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Introduction to Logic 2nd Edition Michael Genesereth
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Michael Genesereth, Eric Kao
ISBN(s): 9781627052481, 1627052488
Edition: 2nd
File Details: PDF, 1.24 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
 Introduction to Logic
Second Edition

Michael Genesereth and Eric Kao

Stanford University

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON COMPUTER SCIENCE #6

M
&C Morgan & cLaypool publishers
 Copyright © 2013 by Morgan & Claypool

Introduction to Logic, Second Edition

Michael Genesereth and Eric Kao
www.morganclaypool.com

ISBN: 9781627052474 paperback

ISBN: 9781627052481 ebook

DOI 10.2200/S00518ED2V01Y201306CSL006

A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON COMPUTER SCIENCE

Lecture #6
Series ISSN
Synthesis Lectures on Computer Science
Print 1932-1228 Electronic 1932-1686
ABSTRACT
This book is a gentle but rigorous introduction to Formal Logic. It is intended primarily for use at
the college level. However, it can also be used for advanced secondary school students, and it can be
used at the start of graduate school for those who have not yet seen the material.
The approach to teaching logic used here emerged from more than 20 years of teaching logic
to students at Stanford University and from teaching logic to tens of thousands of others via online
courses on the World Wide Web. The approach differs from that taken by other books in logic in
two essential ways, one having to do with content, the other with form.
Like many other books on logic, this one covers logical syntax and semantics and proof theory
plus induction. However, unlike other books, this book begins with Herbrand semantics rather than
the more traditional Tarskian semantics. This approach makes the material considerably easier for
students to understand and leaves them with a deeper understanding of what logic is all about.
In addition to this text, there are online exercises (with automated grading), online logic tools
and applications, online videos of lectures, and an online forum for discussion. They are available at

http://logic.stanford.edu/intrologic/.

KEYWORDS
Formal Logic, Symbolic Logic, Propositional Logic, Relational Logic, deduction, rea-
soning, Artificial Intelligence
 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Elements of Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Formalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Reading Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Logical Properties of Propositional Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 Propositional Entailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3 Satisfiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Truth Table Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Basic Backtracking Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Simplification and Unit Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5 DPLL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6 GSAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Propositional Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Linear Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 Structured Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Fitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.5 Soundness and Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5 Propositional Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 Clausal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3 Resolution Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.4 Resolution Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6 Relational Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.3 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.4 Example: Sorority World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.5 Example: Blocks World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.6 Example: Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.7 Example: Peano Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.8 Example: Linked Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.9 Example: Pseudo English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.10 Example: Metalevel Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.11 Properties of Sentences in Relational Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.12 Logical Entailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.13 Finite Relational Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.14 Omega Relational Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.15 General Relational Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

7 Relational Logic Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.2 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

8 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.2 Clausal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.3 Unification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.4 Resolution Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.5 Resolution Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
 8.6 Unsatisfiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.7 Logical Entailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.8 Answer Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.9 Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

9 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9.2 Domain Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
9.3 Linear Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.4 Tree Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.5 Structural Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.6 Multidimensional Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.7 Embedded Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.8 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

10 Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.2 Properties of Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.3 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
10.4 Fitch With Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
10.5 Example – Group Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.6 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

A Summary of Fitch Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
 Preface
This book is a first course in Formal Logic. It is intended primarily for use at the college level.
However, it can also be used for advanced secondary school students, and it can be used at the start
of graduate school for those who have not yet seen the material.
There are just two prerequisites. The book presumes that the student understands sets and set
operations, such as union, intersection, and so forth. It also presumes that the student is comfortable
with symbolic manipulation, as used, for example, in solving high-school algebra problems. Nothing
else is required.
The approach to teaching Logic used here emerged from more than 10 years of experience
in teaching the logical foundations of Artificial Intelligence and more than 20 years of experience
in teaching Logic for Computer Scientists. The result of this experience is an approach that differs
from that taken by other books in Logic in two essential ways, one having to do with content, the
other with form.
The primary difference in content concerns that semantics of the logic that is taught. Like
many other books on Logic, this one covers first-order syntax and first-order proof theory plus
induction. However, unlike other books, this book starts with Herbrand semantics rather than the
more traditional Tarskian semantics.
In Tarskian semantics, we define an interpretation as a universe of discourse together with
a function (1) that maps the object constants of our language to objects in a universe of discourse
and (2) that maps relation constants to relations on that universe. We define variable assignments
as assignments to variables. We define the semantics of quantified expressions as variations on
variable assignments, saying, for example, that a universally quantified sentence is true for a given
interpretation if and only if it is true for every variation of the given variable assignment. It is a
mouthful to say and even harder for students to understand.
In Herbrand semantics, we start with the object constants, function constants, and relation
constants of our language; we define the Herbrand base (i.e. the set of all ground atoms that can be
formed from these components); and we define a model to be an arbitrary subset of the Herbrand
base. That is all. In Herbrand semantics, an arbitrary logical sentence is logically equivalent to the set
of all of its instances. A universally quantified sentence is true if and only if all of its instances are true.
There are no interpretations and no variable assignments and no variations of variable assignments.
Although both approaches ultimately end up with the same deductive mechanism, we get
there in two different ways. Deciding to use Herbrand semantics was not an easy to choice to
make. It took years to get the material right and, even then, it took years to use it in teaching
Logic. Although there are some slight disadvantages to this approach, experience suggests that
the advantages significantly outweigh those disadvantages. This approach is considerably easier for
students to understand and leaves them with a deeper understanding of what Logic is all about.
That said, there are some differences between Herbrand semantics and Tarskian semantics that
some educators and theoreticians may find worrisome.
First of all, Herbrand semantics is not compact—there are infinite sets of sentences that are
inconsistent while every finite subset is consistent. The upshot of this is that there are infinite sets of
sentences where we cannot demonstrate unsatisfiability with a finite argument within the language
itself. Fortunately, this does not cause any practical difficulties, since in all cases of practical interest
we are working with finite sets of premises.
One significant deficiency of Herbrand semantics vis a vis Tarksian semantics is that with
Herbrand semantics there are restrictions on the cardinality of the worlds that can be axiomatized.
Since there is no external universe, the cardinality of the structures that can be axiomatized is equal to
the number of ground terms in the language. (To make things easy, we can always choose a countable
language. We can even choose an uncountable language, though doing so would ruin some of the nice
properties of the logic. On the positive side, it is worth noting that in many practical applications we
do not care about uncountable sets. Although there are uncountably many real numbers, remember
that there are only countably many floating point numbers.) More significantly, recall that the
Lowenheim-Skolem Theorem for Tarskian semantics assures us that even with Tarskian semantics
we cannot write sentences that distinguish models of different infinite cardinalities. So, it is unclear
whether this restriction has any real significance for the vast majority of students.
Herbrand semantics shares most important properties with Tarskian semantics. In the absence
of function constants, the deductive calculus is complete for all finite axiomatizations. In fact, the
calculus derives the exact same set of sentences. When we add functions, we lose this nice property.
However, we get some interesting benefits in return. For one, it is possible with Herbrand semantics
(with functions) to finitely axiomatize arithmetic. As we know from Godel, this is not possible in a
first-order language with Tarskian semantics. The downside is that we lose completeness. However,
it is nice to know that we can at least define things, even though we cannot prove them. Moreover, as
mentioned above, we do not actually lose any consequences that we are able to deduce with Tarskian
semantics.
That’s all for what makes the content of this book different from other books. There is also a
difference in form. In addition to the text of the book in print and online, there are also online exercises
(with automated grading), some online Logic tools and applications, online videos of lectures, and
an online forum for discussion.
The online offering of the course began with an experimental version early in the 2000s.
While it was moderately successful, we were at that time unable to combine the online materials and
tools and grading program with videos and an online forum, and so we discontinued the experiment.
Recently, it was revived when Sebastian Thrun, Daphne Koller, and Andrew Ng created technologies
for comprehensive offering online courses and began offering highly successful online courses of their
own. With their technology and the previous materials, it was easy to create a comprehensive online
course in Logic. And this led to completion of this book.
 Thanks also to Pat Suppes, Jon Barwise, John Etchemendy, David-Barker Plummer, and
others at the Stanford Center for the Study of Language and Information for their pioneering
work on online education in Logic. Language, Proof, and Logic (LPL) in particular is a wonderful
introduction to Logic and is widely used around the world. Although there are differences between
that volume and this one in theory (especially semantics) and implementation (notably the use
here of browser-based exercises and applications), this volume is in many ways similar to LPL. In
particular, this volume shamelessly copies the LPL tactic of using online worlds (like Tarski’s World)
as a teaching tool for Logic.
And thanks as well to the thousands of students who over the years have had to endure early
versions of this material, in many cases helping to get it right by suffering through experiments that
were not always successful. It is a testament to the intelligence of these students that they seem
to have learned the material despite multiple bumbling mistakes on our part. Their patience and
constructive comments were invaluable in helping us to understand what works and what does not.
Finally, we need to acknowledge the enormous contributions of a former graduate student—
Tim Hinrichs. He is a co-discoverer of many of the results about Herbrand semantics, without
which this book would not have been written.

