FOP

➔ Flowchart: A flowchart is a diagram that represents a process or algorithm. It uses

standardized symbols to describe the steps and their order. Common symbols
include:

• Oval: Start or end

• Rectangle: Process or operation

• Diamond: Decision

• Parallelogram: Input/Output

• Arrow: Flow of control

➔ Difference Between Algorithm and Flowchart:

• Algorithm: Step-by-step written instructions to solve a problem.

• Flowchart: A visual representation of an algorithm using symbols.

➔ Operators in C: Operators are symbols that perform operations on variables and

values. Types include:

• Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, %

• Relational Operators: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=

• Logical Operators: &&, ||, !

• Assignment Operators: =, +=, -=, *=, /=

• Increment/Decrement Operators: ++, --

• Bitwise Operators: &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>

➔ Pre-increment vs Post-increment:

• Pre-increment: ++x increments the value before using it.

• Post-increment: x++ uses the value before incrementing it.

➔ Basic Datatypes in C:

• int: Integer

• float: Floating-point number

• double: Double-precision floating-point number

• char: Character
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➔ Process of Compilation in C:

• Preprocessing: Handles directives like #include and #define.

• Compilation: Translates code to assembly language.

• Assembly: Converts assembly code to machine code.

• Linking: Links various code files and libraries into a single executable.

➔ Basic Structure of a C Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

// Code

return 0;

➔ Conditional Statements in C:

• if: Executes a block of code if a condition is true.

• else if: Checks another condition if the previous if is false.

• else: Executes a block of code if none of the conditions are true.

• switch: Selects one of many blocks of code to be executed.

➔ Entry Control Loop and Exit Control Loop:

• Entry Control Loop: Condition is checked before the loop starts. (for, while)

• Exit Control Loop: Condition is checked after the loop executes. (do-while)

Difference: Entry control loops might not execute if the condition is false initially; exit
control loops will execute at least once.

➔ Switch Statement in C: Used for selecting one of many blocks of code to execute.

switch (expression) {

case value1:

// Code

break;
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case value2:

// Code

break;

default:

// Code

Rules:

• The expression must be an integer or character.

• Use break to prevent fall-through.

• default is optional but handles cases not matched by case.

➔ Formatted and Unformatted I/O Statements:

• Formatted I/O: Uses printf, scanf for formatted output/input.

• Unformatted I/O: Uses getchar, putchar for unformatted character input/output.

➔ String Functions in C:

• strcpy(), strcat(), strlen(), strcmp()

➔ Mathematical Functions in C:

• sqrt(), pow(), abs(), sin(), cos(), tan()

➔ Nested Looping: A loop within another loop. Used for multi-dimensional data
structures like matrices.

for (int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {

for (int j = 0; j < columns; j++) {

// Code

}
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➔ Prime Number:

• Algorithm:

o Input number

o Check divisibility from 2 to sqrt(number)

o If divisible by any, it’s not prime

o Else, it’s prime

• Flowchart:

Start -> Input number -> (Diamond) Check divisibility -> No: Prime -> Yes: Not Prime -> End

Example Prime Number

#include <stdio.h>

#include <math.h>

int main() {

int num, flag = 0;

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d", &num);

for (int i = 2; i <= sqrt(num); i++) {

if (num % i == 0) {

flag = 1;

break;

if (flag == 0) {

printf("%d is a prime number.\n", num);

} else {

printf("%d is not a prime number.\n", num);

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}

return 0;

➔ Array in C: An array is a collection of elements of the same data type stored in

contiguous memory locations. There are different types of arrays in C:

One-dimensional Array: A linear list of elements.

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Multi-dimensional Array: Arrays of arrays. The most common form is a two-dimensional

array.

int arr[3][3] = {

{1, 2, 3},

{4, 5, 6},

{7, 8, 9}

};

➔ Array of String: An array of strings is essentially a two-dimensional array where

each row represents a string.

char names[3][10] = {

"Alice",

"Bob",

"Charlie"

};

➔ Array Storage in Memory: Arrays are stored in contiguous memory locations. For a
one-dimensional array, the elements are stored sequentially in memory. For a two-
dimensional array, elements are stored row-wise.
➔ Modular Programming: Modular programming is a software design technique that
emphasizes separating the functionality of a program into independent,
interchangeable modules. It can be achieved by dividing the program into functions
and using header files for declarations.
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➔ Function in C: A function is a self-contained block of code that performs a specific
task. It can be defined as:

// Function declaration

int add(int, int);

// Function definition

int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;

// Using the function

int result = add(2, 3);

➔ Types of Functions:

• Standard Library Functions: Provided by C library, e.g., printf(), scanf().

