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CHAPTER 2
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
1.The reproductive events in humans :
1.Gametogenesis 2. Insemination 3. Fertilisation 4.Implantation 5.Gestation 6. Parturition

2.Scrotum: The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch .
3.Function:The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2–2.5 o C
lower than the normal internal body temperature)
necessary for spermatogenesis.

4.Two types of cells in seminiferous tubules:

1. Male germ cells (spermatogonia) : Sperm
formation &
2.Sertoli cells : Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the
germ cells.

5.Function of Leydig cells

Leydig cells secrete androgens.

6.Seminal plasma + sperms = Semen

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7.
Infundibulum Funnel-shaped structure closer to ovary.
Fimbriae Finger-like projections at the edges of the infundibulum.
Function :help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.

8.Hymen is torn during first intercourse. It is not an indicator of virginity. It can also
be broken by sudden fall or active participation in sports like horse riding, cycling etc.

9.Three wall layers of uterus

1.Perimetrium External thin membranous layer.
2.Myometrium Middle thick layer of smooth muscle,
exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby.
3.Endometrium Inner glandular layer that lines the uterine cavity.
It undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle .

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
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10.
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
Formation of sperms within the testis. Formation of ovum within the ovary.
Starts at puberty Starts at embryonic stage
One spermatogonium give rise to One oogonium give rise to
four haploid sperms one haploid sperm and a polar body.

11.Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

Plasma membrane
a. Head: Head contain nucleus and acrosome.
Acrosome-Anterior cap-like structure contains
enzymes- it help in fertilization of ovum.
b. Middle piece: contain mitochondria .
Mitochondria produce energy for the sperm motility
c. Tail: Helps in motility.

12.Spermiogenesis: Spermatids transform into sperms.

Spermiation: The mature sperms are released from
seminiferous tubules.

13.Ovulation: Release of ovum from matured graafian follicle of ovary.

14.Role of Hormones in Spermatogenesis

Anterior pituitary gland produce FSH and LH
Hormone Acts on Function/role
Luteinizing hormone (LH) Leydig cells Stimulates secretion of androgens.
It stimulate the spermatogenesis
Follicle stimulating Sertoli cells Stimulates secretion of some factors help in
hormone (FSH) spermiogenesis.

15.Menarche: The first menstruation during puberty.

Menopause: Permanent stopping of menstrual cycle at the age of 50.

16.Phases of Menstrual Cycle

1. Menstrual phase lasts for 3-5 days. Breakdown of endometrium , blood vessels
etc. ( Menstruation is absent during
pregnancy ).
2.Follicular phase 4 -13 days Formation of mature Graafian follicle,
endometrium regenerates.
The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and
FSH) increases gradually during the follicular
phase.
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3.Ovulatory phase 14 th day LH surge → rupture of Graafian follicle →

ovulation(release of ovum).
4.Luteal phase 15-28 days Formation of Corpus luteum. Corpus
luteum secrete large amount progesterone
for the maintenance of endometrium during
pregnancy.

17.Fertilisation
Process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum.
Fertilisation takes place in ampullary region of fallopian tube.
18. Cleavage
The zygote undergoes successive mitotic divisions called cleavage.

19.Morula - 8 - 16 celled stage embryo

20.Blastocyst - Cell divisions continue in the morula and become blastocyst.

Blastocyst has outer trophoblast and inner mass of cells.

21.Functions of blastocyst
Trophoblast- Helps in implantation
Inner cell mass - Formation of embryo
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22. Zygote cleavage morula blastocyst embryo

23.Implantation
The blastocyst gets embedded in the endometrium .

24.Placenta
The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue interdigitate and become placenta.
It act as endocrine gland and secretes hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin
(h CG), human placental lactogen (h PL), estrogens and progesterone.
It supplies oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removal of CO2 and excretory
products produced by the embryo.

25.
Embryonic development Features
1 st month Heart is formed.
2 nd month The foetus develops limbs and digits.
3 rd month(First trimester) Most of the major organ systems are formed.
5 th month The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair
6 th month (Second trimester) The body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate, and
eyelashes are formed.
End of 9 th month The foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.

26.Parturition Delivery of the foetus.

Hormones - Relaxin, oxytocin

27.Oxytocin induces stronger contractions

of the uterine muscles which leads to
expulsion of the baby from the uterus through
the birth canal.

28. Lactation :The mammary glands start

producing milk towards the end of pregnancy.
Hormone – Prolactin

29.Colostrum ( Yellow milk ):The milk that comes out of the mammary glands of the
It is rich in nutrients and antibodies( Ig A ) to develop resistance to the new born babies.
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CHAPTER 3
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
1.Programmes involved in maintaining Reproductive health
1. Family Planning Programme (Initiated in 1951)
2. ‘Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes’

2.Population control measures

1. Motivate smaller families by using various contraceptive methods.
2. Statutory raising of marriageable age to 18 for female and 21 for male.
3. Incentives given to couples with small families.