Michael Genesereth and Eric Kao

July 2013
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1.1 LOGIC
Logic is one of the oldest intellectual disciplines in human history. It dates back to Aristotle; it has
been studied through the centuries; and it is still a subject of active investigation today.
We use Logic is just about everything we do. We use it in our personal lives. We use it in our
professional activities. We use the language of Logic to state observations, to define concepts, and
to formalize theories. We use logical reasoning to derive conclusions from these bits of information.
We use logical proofs to convince others of these conclusions.
And we are not alone! Logic is increasingly being used by computers—to prove mathematical
theorems, to validate engineering designs, to diagnose failures, to encode and analyze laws and
regulations and business rules.
This chapter is an overview of Logic as presented in this book. We start with an introduction
to the key concepts of Logic using sentences written in English. We then talk about the value of
using a formal language for expressing logical information, and we talk about the formal rules for
manipulating sentences expressed in this language. After this, we discuss how formalization of this
sort enables automation of logical reasoning, and we summarize the current state of Logic technology
and its applications. Finally, we conclude with a reading guide for the remainder of the book.

1.2 ELEMENTS OF LOGIC

Consider the interpersonal relations of a small sorority. There are just four members—Abby, Bess,
Cody, and Dana. Some of the girls like each other, but some do not. Figure 1.1 shows one set of
possibilities.

Abby Bess Cody Dana

Abby

Bess

Cody

Dana

Figure 1.1: One state of Sorority World.

 Let’s assume that we do not know this information ourselves, but we have informants who
know the girls and are willing to share what they know. Each informant knows a little about the likes
and dislikes of the girls, but no one knows everything. Here is where Logic comes in. By writing
logical sentences, each informant can express exactly what he or she knows—no more, no less. For
our part, we can combine these sentences into a logical theory; and we can use this theory to draw
logical conclusions, including some that may not be known to any one of the informants.
Figure 1.2 shows one such theory. The first sentence is straightforward; it tells us directly that
Dana likes Cody. The second and third sentences tell us what is not true, without saying what is
true. The fourth sentence says that one condition holds or another but does not say which. The fifth
sentence gives a general fact about the girls Abby likes. The sixth sentence expresses a general fact
about Cody’s likes. The last sentence says something about everyone.

Dana likes Cody.

Abby does not like Dana.
Dana does not like Abby.
Bess likes Cody and Dana.
Abby likes everyone that Bess likes.
Cody likes everyone who likes her.

Figure 1.2: Logical sentences describing Sorority World.

Sentences like these constrain the possible ways the world could be. Each sentence divides
the set of possible worlds into two subsets, those in which the sentence is true and those in which
the sentence is false. Believing a sentence is tantamount to believing that the world is in the first set.
Given two sentences, we know the world must be in the intersection of the set of worlds in which
the first sentence is true and the set of worlds in which the second sentence is true. Ideally, when we
have enough sentences, we know exactly how things stand.
Unfortunately, this is not always the case. Sometimes, a collection of sentences only partially
constrains the world. For example, there are four different worlds that are consistent with the our
Sorority World sentences, namely the ones shown in Figure 1.3.
Even though a set of sentences does not determine a unique world, it is often the case that
some sentences are true in every world that satisfies the given sentences. A sentence of this sort is
said to be a logical conclusion from the given sentences. Said the other way around, a set of premises
logically entails a conclusion if and only if every world that satisfies the premises also satisfies the
conclusion.
What can we conclude from the bits of information in Figure 1.2? Quite a bit, as it turns out.
For example, it must be the case that Bess likes Cody. Also, Bess does not like Dana. There are also
some general conclusions that must be true. For example, in this world with just four girls, we can
conclude that everybody likes somebody. Also, everyone is liked by somebody.
 Abby Bess Cody Dana Abby Bess Cody Dana

Abby Abby

Bess Bess

Cody Cody

Dana Dana

Abby Bess Cody Dana Abby Bess Cody Dana

Abby Abby

Bess Bess

Cody Cody

Dana Dana

Figure 1.3: Four states of Sorority World.

