliable.

Advantages:
1. Simplicity and stability: they are simpler in their layout and hence are economical and stable too due to
their simplicity.
2. Construction: Since these are having a simple layout so are easier to construct.
3. Less maintenance
4. It is stable
Disadvantages:
1. Accuracy and Reliability: since these systems do not have a feedback mechanism, so they are very
inaccurate in terms of result output and hence they are unreliable too.
2. Due to the absence of a feedback mechanism, they are unable to remove the disturbances occurring from
external sources.

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3. Unreliable.
Examples of Open loop control systems: Electric Hand Drier, Automatic Washing Machine, Bread Toaster, Automatic
Tea Maker, Timer Based clothes Drier, Volume on Stereo System

Closed-loop feedback control system A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of

the output and feedback of this signal to compare it with the desired output. Closed loop system which is also
named as automatic control system

main characteristics of Closed-loop Control (feedback)

• The feedback element is always present
• An error detector is always present
• It may become unstable
• Complicated construction
• It is costly
• Having large bandwidth
• It is accurate
• More maintenance
• It is reliable
Advantages:
1. Accuracy: They are more accurate than open loop system due to their complex construction.
They are equally accurate and are not disturbed in the presence of non-linearities.
2. Noise reduction ability: Since they are composed of a feedback mechanism, so they clear out
the errors between input and output signals, and hence remain unaffected to the external noise sources.
Disadvantages:
1. Construction: They are relatively more complex in construction and hence it adds up to the cost
making it costlier than open loop system.
2. Since it consists of feedback loop, it may create oscillatory response of the system and it also
reduces the overall gain of the system.
3. Stability: It is less stable than open loop system but this disadvantage can be striked off since
we can make the sensitivity of the system very small so as to make the system as stable as possible.

Examples of Closed loop control: Automatic Electric Iron, Servo Voltage Stabilizer, Water Level Controller,
Missile launched & Auto tracked by Radar, Air Conditioner, and Cooling system in car.

examples

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OTHER EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Illustrative Example: stirred tank Blending system

Notation:
• w1, w2 and w are mass flow rates
• x1, x2 and x are mass fractions of component A
Assumptions:
1. w1 is constant
2. x2 = constant = 1 (stream 2 is pure A)
3. Perfect mixing in the tank
Control Objective:
Keep x at a desired value (or “set point”) xsp, despite variations in x1(t). Flow rate w2 can be adjusted for this
purpose.
Terminology:
• Controlled variable (or “output variable”): x
• Manipulated variable (or “input variable”): w2
• Disturbance variable (or “load variable”): x1

CONTROL SYSTEM MODELS OR REPRESENTATIONS.

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Block Diagrams
Block diagrams are ways of representing relationships between signals in a system. Or it is a Pictorial
representation of functions performed by each component of a system and that of flow of signals.

The transfer function of a system is the ratio of output to input.

Terminologies used in block diagrams include:

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Summing Point Types

Example 1
Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables, and a1, a2 are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.

x 3 = a 1 x1 + a 2 x 2 − 5
The above then can give the following

EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following equations in which x1, x2,. . . , xn, are variables, and a1, a2,. . . , an , are general
coefficients or mathematical operators.

x n = a 1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + a n − 1 x n − 1

Advantages of block
diagrams
1. Very
simple to construct block
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 diagrams for very complicated systems

Simple or Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System

Definitions
The Transfer Function of any electrical or electronic control system is the mathematical relationship between
the systems input and its output, and hence describes the behaviour of the system.

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Characteristic Equation
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the system.
C ( s) G (s)
=
R(s) 1 ± G (s) H ( s)
• The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines the characteristic equation of the system.
• Which is usually determined as:
1 ± G (s) H ( s) = 0
PROOF
For the system shown above, the output C(s) and input R(s) (input and output)are related as follows:
C (s ) = G (s )E (s )
where
E (s ) = R (s ) − B (s ) = R (s ) − H (s )C (s )
Eliminating E (s ) from these equations gives
C (s ) = G (s )[R (s ) − H (s )C (s )]
This can be written in the form
[1 +G (s )H (s )]C (s ) = G (s )R (s )

The Characteristic equation of the system is defined as an equation obtained by setting the
denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. The Characteristic equation for the above
system is 1+G(s)H(s)=0 .
EXAMPLE1
Determine the characteristic equation for the system in the figure below
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 for closed loop, transfer function is C(s)/R(s)= G(s)/1
+G(s)H(s)

EXAMPLE 2
For the system in the given figure, determine the characteristic equation

Transfer function to inner loop = .

Then .

The characteristic equation is s2 + 3s + 6as + 6 = 0.

Closed-loop System Transfer Function

The Transfer Function of any electrical or electronic control system is the mathematical relationship between
the systems input and its output, and hence describes the behaviour of the system.
EXAMPLE

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For the given figure, determine the transfer function

For the inner loop, transfer function =

Then

EXAMPLE 2
For the system in the given figure, determine the transfer function C(s)/R(s)

G1 G2 + G3

Explanation:G1 and G2 are cascaded.

Example 3 For the given figure

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 4. For the circuit given below, determine the transfer function =

, E0(s) = [I(s)][Z2(s)] or .

For the circuit given below, determine the transfer function V2(s)/V1(s) =

Block Diagram Algebra(Block diagram reduction)

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EXAMPLES
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Reduce the Block Diagram
am to Canonical Form

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Example: Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure below.