3.Contraceptive methods
It helps to prevent unwanted pregnancies.
An ideal contraceptive should be
1. User-friendly, 2. Easily available, 3. Effective and reversible 4. No side-effects.

4.Birth control methods

Natural Barrier IUD Oral Injectables Surgical
&Implants
1.Periodic abstinence Condoms Lippes' loop Pills Progestogens- Vasectomy
2.Coitus interruptus Diaphragms Cu-T, Cu-7 (Saheli) oestrogen Tubectomy
3.Lactational Cervical caps Multiload 375 combination
amenorrhea Vaults Progestasert beneath the
LNG- 20 skin

5.
Types of IUD Examples Action
Non -medicated IUDs Lippes loop Retard sperm motility.
Copper releasing IUDs CuT Cu ions suppress sperm motility and
Cu7 fertilising capacity of sperms.
Multiload 375
Hormone releasing IUDs Progestasert, Make the uterus unsuitable for
LNG -20 implantation.
6.Saheli: Developed by CDRI.

7.Surgical methods (Sterilization):Terminal method to prevent any more pregnancies.

a)Vasectomy: (male Sterilisation) A small
portion of vas deferens is removed or tied up.
b)Tubectomy:(Female Sterilisation)A small
portion of fallopian tube is removed r tied up.
Disadvantage :Its reversibility is poor.
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8.Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP).

Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term
Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to avoid its misuse
and illegal female foeticides.
MTPs are safe during the first trimester, (up to 12 weeks of pregnancy).

9.Why MTP?
To avoid unwanted pregnancies .Essential in cases where pregnancy could be harmful to the
mother or to the foetus or both.

10.Amniocentesis - It is a prenatal diagnostic technique in which a sample of amniotic

fluid from the womb of a pregnant women is taken during the early stages of
development and the cells are cultured and analysed.
Uses: Chromosomal abnormalities,sex of the foetus and developmental disorders could be
detected.
Misuse: Destroying the normal female foetus.

11. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse are called Sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs) /sexually transmitted infections (STI) /Venereal diseases (VD) or Reproductive tract
infections (RTI).

12.
Disease Curable or not Symptoms
AIDS Cannot be cured
Hepatitis B Itching ,fluid discharge,slight pain, swellings etc in
Genital Herpes the genital region.
Gonorrhoea Curable if detected early
Syphilis and treated properly.
Chlamydiasis
Genital warts
Trichomoniasis

13.Prevention of STD
( i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always try to use condoms during coitus.

14. Expand the terms

RCH Reproductive and Child Health Care Programmes
MMR Maternal Mortality Rate
IMR Infant Mortality Rate
IUD Intra Uterine Devices
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Cu - T Copper T
STD Sexually Transmitted Disease
AID S Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
HIV Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
ART Assisted Reproductive Technologies
IVF In vitro Fertilisation
ET Embryo Transfer
ZIFT Zygote Intra Fallopian tube Transfer
IUT Intra Uterine Transfer
GIFT Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer
ICSI Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection
AI Artificial Insemination
IUI Intra Uterine Insemination

15.Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT):

Zygote/embryo upto 8 blastomeres are transferred into fallopian tube.

16.Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT):

Transfer of embryos with more than 8 blastomeres into the uterus.

17.Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT:

Transfer of an ovum from a donor into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot
produce ovum, but can provide suitable environment for fertilization and development.
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CHAPTER 4
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

1.Gregor Johann Mendel is the Father of genetics.

He conducted some hybridization experiments on garden peas(Pisum sativum).

2.Alleles are alternative forms of a same gene

3.Characters studied by Mendel

Character Dominant Recessive
Stem height Tall (TT) Dwarf (tt)
Flower colour Purple (PP) White (pp)
Seed colour Yellow (YY) Green (yy)
Seed shape Round (RR) Wrinkled (rr)
Pod colour Green (GG) Yellow (gg)
Pod shape Inflated (II) Constricted(ii)
Flower position Axillary (AA) Terminal (aa)
4.Monohybrid cross :- Inheritance of the contrasting pair of a single character.
Dihybrid Cross:- Inheritance of contrasting pairs of two traits.

5.Mendelian laws
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
3. Law of Independent Assortment

6.Monohybrid test cross :- F1 hybrid is crossed to recessive parent.

Monohybrid test cross ratio =1 Tall : 1 Dwarf

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7.Why Mendel select garden pea as his experimental material ?

➢ Garden pea is an annual plant with a short life span of 3 to 4 months.
➢ It is self pollinating.
➢ It is available in many varieties with contrasting characters.