One way to make this determination is by checking all possible worlds. For example, in our
case, we notice that, in every world that satisfies our sentences, Bess likes Cody, so the statement
that Bess likes Cody is a logical conclusion from our set of sentences.
Unfortunately, determining logical entailment by checking all possible worlds is impractical
in general. There are usually many, many possible worlds; and in some cases there can be infinitely
many.
The alternative is logical reasoning, that is, the application of reasoning rules to derive logical
conclusions and produce a logical proofs, i.e., sequences of reasoning steps that leads from premises
to conclusions.
As an example, consider the following informal proof that starts with the premises shown
above and proves that Bess likes Cody.
We know that Abby likes everyone that Bess likes, and we know that Abby does not like Dana.
Therefore, Bess must not like Dana either. (If Bess did like Dana, then Abby would like her as
well.) At the same time, we know that Bess likes Cody or Dana. Consequently, since Bess does
not like Dana, she must like Cody.
The concept of proof, in order to be meaningful, requires that we be able to recognize certain
reasoning steps as immediately obvious. In other words, we need to be familiar with the reasoning
“atoms” out of which complex proof “molecules” are built.
One of Aristotle’s great contributions to philosophy was his recognition that what makes a
step of a proof immediately obvious is its form rather than its content. It does not matter whether
we are talking about blocks or stocks or sorority girls. What matters is the structure of the facts with
which you are working. Such patterns are called rules of inference.
As an example, consider the reasoning step shown below. We know that all Accords are
Hondas, and we know that all Hondas are Japanese cars. Consequently, we can conclude that all
Accords are Japanese cars.
All Accords are Hondas.
All Hondas are Japanese.
Therefore, all Accords are Japanese.
Now consider another example. We know that all borogoves are slithy toves, and we know
that all slithy toves are mimsy. Consequently, we can conclude that all borogoves are mimsy. What’s
more, in order to reach this conclusion, we do not need to know anything about borogoves or slithy
toves or what it means to be mimsy.
All borogoves are slithy toves.
All slithy toves are mimsy.
Therefore, all borogoves are mimsy.
What is interesting about these examples is that they share the same reasoning structure, that
is, the pattern shown below.
All x are y.
All y are z.
Therefore, all x are z.
The existence of such reasoning patterns is fundamental in Logic but raises important ques-
tions. Which patterns are correct? Are there many such patterns or just a few?
Let us consider the first of these questions. Obviously, there are patterns that are just plain
wrong in the sense that they can lead to incorrect conclusions. Consider, as an example, the (faulty)
reasoning pattern shown below.
All x are y.
Some y are z.
Therefore, some x are z.
Now let us take a look at an instance of this pattern. If we replace x by Toyotas and y by cars and
z by made in America, we get the following line of argument, leading to a conclusion that happens
to be correct.
All Toyotas are cars.
Some cars are made in America.
Therefore, some Toyotas are made in America.
 On the other hand, if we replace x by Toyotas and y by cars and z by Porsches, we get a line of
argument leading to a conclusion that is questionable.
All Toyotas are cars.
Some cars are Porsches.
Therefore, some Toyotas are Porsches.
What distinguishes a correct pattern from one that is incorrect is that it must always lead to
correct conclusions, i.e., conclusions that are logically entailed by the premises. As we will see, this
is the defining criterion for what we call deduction.
Now, it is noteworthy that there are patterns of reasoning that are sometimes useful but do not
satisfy this strict criterion. There is inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, reasoning by analogy,
and so forth.
Induction is reasoning from the particular to the general. The example shown below illustrates
this. If we see enough cases in which something is true and we never see a case in which it is false,
we tend to conclude that it is always true.
I have seen 1000 black ravens.
I have never seen a raven that is not black.
Therefore, every raven is black.
Now try red Hondas.
Abduction is reasoning from effects to possible causes. Many things can cause an observed
result. We often tend to infer a cause even when our enumeration of possible causes is incomplete.
If there is no fuel, the car will not start.
If there is no spark, the car will not start.
There is spark.
The car will not start.
Therefore, there is no fuel.
What if the car is in a vacuum chamber?
Reasoning by analogy is reasoning in which we infer a conclusion based on similarity of two
situations, as in the following example.
The flow in a pipe is proportional to its diameter.
Wires are like pipes.
Therefore, the current in a wire is proportional to diameter.
Now try price.
Of all types of reasoning, deductive reasoning is the only one that guarantees its conclusions
in all cases. It has some very special properties and holds a unique place in Logic. In this book, we
concentrate entirely on deduction and leave these other forms of reasoning to others.
1.3 FORMALIZATION
So far, we have illustrated everything with sentences in English. While natural language works well
in many circumstances, it is not without its problems. Natural language sentences can be complex;
they can be ambiguous; and failing to understand the meaning of a sentence can lead to errors in
reasoning.
Even very simple sentences can be troublesome. Here we see two grammatically legal sen-
tences. They are the same in all but the last word, but their structure is entirely different. In the first,
the main verb is blossoms, while in the second blossoms is a noun and the main verb is sank.
The cherry blossoms in the Spring.
The cherry blossoms in the Spring sank.
As another example of grammatical complexity, consider the following excerpt taken from
the University of Michigan lease agreement. The sentence in this case is sufficiently long and the
grammatical structure sufficiently complex that people must often read it several times to understand
precisely what it says.

The University may terminate this lease when the Lessee, having made application and
executed this lease in advance of enrollment, is not eligible to enroll or fails to enroll in the
University or leaves the University at any time prior to the expiration of this lease, or for
violation of any provisions of this lease, or for violation of any University regulation relative
to resident Halls, or for health reasons, by providing the student with written notice of this
termination 30 days prior to the effective data of termination, unless life, limb, or property
would be jeopardized, the Lessee engages in the sales of purchase of controlled substances in
violation of federal, state or local law, or the Lessee is no longer enrolled as a student, or the
Lessee engages in the use or possession of firearms, explosives, inflammable liquids, fireworks,
or other dangerous weapons within the building, or turns in a false alarm, in which cases a
maximum of 24 hours notice would be sufficient.

As an example of ambiguity, suppose I were to write the sentence There’s a girl in the room
with a telescope. See Figure 1.4 for two possible meanings of this sentence. Am I saying that there
is a girl in a room containing a telescope? Or am I saying that there is a girl in the room and she is
holding a telescope?
Such complexities and ambiguities can sometimes be humorous if they lead to interpretations
the author did not intend. See the examples in Figure 1.5 for some infamous newspaper headlines
with multiple interpretations. Using a formal language eliminates such unintentional ambiguities
(and, for better or worse, avoids any unintentional humor as well).
As an illustration of errors that arise in reasoning with sentences in natural language, consider
the following examples. In the first, we use the transitivity of the better relation to derive a conclusion
about the relative quality of champagne and soda from the relative quality of champagne and beer
and the relative quality or beer and soda. So far so good.
Figure 1.4: There’s a girl in the room with a telescope.

Crowds Rushing to See Pope Trample 6 to Death

Journal Star, Peoria, 1980

Scientists Grow Frog Eyes and Ears British Left Waffles On Falkland Islands
The Daily Camera, Boulder, 2000

Food Stamp Recipients Turn to Plastic Indian Ocean Talks

The Miami Herald, 1991 The Plain Dealer, 1977

Fried Chicken Cooked in Microwave Wins Trip

The Oregonian, Portland, 1981

Figure 1.5: Various newspaper headlines.