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Example: Obtain the transfer function C/R of the block diagram shown in Figure below.

[Ans]

Example: Derive the transfer function of the system shown below.

(a) (b)

[Answer]

Example: Derive the transfer function of the system shown below.

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Example: Find the transfer function of the following ssystem.

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 {Answer}

Example: Find the output of the system shown below.

For Input R1:

……………………………………………. (1)

For input R2:

……………………………………………. (2)

{Answer}

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 Signal Flow Graph

• An SFG may be defined as a graphical means of portraying the input-output relationships among the variables
of a set of linear algebraic equations.
SFG is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations which describe a system. Let
us consider an equation, Y = aX . It may be represented graphically as,

X a Y

where ‘a’ is called transmittance or transmission function.

Properties of the are as follows.

1. SFG applies only to linear systems.
2. The equations for which an SFG is drawn must be algebraic equations in the form of cause-and-effect.
3. Nodes are used to represent variables. Normally, the nodes are arranged from left to right, from the input to
the output, following a succession of cause-and-effect relations through the system.
4. Signals travel along branches only in the direction described by the arrows of the branches.

Components of SFG
Node – A system variable, the value of which equals the sum of all incoming signals at the node.
Branch – A directed line segment joining two nodes.
Input Node (Source): An input node is a node that has only outgoing branches.
Output Node (Sink): An output node is a node that has only incoming branches:
A path is any collection of a continuous succession of branches traversed in the same direction.
A forward path is a path that starts at an input node and ends at an output node and along which no node is
traversed more than once.
Loop – A closed path that originates and terminates on the same node.
Self-loop – A loop containing one branch.
Non-touching loops – Loops which do not have a common node.
Gain – Transmittance of a branch.

Construction of SFGs
The SFG of a system can be constructed from the describing equations:

x 2 = a 1 2 x1 + a 3 2 x 3
x 3 = a 1 3 x1 + a 2 3 x 2 + a 3 3 x 3
x 4 = a 24 x 4 + a 34 x3

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example
Construct signal flow graph from the following equations

SFG from Block Diagram

Each variable in the block diagram becomes a node, and each block becomes a branch.
Example
Draw the SFG and determine C/ R for the block diagram shown in Figure below.

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Another example.

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Mason’s Gain Formulae
It is possible to write the overall transfer function of a system through inspection of SFG using Mason’s gain
formulae given by, T = (∑ Pi ∆ i ) / ∆ .
i

where T = overall gain of the system, Pi = path gain of ith forward path, ∆ = determinant of SFG, ∆ i = value of
∆ for that part of the graph not touching the ith forward path.

∆ = 1 − ∑ Pj1 + ∑ Pj 2 − ∑ Pj 3 + L = 1 – [sum of loop gain of all individual loops] + [sum of all gain-products
gain of
j j j

gain-products of three non-touching loops] + ……;

two non-touching loops] – [sum of all gain

Pjk = jth product of k non-touching loops .

Example
1. There are 6 forward paths with path gains

2. There are three individual loops with loop gains

3. There is only one combination of two non-touching
touching loops

P12 = H1H 2G4G5

4. There are no combinations of more than two non
non-touching loops.
5. Hence,

; ;

∆ 3 = ∆ 4 = ∆5 = ∆ 6 = 1

P1∆1 + P2 ∆ 2 + P3∆3 + P4 ∆ 4 + P5 ∆ 5 + P6 ∆ 6
Thus, T = , where P1 , ∆1 , ∆ etc. are derived before.
∆
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Example
For the system represented by the following equations, find the transfer function X(s)/U(s) by SFG technique.

x = x1 + α 3u
We need to Laplace transform the given sets of equations
x&1 = − β1 x1 + x2 + α 2u
in order to represent differentiated variables.
x&2 = − β 2 x1 + α1u

X = X 1 + α 3U
1 α
X1 = X2 + 2 u
s + β1 s + β1
β2 α1
X2 = − X1 + u
s s

X ( s ) α1 + α 2 s + α 3 ⋅ [ s 2 + β1s + β 2 ]
=
U (s) s 2 + β1s + β 2

Example
Using Mason’s gain formulae find C/R of the SFG shown in Figure below.

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PROBLEMS
Many luxury automobiles have thermostatically controlled air-conditioning systems for the comfort of the
passengers. Sketch a block diagram of an air conditioning system where the driver sets the desired interior
temperature on a dashboard panel.

2. The role of air traffic control systems is increasing as airplane traffic increases at busy airports. Engineers are
developing air traffic control systems and collision avoidance systems using the Global Positioning System
(GPS) navigation satellites. GPS allows each aircraft to know its position in the airspace landing corridor very
precisely. Sketch a block diagram depicting how an air traffic controller might utilize GPS for aircraft collision
avoidance.

3. The potential of employing two or more helicopters for transporting payloads that are too heavy for a single
helicopter is a well-addressed issue in the civil and military rotorcraft design arenas. A case of a multilift
arrangement wherein two helicopters jointly transport payloads has been named twin lift as shown in the
following figure. Develop the block diagram describing the pilots’ action, the position of each helicopter, and
the position of the load.

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4. Many cars are fitted with cruise control that, at the press of a button, automatically maintains a set speed. In
this way, the driver can cruise at a speed limit or economic speed without continually checking the speedmeter.
Design a feedback control in block diagram for a cruise control system.

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