8. Incomplete Dominance
F1 hybrid shows a character in between the 2 parents.
Eg : Antirrhinum majus ( Snap dragon )
Mirabilis jalapa ( 4 o ' clock plant )

When a cross was made between a red flowered plant and a white flowered plant, the F 1
hybrid was pink.
When the F 1 individual was self- pollinated , the F 2 generation was
1 red , 2 pink and 1 white.

9.
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10.Multiple Allelism and Co dominance

Multiple allelism :Condition in which more than a pair of alleles control a single character
Co-dominance: It is the inheritance in which both alleles of a gene are expressed in a
hybrid.
E.g. ABO blood grouping in human.

11.Pleiotropy
 Multiple effect of a gene is called pleiotropy.
12. Polygenic inheritance
Traits are generally controlled by three or more genes and are thus called as polygenic traits.
Eg :- Human Skin Colour

13.Chromosomal Theory of inheritance

Proposed by Walter Sutton & Theodore Boveri.
“Genes are located on chromosomes and they later segregate and independently assort
during meiosis”.

14.Experimental verification of chromosomal theory of inheritance

Thomas Hunt Morgan proved chromosomal theory of inheritance using fruit flies
(Drosophila melanogaster).

15.Reasons for selecting fruit fly as his experimental material

• They can grow on simple synthetic medium.
• Short generation time (life cycle: 12-14 days).
• Breeding can be done throughout the year.
• Hundreds of progenies per mating.
• Male and female flies are easily distinguishable. E.g. Male is smaller than female.

16.Linkage and Recombination

Linkage is the tendency of genes inherit together from one generation to another. (physical
association of the two genes)
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Recombination is the tendancy of genes to seperate and to combine independently to form

non parental types.
17.Sex determination mechanisms
1. XX - XO Type Eg: Grass hopper
Sex is determined by the sperm that fertilises (male is heterogametic).
2. ZZ -ZW Type Eg: Birds
Sex is determined by the ovum that fertilises (Female is heterogametic).
3. XX -XY Type Eg : Human beings and Drosophila melanogaster

18.Mutation is a sudden heritable change in the genotype of an organism.

Mutation leads to variation in DNA.

19.Mutations are of 2 types:-

a)Point mutation b)Frame shift mutation
Mutation due to change in single base pair of Loss (deletion) or gain (insertion /duplication)
DNA.Eg :- Sickle cell anaemia, of DNA segments
Phenylketonuria Eg:- Thalassemia
20.Pedigree analysis
Analysis of traits and diseases in several generations of a family.
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21.Mendelian disorders :- It is due to mutation or alteration in a single gene.

a)Haemophilia Sex linked Clotting of blood is delayed. More males than

(X linked) recessive female suffer from
disease the disorder.
b) Colour blindness Sex linked Failure to discriminate red More males than
(X-linked) recessive and green colour. female suffer from
disease. the disorder.

c)Phenylketonuria Autosomal recessive Lacks an enzyme that

(an inborn error of trait. converts the amino acid
metabolism). phenylalanine into tyrosine.
As a result of this
phenylalanine is
accumulated and converted
into phenyl pyruvic acid.
d) Sickle cell Autosome linked Shape of RBC varies from
anaemia recessive blood biconcave to sickle shaped.
disorder. Substitution of glutamic
acid by valine in the sixth
position of beta chain of
haemoglobin.

e) Thalassemia Autosomal linked Reduced rate of synthesis of

recessive blood one of the globin chain.It
disease. results in anaemia.

22.Chromosomal Disorders :-The chromosomal disorders are caused due to absence

/excess / abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosomes.
Disorders Karyotype Symptoms
Down’s Trisomy 21 1. Short stature.
Syndrome 45A +XX 2. Mental retardation.
(47 chromosome) or 3.Congenital heart disease.
45 A+ XY 4.Partially opened mouth with furrowed tongue.
Klinefelters 44 A + XXY 1.Sterile male.
Syndrome 2.Tall stature.
(47 chromosome) 3.Breast development. ( gynaecomastia)
4.Poor beard growth.
Turner’s 44 A + X0 1.Sterile female.
Syndrome 2.Rudimentary ovaries.
(45 chromosome) 3.Webbed neck
4.Poor breast development.
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CHAPTER 5
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
1. Double Helical Model Of DNA
Proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953
Consists of 2 polynucleotide strands wound around each other like a spiral staircase.
Complementary Strand

,
Chargaff 's rule : In DNA, the proportion of A is equal to T and the proportion of G is
equal to C.
[A] + [G] = [T] + [C] or [A] + [G] / [T] + [C] =1

Polarity is antiparallel

One strand runs in

Other strand in

2.Packaging of DNA helix

In eukaryotes, there is a set of positively charged, basic
proteins called histones.

8 histones form histone octamer.

DNA (-vely charged) is wrapped around histone octamer (+vely
charged)to give nucl eoso me.