Champagne is better than beer.

Beer is better than soda.
Therefore, champagne is better than soda.
Now, consider what happens when we apply the same transitivity rule in the case illustrated
below.The form of the argument is the same as before, but the conclusion is somewhat less believable.
The problem in this case is that the use of nothing here is syntactically similar to the use of beer in
the preceding example, but in English it means something entirely different.
Bad sex is better than nothing.
Nothing is better than good sex.
Therefore, bad sex is better than good sex.
Logic eliminates these difficulties through the use of a formal language for encoding infor-
mation. Given the syntax and semantics of this formal language, we can give a precise definition for
the notion of logical entailment. Moreover, we can establish precise reasoning rules that produce all
and only logically entailed conclusions.
 In this regard, there is a strong analogy between the methods of Formal Logic and those of
high school algebra. To illustrate this analogy, consider the following algebra problem.

Xavier is three times as old as Yolanda. Xavier’s age and Yolanda’s age add up to twelve. How
old are Xavier and Yolanda?

Typically, the first step in solving such a problem is to express the information in the form of
equations. If we let x represent the age of Xavier and y represent the age of Yolanda, we can capture
the essential information of the problem as shown below.

x − 3y = 0
x + y = 12

Using the methods of algebra, we can then manipulate these expressions to solve the problem.
First we subtract the second equation from the first.

x − 3y = 0
x + y = 12
− 4y = −12

Next, we divide each side of the resulting equation by −4 to get a value for y.Then substituting
back into one of the preceding equations, we get a value for x.

x=9
y=3

Now, consider the following logic problem.

If Mary loves Pat, then Mary loves Quincy. If it is Monday and raining, then Mary loves
Pat or Quincy. If it is Monday and raining, does Mary love Quincy?

As with the algebra problem, the first step is formalization. Let p represent the possibility that
Mary loves Pat; let q represent the possibility that Mary loves Quincy; let m represent the possibility
that it is Monday; and let r represent the possibility that it is raining.
With these abbreviations, we can represent the essential information of this problem with the
following logical sentences. The first says that p implies q, i.e., if Mary loves Pat, then Mary loves
Quincy. The second says that m and r implies p or q, i.e., if it is Monday and raining, then Mary
loves Pat or Mary loves Quincy.
 p ⇒ q
m∧r ⇒ p∨q

As with Algebra, Formal Logic defines certain operations that we can use to manipulate
expressions. The operation shown below is a variant of what is called Propositional Resolution. The
expressions above the line are the premises of the rule, and the expression below is the conclusion.
p1 ∧ ... ∧ pk ⇒ q 1 ∨ ... ∨ q l
r 1 ∧ ... ∧ r m ⇒ s 1 ∨ ... ∨ s n
p1 ∧ ... ∧ pk ∧ r 1 ∧ ... ∧ r m ⇒ q 1 ∨ ... ∨ q l ∨ s 1 ∨ ... ∨ s n
There are two elaborations of this operation. (1) If a proposition on the left-hand side of one
sentence is the same as a proposition in the right-hand side of the other sentence, it is okay to drop
the two symbols, with the proviso that only one such pair may be dropped. (2) If a constant is repeated
on the same side of a single sentence, all but one of the occurrences can be deleted.
We can use this operation to solve the problem of Mary’s love life. Looking at the two premises
above, we notice that p occurs on the left-hand side of one sentence and the right-hand side of the
other. Consequently, we can cancel the p and thereby derive the conclusion that, if is Monday and
raining, then Mary loves Quincy or Mary loves Quincy.
p ⇒ q
m∧r ⇒ p∨q
m∧r ⇒ q∨q
Dropping the repeated symbol on the right-hand side, we arrive at the conclusion that, if it
is Monday and raining, then Mary loves Quincy.
m∧r ⇒ q∨q
m∧r ⇒ q
This example is interesting in that it showcases our formal language for encoding logical
information. As with algebra, we use symbols to represent relevant aspects of the world in question,
and we use operators to connect these symbols in order to express information about the things
those symbols represent.
The example also introduces one of the most important operations in Formal Logic —
Resolution (in this case a restricted form of Resolution). Resolution has the property of being
complete for an important class of logic problems, i.e., it is the only operation necessary to solve any
problem in the class.

1.4 AUTOMATION
The existence of a formal language for representing information and the existence of a corresponding
set of mechanical manipulation rules together have an important consequence—the possibility of
automated reasoning using digital computers.
 The idea is simple. We use our formal representation to encode the premises of a problem
as data structures in a computer, and we program the computer to apply our mechanical rules in a
systematic way. The rules are applied until the desired conclusion is attained or until it is determined
that the desired conclusion cannot be attained. (Unfortunately, in some cases, this determination
cannot be made; and the procedure never halts. Nevertheless, as discussed in later chapters, the idea
is basically sound.)
Although the prospect of automated reasoning has achieved practical realization only in the
last few decades, it is interesting to note that the concept itself is not new. In fact, the idea of building
machines capable of logical reasoning has a long tradition.
One of the first individuals to give voice to this idea was Leibniz. He conceived of “a universal
algebra by which all knowledge, including moral and metaphysical truths, can some day be brought
within a single deductive system.” Having already perfected a mechanical calculator for arithmetic, he
argued that, with this universal algebra, it would be possible to build a machine capable of rendering
the consequences of such a system mechanically.
Boole gave substance to this dream in the 1800s with the invention of Boolean algebra and
with the creation of a machine capable of computing accordingly.
The early twentieth century brought additional advances in Logic, notably the invention of
the predicate calculus by Russell and Whitehead and the proof of the corresponding completeness
and incompleteness theorems by Gödel in the 1930s.
The advent of the digital computer in the 1940s gave increased attention to the prospects for
automated reasoning. Research in artificial intelligence led to the development of efficient algorithms
for logical reasoning, highlighted by Robinson’s invention of resolution theorem proving in the 1960s.
Today, the prospect of automated reasoning has moved from the realm of possibility to that
of practicality, with the creation of logic technology in the form of automated reasoning systems, such
as Vampire, Prover9, the Prolog Technology Theorem Prover, Epilog, and others.
The emergence of this technology has led to the application of logic technology in a wide
variety of areas. The following paragraphs outline some of these uses.
Mathematics. Automated reasoning programs can be used to check proofs and, in some cases,
to produce proofs or portions of proofs.
Engineering. Engineers can use the language of Logic to write specifications for their products
and to encode their designs. Automated reasoning tools can be used to simulate designs and in some
cases validate that these designs meet their specification. Such tools can also be used to diagnose
failures and to develop testing programs.
Database Systems. By conceptualizing database tables as sets of simple sentences, it is possible
to use Logic in support of database systems. For example, the language of Logic can be used to define
virtual views of data in terms of explicitly stored tables, and it can be used to encode constraints on
databases. Automated reasoning techniques can be used to compute new tables, to detect problems,
and to optimize queries.
 Data Integration. The language of Logic can be used to relate the vocabulary and structure
of disparate data sources, and automated reasoning techniques can be used to integrate the data in
these sources.
Logical Spreadsheets. Logical spreadsheets generalize traditional spreadsheets to include logical
constraints as well as traditional arithmetic formulas. Examples of such constraints abound. For
example, in scheduling applications, we might have timing constraints or restrictions on who can
reserve which rooms. In the domain of travel reservations, we might have constraints on adults and
infants. In academic program sheets, we might have constraints on how many courses of varying
types that students must take.
Law and Business. The language of Logic can be used to encode regulations and business rules,
and automated reasoning techniques can be used to analyze such regulations for inconsistency and
overlap.