• User-defined Functions: Created by the programmer for specific tasks.

➔ Recursive Function: A recursive function is a function that calls itself. Example:

int factorial(int n) {

if (n == 0)

return 1;

else

return n * factorial(n - 1);

➔ Command Line Argument: Command line arguments are parameters passed to

the program when it is executed. They can be accessed in main function.

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

for (int i = 0; i < argc; i++) {

printf("Argument %d: %s\n", i, argv[i]);

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}

return 0;

➔ Scope of Data: The scope of a variable determines its visibility within the code. For
example:
int globalVar = 10; // Global scope

void function() {
int localVar = 20; // Local scope
printf("%d\n", localVar); // Accessible here
}

int main() {
printf("%d\n", globalVar); // Accessible here
function();
// printf("%d\n", localVar); // Error: localVar not accessible
return 0;
}

➔ Pointer and Pointer to Pointer: A pointer is a variable that stores the memory
address of another variable. A pointer to a pointer is a variable that stores the
address of another pointer.
int a = 10;
int *ptr = &a; // Pointer to int
int **ptr2 = &ptr; // Pointer to pointer to int

➔ Difference Between Call by Value and Call by Reference:

• Call by Value: Passes a copy of the argument's value. Changes made to the
parameter inside the function do not affect the argument.
• Call by Reference: Passes the argument's address. Changes made to the
parameter affect the argument.

// Call by Value
void modifyValue(int x) {
x = 10;
}
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// Call by Reference
void modifyReference(int *x) {
*x = 10;
}

➔ Pointer and Array: A pointer can be used to iterate through the elements of an array.
int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

printf("%d ", *(ptr + i));
}

➔ Pointer to Function: A pointer to a function points to the address of a function,

allowing the function to be called indirectly.
void func(int a) {
printf("%d\n", a);
}

void (*funcPtr)(int) = func;

funcPtr(10); // Calls func(10)

➔ Dynamic Memory Allocation: Allocates memory during runtime using functions

like malloc(), calloc(), realloc(), and free().

int *ptr = (int *)malloc(5 * sizeof(int)); //only this change in code

if (ptr == NULL) {
printf("Memory not allocated.\n");
} else {
// Use the allocated memory
free(ptr); // Deallocate memory
}
➔ User Defined Datatype: Structure and Union:
• Structure: A collection of variables of different types under a single name.
struct Person {
char name[50];
int age;
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};

Union: Similar to structure, but only one member can hold a value at a time.
union Data {
int i;
float f;
char str[20];
};

➔ Difference Between Union and Structure:

• Structure: Allocates memory for all members separately.
• Union: Allocates memory equal to the largest member.

➔ Nested Structure: A structure within another structure.

struct Address {
char city[50];
int pin;
};

struct Person {
char name[50];
struct Address addr;
};

➔ Types of Files and Implementation in C:

• Text Files: Store data as readable text.
FILE *file = fopen("example.txt", "r");

• Binary Files: Store data in binary format.

FILE *file = fopen("example.bin", "rb");

➔ File Management Functions:

• fopen(), fclose(), fread(), fwrite(), fprintf(), fscanf(), fseek(), ftell()

➔ sizeof() Operator: Returns the size of a datatype or variable.

int a;
printf("%lu", sizeof(a)); // Output: size of int
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➔ Storage Classes in C:
• auto: Default storage class for local variables.
• register: Stores variables in CPU registers for faster access.
• static: Retains the value of a variable between function calls.
• extern: Declares a global variable defined in another file.

➔ Bitwise Operators: Perform operations on bits.

int a = 5; // 0101 in binary
int b = 3; // 0011 in binary
int c = a & b; // 0001 (1 in decimal)

➔ Preprocessor: Preprocesses the source code before compilation. Example:

#define PI 3.14

➔ Common Errors in C and Solutions:

• Syntax Error: Fix code syntax.
• Segmentation Fault: Check pointers and memory access.
• Compilation Error: Review error messages and fix code.
• Linker Error: Ensure correct linking of libraries and functions.