3.Nucleosomes constitute the repeating units to form

chromatin.

4.Chromatin has 2 forms:

Euchromatin Heterochromatin
Loosely packed Densely packed
Stains light Stains dark
Transcriptionally active region of chromatin. Transcriptionally inactive.
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5.Griffith’s Transforming Principle experiment (1928)

Frederick Griffith used mice & Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Experiment:
• S-strain → Inject into mice → Mice die
• R-strain → Inject into mice → Mice live
• S-strain (Heat killed) → Inject into mice → Mice live
• S-strain (Hk) + R-strain (live) → Inject into mice → Mice die

6.Hershey and Chase Experiment -DNA is the genetic material

They conducted the experiment by using E coli ( bacterial cell )and T2 phage

7.Properties of RNA
RNA is the first genetic material in living world
1. The 2'OH group of ribonucleotides is a reactive group .So RNA acts as a catalyst.
2. RNA is an unstable compound.

8.Central dogma of Molecular biology

It is proposed by Francis Crick.
It states that the genetic information flows from DNA→ RNA→Protein.
In some viruses, flow of information is in reverse direction (from RNA to DNA). ,
it is called reverse transcription.

9.Mechanism of DNA replication Proposed by Watson and Crick

DNA replication takes place in the S phase of cell cycle.

10.Enzymes in DNA Replication

1.Helicase : Unwinding and unzipping of DNA helix at the origin.
2.RNA Primase : It synthesize RNA primer (small stretch of RNA)
3.DNA dependent DNA polymerase: It catalyses polymerisation of deoxy nucleotides in
5’ to 3’direction.
4.DNA ligase : Joins the DNA fragments (Okazaki fragments) which are formed on lagging
strand.

11.Process of DNA replication

Two DNA strands unwind at a particular point called origin
of replication and form a Y shaped replication fork.
Polymerisation of nucleotides takes place in 5’ to 3’ direction

leading strand - the replicationcontinuous

lagging strand - replication is discontinuous

Discontinuously synthesized DNA fragments are called

Okazaki fragments( lagging strand)
Later the Okazaki fragments are joined by the enzyme ligase.
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12.Meselson-Stahl experiment (Semiconservative method of DNA

replication)

13.DNA transcription
 The process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA (Template) into
RNA .
 The enzyme involved in transcription is DNA dependent RNA polymerase.
In DNA transcription only one of the strand (Template strand, 3’—5’) is copied to RNA

13.The strand with polarity 3’—5’ act as a template strand (for mRNA synthesis),
the other strand with polarity 5’—3’ is called coding strand (It do not code for anything).

14.Transcription Unit
A transcription unit in DNA has 3 regions:
a) A promoter b) The structural gene c) A terminator
a) A promoter Binding site for RNA Located towards 5’-end
polymerase. upstream of coding strand.
b) The structural gene RNA is produced from the ThRegion between promoter and
structural gene. terminator
c) Terminator The site where transcription Located towards 3'-end
stops. downstream of coding strand.

15. Types of RNA

1. mRNA (messenger RNA)
2. tRNA (transfer RNA)
3. rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

16.Steps of DNA Transcription

i)Initiation :RNA polymerase binds at promoter site → unwinding of DNA. An initiation
factor (σ factor) in RNA polymerase initiates RNA synthesis.
ii) Elongation:RNA chain is synthesized in 5’-3’ direction. Activated ribonucleoside
triphosphatesare added.
iii) Termination
A termination factor (ρ factor) binds to the RNA polymerase and terminates the
transcription.
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17. hnRNA (Heterogeneous nuclear RNA) -The RNA produces as a result of

transcription in eukaryote.
mRNA (messengerRNA) - The RNA produces as a result of transcription in
prokaryote

18. 3 RNA polymerase in the nucleus

RNA Polymerase I
RNA Polymerase II
RNA Polymerase III

19.Processing of hn RNA
1.Splicing : Introns (Non coding sequences) are removed and exons are join together in a
defined order.
2.Capping : Methyl guanosine triphosphate) is added to the 5 ' -end of hnRNA.
3.Tailing: adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3'-end.

20.Salient features of Genetic Code

(i) The code is a triplet.
(ii) The code is degenerate.
(iii) The code is commaless.
(iv) The code is universal.
(v) AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methionine (met) , and it also act as initiator
codon.
(vi) UAA, UAG, UGA are stop terminator codons.

21.t RNA ( an adapter molecule)

t RNA has an anticodon loop that has bases complementary to the codon.
an amino acid acceptor end to which amino acid binds.
tRNA looks like a clover-leaf.
In 3 D, the tRNA is a compact molecule which looks like inverted L.