1.5 READING GUIDE

Although Logic is a single field of study, there is more than one logic in this field. In the three main
units of this book, we look at two different types of logic, each more sophisticated than the last.
Propositional Logic is the logic of propositions. Symbols in the language represent “condi-
tions” in the world, and complex sentences in the language express interrelationships among these
conditions. The primary operators are Boolean connectives, such as and, or, and not.
Relational Logic expands upon Propositional Logic by providing a means for explicitly talking
about individual objects and their interrelationships (not just monolithic conditions). In order to
do so, we expand our language to include object constants, function constants, relation constants,
variables, and quantifiers.
Each chapter brings new issues and capabilities to light. Despite these differences, there are
many commonalities among these logics. In particular, in each case, there is a language with a formal
syntax and a precise semantics; there is a notion of logical entailment; and there are legal rules for
manipulating expressions in the language.
These similarities allow us to compare the two logics and to gain an appreciation of the
tradeoff between expressiveness and computational complexity. On the one hand, the introduction
of additional linguistic complexity makes it possible to say things that cannot be said in more restricted
languages. On the other hand, the introduction of additional linguistic flexibility has adverse effects
on computability. As we proceed though the material, our attention will range from the completely
computable case of Propositional Logic to a variant of Logic that is not at all computable.
One final comment. In the hopes of preventing difficulties, it is worth pointing out a potential
source of confusion. This book exists in the meta world. It contains sentences about sentences; it
contains proofs about proofs. In some places, we use similar mathematical symbology both for
sentences in Logic and sentences about Logic. Wherever possible, we try to be clear about this
distinction, but the potential for confusion remains. Unfortunately, this comes with the territory. We
are using Logic to study Logic. It is our most powerful intellectual tool.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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Quickly he strode to the bedside, and spoke a few words in
the same strange language. They seemed to act like a
charm on the sick lad. He raised himself in bed, a bright
light sparkling in his eyes, and said, but not in Gaelic, "Who
are you, sir? And where do you come from? Oh, speak
again in my native tongue, that I may make sure that it is
not all a dream!"

Then ensued a conversation in Gaelic, which it is well I am

not called upon to write, or my readers to peruse; but every
word of the strange guttural language sounded as soothing
music in the ear of the dying lad. Great was his surprise
when he discovered that the handsome young gentleman
beside him was the Master Macintosh with whom he had
often climbed the hills and fished in the river near his
northern home.

Not long had Ronald to tend the dying lad, for his days were
numbered; but to him was given the joy of being used as
God's instrument to set free one of Satan's fettered
captives. To the cry for pardon, which were the first words
that had greeted his ear, he could give, in all their fulness,
the Lord's words of free forgiveness, could tell how Jesus
"came to seek and to save them that were lost."

And the heavy, sin-sick heart grasped with a firm grip the
precious promise, "He that cometh to me I will in no wise
cast out."

And so, even at the eleventh hour, Johnny Robertson fell at

the feet of his mother's Saviour, and was able to say:

"My Lord and my God!"

"Herein indeed is love, not that I loved God, but

 that he loved me."

"Tell grannie," he said, "her and my mother's prayers are

answered now, even to me, the chief of sinners. Sing to me,
Master Macintosh, once more the psalm I used to sing wi'
grannie, and at the kirk, with the high hills around—'The
Lord's my shepherd.'"

And when Ronald came to the words, "Yea, though I walk

through death's dark vale, yet will I fear none ill: for thou
art with me—" a feeble voice broke in, in the lad's native
tongue, "That's so, that's so."

One deep-drawn breath, and the soul of the Highland laddie

was with the Lord.

They buried him in an old London grave-yard around which

the hum of busy life was perpetually heard; far from home
and kindred he lay, miles and miles away from the calm
quiet of the grand old hills which overshadowed his
childhood's home. A single stone, put up by Ronald, marked
his resting-place, and on it were the words, "With the Lord."

There were tears shed in the quiet hut over the letter which
told of the death of the wandering one; but they were not
all bitter: joy mingled with the grief—the erring child was at
rest now in the Father's house above.

"The Lord is a promise-keeping God," said the old woman.

"The Good Shepherd has gone into the wilderness after the
lost sheep, and borne it safely back to the fold. For ever
blessed be his holy name. And may his blessing rest on the
head of the young lad who sought him out, and soothed his
lonely dying bed, by telling him of that hidden treasure
which is better than gold and above rubies."
 CHAPTER XIII.
THE COUSINS.

"From that day I knew him—

Christ, my Priest and King,
Father, Friend, Physician—
Can I cease to sing?
Nay, until he call me
From my work below,
I will tell his praises
Wheresoe'er I go."

"ALONE, mamma! Must I go alone?" said Clara Ross in a

low, discontented tone, as her mother told her the doctor's
opinion that, after the long, weakening illness from which
she was just recovering, a change of air was absolutely
necessary, especially now, when the east winds, so trying to
invalids in Edinburgh, were blowing.

"He recommends the Bridge of Allan," she said; "and your

father and I have arranged that you shall go next week. Not
alone," she replied, in answer to Clara's query; "Maria will
go with you. It will certainly be a trial for your sisters to
dispense with her aid at this gay season of the year, for she
certainly dresses their hair beautifully; but, of course; they
must make the sacrifice when your health demands it,
although, I fear, I will have to endure their reproaches when
they hear of the arrangement. It is unfortunate that I
cannot go with you myself; but, of course, it is my duty to
accompany Laura and Jane to the public balls, and then the
two dances in our house come on, so I have no choice. Poor
Clara! How grieved you will be at missing all the spring
gaiety! What! Crying, child? Well, well, never mind; the
doctor says you will soon be as strong as ever, and you'll
enjoy the balls all the more next year."

Clara pushed aside fretfully the hand her mother laid on her
brow. "It isn't that," she said. "I was tired of balls and
visiting night after night long before this illness came on;
but oh! I don't want to be sent away alone with only a
servant. Couldn't Aunt Emmie chaperon the girls, and you
come with me, mamma?"

But such a proposal by no means satisfied the worldly

mother. "Now, Clara, you must be reasonable. You know the
calls of duty must be attended to; a mother must look after
the interests of her children. I am sorry to have to send you
away at all, more especially as your father has peculiar
ideas about it; so don't let him see how unhappy you are."

And so saying, Mrs. Ross moved away to superintend some

household matter.

She was not an unkind or even careless mother. In her own

way she loved and was proud of her children. But her one
ambition for them was a comfortable settlement in life; the
things seen and temporal filled her heart, and a life of
worldliness was making her cold and selfish.

That night, when Clara had gone to bed, the subject of the
visit to the Bridge of Allan was warmly discussed in the
drawing-room, where Mr. and Mrs. Ross sat with their
daughters.
Mr. Ross spoke angrily. "On one thing I have made up my
mind—the girl shall not go alone. If her own mother cannot
leave home, and her sisters are too selfish to do so, I shall
give up a month's business and go myself. You girls will
have to do with fewer fine dresses, that's all; for I will have
to pay a gentleman handsomely to act for me. But I will not
have my little Clara neglected for all the dresses in the
world; so when you fix on the lodgings, take a room for me
also."

A look of consternation passed between mother and

daughters, and in one breath they exclaimed.

"But, papa—Mr. Ross—you forget we are to have two dances

in the house next week, and you must not be absent—it is
impossible. Think of your duty to your family, my dear,"
added Mrs. Ross.

But the only answer vouchsafed was, "Well, my dear, to tell

the truth, I have doubted for long whether my
countenancing a constant round of gaiety and frivolity was
indeed my real duty to my family. And when I see the result
of such a life, in rendering my daughters selfish and unkind,
I doubt it still more. We have higher duties to fulfil than
merely living to ourselves, and I pray God he may teach us
all to see it ere it be too late."

If a bombshell had fallen in the midst of the little company,

it could not have caused greater fear and astonishment
than did Mr. Ross's speech. Higher duties to fulfil than living
a life of pleasure! Why, that was the way religious people
like the Macleods talked; and surely papa was not turning
one of their sort!

Mrs. Ross was sorely put out, but not so much astonished
as her daughters. Ever since the time, now four years ago,
that Mr. Ross had accompanied Nora Macintosh to Benvourd
House, on the night of little Minnie's death, she had
observed a difference in his way of speaking of religion, and
also a growing dislike to the constant gaiety which went on
in their house. She had shut her eyes to the fact, and was
glad that the girls never appeared to observe it. So now she
felt she must act cautiously, and said abruptly she would
think over the matter, and see what arrangement could be
made. One thing was certain—Mr. Ross must on no account
be obliged to leave his business.

The next morning found her at the breakfast-table with a

radiant face. An idea had occurred to her, which, if agreed
to, would please all parties.

"Papa," she said, addressing her husband by the name he

bore in the family circle, "I have been so troubled about
dear Clara all night; and as there seems a difficulty about
either myself or the girls leaving home at present, how
would it do to ask Nora Macintosh, of whom Clara is so
fond, to visit her at the Bridge of Allan, and so provide her
with a pleasant companion?"

Mr. Ross's brow lightened—for indeed it would have been a

loss to him to leave town just then—and he said eagerly,
"That would be a capital plan. My mind would be at ease, if
Clara had such a pleasant, sensible friend with her as Nora
Macintosh. And as she has been brought up not to please
herself only, I doubt not, if she can be spared from her
home duties, she will go. By all means write and ask her."

And so it fell out, after a few days' delay, that Nora

Macintosh found herself installed in comfortable lodgings at
the Bridge of Allan, as companion-nurse to her cousin Clara.
In complying with the request she had to make a sacrifice
of no small kind; for the same post had brought her an
invitation from Lady Dudley to spend the ensuing month
with her in her English home, as she had long desired to
become acquainted with the sister of her little boy's
favourite friend, and also with the child of the Elenora
Macintosh of whom she had heard so much.

Inclination said: "Go; this is just what you have long been
desiring, and it would never do to refuse." Duty said:
"Decline for the present; your cousin is ill, and longs for
your society."

It was a struggle, we must confess; but Nora had been too

long a servant of the One who came to earth not to be
ministered unto, but to minister, and who has left his
disciples the command to deny themselves, to hesitate
long. And so the English visit was put off for the present,
and Nora went to cheer up her invalid cousin.

And a pleasant six weeks' visit she had, as she afterwards

told her aunt. Spring buds were opening, and light spring
breezes, and soft, though often flitting sunshine, brought
joy to the bright young heart of the healthy girl, and
returning vigour to Clara's still delicate frame. Never before
had the cousins so much enjoyed being together; and much
pleasant girlish talk was interchanged. But though Nora at
first said little to her cousin as regarded the change she had
experienced since they last met, Clara was not long in
discovering the quiet light in Nora's eyes—the look of rest,
so different from the unsatisfied one which at times she had
worn in the days gone by. All testified to "a heart at peace
with God."

And, moreover, Nora preached by her life; the unselfish

spirit, the kind, loving words, the deep reverence for God's
Word and for his holy day, all told from what source the
peace and joy came. And somehow—as Clara told her father
in one of his hurried visits, to see how the two girls were
getting on—although Nora never sermonized her, or brought
forth her own opinions, still she was never ashamed to
speak of the love of Jesus, and to claim him as her own
friend.

As she spoke these words, Mr. Ross bent over her and said,
"Thank God, we may all claim Jesus as our Friend, if we will
take him as our Saviour. I've been long in finding it out; but
I have found it, my child, though at the eleventh hour. Seek
you him, my child, while you are still young, and the same
joy and peace which Nora has got will be yours also."

Clara's tears fell fast as her father spoke, for, indeed, for
months past she had been weary and dissatisfied with her
profitless life, and a longing after higher things had filled
her heart; but she had feared the opposition she would
meet with from all her home relations, and so had stifled
the Spirit of God, and tried to drown the voice of conscience
in a ceaseless round of so-called pleasure.

And now, to find that her own father had been feeling much
as she had done, but, not content with convictions of sin,
had found the rest and the peace she longed to possess.
That night proved the turning-point in the life of Clara Ross;
and as she and her cousin sat together, after Mr. Ross had
returned home, the barrier of shyness between them on
sacred things fell, and Clara learned for the first time the
way in which Nora had been brought to decision in religious
matters, and heard all about the field-meeting, and the
servant of God whose words had set her free from Satan's
chains.
Nature had spread her fairest, freshest mantle of tender
green over hill and dale, ere the cousins left the Bridge of
Allan. The last evening they spent together there, was one
neither of them ever forgot, one that rose often in
memory's eye when seas rolled between the friends.