22.Translation (Protein synthesis)

It is the process of polymerisation of amino acids
to form a polypeptide based on the sequence of
codons in m RNA.
It takes place in ribosomes.
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23.Steps of translation
1.Aminoacylation of t RNA
2. Initiation
3. Elongation
4. Termination

24.Polyribosome (polysomes).
A group of ribosomes associated with a single m RNA for translation

25.Regulation of Gene Expression

In eukaryotes, the gene expression is regulated at
(i) transcriptional level (formation of primary transcript),
(ii) processing level (regulation of splicing),
(iii) transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm,
(iv) translational level.

26.Lac Operon in E. coli

- All the genes regulating lactose metabolism in E. coli.
- It is proposed by Francois Jacob & Jacque Monod.
It consists of:
a)Inducer
b) Regulator or inhibitor (i) gene
c) Structural genes:
z gene: Codes for galactosidase. It hydrolyses lactose to galactose and
glucose.
y gene: Codes for permease. It increases permeability of the cell to lactose.
a gene: Codes for transacetylase.

In the absence of inducer In the presence of inducer

Repressor protein is active. Lactose bind to repressor protein and make it
inactive.
Active repressor bind to operator gene. Inactive repressor cannot bind to operator gene.
Structural genes doesn’t undergo transcription. Structural genes undergo transcription.
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27.Human Genome Project was the first mega project for the sequencing of
nucleotides and mapping of all the genes in human genome.

28.The commonly used vectors in human DNA sequencing are BAC and YAC
BAC-Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes
YAC-Yeast Artificial Chromosomes

29.Steps of DNA fingerprinting (Southern Blotting Technique)

a.Isolation of DNA (from any cells or blood stains, semen, saliva, hair,bone
etc).
b.Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases.
c.Separation of DNA fragments by Gel electrophoresis.
d.Transferring (blotting) DNA fragments to synthetic membranes
such as nitrocellulose or nylon.
e. Hybridization using radioactive labelled VNTR probe.
f.Detection of hybridized DNA by a uto radiography.

30.Application of DNA fingerprinting

• Forensic tool to solve paternity, rape, murder etc.
• For the diagnosis of genetic diseases.
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CHAPTER 6
EVOLUTION
1.Theories of Origin of Life
1.Theory of Spontaneous generation( Abiogenesis)
2.Biogenesis
3.Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia)
4.Theory of Special Creation
5.Theory of Chemical evolution

2.Theory of Chemical evolution : Proposed by Oparin and Haldane.

They stated that the first form of life was originated from pre-existing non-living inorganic
and organic molecules such as CH 4 ,NH3 , H2O,sugars, proteins, nucleic acids etc.
ie “Abiogenesis first,but biogenesis ever since”.

3.Urey and Miller Experiment

Harold Urey & Stanley Miller experimentally proved
theory of Chemical evolution.
He created a condition like that of primitive earth ie, high
temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere .They
made electric discharge in a closed flask containing
CH4 ,H2 ,NH3 and water vapour at 800 0 C. As a result,
amino acids are formed. In similar experiments,others
observed formation of sugars, nitrogen bases,pigment and
fats.

4.
a. Homologous organs b. Analogous organ
Organs having fundamentally similar structure and Organs having similar function but different
origin but different functions. structure & origin.
E.g. 1.Forelimb of whales, bats, Cheetah and Eg.1.Wings of insects and wings of birds
human . 2. Eyes of Octopus and mammals
2.Vertebrate hearts or brains. 3.Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
3.Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of 4.Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato
Cucurbita. (modified stem).
5.Trachea of insects & lungs of vertebrates .
It is due to Divergent evolution It is due to Convergent evolution.
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5.Natural selection is the process in which organisms with better favourable & heritable
variation are survived and reproduced.

Evidences for evolution by Natural selection

6.Industrial melanism: In England, before industrialization(1850’s), there were more
white-winged moths (Biston betularia) on
trees . After industrialization (1920’s), more
dark-winged moths were developed.

7.Adaptive radiation
Adaptive radiation is the evolution of different species from an ancestor in a geographical
area starting from a point.It is a type of divergent evolution.
Eg:- Darwin’s finches in Galapagos Islands.
When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area,
it results in convergent evolution.
Eg:- Austalian marsupials.
Placental mammals in Australia.

8.Theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism)

Proposed by Charles Darwin.
It was based on observations during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H M S Beagle.
He published a book entitled “ The Origin of Species”
Principles
1. Over production
2.Struggle for existence
3. Heritable minor variations
4. Survival of fittest
5.Origin of new species / Speciation
Variety of beaks of Darwin’s finches

9.Lamarck's theory of evolution / Use and disuse of organs /

Inheritance of acquired characters
It states that evolution occured by the inheritance of acquired characters.Eg :- Long neck of
giraffe

10.Hardy Weinberg Principle ( Genetic Equilibrium)

It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to
generation in the absence of disturbing factors.The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in
a population) remains a constant.