Long they lingered, gazing out of the window on the fair

scene before them. The sun was beginning to set when first
they took their seats on the couch placed near the window.
Light fleecy clouds, varied with crimson and purple glory,
were floating about on the horizon, as if accompanying the
sun to his resting-place; and after he had slowly sunk
behind the hills, they glowed even more brilliantly with his
beams, seeming now to be set in a background of molten
gold, till the eye fell beneath the exceeding beauty of the
sight. But gradually the tints paled, and at last changed into
a soft gray, with only the faintest blush of rosy hue, paling
and paling till the shades of evening crept over all, and a
crescent moon cast its silvery beams on the scene.

Words exchanged that night were long remembered by the

cousins; and as, ere they parted, their voices rose together
in prayer to their Father in heaven, asking for grace to help
in each time of need, in her heart Nora thanked God that he
led her to the quiet resting-place, and gave to her the high
honour of helping onward in the heavenly path a child of his
who was groping till then in the darkness, seeking light, but
finding none.

And Clara returned to her home, strong as of yore in body,

to begin a new life of usefulness, to prove a comfort to her
father, and a light, however feeble, to all who were in the
home. From her heart now she could thank God for the long
weeks of trying illness through which she had passed,
when, withdrawn from the gay world's influence, she had
had time to be still and to hear his voice, and been enabled
by his grace to exchange the tinsel of a frivolous life for the
true riches which she had formerly despised, but which she
now esteemed as far better than gold and above rubies.

Nora wrote to her brother Ronald that Clara Ross had now
begun the warfare of life under the royal banner.

CHAPTER XIV.
A FAMILY GATHERING.

"We shall meet in the Eden above,

In that beautiful land of the bleat;
All our trials and pains will be o'er
When we enter that mansion of rest."

FOURTEEN years have passed since our first glimpse of

Benvourd House and its inmates. The month of September
has come round again, when once more we take a look
there. The house is full of visitors—so full, that Mr. Macleod
says there must surely be three beds in every room; but his
wife denies that fact, though she confesses that every little
garret room is filled, and she is not sure that every one has
a full complement of pillows. But, in answer to that, all
declare themselves well satisfied; and the scanty
accommodation only brings forth merry remarks from the
youngsters of the party.
Time has, indeed, brought changes in the circle since first
we saw them. There are silver threads not a few mingled
with the dark hairs of both Mr. and Mrs. Macleod; and even
Charlie, who was only a toddling two-year-old child when
we first heard of him, is a fine manly-looking stripling of
more than sixteen years old, the very idol of the three little
girls and twin-brothers, who look up to him with great
respect as their big man-brother. Well may the Macleods
look with thankfulness at their six healthy, happy children;
and if a tear dims their eyes as they think of the loved
daughter so early taken to glory, it is but for a moment, for
the child's short life had not been lived in vain, and the Lord
had made her death a means of softening some hard
hearts, and drawing the parents' affections more and more
heavenward.

"The Lord hath been mindful of us, and he will bless us,"
was the unspoken utterance of both the owners of Benvourd
House, as they looked round the assembled group.

Ronald, Eric, and Nora were there, though in altered

circumstances from the time we first saw them. Beside
Ronald, now a partner in his cousin's mercantile house in
London, stood his fair wife, the Clara Ross of earlier years.
They have only been married a few months, and this is their
first trip since then to the Highlands. A quiet, happy light
shines in Clara's eyes; and of her it can truly be said, she is
a helpmeet for her husband. Hand in hand they are fighting
beneath the royal banner of the great King; hand in hand
they are engaged in the noble crusade which so many,
thank God, are now waging against the powers of darkness
in the overcrowded London streets; and from amongst
many poor ones there, who through their instrumentality
have been rescued from destruction, there are those who
call them blessed.
Husband and wife have strolled out together, leaving a
group of merry youngsters behind them. Ronald was the
first to speak. "How well Nora looks, does she not, even
with the thoughts of to-morrow's ceremony and the sad
parting from so many whom she dearly loves. She wears a
look of calm heart-joy; and the more I see of him, the more
I feel that Eustace Ashley is the very husband for her,
though one would fain have kept her in our own country.
Still, when we think of the greatness of the work she is
called upon to share as a missionary's wife, we dare not
murmur; and every day it is becoming plainer that China,
with its teeming millions, is a mighty field for mission work.
Yes, as uncle said to me this morning, 'We must give her up
willingly to the Lord's work, for he loveth a cheerful giver.'"

"And Eric, too, Clara, what a fine man he has turned out—
first-rate at business, I hear! Indeed, Ashley told me
yesterday that he knows the head of the firm in China
where Eric is, and that he speaks confidently of ere long
taking him in as a junior partner. If it be so, we may say his
fortune, as regards this world, is made. And he is a true
Christian, quiet, but real. We little thought, when he first
went to Edinburgh to your father's house, Clara, that it was
to be there he would awake to a personal knowledge of
Christ!"

"And was it so, Ronald?" said Clara, in a surprised tone.

"Yes, indeed; he has told me so himself. It was Pedro's firm

belief that he was a Christian boy, because he shrank from
spending the Lord's day in the way many of you then did,
that first led him to see that he took his religion only from
the 'precepts of men,' but was a stranger to Jesus, as his
Saviour and Friend; so, as he says, it was Pedro who all
unconsciously led him to seek the Lord. But see—here
comes Sir James Dudley with uncle; let us join them."
It was well for Ronald that whilst thus occupied in talking to
his wife, he did not hear the conversation which Sir James
Dudley was carrying on with Mr. Macleod, for, indeed, praise
of his friend Ronald was the chief theme of it: the lad's
admiration of the counsellor of his boyhood was increasing
with his years, and in his ardent way, he loved to speak of
the one to whom he felt he owed so much.

"Why, Mr. Macleod," he said, "I don't believe you half know
what a splendid fellow he is, nor how he is adored by all
who serve with or under him. You see, there is a friend of
my mother's, whose only son is a clerk in the house, and
you should hear how he speaks of Macintosh. Why, he says,
but for him he might have been a dissipated man. He was
just standing on the verge of ruin, when Ronald came to his
aid, took him from the society of bad companions, and led
him into the right path."

Mr. Macleod's eyes glowed with pleasure as he listened. God

had indeed given to him and his wife a rich reward, in the
way the three orphan children whom they had brought up
had turned out; and their praises were sweet to his ear. And
with growing pleasure, he saw the influence for good that
all three were exercising over his own children as they
advanced in years.

In the meantime, Nora had contrived to get alone with her

aunt on this the last day in her happy home, for the morrow
was to be her bridal day, and also that of a long farewell to
Scotland's shores; for after a short visit in England, she and
her husband, accompanied by Eric, were to set sail for
China, the land in which her husband worked as a
missionary and her brother as a merchant. Her heart was
full as she thought of leaving so many dear ones, but yet
new ties and a new love filled her heart; and it was no small
addition to her happiness that she was going to help in the
work of spreading the knowledge of Jesus in a heathen
land. Many loving words of advice and encouragement did
she receive that day from her mother-aunt,—words to be
pondered over and acted on when seas rolled between
them.