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Change of frequency of alleles in a population disturbs Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium. This
change is due to evolution.
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11.Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

a. Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another.
b. Genetic drift: The gene flow by chance causing change in frequency. The original
drifted population becomes founders called founder effect.
c. Mutation: It results in formation of new phenotypes.
d. Genetic recombination: Reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing over
resulting in genetic variation.
e. Natural selection: It is of 3 types :
▪(a) Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value
and variation is reduced.
▪(b) Directional selection: Individuals of one extreme (value other than mean
character value) are more favoured.
▪ (c) Disruptive selection: Individuals of both extremes are more favoured.

12.Mutation theory:- Proposed by Hugo De Vries in Oenothera Lamarckiana

Sudden heritable change in the genetic make up of an organism which leads to origin
of new species.
Saltation :- Single step large mutation.

13.Origin and evolution of Man

Name Characters
Dryopithecus Ape-like.
Ramapithecus Man-like .
Australopithecines Hunted with stone weapons.
(Australopithecus) Ate fruits.
Homo habilis First hominid (human like )
Did not eat meat.
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Homo erectus Fossils discovered in Java.

(Java man) Ate meat
Homo neanderthalensis Lived in East & Central Asia.
(Neanderthal man). Used hides to protect their body.
Buried their dead.
Homo sapiens They arose in Africa.
(Modern man) Pre-historic cave art developed.
Agriculture & human settlements
started.

14.Evolution of Man ( Flow chart)

Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Homo

erectus → Homo neanderthalensis → Homo sapiens.
(Neanderthal man)
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CHAPTER 7
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE
1.
Disease Pathogen Symptoms
1.Bacterial Disease
a)Typhoid Salmonella typhi Sustained high fever
(39o-40oC), headache,
Widal test
b) Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae Respiratory problems,
fever, chills, cough,
headache.
2.Viral disease
Common cold Rhinoviruses. Nasal congestion &
discharge, fever, headache,
sore throat, cough,
3.Protozoan disease
a.)Malaria Plasmodium vivax Haemozoin (toxin released
Plasmodium malariae & by Plasmodium) causes
Plasmodium falciparum chill and high fever
recurring every 3-4 days.
b) Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica. Constipation, abdominal
(Amoebic pain and cramps, stools
dysentery) with excess mucus and
blood clots.
4.Helminthic disease
a. Ascariasis Ascaris Constipation, abdominal
Intestinal parasite pain and cramps, stools
with excess mucus and
blood clots.
b. Filariasis Wuchereria bancrofti Inflammation of lower
(Elephantiasis) Filarial worm limbs
5.Fungal Disease
Ring worms Microsporum, Dry, scaly lesions on skin,
Trichophyton nails, scalp etc.Intense
& Epidermophyton. itching.
2.Prevention and control of diseases
1.Personal hygiene
2.Public hygiene
3.Vaccination & immunisation helped to control diseases like Smallpox, Polio,
Diphtheria, Pneumonia & Tetanus.
4.Drugs like antibiotics also helped to treat infectious diseases.
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3.
1. Innate (inborn) immunity 2. Acquired (adaptive) immunity
It is the non-specific immunity present at It is pathogen specific immunity developed
the time of birth. during lifetime.

4 types of barriers of innate immunity :

a. Physical barriers: E.g. Skin, Mucus coating of the respiratory, gastro-intestinal and
urino- genital tracts.
b. Physiological barriers: They prevent microbial growth. E.g. gastric HCl, saliva, tear
c. Cellular barriers: Phagocytes like WBC [Polymorpho- nuclear leukocytes (PMNL)
or neutrophils, monocytes and natural killer lymphocytes], macrophages etc.
d. Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cells secrete a cytokine protein called interferon.

5.Characters of immunity
a) Specificity and b) Memory

6.Structure of an antibody molecule

An antibody has 4 polypeptide chains :
2 Light chains and 2 heavy chains
(H2 L2)

7.
Active immunity Passive immunity
1. When the antibodies are developed by our When ready-made antibodies are directly given to
own cells in response to the antigen. protect the body against foreign agents.
2. It takes time to develop immunity Faster response
3.It stays for longer period Shorter period
Eg:- Vaccination Eg:-IgA in Colostrum
IgG from mother to foetus through placenta.
8.
B-lymphocytes (B-cells) T-lymphocytes(T-cells):
Produce antibodies(are the proteins to fight Help B-cells to produce antibodies.
the pathogens).
Immune response by the B-cells by Immune response by T-cells which detects
production of antibody is called Antibody and destroys the foreign cells and also
Mediated Immune response (AMI) or cancerous cells called Cell mediated
Humoral Immune response. Immune response.(CMI).
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9.Ig E :- Antibody produced in response to allergen

Ig A :- Antibody present in colostrum,tear,saliva.

10.Auto immunity: When the body's immune system destroy self cells and molecules.
Eg:- Rheumatoid arthritis

11.AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

▪ It is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), a retrovirus
Transmission of AIDS :
▪ Sexual contact with infected person.
▪ Transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products.
▪ Sharing of infected needles.
▪ From infected mother to her child through placenta.

12.Life Cycle of HIV

HIV enters body → To macrophages → RNA replicates in presence of Reverse
transcriptase to form viral DNA → Viral DNA incorporates into host DNA→ Infected cells
produce virus particles → HIV enters into helper T-cells (TH lymphocytes) → Replicates &
produce progeny viruses → Attack other TH cells →TH cells decrease → Weaken
immunity.

▪ During this period, the person suffers from fever, diarrhoea and weight loss.

13.Diagnosis
ELISA test (Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay).

14.Treatment
Anti-retroviral drugs are partially effective. They can only prolong the life of the
patient.

15.Prevention of AIDS:
WHO started the following programmes:
1.Make blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV.
2.Use disposable needles and syringes.
3.Advocate safe sex and free distribution of condoms.
4.Control drug abuse.

“Don’t die of ignorance”: Educate people about AIDS through organisations like National
AIDS Control Organisation (NACO), Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), WHO etc.

16.Cancer
• Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled multiplication of cells
• Normal cells show a contact inhibition (contact with the other cells inhibits their
uncontrolled growth). Cancer cells do not have this property.
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17.Types of Tumours
Benign tumours Malignant tumours
Confined to the place of its origin. Tumour cells grow rapidly, invade and damage the surrounding
They do not spread to other parts. normal tissues,reach other sites via blood called metastasis.
Cause little damage.

18.Causes of cancer (Carcinogens)

▪ Physical agents: X-rays, gamma rays , UV rays.
▪ Chemical agents:Vinyl chloride, caffeine, nicotine, mustard gas etc.
▪ Biological agents: E.g. oncogenic viruses

19. Cancer detection and diagnosis

▪ Biopsy:
▪ Blood & bone marrow tests for increased cell counts.
▪ Imaging techniques:
Radiography: Use of X-rays
CT (Computerized tomography) scan
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scan
▪ Use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens.

20.Treatment of cancer
▪ Radiotherapy
▪ Chemotherapy
▪ Immunotherapy
▪ Surgery

21.Drugs
Opioids
Eg:-
Morphine Extracted from poppy pant Sedative and pain killer
Papaver somniferum Useful for surgery.
Heroine Acetylation of morphine Depressant,slows down
Taken by snorting & injection. body functions
Cannabinoids Inflorescence of Affect cardiovascular system.
Eg:- Cannabis sativa
Marijuana , Hashish
Charas , Ganja

Coca alkaloids (Cocaine) Usually snorted. Stimulates CNS.

Erythroxylum coca
Causes hallucinations.
Atropa belladona&
Datura Hallucinogenic
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Tobacco Stimulates adrenal gland to

Nicotine Nicotiana tobaccum produce adrenaline ,
nor adrenaline causing high
BP and heart rate.
22.Harmful effects of smoking
1.Smoking causes cancers of lung , urinary bladder & throat, emphysema, bronchitis,
Coronary heart disease,gastric ulcer etc.
2.Smoking increases CO content in blood and reduces oxyhaemoglobin .This causes O 2
deficiency in body.
3.Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer.

23.
Causes of Drug /alcohol use in Effects of Drug/alcohol abuse
adolescence
• Curiosity and experimentation • Reckless behaviour
• Need for adventure and excitement • Coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart
• To escape facing problems. failure or cerebral haemorrhage.
• Stress from pressure to excel in academics • Damage of nervous system and liver cirrhosis.
or examination. • Social problems like stealing and spread of
infectious diseases (e.g. AIDS, hepatitis B).
• Loss of sexual drive .

24.
Warning signs of drug/alcohol abuse in Prevention and control
Adolescence period
• Drop in academic performance and 1. Avoid undue peer pressure.
absence from school. 2. Education and counselling.
• Lack of interest in personal hygiene. 3. Seeking help from parents and peers.
• Withdrawal and isolation.
• Depression, fatigue, aggressive and
rebellious behaviour.
• Change in sleeping and eating habits.
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CHAPTER 8
MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
1.Microbes in household products

Lactobacillus It converts milk to curd, by producing acids that coagulate and

or partially digest the milk proteins.
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB): It improves the nutritional quality by increasing vitamin B 12.
Propionibacterium sharmanii Swiss cheese has large holes due to production of CO2
Saccharomyces cerevisiae It is used to make bread by fermenting dough.
(Baker’s Yeast)