Evening had come, and the youngsters, under the

leadership of Sir James Dudley and Pedro, started for a
walk, when Ronald, Eric, and Nora, detaching themselves
from the rest, set out together. Almost involuntarily, it
seemed, they turned their steps in the direction of the
Wishing-Well. The sun's parting beams were just striking
there when they reached it, and a rich golden hue was
glowing on all around, lighting up the brilliantly coloured
leaves of the various trees that formed the background to
the well. For a minute or two they paused beside it, each
heart recalling vividly the last time they had all stood there
together, on the eve of Ronald's departure for school in
England.

Eric was the first to break the silence. "Who remembers,"

he said, "the day, many years ago, when we stood here,
and each wished for something beside this well? I wonder if
our wishes have been fulfilled."

For a moment there was no reply.

Ronald remembered vividly how his wish had been to be a

true Knight of the Cross, and bear the royal banner boldly
into the enemy's country; and with that remembrance there
arose the form of the mysterious stranger who had showed
him the real meaning of his somewhat fanciful desire.

And Nora, too, was recalling the wish of her heart, that she
might obtain what her mother desired for her, that she
might be above rubies.
Whilst she and Ronald hesitated, Eric spoke again—"My
wish has, I believe, been granted, though not in the way I
expected. I have got riches, great riches—even the untold
wealth of the saving knowledge of Christ Jesus, which is
indeed 'better than gold.'"

"Yes," said Ronald, "Eric is right; I do believe that the Lord

has indeed given unto us exceeding abundantly above what
we desired. He has given to me the desire of my heart—to
be a banner-bearer in his glorious army, and to help in
some small degree the weak and oppressed ones. And you
also, Nora, can say that your wish has been fulfilled. Is it
not so?"

And Nora bowed her head in grateful acknowledgment of

the fact. She knew in her inmost heart that she too had
long ago obtained that which is above rubies.

CHAPTER XV.
THE BRIDAL DAY.

"He traineth us,

That we may shine for Him in this dark world,
And bear His standard dauntlessly unfurled;
That we may show
His praise by lives that mirror back His love—
His witnesses on earth, as He is ours above."
THE marriage day had come at last. The quiet ceremony
was to take place in the drawing-room of Benvourd House.
And Clara was putting the finishing touches to her sister-in-
law's bridal dress, and arranging the simple white wreath,
with just a small spray of orange-blossom in it, on her head,
when a thought struck her.

"Why, Nora," she said, "what has become of the costly

diadem of gold and rubies I used to envy you the
possession of when we were girls? I don't believe you have
ever once worn it."

Nora smiled. "No, Clara, I never have; and now it is mine no

longer."

"Why not, dear? Have you given it away? Of course, you

were entitled to do so, for it was your own. To whom have
you given it?"

At that question, the bride's eyes sparkled with a glad light,

and she quietly answered, "To the Lord, Clara dear; right
into his treasury it went, some three or four months ago.
Uncle and aunt and Ronald also knew and approved;
indeed, they felt as if I could have done nothing else. I have
given myself, you know, Clara, to the Lord for his service
and could I withhold the most precious earthly possession I
had? No, dear; I was only too glad I had it to give; and
Eustace felt the same. How could I hear of the spiritual
destitution of the millions of souls in China without desiring
to aid them, not only by my life, but also by my means?
And so, when Ronald found a trustworthy jeweller, willing to
give a full price for the diadem, I sold it, and the money has
gone ere this to aid the funds of the Chinese mission."

Clara's eyes filled. "O Nora, I am glad it is so! And Eustace

will feel as I do, if he be not blind, that it needs no diadem
of gold and rubies to beautify the brow of his bride to-day.
But a truce to more talking now. I believe Ronald is waiting
impatiently to take you down."

One moment the cousins knelt together in silent prayer,

then quietly descended to the drawing-room.

The autumn sun was still brightly shining, when the carriage
drove up, after the luncheon was over, to bear off the bride
and bridegroom.

There was a mixed feeling of joy and sorrow in the hearts of

all, for Nora Ashley was bidding, it might be, a long adieu to
the home of her childhood, every spot of which was
endeared to her by loving associations. Only that morning
she had gone alone to strew some of her bridal flowers on
the graves of her mother and of her little cousin Minnie, well
knowing that she might never again revisit the spot. And
now, even as with tear-dimmed eyes she drove once again
through the lovely pass, gorgeous in its autumn dress, she
cast around her a look which seemed as if it would
stereotype the scene for ever on her memory's eye, to arise
clearly in distant lands.

As she passed the hut where the old nurse had lived and
died, she pointed it out to her husband; and as she did so,
she seemed once more to feel the kind touch of the loving
hand as it one day had pushed back her golden brown hair,
and to hear the voice which had said, "I'm wonderin', my
lambie, what kind o' a crown will sit on that bonnie brow;
whether it will be the crown o' a vain world's folly, or the
everlastin' one that your mother prayed so earnestly might
rest there?"

And Nora knew now which it was; and even in the midst of
her bridal happiness, she could look forward with joy to the
day when she would take the golden crown put on her head
by the Saviour's own hand, and casting it at his feet, give to
him all the glory for evermore.

Meantime, the party assembled at the door of Benvourd

House to see the young couple drive off, turned slowly
indoors; only Mr. and Mrs. Macleod and Ronald lingered a
few minutes, to catch sight of the carriage as it wound
down the steep road below the pass.

"God's blessing go with them both," said Mr. Macleod. "Long

shall we miss our Nora, Ronald; beautifully has she fulfilled
her home duties. And now she goes forth to a foreign land
to work for the Lord in a distant part of his vineyard. As I
told Eustace Ashley, ere parting, he was a happy man to
have secured her for a wife; for truly 'the heart of her
husband may safely trust in her. Her price is above rubies.'"

"Yes," said Ronald, "it is even so. Our mother's dying prayer
has been truly answered as regards Nora; she has obtained
that wisdom of which it is written, 'The topaz of Ethiopia
shall not equal it, neither shall it be valued with pure gold,'
for 'the price of it is above rubies.' It can be said of her with
truth that 'she stretcheth out her hand to the poor; yea, she
reacheth forth her hands to the needy,' and also that 'in her
tongue is the law of kindness.'"

"I believe she will exert an influence for good wherever she
goes, and prove to be well fitted for the arduous duties of a
missionary's wife. And well may we ask God to bless and
keep both her and her husband, as they go forth to lift high
in heathen lands the Royal Banner of the King of kings; and
may both be as crowns of glory in the hand of the Lord, and
as royal diadems on the head of our God!"
THE END.
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