2.Microbes in industrial products

a)Fermented Beverages
Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae 1.Production of beverages like wine,
beer, whisky, brandy or rum.
2.used for bread-making.
3.used for fermenting malted cereals and
fruit juices to produce ethanol.
b) Antibiotic
Penicillin Penicillium notatum
c) Organic acids & Alcohol
Citric acid Aspergillus niger (fungus)
Acetic acid Acetobacter aceti ( bacterium)
Butyric acid Clostridium butylicum ( bacterium)
Lactic acid Lactobacillus delbrueckii ( bacterium)
Ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae (fungus)
d) Enzymes
Pectinase & Clear bottled juices
Protease
Lipases Remove oily stains from the laundry.
Streptokinase To remove blood clots from blood vessels of patients who have myocardial
(Clot bluster ) infarction.
e)Bioactive molecules
Cyclosporin A Trichoderma polysporum Immuno suppressive agent
Statin Monascus purpureus Lowering blood cholesterol
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3.Microbes in Sewage Treatment

It has two steps :-
a) Primary treatment:- Physical removal of particles through filteration and sedimentation.
b) Secondary Treatment :- Biological treatment ,reduces B O D of the effluent.
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)is a measure of the organic matter present in the water.
The greater the BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential.

4.Microbes as a source of energy (in the production

of biogas)
 Methanogens- Bacterium present in biogas plant.
The Biogas plant consists of a concrete tank (10-15 feet
deep) in which bio-wastes are collected and a slurry of
dung is fed. A floating cover is placed over the slurry
which keeps on rising as the biogas is produced.
An outlet which is connected to a pipe for removal of
biogas and supply of it to the required place.
There is another outlet to remove the spent slurry (used as
fertilizer).

Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and

Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC): Developed technology of
biogas production in India.

5.Microbes as biocontrol agents

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) To control butterfly caterpillar.
Trichoderma sp (fungus) To control several plant pathogens.
Lady bird beetle To control aphids.
Dragon flies To control mosquitoes.

6.Microbes as biofertilisers
Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich nutrient quality of the soil.

Rhizobium Symbiotic bacteria in root nodules They fix atmospheric N2..

of leguminous plants
Azospirillum Free-living bacteria in the soil Enrich the nitrogen content of the soil.
&
Azotobacter
Mycorrhiza Symbiotic association of fungi Absorb phosphorous from soil and passes
it to the plant.
Anabaena, Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae) They fix atmospheric nitrogen and
Nostoc, increases fertility.
Oscillatoria
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CHAPTER 13
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
1. Edward Wilson popularised the term Biodiversity

2.Levels of Biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecological diversity

3.Tropical Amazonian rain forest (South America) is the greatest biodiversity on earth.

4. Biodiversity (species richness) is highest in tropics because

 Tropics had more evolutionary time.
 Relatively constant environment (less seasonal).
 They receive more solar energy which contributes to greater productivity.

5.Species- Area relationship

According to the study of Alexander von Humboldt
in South American jungles, within a region, species
richness increases with increasing explored area, but
only up to a limit.
Relation between species richness and area gives a
rectangular hyperbola.
S= CA z
Where, S= Species richness
A= Area
C= Y-intercept
Z= slope of the line
(regression co- efficient)
- On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described the equation
Log S = log C + Z log A
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6.Importance of Species diversity

‘Rivet popper hypothesis’: It is an analogy used to understand the importance of
biodiversity. It is proposed by Paul Ehrlich.

7. Causes of Biodiversity losses (‘The Evil Quartet’)

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation: Most important cause.
 The Amazon rain forest is being cut for cultivating soya beans or for conversion of
grass lands for cattle.
2. Over-exploitation: Stellar’s sea cow, Passenger pigeon etc. extinct due to over
exploitation.
3. Alien species invasions: Cause extinction of indigenous species.
 E.g.Nile Perch introduced in Lake Victoria (East Africa) caused extinction of cichlid
fish.
4. Co-extinction: When a species becomes extinct, the species associated with it also
extinct.
 E.g. Extinction of the parasites when the host is extinct.

8.Conservation of Biodiversity
a. In situ conservation (on site):It is the conservation of genetic resources within
natural or human-made ecosystems in which they occur.

b. Ex situ conservation (off site): It is the conservation of organisms outside their

habitats.
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9.Hotspots: These are the regions with very high species richness, high degree of
endemism (species confined only to a specific region) but most threatened.

3 hotspots cover India’s biodiversity regions- Western Ghats & Sri Lanka, Indo-
Burma and Himalaya.

10.International Efforts for conserving biodiversity

 1.The Earth Summit or Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Jeneiro, 1992).

3 objectives:
a. Conservation of biodiversity.
b. Sustainable use of biodiversity.
c. Sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

 2.The World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, South Africa,

2002): 190 countries pledged to reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss.