APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 1

Module 1
Syllabus

Air standard cycles: Carnot cycle. Otto, Diesel, Dual and cycles, p-v and T -s diagrams,
description, efficiencies and mean effective pressures. Comparison of Otto and Diesel cycles.

I.C.Engines: Classification of IC engines, Combustion of SI engine and CI engine, Detonation

and factors affecting detonation, Performance analysis of I.C Engines, Heat balance, Morse
test

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Air Standard Power Cycles

Introduction
Two important applications of thermodynamics are power generation and refrigeration.
Both are usually accomplished by systems that operate on thermodynamic cycles. Hence the
thermodynamic cycles are usually divided into two general categories, viz., “power cycles” and
“refrigeration cycles”. Power or refrigeration cycles are further classified as “gas cycles” and
“vapour cycles”. In the case of gas cycles, the working substance will be in gaseous phase
throughout the cycle, where as in vapour cycles, the working substance will be in liquid phase
in one part of the cyclic process and will be in vapour phase in some other part of the cycle.
Thermodynamic cycles are also classified as “closed cycles” and “open cycles”. In closed
cycles, the working fluid is returned to its original state at the end of each cycle of operation and
is recirculated. In an open cycle, the working substance is renewed at the end of each cycle
instead of being re-circulated. In automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted and
replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of each cycle. Though the engine operates in a
mechanical cycle, the working substance does not go through a complete thermodynamic cycle.
Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles
The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze because of the presence of
friction, and the absence of sufficient time for establishment of equilibrium conditions during
the cycle. In order to make an analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to make some
idealizations by neglecting internal Irreversibility’s and complexities. Such cycles resemble the
actual cycles closely but are made up totally of internal reversible processes. These cycles are
called ideal cycles.
Air Standard Cycles
In gas power cycles, the working fluid will be in gaseous phase throughout the cycle.
Petrol engines (gasoline engines), diesel engines and gas turbines are familiar examples of
devices that operate on gas cycles. All these devices are called “Internal combustion engines”
as the fuel is burnt within the boundaries of the system. Because of the combustion of the fuel,
the composition of the working fluid changes from a mixture of air and fuel to products of
combustion during the course of the cycle. However, considering that air is predominantly
nitrogen which hardly undergoes any chemical reaction during combustion, the working fluid
closely resembles air at all times. The actual gas power cycles are complex. Hence actual gas
cycles are approximated by ideal cycles by making the following assumptions called “air
standard assumptions”.

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 1

Air standard assumptions

(i) The working fluid is air which continuously circulates in a closed loop.
(ii) Air behaves as a perfect gas.
(iii) All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
(iv) The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process from an external
source.
(v) The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores the working
substance to its original state.
(vi) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working substance are very small
and hence negligible.
A cycle which is analyzed making use of these assumptions is called a “air standard cycle”. The
air standard assumptions make the thermodynamic analysis very simple without significantly
deviating from the actual cycle. This simplified model will help to study qualitatively the
influence of major parameters on the performance of the cycle.
Air standard Carnot Cycle
Prof. Carnot introduced the concepts of reversibility’s and cycles. He further introduced
that the temperatures of heat source and heat sink are the basis for determining the
thermodynamic efficiency of a reversible cycle. He showed that all such cycles must reject heat
to the sink and efficiency is never 100%. To show a non-existent reversible cycle, Carnot
invented his famous, but a hypothetical cycle, known as Carnot cycle.

The cycle Consists of the following processes.

Process 1 – 2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression
P: Increases from p1 to p2
V: Decreases from V1 to V2

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T: Increases from T1 to T2
S: Remains same.
P1V1  P2V2
1W2 =
 1
1Q2 =0
Process 2 -3: Isothermal Heat Addition
P: Decreases from p2 to p3
V: Increases from V2 to V3
T: Remains same.
S: Increases from S2 to S3
V V
2W3= p2V2 ln V3 = mRT2 lnV3
2 2

V3
2Q3 = p2V2 ln V
2

Process 3 – 4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion

P: Decreases from p3 to p4
V: Increases from V3 to V4
T: Decreases from T3 to T4
S: Remains same.
P3V3  P4V4
3W4 =
 1
3Q4 =0
Process 4 – 1: Isothermal Heat Rejection
P: Increases from p4 to p1
V: Decreases from V4 to V1
T: Remains same.
S: Decreases from S4 to S1
V V
4W1= p4V4 ln V1 = mRT4 lnV1
4 4

V1
4Q1 = p4V4 ln V
4

Work done during the Cycle

The net work is the sum of individual works during each process.
Net work / cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-1

∮ W = 1W2 + 2W3 + 3W4 + 4W1

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mR(T1 − T2 ) V3 mR(T3 − T4 ) V1
= + mRT2 ln + + mRT4 ln
γ−1 V2 γ−1 V4
mR V3 V1
= [(T1 − T2 ) + (T3 − T4 ) ] + mR [T2 ln + T4 ln ]
γ−1 V2 V4
mR V3 V1
= [(T1 − T2 ) + (T2 − T1 ) ] + mR [T2 ln + T1 ln ]
γ−1 V2 V4
V3 V1
= mR [T2 ln + T1 ln ]
V2 V4
V3 V4
= mR [T2 ln - T1 ln ]
V2 V1

Consider the adiabatic processes 1-2 and 3-4,

1 1
V3 T4 γ−1 T γ−1
V4
=( )
T3
= (T1)
2

Hence,
V3 V2 V4 V3
= or =
V4 V1 V1 V2

3 V
∮ W = mR ln V [T2 - T1]
2

Thermal efficiency
Heat Added−Heat Rejected
η=
Heat Added
V V
mRT2 ln 3 − mRT4 ln 4
V2 V1
= V
mRT2 ln 3
V2

V3 V2 V4 V3
Since, = or =
V4 V1 V1 V2
V
mR ln 3 ( T2 − T4 ) ( T2 − T4 ) T4 T1
V2
η= V = =1- =1-
mRT2 ln 3 T2 T2 T2
V2

But from the adiabatic process 1-2, we have,

T1 V γ−1 1
= ( 2) = γ−1
T2 V 1 rv

Hence,
V1
where rv = = Compression Ratio.
V2
𝟏
ηth = 1 – 𝛄−𝟏
𝐫𝐯

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Work Ratio
Work ratio may be defined as the ratio of net work done to the positive work done.
Positive work done occurs during the process 2-3 and 3-4.
V V
Net Workdone mR ln 3 ( T2 − T1 ) ln 3 ( T2 − T1 )
V2 V2
Work Ratio = = V mR(T3 − T4 ) = V (T − T1 )
Positive Workdone mRT2 ln 3 + T2 ln 3 + 2
V2 γ−1 V2 γ−1

Mean Effective Pressure

Mean effective pressure may be defined as the theoretical pressure which, if it were
maintained constant throughout the volume change of the cycle, would give the same work
output as that obtained from the cycle. Or it is the constant pressure which produces the same
work output while causing the piston to move through the same swept volume as in the actual
cycle.

Let Pm = Mean Effective Pressure, Vs = Swept volume, ∮ W = Net work ouput per
cycle, then,
Net Workdone per cycle ∮W
Pm = =
Stroke Volume Vs

Air standard Otto cycle

Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark ignition engines. The cycle is named after
Nikolaus A Otto, a German who built a four – stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the
cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862. The cycle is also called a constant
volume or explosion cycle. This cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic and two constant
volume processes. The p – V and T – s diagrams for an Otto cycle are shown in Fig.

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 1

The cycle consists of the following processes.

Process 1 – 2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression
Isentropic compression of air is from state 1 to state 2. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.
P: Increases from p1 to p2
V: Decreases from V1 to V2
T: Increases from T1 to T2
S: Remains same.
P1V1  P2V2
1W2 =
 1
1Q2 =0
Process 2 -3: Constant Volume Heat Addition
Heating of air is done at constant volume from state 2 till the maximum permissible
temperature is reached.
P: Increases from p2 to p3
V: Remains same
T: Increases from T2 to T3
S: Increases from S2 to S3
2W3= 0
2Q3 = m Cv (T3 – T2)
Process 3 – 4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
Isentropic expansion of air is from state 3 to state 4. During this process work is done
by air on the surroundings.
P: Decreases from p3 to p4
V: Increases from V3 to V4

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T: Decreases from T3 to T4
S: Remains same.
P3V3  P4V4
3W4 =
 1
3Q4 =0
Process 4 – 1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
Cooling of air at constant volume taking place till the air comes back to its original state.
P: Decreases from p4 to p1
V: Remains same
T: Decreases from T4 to T1
S: Decreases from S4 to S1
4W1= 0
4Q1 = m Cv ( T4 – T1)
Work done during the Cycle
The net work is the sum of individual works during each process.
Net work / cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-1

∮ W = 1W2 + 2W3 + 3W4 + 4W1

mR(T2 − T1 ) mR(T3 − T4 )
= +0+ +0
γ−1 γ−1
mR
∮W= γ−1
[(T3-T4) –(T2-T1)]

Thermal efficiency
Heat Added−Heat Rejected
η=
Heat Added
mCv (T3 −T2 )− mCv (T4 −T1 ) (T4 −T1 )
= =1-
mCv (T3 −T2 ) (T3 −T2 )

For constant volume processes 2-3 and 4-1,

p2 V2 p3 V3 p4 V4 p1 V1
= and =
T2 T3 T4 T1

But, V2 = V3 and V1 = V4 hence,

p3 p4
T3 = ∗ T2 and T4 = ∗ T1
p2 p1

Consider adiabatic processes 1-2 and 3-4

T1 V γ−1 V3 γ−1 T4 1
= ( 2) =( ) = = γ−1
T2 V 1 V4 T3 rv

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Hence,
γ−1 γ−1
T2 = T1 * rv and T3 = T4 * rv
V1 V4
where rv = = = Compression Ratio.
V2 V3

Also,
γ γ γ γ
p1V1 = p2V2 and p3V3 = p4V4
p2 V γ V γ p γ
= ( 1 ) = ( 4 ) = 3 = rv
p1 V 2 V p 3 4
γ γ
p2 = p1 * rv and p3 = p4 * rv

(T4 −T1 )
ηth = 1 –
(T3 −T2 )
T4
−1 T
T1
=1–( T3 ) T1
−1 2
T2

T1 T4 T3 T4
But, = or = ,
T2 T3 T2 T1
T1
ηth = 1 –
T2

𝟏
ηth = 1 – 𝛄−𝟏
𝐫𝐯

It is found that the thermal efficiency increases by increasing the compression ratio.
But use of high compression ratio is limited by the selection of material, temperature and
combustion problems.

Work Ratio

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It is the ratio of net work done per cycle to the positive work in the cycle.
Net Workdone
WR =
Positive Workdone
mR
[(T3 − T4 )− ((T2 − T1 )] [(T3 − T4 )− ((T2 − T1 )]
γ−1
WR = mR((T3 − T4 ) =
(T3 − T4 )
γ−1

Mean Effective Pressure (Pm)

It is a fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke,
would produce the same amount of net work as that produced during the actual cycle.
Mean Effective Pressure is given as,

Net Workdone per cycle ∮W

Pm = =
Stroke Volume Vs

∮ W = 1W2 + 2W3 + 3W4 + 4W1

p1 v 1 − p2 v 2 p3 v 3 − p4 v 4
= +0+ +0
γ−1 γ−1
1
= [p1 v1 − p2 v2 + p3 v3 − p4 v4 ]
γ−1

We know that,
p2 V γ V γ p γ
= ( 1 ) = ( 4 ) = 3 = rv
p1 V V
2 p 3 4

Hence,
γ
p2 = rv * p1
We define a term called ‘explosion ratio’ or ‘pressure ratio’ (β) as the ratio of peak
pressure in the cycle to the pressure after adiabatic compression.
p3
β=
p2

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γ
p3 = β * p2 = β * rv * p1
γ
p3 β ∗ rv ∗ p1
p4 = γ = γ = β * p1
rv rv

Let Vc = V2 = V3 = Clearance Volume.

From PV plot, v1 = vc + vs
Dividing both sides by Vc, we get,
V1 Vc Vs
= +
Vc Vc Vc
Vs
rv = 1 +
Vc

(rv – 1) * Vc = Vs
Vs
Vc = V2 = V3 =
(rv – 1)
V1
Since, = rv
V2
rv ∗ Vs
V1 = V2 * rv = = V4
(rv – 1)
1
∮W = γ−1
[p1 v1 − p2 v2 + p3 v3 − p4 v4 ]

1 rv ∗ Vs γ Vs γ Vs rv ∗ Vs
= [(p1 * ) − (rv * p1* ) + (β * rv * p1 * ) – (β * p1 * )]
γ−1 (rv – 1) (rv – 1) (rv – 1) (rv – 1)
1 γ−1 γ−1
= p1* Vs * rv [1- rv + (β * rv ) – β]
(γ−1) (rv – 1)
1 γ−1
= p1* Vs * rv [rv (β – 1) – (β -1)]
(γ−1) (rv – 1)
1 γ−1
∮ W = (γ−1) (r – 1)
p1* Vs * rv (β – 1) (rv - 1)
v

Therefore,
∮W
Pm =
Vs
1 γ−1
= p1* Vs * rv (β – 1) (rv - 1)
(γ−1)∗ Vs ∗ (rv – 1)
𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
Pm = p1 * 𝐫𝐯 (β – 1) (𝐫𝐯 - 1)
(𝛄−𝟏) (𝐫𝐯 – 𝟏)

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Air standard Diesel cycle

This cycle was introduced by Rudolf Diesel, which is applicable for slow speed
compression ignition engines or diesel engines. Heat addition takes place at constant pressure
and hence the cycle is also known as constant pressure cycle. This cycle consists of two
reversible adiabatics, one constant pressure process and one constant volume process. Heat
rejection takes place during constant volume process. The p – V and T – S diagrams for a diesel
cycle are shown in Figure.

The
cycle consists of the following processes.
Process 1 – 2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression
Isentropic compression of air is from state 1 to state 2. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.
P: Increases from p1 to p2
V: Decreases from V1 to V2
T: Increases from T1 to T2
S: Remains same.
P1V1  P2V2
1W2 =
 1
1Q2 =0
Process 2 -3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition
Heating of air is done at constant pressure from state 2 till the maximum permissible
temperature is reached.
P: Remains same.
V: Increases from V2 to V3

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T: Increases from T2 to T3
S: Increases from S2 to S3
2W3= p2 (V3 – V2) = p3 (V3 – V2) = mR(T3 – T2)
2Q3 = m Cp (T3 – T2)
Process 3 – 4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
Isentropic expansion of air is from state 3 to state 4. During this process work is done
by air on the surroundings.
P: Decreases from p3 to p4
V: Increases from V3 to V4
T: Decreases from T3 to T4
S: Remains same.
P3V3  P4V4
3W4 =
 1
3Q4 =0
Process 4 – 1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
Cooling of air at constant volume taking place till the air comes back to its original state.
P: Decreases from p4 to p1
V: Remains same
T: Decreases from T4 to T1
S: Decreases from S4 to S1
4W1= 0
4Q1 = m Cv ( T4 – T1)
Work done during the Cycle
The net work is the sum of individual works during each process.
Net work / cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-1

∮ W = 1W2 + 2W3 + 3W4 + 4W1

mR(T1 − T2 ) mR(T3 − T4 )
= + mR(T3 – T2) + +0
γ−1 γ−1
(T1 – T2 ) + (T3 – T4 )
= mR [ + (T3 – T2)]
(γ−1)
(T3 – T4 )− (T2 – T1 )
= mR [ + (T3 – T2)]
(γ−1)

Thermal efficiency
Heat Added−Heat Rejected
η=
Heat Added

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mCp (T3 −T2 )− mCv (T4 −T1 ) (T4 −T1 )

= =1-
mCp (T3 −T2 ) γ(T3 −T2 )

Consider adiabatic processes 1-2,

T1 V γ−1 1
= ( 2) = γ−1
T2 V 1 rv

Hence,
γ−1
T2 = T1 * rv
For constant pressure process 2-3,
p2 V2 p3 V3
=
T2 T3

But, p2 = p3,
V3 γ−1
T3 = ∗ T2 = α * T2 = α * T1 * rv
V2
Volume after cutting off the fuel V3
Where α = Cut off ratio = =
Volume after compression V2

Consider adiabatic process 3-4,

T4 V γ−1 α∗V2 γ−1 α γ−1
= ( 3) =( ) = ( )
T3 V 4 V1 rv

α γ−1 γ−1 α γ−1

T4 = T3 * ( ) = α * T1 * rv *( ) = αγ * T1
rv rv

Substitute all temperatures in efficiency equation, we get

(T4 −T1 )
η=1-
γ(T3 −T2 )

(( αγ ∗ T1 )− T1 )
=1– γ−1 γ−1
γ ((α ∗ T1 ∗ rv )− ( T1 ∗ rv ))

( αγ − 1 ) ( αγ − 1 )
=1- γ−1 γ−1 =1- γ−1
γ( α ∗ rv − rv ) γ∗ rv ( α − 1)

𝟏 ( 𝛂𝛄 − 𝟏 )
η=1- 𝛄−𝟏 [ ]
𝐫𝐯 𝛄∗( 𝛂 − 𝟏)

It is found that the thermal efficiency of diesel cycle differs from otto cycle by the
bracketed term. This term is always greater than unity except α = 1.
Air standard efficiency of diesel cycle depends upon the cut off ratio, which depends
on load. As load on the engine decreases, cut off ratio also decreases, hence cycle efficiency
increases.
Work Ratio
It is the ratio of net work done per cycle to the positive work in the cycle.

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Net Workdone
WR =
Positive Workdone
mCp (T3 −T2 )− mCv (T4 −T1 )
WR = mR(T3 − T4 )
mR(T3 – T2 ) +
γ−1

Mean Effective Pressure (Pm)

It is defined as the mean pressure acting on the piston during the working stroke, will
do the same amount of work as done by the actual varying pressure cycle.

Mean Effective Pressure is given as,

Net Workdone per cycle ∮W

Pm = =
Stroke Volume Vs

∮ W = 1W2 + 2W3 + 3W4 + 4W1

p1 V1 − p2 V2 p3 V3 − p4 V4
= + p2 (V3 – V2) + +0
(γ−1) (γ−1)

We know that,
p2 V γ
γ
= ( 1 ) = rv
p1 V 2

Hence,
γ
p2 = rv * p1
Since 2-3 is constant pressure process,
γ
p3 = p2 = rv * p1
For the adiabatic process 3-4,
p3 V4 γ V1 V2 γ rv γ
= ( ) = ( ∗ ) = ( )
p4 V3 V3 V2 α
α γ α γ γ
p4 = ( ) * p3 = ( ) * rv * p1 = αγ * p1
rv rv

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Let Vc = V2 = Clearance Volume.

From PV plot,
V1 = Vc + Vs
Dividing both sides by Vc, we get,
V1 Vc Vs
= +
Vc Vc Vc
Vs
rv = 1 +
Vc

(rv – 1) * Vc = Vs
Vs
Vc = V2 =
(rv – 1)
V1
Since, = rv ,
V2
rv ∗ Vs
V1 = V2 * rv = = V4
(rv – 1)
V3
We have, = α,
V2
α∗ Vs
V3 = α ∗ V2 =
(rv – 1)
p1 V1 − p2 V2 p3 V3 − p4 V4
∮W = (γ−1)
+ p2 (V3 – V2) +
(γ−1)
1 rv ∗ Vs γ Vs γ α ∗ Vs Vs
= [(p1 * ) − (rv * p1 * )] +( rv * p1 * ( − )) +
γ−1 (rv – 1) (rv – 1) (rv – 1) (rv – 1)
1 γ α ∗ Vs rv ∗Vs
[rv * p1 * − αγ * p1 * )]
γ−1 (rv – 1) (rv – 1)
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ 1− γ
=
(γ−1) ∗ (rv – 1)
[ rv − 1 + (α − 1) ∗ (γ − 1) + α − (αγ ∗ rv )]
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ
= [ rv (1 − αγ ) + (α − 1) ∗ (γ − 1) + (α − 1)]
(γ−1) ∗ (rv – 1)
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ
= [ rv (1 − αγ ) + (α − 1) ∗ (γ − 1 + 1)]
(γ−1) ∗ (rv – 1)
γ
p ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ
1
∮ W = (γ−1) [ rv (1 − αγ ) + γ(α − 1)]
∗ (rv – 1)

∮W
Since, Pm = ,
Vs
𝛄
𝐩𝟏 ∗ 𝐫𝐯 𝟏− 𝛄
Pm = [ 𝐫𝐯 (𝟏 − 𝛂𝛄 ) + 𝛄(𝛂 − 𝟏)]
(𝛄−𝟏) ∗ (𝐫𝐯 – 𝟏)

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Air standard Dual cycle

This cycle which incorporates both otto cycle and diesel cycles, fits the actual cycle of
an engine. Heat addition takes place partially at constant volume and partially at constant
pressure. Constant volume heat addition improves the efficiency whereas constant pressure
heat addition limits the maximum cycle pressure. This cycle is also called as limited pressure
cycle. The p – V and T – S diagrams for a dual cycle are shown in Figure.

The cycle consists of the following processes.

Process 1 – 2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression
Isentropic compression of air is from state 1 to state 2. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.
P: Increases from p1 to p2
V: Decreases from V1 to V2
T: Increases from T1 to T2
S: Remains same.
P1V1  P2V2
1W2 =
 1
1Q2 =0
Process 2 -3: Constant Volume Heat Addition
P: Increases from p2 to p3
V: Remains same
T: Increases from T2 to T3
S: Increases from S2 to S3

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2W3= 0
2Q3 = m Cv (T3 – T2)
Process 3 - 4: Constant Pressure Heat Addition
P: Remains same.
V: Increases from V3 to V4
T: Increases from T3 to T4
S: Increases from S3 to S4
3W4= p3 (V4 – V3) = p4 (V4 – V3) = mR(T4 – T3)
3Q4 = m Cp (T4 – T3)
Process 4 – 5: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
Isentropic expansion of air is from state 4 to state 5. During this process work is done
by air on the surroundings.
P: Decreases from p4 to p5
V: Increases from V4 to V5
T: Decreases from T4 to T5
S: Remains same.
p4 V4 − p5 V5
4W5 = γ−1

4Q5 =0
Process 5 – 1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
P: Decreases from p5 to p1
V: Remains same
T: Decreases from T5 to T1
S: Decreases from S5 to S1
5W1= 0
5Q1 = m Cv ( T5 – T1)
Work done during the Cycle
The net work is the sum of individual works during each process.
Net work / cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-5-1

∮ W = 1W2 + 2W3 + 3W4 + 4W5 + 5W1

mR(T1 − T2 ) mR(T4 − T5 )
= + 0 + mR(T4 – T3) + +0
γ−1 γ−1
(T1 – T2 ) + (T4 – T5 )
= mR [ + (T4 – T3)]
(γ−1)

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(T4 – T5 )− (T2 – T1 )
= mR [ + (T4 – T3)]
(γ−1)

Thermal efficiency
Heat Added−Heat Rejected
η=
Heat Added
mCv (T3 −T2 ) + mCp (T4 −T3 )−mCv (T5 −T1 ) (T5 −T1 )
= =1-
mCv (T3 −T2 ) + mCp (T4 −T3 ) (T3 −T2 )+ γ(T4 −T3 )

Consider adiabatic processes 1-2,

T1 V γ−1 1
= ( 2) = γ−1
T2 V 1 rv

Hence,
γ−1
T2 = T1 * rv
For constant volume process 2-3,
p2 V2 p3 V3
=
T2 T3
p3 T3
= =β
p2 T2
p3
Where β = pressure ratio or explosion ratio =
p2
γ−1
T3 = β * T2 = β * T1 * rv
For constant pressure process 3-4,
p3 V3 p4 V4
=
T3 T4

But, p3 = p4,
V4 γ−1
T4 = ∗ T3 = α * T3 = α * β * T1 * rv
V3
V4
Where α = Cut off ratio =
V3

Consider adiabatic process 4-5,

V γ−1 αV3 γ−1 αV2 γ−1 α γ−1 T5
(V4 ) =(
V1
) =(
V1
) =( )
r
=
T4
5 v

α γ−1 γ−1 α γ−1

T5 = T4 * ( ) = α * β * T1 * rv *( )
rv rv

T5 = αγ * β * T1

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(T5 −T1 )
η=1-
(T3 −T2 )+ γ(T4 −T3 )

(αγ ∗ β ∗ T1 −T1 )
=1- γ−1 γ−1 γ−1 γ−1
(β ∗ T1 ∗ rv − T1 ∗ rv )+ γ(α ∗ β ∗ T1 ∗ rv − β ∗ T1 ∗ rv )

1 (βαγ −1)
=1- γ−1
rv [(β − 1)+ γ(αβ− β)]

𝟏 (𝛃𝛂𝛄 −𝟏)
η=1- 𝛄−𝟏 …………………(1)
𝐫𝐯 [(𝛃 − 𝟏)+ 𝛄𝛃(𝛂− 𝟏)]

From the above equation, it is evident that when the value of pressure ratio β >1, the cycle
efficiency improves provided α and γ are constants. This shows that the efficiency of the dual
cycle falls in between otto and diesel cycle efficiency.
Note: when cut off ratio, α = 1, equation (1) becomes otto cycle efficiency. When pressure
ratio, β = 1, equation (1) becomes diesel cycle efficiency.
Work Ratio
It is the ratio of net work done per cycle to the positive work in the cycle.
Net Workdone
WR =
Positive Workdone
mCv (T3 −T2 ) + mCp (T4 −T3 )−mCv (T5 −T1 )
WR = mR(T4 − T5 )
mR(T4 – T3 ) +
γ−1

Mean Effective Pressure (Pm)

It is defined as the ratio of net work done during a cycle to the stroke or swept volume.

Mean Effective Pressure is given as,

Net Workdone per cycle ∮W

Pm = =
Stroke Volume Vs

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∮ W = 1W2 + 2W3 + 3W4 + 4W5 + 5W1

p1 V1 − p2 V2 p4 V4 − p5 V5
= + 0 + p3 (V4 – V3) + +0
(γ−1) (γ−1)

We know that,
p2 V γ γ
= ( 1 ) = rv
p1 V 2

Hence,
γ
p2 = rv * p1
p3
Since 2-3 is constant volume process, = β = pressure ratio (explosion ratio)
p2
γ
p3 = β * p2 = β * rv * p1
For constant pressure process 3-4,
γ
p4 = p3 = β * rv * p1
For the adiabatic process 4-5,
p4 V5 γ V1 γ V1 γ rv γ
= ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = ( )
p5 V4 αV3 αV2 α
p4 α γ α γ γ
γ = p4 * ( ) = ( ) * β * rv * p1 = α * β * p1
γ
p5 = r
( v) rv rv
α

Let Vc = V2 = V3 = Clearance Volume.

From PV plot,
V1 = Vc + Vs
Dividing both sides by Vc, we get,
V1 Vc Vs
= +
Vc Vc Vc
Vs
rv = 1 +
Vc

(rv – 1) * Vc = Vs
Vs
Vc = V2 = V3 =
(rv – 1)
V1
Since, = rv ,
V2
rv ∗ Vs
V1 = V2 * rv = = V5
(rv – 1)
V4
We have, = α,
V3

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α∗ Vs
V4 = α ∗ V3 =
(rv – 1)
p1 V1 − p2 V2 p4 V4 − p5 V5
∮W = (γ−1)
+ p3 (V4 – V3) +
(γ−1)
1 rv ∗ Vs γ Vs γ α ∗ Vs Vs
= [(p1 * ) − (rv * p1 * )] +( β ∗ rv * p1 * ( − ))
γ−1 (rv – 1) (rv – 1) (rv – 1) (rv – 1)
1 γ α ∗ Vs rv ∗Vs
+ [β * rv * p1* − αγ *β* p1 * )]
γ−1 (rv – 1) (rv – 1)
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ 1− γ
=
(γ−1) ∗ (rv – 1)
[ rv − 1 + (αβ − β)(γ − 1) + αβ − αγ βrv )]
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ
= [ rv (1 − βαγ ) − 1 + αβγ − αβ − γβ + β + αβ)]
(γ−1) ∗ (rv – 1)
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ
= [ rv (1 − βαγ ) − 1 + γβ(α − 1) + β)]
(γ−1) ∗ (rv – 1)
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ
= [ rv (1 − βαγ ) + (β − 1) + γβ(α − 1)]
(γ−1) ∗ (rv – 1)
γ
p1 ∗ rv ∗ Vs 1− γ
∮ W = (γ−1) ∗ (r [ (β − 1) + γβ(α − 1) − rv (βαγ − 1)]
v – 1)

∮W
Since, Pm = ,
Vs
𝛄
𝐩𝟏 ∗ 𝐫𝐯 𝟏− 𝛄
Pm = [ (𝛃 − 𝟏) + 𝛄𝛃(𝛂 − 𝟏) − 𝐫𝐯 (𝛃𝛂𝛄 − 𝟏)]
(𝛄−𝟏) ∗ (𝐫𝐯 – 𝟏)

Comparison between Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles

The important variables which are used as the basis for comparison of the cycles are
compression ratio, peak pressure, heat supplied, heat rejected and the net work output. In order
to compare the performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles some of these
variables have to be fixed.

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Comparison with same compression ratio and heat supply:

The comparison of these cycles for the same compression ratio and same heat supply
are shown in on both p – V and T – S diagrams. In these diagrams, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents
Otto Cycle, cycle 1-2-3’-4’-1 represents diesel cycle and cycle 1-2”-3”-4”-1 represents the dual
combustion cycle for the same compression ratio and heat supply. From the T-S diagram, it
can be seen that area 5236 = area 522”3”6” = area 523’6’ as this area represents the heat supply
which is same for all the cycles. All the cycles start from the same initial point 1 and the air is
compressed from state 1 to state 2 as the compression ratio is same.
It is seen from the T-s diagram, that for the same heat supply, the heat rejection in Otto
cycle (area 5146) is minimum and heat rejection in Diesel cycle (area 514’6’) is maximum.
Consequently Otto cycle has the highest work output and efficiency. Diesel cycle has the least
efficiency and dual cycle has the efficiency between the two.
Same compression ratio and heat rejection:

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Figure shows the comparison between the Otto cycle and Diesel cycle on p-V and T-s
diagrams. Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents the Otto cycle and cycle 1-2-3’-4-1 represents the Diesel
cycle. Since both the cycles start from the same state point 1 and the heat rejection is same for
both the cycles, state 4 is same for both the cycles. Also since the compression ratio is same
for both the cycles the state after compression process (state 2) is same for both the cycles.
It can be seen from the PV diagram that the area representing the Otto cycle (area 1234)
is more than that representing the Diesel cycle (area 123’4). Hence the work output for the Otto
cycle is more than that for the Diesel cycle. Thermal efficiency of any power cycle can be
expressed as
Heat Added−Heat Rejected Heat Rejected
Thermal efficiency = =1-
Heat Added Heat Added
Since the heat rejection is same for both the cycle and heat supply for Otto cycle
(area2365) is more than that for the Diesel cycle (area 23’65), thermal efficiency for the Otto
cycle is higher than that for the diesel cycle.
Same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection:

Figure shows the comparison on p-V and T-s diagrams, between Otto and Diesel cycles
with same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection. Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents the
Otto cycle, Cycle 1-2’-3-4-1 represents the Diesel cycle. It can be seen from the PV diagram
that area representing the Diesel cycle (area 12’34) is more than that representing the Otto cycle
(area 1234) and hence Diesel cycle has higher work output than Otto cycle.
It can also be seen that the heat supply for Diesel cycle (area 52’36) is more than that
for Otto cycle (area 5236). Since the heat rejection is same for both the cycles, it follows that

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the thermal efficiency for the Diesel cycle is more than that for the Otto cycle for the same
peak pressure, peak temperature and same heat rejection.

Theory questions
1. Derive the expression for air standard efficiency of dual cycle stating the assumptions made with the
help of P-V and T-S diagram (JAN 2014, JULY 2013, JULY 2016)
2. With the help of T-S and P-V diagram derive the expression for MEP of otto cycle in terms of
compression ratio, pressure ratio showing all the processes involved. (JULY 2015, JULY 2014)
3. Derive the expression for air standard efficiency of diesel cycle stating the assumptions made with
the help of P-V and T-S diagram (DEC 2011, JUNE 2012, JAN 2010, JAN 2015, JAN 2017)
4. Derive the expression for air standard efficiency of otto cycle stating the assumptions made with the
help of P-V and T-S diagram (JUNE 2003)
5. Compare otto, diesel and dual cycle for the following conditions
i) For the same compression ratio and heat input
ii) For constant pressure and temperature
iii) For constant maximum pressure and heat input
iv) For constant maximum pressure and heat input (DEC 2011, JUNE 2011, JULY 2009)

Problems
1. An engine working on ideal otto cycle has a swept volume of 0.12 m 3 and clearance volume
of 0.03 m3. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 1 bar and 100
C. If the pressure at the end of constant volume heat addition is 25 bar, calculate
i) Air standard efficiency
ii) Temperature and pressure at all the Salient points of the cycle (July 2008)
Solution:

Vs =0.12 m3, VC =0.03 m3

P1 = 1 bar , T1 = 100 C
P3 = 25 bar

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V1 = VC +VS = 0.12+ 0.03 =0.15 m3

𝑉 0.15
Compression ratio rv = 𝑉1 = =5
0.03 2

1
ηth = 1 – γ−1
rv
1
=1– =0.475 = 47.5 %
51.4−1
ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =373 (51.4−1 ) =710 K
ᵧ
P2 = P1 𝑟𝑣 = 1*51.4 =9.51 bar
Process 2-3 is constant volume
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑇2
= , =
𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑇3
𝑃 25
T3 = T2 𝑃3 =710 * 9.51
2

=1864.84 K
𝑇4 𝑉 1
= (𝑉3 )ᵧ−1 = 𝛾−1
𝑇3 4 𝑟𝑐
1
T4 = 1864.81* =979.5 K
51.4−1
𝑃4 𝑉 1
= (𝑉3 )ᵧ = 𝑟𝛾
𝑃3 4 𝑐

25
P4 = = 2.626 bar
51.4

2. In a constant volume cycle the pressure at the end of compression is 15 times that at the start,
the temperature of air at the beginning of compression is 37 C and maximum temperature
attained in the cycle is 1950 C find
i) The compression ratio
ii) Thermal efficiency of the cycle
iii) Heat supplied per kg of air
iv) The work done per kg of air (Jan 2007)
Solution:
𝑃2
=15
𝑃1
T1 =37 C =310 K
T3 =1950 C =2223 K

𝑃2 𝑉 ᵧ
= (𝑉1 )ᵧ = 𝑟𝑐
𝑃1 2

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1 1
𝑃
rv = (𝑃2 )𝛾 = 15 1.4
1
rv =6.91
1 1
ηth = 1 – γ−1 = 1-6.911.4−1 =0.54 =54%
rv
ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =310 (6.911.4−1 ) =671.33 K
Heat supplied = CV (T3 –T2 ) =0.72(2223-671.66)
=1116.96 KJ/Kg of air
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
ᶯ = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

Work done =0.54 *1116.96 = 603.16 KJ/kg of air

3. The compression ratio in an air standard otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of the compression
process, the pressure is 1 bar and the temperature is 300 K. The heat transfer to the air per
cycle is 1900 kJ/kg of air. Calculate
i)the pressure and temperatures at all salient points
ii) Mean effective pressure (July 2003)
Solution:

rv = 8, P1=1 bar, T1= 300 K

ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =300 (81.4−1 ) =689.2 K
ᵧ
P2 = P1 𝑟𝑣 = 1*81.4 =18.379 bar
Heat added =CV (T3 –T2)
1900 = 0.72(T3 -689.2)
T3 =3328 K
Process 2-3 is constant volume
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑃2 𝑃3
= , =
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑇3
𝑇 332.8
P3 = P2 𝑇3 =18.379* 689.2
2

=88.75 bar
𝑇4 𝑉 1
= (𝑉3 )ᵧ−1 = 𝛾−1
𝑇3 4 𝑟𝑐
1
T4 = 332.8*81.4−1 =1448.59
𝑃4 𝑉 1
= (𝑉3 )ᵧ = 𝑟𝛾
𝑃3 4 𝑐

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88.75
P4 = = 4.82 bar
81.4
𝑃3 88.75
Expansion pressure ratio β = =18.379 = 4.82
𝑃2

𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
Pm = p1 * 𝐫𝐯 (β – 1) (𝐫𝐯 - 1)
(𝛄−𝟏) (𝐫𝐯 – 𝟏)
𝟏
Pm = 1 * 8 (4.82 – 1) (80.4- 1) = 14.16 bar
(𝟏.𝟒−𝟏) (𝟖 – 𝟏)

4. An engine with 200 mm cylinder diameter and 300 mm stroke length, works on the theoretical
diesel cycle. The initial pressure and temperature of air are 1 bar and 27 C. The cut off is at
8 % of the stroke and compression ratio is 15. Determine
i) Pressure and temperature at all points of the cycle
ii) Theoretical air standard efficiency
iii) Mean effective pressure
iv) Power developed if there are 400 working strokes per minute (July 2001)
Solution:

D= 200 mm L=300 mm
P1 =1 bar T1 =27 C
rv = 15
𝜋 𝜋
swept volume VS = 𝐷 2L= 4 0.22 *0.3 =0.009424 m3
4
V2 =VC =clearance volume
𝑉 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑆 𝑉
rv =𝑉1 = 𝑉𝐶
= 1+𝑉𝑆
2 𝐶
𝑉𝑆
= rv -1 =15-1 =14
𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝑆 0.009424
V2=VC= = =0.0006731 m3
14 14
Cut off takes place at 8 % of stroke
8
V3-V2 =100 VS
V3 = V2+0.08VS =0.0006731+0.08*0.009424=0.001427m3
Cut off ratio
𝑉 0.001427
𝛼 =𝑉3 = =2.12
2 0.0006731

𝟏 ( 𝛂𝛄 − 𝟏 )
η=1- 𝛄−𝟏 [𝛄∗( 𝛂 − 𝟏)]
𝐫𝐯

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𝟏 ( 𝟐.𝟏𝟐𝟏.𝟒 − 𝟏 )
η = 1 - 𝟏𝟓𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 [ ] =0.598 =59.8%
𝟏.𝟒∗( 𝟐.𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝛄
𝐩𝟏 ∗ 𝐫𝐯 𝟏− 𝛄
Pm = [ 𝐫𝐯 (𝟏 − 𝛂𝛄 ) + 𝛄(𝛂 − 𝟏)]
(𝛄−𝟏) ∗ (𝐫𝐯 – 𝟏)

𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝟓𝟏.𝟒
Pm = (𝟏.𝟒−𝟏) ∗(𝟏𝟓 – 𝟏) [ 𝟏𝟓𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟏.𝟒 ) + 𝟏. 𝟒(𝟐. 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏)]

= 7.14 bar= 741 kpa

Net Workdone per cycle
Pm =
Stroke Volume

Work done per cycle =741*0.00942 =6.98 kJ/cycle

Power = work done per cycle *number of cycles per sec
400
Power =6.98* =46.53 KW
60
ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =300 (151.4−1 ) =886.25K
ᵧ
P2 = P1 𝑟𝑣 = 1*151.4 =18.379 bar
P3=P2 =44.3 bar
𝑇
𝛼 =𝑇3
2
T3 = T2* 𝛼 =886.25*2.12 =1878.85 K
𝑇4 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= (𝑉3 )𝛾−1 = (𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝛾−1 = (𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝛾−1 since V4 =V1
𝑇3 4 4 4 4 1
𝛼
= (𝑟 )𝛾−1
𝑣
2.12
T4 = 1878.85( 15 )1.4−1 =858.99 K
𝑃4 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝛼
= (𝑉3 )𝛾 =(𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝛾 = (𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝛾 =(𝑟 )𝛾
𝑃3 4 2 4 2 1 𝑣
2.12
P4 =44.3( 15 )1.4 =2.86 bar
5. An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and the heat transferred to the
working fluid per cycle is 2000 KJ/kg. At the beginning of the compression stroke, the
pressure is 1 bar and the temperature is 300 K. Calculate the thermal efficiency (June 2004)
Solution:

rv = 18, P1=1 bar T1=300 K

ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =300 (181.4−1 ) =953.3K
Heat transferred =CP*(T3-T2)

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2000 = 1.005(T3 -953.3)

T3=2943.43 K
𝑇 2943.34
Cut off ratio 𝛼 =𝑇3 = =3.08
2 953.3

𝟏 ( 𝛂𝛄 − 𝟏 )
η=1- 𝛄−𝟏 [𝛄∗( 𝛂 − 𝟏)]
𝐫𝐯

𝟏 ( 𝟑.𝟎𝟖𝟏.𝟒 − 𝟏 )
η = 1 - 𝟏𝟖𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 [ ]=0.586 =58.6%
𝟏.𝟒∗( 𝟑.𝟎𝟖 − 𝟏)

6. The compression ratio of a diesel cycle is 14 and cut off is 2.2. The pressure and temperature
at the beginning of the cycle are 0.98 bar and 100 C. If the compression follows the law PV1.32
= C and expansion follows the law PV1.25 =C find the following
i) Pressure and temperature at all sailent points
ii) Mean effective pressure
iii) Thermal efficiency (June 2005)
Solution:

rv = 14, 𝛼 = 2.2
P1=0.98 bar T1=100 C

𝟏 ( 𝛂𝛄 − 𝟏 )
η=1- 𝛄−𝟏 [𝛄∗( 𝛂 − 𝟏)]
𝐫𝐯

𝟏 ( 𝟐.𝟐𝟏.𝟒 − 𝟏 )
η = 1 - 𝟏𝟒𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 [𝟏.𝟒∗( 𝟐.𝟐 − 𝟏)] =0.5825 =58.25%

𝟎.𝟗𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟒𝟏.𝟒
Pm = (𝟏.𝟒−𝟏) ∗(𝟏𝟒 – 𝟏) [ 𝟏𝟒𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏.𝟒 ) + 𝟏. 𝟒(𝟐. 𝟐 − 𝟏)]=7.419 bar

T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣𝑛−1 =373 (141..32−1 ) =867.9K

P2 = P1 𝑟𝑣𝑛 = 1*141.32 =31.92 bar

P3=P2 =31.92 bar
𝑇
𝛼 =𝑇3
2
T3 = T2* 𝛼 =867.9*2.2 =1909.38 K
𝑇4 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑇3
= (𝑉3 )𝑛−1 = (𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝑛−1 = (𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝑛−1 since V4 =V1
4 4 4 4 1
𝛼
= (𝑟 )𝑛−1
𝑣

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2.2
T4 = 1909.38( 14 )1.25−1 =1202.17K
𝑃4 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝛼
= (𝑉3 )𝑛 =(𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝑛 = (𝑉3 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝑛 =(𝑟 )𝑛
𝑃3 4 2 4 2 1 𝑣
2.2
P4 =39.46( 14 )1.25 =3.158bar

7. An engine working on a dual combustion cycle has a stroke volume of 0.00085 m3 and a
compression ratio of 15. The fuel has a calorific value of 43980 KJ/kg. At the end of suction
the air is at 1 bar and 100 C. The maximum pressure in the cycle is 65 bar and the air fuel
ratio is 21. Find the ideal cycle thermal efficiency (June 2006)
Solution:

P3 =65 bar rv =15

T1= 100 C P1= 1 bar
ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =373 (151.4−1 ) =1101.9 K
ᵧ
P2 = P1 𝑟𝑣 = 1*151.4 =44.31 bar
𝑃 65
β =𝑃4 =44.31 =1.466
3

Process 2-3 is constant volume

𝑃2 𝑃
=𝑇3
𝑇2 3

𝑃
T3 =T2*𝑇3 =T2* β = 1101.9*1.466 =1616.32K
3

A/F ratio =21:1

Mass of fuel/kg of air =1/21 =0.0476 kg/kg of air
Heat added =mf * cal.value =CV(T3-T2) +CP(T4-T3)
0.0476*43980 =0.72(1616.32-1101.9)+ 1.005(T4-1616.32)
T4= 3330.81 K
𝑇 3330.81
Cut off ratio = 𝛼 =𝑇4 = =2.06
3 1616.32
𝟏 (𝛃𝛂𝛄 −𝟏)
η=1- 𝛄−𝟏
𝐫𝐯 [(𝛃 − 𝟏)+ 𝛄𝛃(𝛂− 𝟏)]

𝟏 (𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔∗𝟐.𝟎𝟔𝟏.𝟒 −𝟏)
η = 1 - 𝟏𝟓𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 [(𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔 − 𝟏)+ 𝟏.𝟒∗𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔(𝟐.𝟎𝟔− 𝟏)] = 0.7413 =74.13%

8. A single cylinder 4 stroke oil engine working on a dual combustion cycle has a compression
ratio of 15:1 the engine draws in air at 98.1 kpa, 27 C and the maximum pressure in the

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 1

cylinder is limited to 5395.5 kpa. If the heat transfer at constant volume is twice that at
constant pressure calculate
i) Constant volume pressure ratio
ii) Cut off ratio
iii) Thermal efficiency (June 2010)
Solution:

rv =15
P1=98.1 KPa
T1=27 C
P3 =5395.5 Kpa
ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =300 (151.4−1 ) =886.25 K
ᵧ
P2 = P1 𝑟𝑣 = 98.1*151.4 =4347 kpa
𝑃 5395.5
Explosion pressure ratio β =𝑃3 = 4347 =1.241
2

Process 2-3 is constant volume process

𝑃2 𝑃
=𝑇3
𝑇2 3

𝑃
T3 =T2*𝑇3 =T2* β =886.25*1.241 =1099.99K
3

Heat transfer at constant volume =2(Heat transfer at constant pressure)

CV(T3-T2) =2CP(T4-T3)
T3-T2 =2𝛾(T4-T3)
(1099.99-886.25) =2*1.4(T4-1099.99)
T4 =1176.32 K
𝑇 1176.32
Cut off ratio 𝛼 =𝑇4 =1099.99 =1.069
3

𝟏 (𝛃𝛂𝛄 −𝟏)
η=1- 𝛄−𝟏
𝐫𝐯 [(𝛃 − 𝟏)+ 𝛄𝛃(𝛂− 𝟏)]

𝟏 (𝟏.𝟐𝟒𝟏∗𝟐.𝟎𝟔𝟏.𝟒 −𝟏)
η = 1 - 𝟏𝟓𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 [(𝟏.𝟐𝟒𝟏 − 𝟏)+ 𝟏.𝟒∗𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔(𝟏.𝟎𝟔𝟗− 𝟏)] = 0.66=66%

9. The compression ratio for a single cylinder engine operating on a dual cycle is 8. The
maximum pressure in the cycle is limited to 55 bar. The pressure and the temperature of air
at the beginning of the cycle are 1 bar and 27 C. Heat added during constant pressure process
upto 3 % of stroke. Assuming the cylinder diameter as 2.5 cm and stroke as 30 cm find

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 1

i) Work done per cycle

ii) Air standard efficiency (June 2011)
Solution:

D= 230 mm L=300 mm
P1 =1 bar T1 =27 C
rv = 8 P3=55 bar
𝜋 𝜋
Swept volume VS =4 𝐷 2L= 0.232*0.3 =0.01472 m3
4
V2 =VC =clearance volume
𝑉 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑆 𝑉
rv =𝑉1 = 𝑉𝐶
= 1+𝑉𝑆
2 𝐶
𝑉𝑆
= rv -1 =8-1 =7
𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝑆 0.01472
V2=VC= = =0.0021037 m3 =V3
7 7
Cut off takes place at 8 % of stroke
3
V4-V3 = VS
100
V4 = V3+0.03VS =0.0021037+0.03*0.01472=0.002545m3
Cut off ratio
𝑉 0.002545
𝛼 =𝑉4 =0.0021037 =1.2
3
ᵧ−1
T2 =T1 𝑟𝑣 =300 (81.4−1 ) =689.21 K
ᵧ
P2 = P1 𝑟𝑣 = 1*81.4 =18.37 bar
process 2-3 is constant volume
𝑃2 𝑃3
=
𝑇2 𝑇3
𝑃 55
T3 =T2*𝑃3 = 689.21*18.37 =2062.47 K
2
𝑇
𝛼 =𝑇4
3

T4 = 𝛼 T3 =1.2*2062.47 =2474.96 K
𝑇5 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= (𝑉4 )𝛾−1 = (𝑉4 ∗ 𝑉3 )𝛾−1 = (𝑉4 ∗ 𝑉2 )𝛾−1 since V3 =V2 , V5 =V1
𝑇4 5 5 5 3 1
𝛼
= ( )𝛾−1
𝑟𝑣
1.2
T5 = 2474.96( 8 )1.4−1 =1158.78 K
Heat added =CP (T4-T3) +CV(T3-T2)
=1.005(2474.96-2062.47) +0.72(2062.47-689.25) =1403.27 KJ/kg

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Heat rejected =CV(T5-T1) =0.72(1158.78-300) =618.32 KJ/kg

Work done =heat added –heat rejected
=1403.27 -618.32
= 784.95kJ/kg
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 784.95
Air standard efficiency =ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 1403.27 =0.5593 =55.93%

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

Module 2

Gas Turbine Cycles

Gas power Cycles: Gas turbine (Brayton) cycle; description and analysis. Regenerative,
Intercooling and reheating in gas turbine cycles.

Jet Propulsion cycles: Turbojet, Turboprop, Turbofan, Ram Jet, Rocket, Pulse Jet, Ram
Rocket

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

GAS TURBINE CYCLES

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a
flow of combustion gas. It has an upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and
a combustion chamber in-between. Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where
fuel is mixed with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor;
combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The products of the combustion are forced
into the turbine section. There, the high velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed through
a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and, for
some turbines, drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the turbine comes from
the reduction in the temperature of the exhaust gas. Energy is extracted in the form of shaft
power, compressed air and thrust, in any combination, and used to power aircraft, trains, ships,
generators, and even tanks.

Assumptions for analysis of Ideal Gas Turbine Cycles:

Following assumptions are made to analyze ideal gas turbine cycles:

(i) The working substance is air and it haves as a perfect gas

(ii) Expansion and compression processes are isentropic.

(iii) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components as well as in
the heat exchangers.

(iv) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the fluid are negligible

(v) Flow through various components is one dimensional, steady and uniform

Brayton Cycle (Simple Gas Turbine Cycle):-

Brayton cycle is the basic cycle for the simple gas turbine power plant. The p-v, T-s flow
diagram for this cycle is shown in Fig .below. .It can be seen from these diagrams that the cycle
consists of two isentropic processes and two constant pressure processes.

Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression of air in the compressor. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.

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Process 2 – 3: Constant pressure heating of air in the heater till the maximum permissible
temperature is reached.

Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression of air in the compressor. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.

Process 2 – 3: Constant pressure heating of air in the heater till the maximum permissible
temperature is reached.

Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion of air in the turbine. During this process work is done by
air on the surroundings. Part of this work is used to drive the compressor.

Process 4 – 1: Constant pressure cooling of air in the intercooler till the air comes back to its
original state.(Process 4-1 is executed only in a closed cycle gas turbine plant, where as in an
open cycle plant air is exhausted from the turbine and fresh air is drawn in from the atmosphere
by the compressor)

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Expression for thermal efficiency in terms of the pressure ratio Rp :

Applying steady flow energy equation to the compressor and neglecting the changes in kinetic
and potential energies we have,

Energy entering the compressor = Energy leaving the compressor

Wc + m h1 = m h2

Or Wc = m (h2 – h1) = m Cp[T2 – T1] ...................................(1)

Compressor work per unit mass = wc = Wc / m = Cp[T2 – T1] ----- (2)

Similarly applying steady flow energy equation to the turbine we have

Wt = m (h3 – h4) = m Cp[T3 – T4] ...................................(3)

And turbine work per unit mass = wt = Wt / m = Cp [T3 – T4] ……………………(4)

The heat supplied in the heater similarly is given by.

Qs = m (h3 – h2) = m Cp[T3 – T2] ....................................

And heat supply per unit mass = qs = Qs / m = Cp[T3 – T4]

Net work out put per unit mass = wn = wt – wc

= Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1]

Net work done

Thermal efficiency of the cycle =  
Heat Supplied

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

Cp (T3  T4 )  Cp (T2  T1 )

Cp (T3  T2 )

= 1-(T4 –T1)/ (T3-T2) (5)

Since process 1-2 is isentropic and the working substance is assumed to behave as a perfect
 1
T p 
gas, 2  ( 2 )
T1 p1

𝛾−1
𝑇 𝑃
Similarly for process 3-4 we have 𝑇3 =(𝑃2 ) 𝛾
4 1

Since it is assumed that there are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various

𝑃 𝑃3
components and in the heat exchangers 𝑃2 = = Rp
1 𝑃4

𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑇
Therefore it follows that = 𝑇3 = (𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾
𝑇1 4

Substituting this expression in equation we get after simplification

1
ᶯ = 1- 𝛾−1
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾

Equation indicates that the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle depends on the

pressure ratio Rp. The effect of Rp on the efficiency is shown in It can be seen

from this figure that initially the efficiency rapidly increases with the pressure ratio but as

Rp increases the rate of increase of efficiency decreases.

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

Optimum pressure ratio for maximum specific power output in terms of maximum and
minimum temperatures of the cycle

Wnet=Cp (T3 –T4) – Cp(T2-T1)

Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃
T2 = T1(𝑃2 ) 𝛾 =T1(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾 (1)
1

Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇3 𝑃
𝑇
= (𝑃3 ) 𝛾 = (𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾
4 4

𝑇3
T4 = 𝛾−1 (2)
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾

From equations (1) and (2) we have

𝛾−1
𝑇3
Wnet= Cp (T3 – 𝛾−1 ) – Cp(T1(𝑅𝑝 )
𝛾 - T1)
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾

𝛾−1
Let (𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾 =y

1
Wnet= Cp T3(1 – ) – CpT1( y- 1)
𝑦

In the above equation Cp, T1 and T3 are constant

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

𝑑𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
∴ for maximum specific work output 𝑑𝑦
=0

1
Cp T3 -Cp T1 =0
𝑦2

𝑇 1
y=( 3 )2
𝑇1

𝛾−1
𝑇 1
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾 =(𝑇3 )2
1

𝛾
𝑇
Rp Optimum = ( 3 )2(𝛾−1)
𝑇1

Effect of pressure ratio on Brayton cycle efficiency

In an ideal gas turbine plant, the compression and expansion processes are isentropic and there
is no pressure-drop in the combustion chamber. But because of irreversibilities associated in
the compressor and the turbine, and the pressure-drop in the actual flow passages and
combustion chamber, an actual gas turbine plant differs from ideal one. The T-S diagram of
actual plant is shown in figure

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

Turbine efficiency =𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑇3 − 𝑇4′
ᶯT = 𝑇3 −𝑇4

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Compressor efficiency =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

𝑇2 − 𝑇1
ᶯC = 𝑇2′ −𝑇1

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

Methods of improving turbine efficiency

Turbine cycle with heat exchanger or regenerator
The turbine exhaust temperature is normally much above the ambient temperature. Thus, their
exist potential for tapping the heat energy getting lost to surroundings with exhaust gases. Here
it is devised to use this potential by means of a heat exchanger called regenerator, which shall
preheat the air leaving compressor before entering the combustion chamber, thereby reducing
the amount of fuel to be burnt inside combustion chamber (combustor). Regenerative air
standard gas turbine cycle shown ahead in Fig. below has a regenerator (counter flow heat
exchanger) through which the hot turbine exhaust gas and comparatively cooler air coming
from compressor flow in opposite directions. Under ideal conditions, no frictional pressure
drop occurs in either fluid stream while turbine exhaust gas gets cooled from 4 to 4' while
compressed air is heated from 2 to 2'. Assuming regenerator effectiveness as 100% the
temperature rise from 2–2' and drop from 4 to 4' is shown on T-S diagram.

𝑇′− 𝑇
Effectiveness of heat exchanger = 𝑇2 − 𝑇2
4 2

𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊 𝐶 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )−𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )

ᶯ without regenerator= 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
= 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝐶 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )−𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )

ᶯ with regenerator= =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2′ )

Since heat added decreases, efficiency increases. Considering a perfect heat exchanger, 𝑇2′ =
T4
𝑇
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 ( 2 −1)
𝑇1
ᶯ =1 - = 1- 𝑇
𝑇3 −𝑇4 𝑇3 ( 1− 4 )
𝑇3

But process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic

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 1 𝛾−1
T2 p 
( 2) =(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾 (2)
T1 p1

Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic process

𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇3 𝑃 𝑃
𝑇4
= (𝑃3 ) 𝛾 =(𝑃2 ) 𝛾 = (𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾
4 1

𝑇4 1
= 𝛾−1 (3)
𝑇3
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾

Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)

𝛾−1
𝑇1 {(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾 −1}
] ᶯ = 1-𝑇 [ 1 ]
3 (1− 𝛾−1 )
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾

𝛾−1
𝑇1 {(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾 −1}
ᶯ = 1- [ 𝛾−1 ]
𝑇 3
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾 −1)
( 𝛾−1 )
(𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾

𝛾−1
𝑇
ᶯ with regenerator = 1- 𝑇1* (𝑅𝑝 ) 𝛾
3

Thus efficiency of a gas turbine with regenerator depends on both temperature ratio as well as
pressure ratio.

Gas turbine cycle with intercooling and reheating

It is seen that regenerator improves thermal efficiency of the cycle but does not improve the
work ratio

The work ratio can be improved by decreasing the compressor work or by increasing the turbine
work. This can be achieved by employing two stages compression with intercooling and two
stage expansion with reheating. The T-S diagram of the system is as shown below

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

Schematic diagram for gas turbine cycle with reheat and inter cooling

Wnet = m{ (h5 –h6) +(h7-h8) –(h4 –h3) –(h2 –h1)}

Qadd= { (h5-h4)+(h7-h6)}

m{ (h5 –h6) +(h7−h8) –(h4 –h3) –(h2 –h1)}

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
ᶯ=𝑄 =
𝑎𝑑𝑑
{ (h5−h4)+(h7−h6)}

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

Theory questions
1. Draw P-V and T-S diagrams for Brayton cycle and derive an expression for its thermal efficiency
2. Explain regenerative gas turbine cycle and derive an expression for its thermal efficiency
3. Explain with neat sketches gas turbine cycle with intercooling and reheating
4. How does actual gas turbine cycle differ from the theoretical cycle?
5. Derive an expression for optimum pressure ratio which gives maximum specific work output in gas
turbine considering machine efficiency (JULY 2016)
6. Derive an expression for optimum pressure ratio which gives maximum specific work output in gas
turbine. What is the corresponding cycle efficiency (JAN 2015, JAN 2010, DEC 2011)
7. Explain how intercooling increases thermal efficiency of a gas turbine plant with block diagram and
T-S diagram (JAN 2017)
8. Draw neat line diagram and T-S diagram for the following Gas turbine cycle
i) Regeneration ii) Intercooling iii) Reheating (JULY 2009)
9. Explain the different methods of improving the efficiency of Brayton cycle (JULY 2014, JAN 2014)
10. What are the advantages of closed cycle gas turbine over the open cycle gas turbine plant ? (JUNE
2012)
11. Explain with neat sketch, the difference between open and closed cycle gas turbine (JULY 2011)

Problems on Gas turbines

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

1. In a simple gas turbine plant air is compressed from 1 bar and 25 C through a pressure ratio
of 4:1. It is then heated by 150 C in a combustion chamber and expanded back to atmospheric
pressure of 1 bar in the turbine. Calculate the cycle efficiency and the turbine outlet
temperature (June 2005)
Solution:

T1 =25 C P1= 1 bar

𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃
T2 =T1(𝑃2 ) 𝛾 =298(4) 𝛾 = 442.82 K
1
T3 =T2+150 =442.82 +150
=592.82 K
𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃 1
T4 =T3(𝑃1 ) 𝛾 =592.82(4) 𝛾 = 398.93 K
2
Turbine outlet temperature =398.93 K
𝑊 −𝑊 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4 )−𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) (592.82−398.93)−(442.82−298)
ᶯ =ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑇 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝐶
= = =32.71%
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 ) (592.82−442.82)

2. In a gas turbine plant air is compressed from 98.1 kpa and 15 C through a pressure ratio of
4:1.It is then heated to 650 C in a combustion chamber and expanded back to the atmospheric
pressure of 98.1 kpa in a turbine.Calculate the cycle efficiency and the eork ratio if a perfect
heat exchanger is used. The adiabatic efficiencies of the turbine and the compressor are 85%
and 80 % respectively (June 2006)
Solution:
P1 = 98.1 KPa T1 =15 C
Pressure ratio rp =4
𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃
T2 =T1( 2 ) 𝛾 =288(4) 𝛾 = 427.96 K
𝑃1

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 2

𝑇2 − 𝑇1
ᶯc =
𝑇2′ −𝑇1
427.96− 288
𝑇2′ -𝑇1 = =174.95 K
0.8
′
𝑇2 = 288+174.95 =462.95 K
T3 = 650 C = 650+273 =923 K
𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃 1
T4 =T3(𝑃1 ) 𝛾 =923(4) 𝛾 = 621.13 K
2
𝑇3 − 𝑇4′
ᶯt = 𝑇3 −𝑇4

𝑇3 - 𝑇4′ = 0.85(923-621.13) =256.58 K

𝑇4′ = 𝑇3 -256.58 =923-256.58 =666.41 K
When a perfect heat exchanger is used, the heat added = Cp (𝑇3 -𝑇4′ )
𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝐶 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4′ )−𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2′ −𝑇1 ) (923−666.41)−(462.95−288)
ᶯ= =
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4′ )
= (923−666.41)
= 0.318 = 31.8%
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝐶 𝑇′− 𝑇
Work ratio = 𝑊𝑇
= 1- 𝑇2 −𝑇 ′1 = 0.318
3 4

3. The following data refer to gas turbine plant

Minimum temperature in the plant =20 C
Maximum temperature in the plant =580 C
Isentropic efficiency of the compressor =86%
Isentropic efficiency of the turbine =84%
Pressure ratio of the cycle =4
Ratio of specific heat=1.4
Specific heat at constant pressure =1.005 for both air and gases
Effectiveness of the heat exchanger =75%
Assuming that the specific heat of gases remains constant and neglect pressure losses in the
connecting pipes
Determine the overall efficiency of the plant
i) With heat exchanger
ii) Without heat exchanger (July 2005)
Solution:
T1 =293 C T3 = 853 K

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𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃
T2 =T1(𝑃2 ) 𝛾 =293(4) 𝛾 =453.39 K
1
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
ᶯc =
𝑇2′ −𝑇1
453.39−293
0.86 = 𝑇 ′ −293
2
𝑇2′ = 458.57 K
T3 =853 K
𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃 1
T4 =T3(𝑃4 ) 𝛾 =853(4) 𝛾 =574.02 K
3
𝑇3 − 𝑇4′
ᶯt =
𝑇3 −𝑇4
853− 𝑇 ′
4
0.84 = 853−574.02
𝑇4′ = 618.66 K
i) Without heat exchanger
𝑊 −𝑊 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4′ )−𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2′ −𝑇1 ) (853−618.66)−(458.57−293)
ᶯ =ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑇 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝐶
= = =0.174 =17.4%
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4′ ) (853−458.57)
ii) With heat exchanger
𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇2′
Effectiveness of heat exchanger =
𝑇4′ −𝑇2′
𝑇𝑎 − 458.57
0.75 =
618.66−458.57
Ta = 578.63 K
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4′ )−𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2′ −𝑇1 ) (853−618.66)−(458.57−293)
ᶯ= = =0.25 =25%
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇𝑎 ) (853−578.63)

4. In a gas turbine plant, the intake temperature and pressure are 18 C and 1 bar respectively.
The air is then compressed to a pressure of 4.2 bar by a compressor.the isentropic efficiency
of the compressor is 84%. The temperature of the gas whose properties may be assumed to
resemble those of air is raised to 650 C in a combustion chamber where there is a pressure
drop of 0.086 bar. Expansion to atmosphere pressure then occurs
If the thermal efficiency of the plant is to be 18 % what must be the isentropic efficiency of
the turbine. The mass of the fuel may be neglected (July 2004)
Solution:

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T1 =18 C ᶯc =84% T3 =650 C

𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃
T2 =T1(𝑃2 ) 𝛾 =291(4.2) 𝛾 =438.49 K
1

𝑇2 − 𝑇1
ᶯc =
𝑇2′ −𝑇1
438.49−291
0.86 = 𝑇 ′ −291
2
𝑇2′ = 466.58 K
𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑃 1
T4 =T3(𝑃4 ) 𝛾 =923(4.114) 𝛾 =616.16 K
3
𝑊 −𝑊 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4′ )−𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2′ −𝑇1 ) (853−618.66)−(458.57−293)
Overall efficiency =ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑇 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝐶
= 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 −𝑇4′ )
= (853−458.57)

(923−𝑇4′ )−(466.58−291)
0.18= (923−466.58)
𝑇4′ = 665.26 K
𝑇3 − 𝑇4′ 923−665.26
Efficiency of the turbine ᶯt = =
𝑇3 −𝑇4 923−616.16
=0.84 =84%
5. Air enters the compressor of an ideal standard Brayton cycle at 100kPa, 300K with a
volumetric flow rate of 6m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet
temperature is 1500K.
Determine
i) The thermal efficiency
ii) Work ratio
The power developed

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6. In an open cycle gas turbine plant air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 27oC. The pressure
after compression is 4 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the compressor are
85% and 80% respectively. Air fuel ratio is 80:1. Calorific value of the fuel use is 42000
kJ/kg. Mass flow rate of air is 2.5kg/s.
Determine the power output from the plant and the cycle efficiency.
Assume that Cp and γ to be the same for both air and products of combustion

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7. A gas turbine power plant operates on the simple Brayton cycle with air as working fluid
and delivers 32MW of power. The minimum and maximum temperatures in the cycle are
310 and 900K, and pressure of air at the compressor exit is 8 times the value at the
compressor inlet. Assuming an isentropic efficiency of 80% for the compressor and 86%
for the turbine, determine the mass flow rate of air through the cycle.

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8. A simple gas turbine plant operating on the Brayton cycle has air entering the
compressor at 100kPa and 27oC. The pressure ratio=9.0 and maximum cycle
temperature =727oC. What will be the percentage change in cycle efficiency and
network output if the expansion in the turbine is divided into two stages each of
pressure ratio 3, with intermediate reheating to 727oC?. Assume compression and
expansion is isentropic

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9. A G.T. cycle having 2 stage compression with intercooling in between stages and
2 stages of expansion with reheating in between the stages has an overall pressure
ratio of 8. The maximum cycle temperature is 14000K and the compressor inlet
conditions are 1 bar and 270C. The compressors have s of 80% and turbines have
s of 85%. Assuming that the air is cooled back to its original temperature after
the first stage compression and gas is reheated back to its original temperature
after 1st stage of expansion, determine (i) the net work output (ii) the cycle th.

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10. A two stage gas turbine cycle receives air at 100 kPa and 150C. The lower stage
has a pressure ratio of 3, while that for the upper stage is 4 for the compressor as
well as the turbine. The temperature rise of the air compressed in the lower stage
is reduced by 80% by intercooling. Also, a regenerator of 78% effectiveness is
used. The upper temperature limit of the cycle is 11000C. The turbine and the
compressor sare 86%. Calculate the mass flow rate required to produce 6000kW

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – MODULE 3

Module 3
Syllabus
Vapour Power Cycles: Carnot vapour power cycle, drawbacks as a reference cycle. Simple
Rankine cycle; description, T-S diagram, analysis for performance. Comparison of Carnot
and Rankine cycles. Effects of pressure and temperature on Rankine cycle performance.
Actual vapour power cycles: Actual vapour power cycles, regenerative vapour power cycle
with open and closed feed water heaters. Reheat Rankine cycle.

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Vapour Power Cycles

Introduction: - Gas power cycles with the possible exception of the Gas turbine cycle are
not suitable for the use of fuels like coal. Since the fuel has to be burnt in the engine cylinder,
the internal combustion cycle cannot use fuels that leave large amounts of refuse in the
combustion chamber. Even in the open Brayton cycle, it is not possible to use coal, because,
the gases after combustion pass into the turbine, and these gases have to be totally free from
abrasive materials like ash. But the Vapor power cycles use a working substance which does
not contact the fuel. So, impurities in the fuel will not affect the working substance or the
machine through which the hot fluid has to pass in doing work. Secondly, in gas power cycles
it is extremely difficult to achieve an isothermal process where as this can be easily achieved
in a vapor power cycle using constant pressure phase change process. Vapor power cycle has
the further advantage that it can use high speed, light weight turbines to produce work output
instead of the bulky reciprocating piston engines that are used in internal combustion engines.
Another advantage of vapor power cycle over the Brayton cycle is that compression work is
very small as to neglect it in comparison with the net work output. But vapor power cycles
suffer from poor thermal efficiencies as compared to gas power cycles. High efficiencies in
vapor power cycles can be achieved only by using very high pressure or super-critical
pressure system with multi stage feed water heating and reheating. Power plants employing
vapor power cycles have water as the working substance, and pressures around 250 bar have
to be used to reach the super-critical state, with temperatures around 600 C. Even under such
conditions the overall thermal efficiency can be as high as 40%, but the life of the equipment
will be seriously affected, unless high quality and expensive materials are used. In Brayton
cycle temperatures of the order of 1100 K are reached as the equipment is not subjected to
steady high pressure continuously. In reciprocating engine cycles, even temperatures greater
than 2500 K may be reached, since there is no steady high temperature and pressure
maintained during the operation of the engine.
Cycle efficiency: The thermal efficiency of an ideal cycle is referred to as ideal cycle
efficiency. All real processes however has some degree of irreversibility. By introducing
process efficiencies for real processes, we can find actual cycle efficiency. The ratio of actual
efficiency to ideal efficiency is called as relative efficiency or efficiency ratio. It is used as a
measure of perfection achieved in the cycle.
Work ratio and back work ratio: - In every cycle there are processes involving both
positive and negative work. The net work in the cycle,

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W net = Wpositive –W negative.

The ratio of network to the positive work of the cycle is called as work ratio.
rw = Work ratio = Wnet / Wpositive
The ratio of W negative to W positive is called as back work ratio.
In case of an actual cycle the irreversibility’s decreases the positive work and increases the
negative work, thus thermal efficiency decreases. A cycle with low work ratio suffers from
the possibility very poor actual cycle efficiency even though the ideal cycle efficiency may be
quite high. These cycles are more sensitive due to irreversibility’s.
A cycle with higher actual efficiency is preferred in practice. A cycle with higher ideal
efficiency and work ratio will have high actual efficiency, and hence lower operating cost.
Steam power cycles: - Since the working substance in vapor power cycle is steam it is called
as steam power cycles. This cycle accounts for most of the installed electric power generation
capacity in the world.
Specific steam consumption or steam rate: - It is defined as the mass flow rate of steam per
unit power developed (kWh). It may be expressed as reciprocal of network.
SSC = 1/Wnet = 3600/Wnet (Kg/kWh)
Higher SSC, greater the size of the plant, thus it governs the capital cost.

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Carnot vapor power cycle: - The ideal vapor cycle will be the Carnot cycle comprising of
two reversible isothermal and two reversible adiabatic processes. When the working
substance changes its phase the two isothermal processes are easily attainable by boiling the
liquid and condensing the vapor.
The figure shows a Carnot vapor cycle comprising of all flow processes. The processes are:
1-2 Reversible adiabatic compression. WC = (h1 – h2).
2-3 Constant pressure & constant temperature heat addition at temperature TH. QH = h3 -
h2
3-4 Reversible adiabatic expansion process. WT = h3 - h4
W net = WT - We = (h3 - h4) - (h2 – h1)

P=C
T
TH 2 3

P=C

TL
1 4

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Wne (h3  b4 )  (h2  h1)  TL 

thermal = car =  the  1  
HS h3  h2  TH . 

Draw backs of the Carnot vapor power cycle: - It is found that there are many difficulties
in the application of Carnot vapor power cycle. The major difficulties are;
(1) The design and control of a partial condenser, that would terminate condensation at state-
1 is difficult.
(2) It is also difficult to design a compressor to handle a mixture of largely liquid and partly
vapor at state-1 and discharge it as saturated liquid at state 2.
(3) Work of compression is large compared to the work of turbine; hence back work ratio is
large, and low work ratio. Hence actual  is low.
(4) The turbine that takes in saturated steam at state 3 produces exhaust steam at state 4 with
low quality. This causes pitting and hence corrosion of turbine The Ideal Rankine Cycle
(simple vapor power cycle)
Assumptions made in the analysis of Ideal Vapor power cycles:-
(i) The expansion process in the turbine and the compression process in the pump are
isentropic.
(ii) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting various components as well as in the
heat exchangers like boiler, condenser, re-heaters and feed water heaters.
(iii) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid as it flows through the
various components are negligible.
(iv) Fluid flow is steady and one-dimensional.
In a simple Rankine cycle the steam is completely condensed in a condenser and then
pumped to the boiler in the liquid state. The steam can be super heated so as to obtain a better
quality at the end of expansion. This results in increased life of the turbine blade and SSC
decreases. It consists of following processes:
1– 2 Reversible adiabatic pumping of condensed steam

Isentropic compression in a pump: Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is
compressed isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler.

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The water temperature increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to
a slight decrease in the specific volume of water.

2 – 3 Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler.

Constant temperature heat addition in a boiler: Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid
at state 2 and leaves as a superheated vapor at state 3.

The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from the combustion
gases, nuclear reactors or other sources is transferred to the water essentially at constant
pressure. The boiler, together with the section where the steam is superheated, is often called
as the steam generator.

3 – 4 Reversible adiabatic expansion process in the turbine.

The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and
produces work by rotating the shaft connected to the electric-generator.
The pressure and temperature of the steam drop during this process to the values at state 4,
where steam enters the condenser.

4– 1 Constant pressure condensation process in the condenser.

At the state 4 the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor mixture with a high quality.
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is basically a large heat
exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium such as lake, a river, or the atmosphere.
Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.
For the process 1-2: -

The pump work during process 1-2 is given by,

Tds = dh -vdp

Pump handles water which can be assumed to be incompressible.

From property relationship for isentropic process, ds = 0

Therefore,

dh =vdp

For process 1-2

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h2 – h1) = vf1 (P2 – P1)

Wp = (h2 – h1) = vf1 (P2 – P1) x 100 kJ/kg if P2 and P1 are in bars.
For the process 2-3 : - HS = h3 – h2 kJ/kg
For the process 3-4: - WT = h3 – h4
For the process 4—1: - HR = h4 – h1

Wnet = WT – WP = (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)

Rankine =Wnet = (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)
HS h3 – h2
Pump work usually small so it can be neglected

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Rankine =Wnet = (h3 – h4)

HS h3 – h2
3600 kg
Specific steam consumption or steam rate =
Wnet kwh
Heat flow rate:
It is the rate of heat input Q1 in kJ/hr required to produce unit power output of 1kW.
Heat rate is an alternative to efficiency.

3600 𝑄1 3600
Heat rate = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
KJ/kWhr =𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 KJ/kW hr

Mean temperature of heat rejection: - In a Rankine cycle heat addition is usually takes place
with varying temperature rather than at constant temperature. The average temperature of
heat addition is called as mean temperature of heat addition.
h3  h2
Q1 =h3-h2 = Tm1( s3-s2), Therefore Tm1=
s3  s2
Comparison of Carnot and Rankine cycles

 For same maximum and minimum temperature rankine cycle has lower efficiency that
that of carnot cycle.This is because heat rejected in carnot cycle is less when
compared with rankine cycle

 For the same maximum and minimum temperature rankine cycle has higher specific
work output than that of carnot cycle.From TS diagram it is evident that
(𝑊𝑇 )𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 > (𝑊𝑇 )𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 i.e 𝑕1′ − 𝑕2′ > (𝑕1 − 𝑕2 )
 Compression of wet vapour from 3 to 4 is very difficult and large in case of carnot
cycle, but pumping the saturated liquid from 3′ to 4′ is easy and small in case of
rankine cycle

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 Heat is added in three stages in rankine cycle i.e, in economiser, boiler and
superheater, but heat is added in a single stage in carnot cycle i.e, only in boiler

Effect of different parameters on Rankine cycle Efficiency

(i) Condenser pressure
(ii) Boiler pressure
(iii) Superheating of steam
1. Lowering the condenser pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle:

The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the Rankine cycle efficiency is illustrated
on a T-s diagram as in Fig. For comparison purposes, the turbine inlet state is maintained the
same. The colored area on this diagram represents the increase in net work output as a result
of lowering the condenser pressure from P4 to P4’.The heat input requirements also increase
(are under curve 2-2’), but this increase is very small. Thus the overall effect of lowering the
condenser pressure is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle. However the lowest
pressure of condenser under ideal conditions is limited to the saturation temperature of the
cooling water or air (cooling medium).

2. Effect of Boiler Pressure: -

The increase in the operating pressure of the boiler automatically raises the temperature at
which the boiling takes place. This in turn, raises the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the steam and raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle. The effect of increasing
the boiler pressure on the performance of the vapor power cycles is illustrated on a T-s
diagram as in Fig. Notice that for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts the left
and the moisture content of steam at the turbine exit increases. High moisture content results

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in erosion of blade surfaces, affecting their life. Normally the moisture content at the turbine
exhaust should not exceed 15%.

This undesirable side effect can be corrected, however, by reheating the steam.

Fig. shows the variation of efficiency with boiler pressure.

Efficiency increases with boiler pressure and reaches maximum value when the pressure is
about 160bar.Further increase in boiler pressure results in a fall in efficiency.

2. Effect of Superheating the Steam: -

The effect of superheating on the performance of the vapor power cycles is illustrated on a T-
s diagram as in Fig. The colored area on this diagram represents the increase in the net work.
The total area under the curve 3-3’ represents the increase in the heat input.

Thus the net work and heat input increase as a result of superheating the steam to a higher
temperature. The overall effect is an increase in thermal efficiency, however, since the
average temperature at which the heat is added increases.

Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has another very desirable effect:
It decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit, as can be seen from the T-s
diagram. The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited, however, by
metallurgical considerations

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Actual vapour power cycle

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as illustrated in Fig (a), as
a result of irreversibilities in various components. Fluid friction and heat loss to the
surroundings are the two common sources of the irreversibilities. Fluid friction causes
pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser and the piping between various components.

As a result, steam leaves the boiler at somewhat lower pressure. Also, the pressure at the
turbine inlet is somewhat lower than that in the boiler exit due to the pressure drop in the
connecting pipes.

The pressure drop in the condenser is usually very small.To compensate for these pressure
drops, the water must be pumped to a sufficiently higher pressure than the ideal cycle calls
for.This requires a larger pump and larger work input to the pump.

The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the surroundings as
the steam flows through various components. To maintain the same level of net work output,
more heat needs be transferred to the steam in the boiler to compensate for these undesirable
heat losses. As a result the cycle efficiency decreases.

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Under ideal conditions, the flow through pump and turbine is isentropic.
The deviation of the actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be accounted for
by utilizing isentropic efficiencies, defined as,
𝑊 𝑕 −𝑕
ᶯp =𝑊𝑠 = 𝑕 2𝑠 − 𝑕1
𝑎 2𝑎 1
And
𝑊 𝑕 −𝑕
ᶯT = 𝑊𝑎 = 𝑕3 − 𝑕4𝑎
𝑠 3 4𝑠

Where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the pump and the turbine, respectively, and
2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the isentropic case (Fig b).

Reheat cycle: -The reheat cycle aims at attaining high thermal efficiency by utilizing high
boiler pressures and super heating, while at the same time eliminating the problem of
excessive moisture content in the exhaust steam by reheating the steam.
In a reheat cycle the expansion of the steam takes place in two stages, the high-
pressure stage and low- pressure stage. The steam expands in the high-pressure stage to some
intermediate pressure and then reheated in a separate reheat coil approximately to the original
temperature. It then enters the low- pressure stage turbine and expands to the condenser
pressure as usual.

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Flow diagram of reheat cycle

Steam then expands isentropically in the second stage (LP turbine) to the condenser pressure.

Thus the total heat input, the heat rejected, the total turbine work output and total pump work
for a reheat cycle become,
qin = q primary + q reheat = (h3 –h2) +(h5-h4)
qout = (h6-h1) + (h6 - hf1)
and
W T = WT1 +WT2 = (h3 –h4) +(h5-h6)
WP = (h2-h1) =(hf2 –hf1) =v1(P2 –P1)
Net work done per kg of steam
Wnet= (h3 –h4) +(h5-h6)- (h2-h1)
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (h3 –h4) +(h5−h6)− (h2−h1)
ᶯ= =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (h3 –h2) +(h5−h4)

The incorporation of the single reheat in a modern power plant improves the cycle efficiency
by 4 to 5% by increasing the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam.

Advantages: - Efficiency increases by a small margin but quality of steam improves

considerably and network output increases. The specific steam consumption decreases, and
hence the smaller plant.
Regenerative cycle: - In a simple Rankine cycle significant amount of heat is added for
sensible heating of water, which results in lower thermal  compared to Carnot cycle. The
average temperature of heat addition can be maintained at a higher level by eliminating or

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reducing the heat added at lower temperatures. This could be possible by making use of
regenerative cycle.
The regenerative principle involves taking heat from one part of the cycle and adding
the same in another part. It means the working substance is heated in one part of the cycle by
exchanging heat with the same substance, which gets cooled in another part of the cycle.
Ideal regenerative cycle:

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• In a saturated steam Rankine cycle as shown in T-s diagram, consider a part of total
heat supplied is in liquid phase when heating up water from 2-2’ at a temperature
lower than T3, the maximum temperature of the cycle.
• For maximum efficiency all heat should be supplied at T3, & feed water should be
enter the boiler at 2’.
• The unique features of ideal regenerative cycle is that the condensate, after leaving the
pump circulates around turbine casing, counter flow to the direction of vapor flow in
the turbine.
• Thus it is possible to transfer heat from vapor as it flows through the turbine to the
liquid flowing around the turbine.
• Let us assume that this is reversible heat transfer .
• The process 3-4 thus represents reversible expansion of steam in the turbine with
reversible heat rejection.
• For small step in the process of heating of water
(∆𝑇)𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = −(∆𝑇)𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
(∆𝑆)𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = −(∆𝑆)𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
• Then the slope line 3-5 and 2’ -2 will be identical at every temperature and lines will
be identical in contour
• Therefore all the heat added from external source (Q1) is at constant temperature T3
and all the heat rejection(Q2) is at constant temperature T4 both being reversible

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The net work output of ideal regenerative cycle is thus less, & hence steam rate will be more,
although it is more efficient when compared to Rankine cycle.
• However cycle is not practicable for the following reasons:
1. Reversible heat transfer cannot be obtained infinite time
2. Heat exchanger in the turbine is mechanically impracticable
3. The moisture content of the steam in the turbine exhaust will be high.
Practical regenerative cycle
• In a practical regenerative cycle nearly the same objective is achieved by heating feed
water with the help of steam extracted or bled from the various intermediate stages of
the turbine.
• Such an arrangement is called regenerative feed water heating.
• There are two types of regenerative feed water heating.
1. Open feed water heating.
2. Closed feed water heating.
• In an open feed water heating the extracted steam is mixed with feed water, both are
at same pressure.
• In a closed feed water heater, there is no mixing and heat exchange takes place
between the two fluids, which can be at different pressures. Thus regenerative heating
helps in improving thermal efficiency

Open feed water heater(OFWH)

An open (or direct contact) feed water is a basically mixing chamber where the steam is
extracted from the turbine mixes with feed water exiting the pump.
The schematic of steam power plant with 1 OFWH (Single Stage) & T-s diagram are shown.

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• In an open feed water heater regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at
the boiler pressure (state 5) and expands isentropically to an intermediate pressure
(state 6).
• Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feed water heater, while the
remaining steam continues to expand isentropically to the condenser pressure (state
7).
• This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser pressure (state
1).
• The condensed water which is also called the feed water then enters an isentropic
pump, where it is compressed to the feed water heater pressure (state 2) and is routed
to the feed water heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine.
• The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3).

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• A second pump raises the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4).
• The cycle is completed by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet (state 5).

OFWH - analysis
Let us consider 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, m1 kg expands partially in the turbine and is
extracted at state 6.
The remaining (1 – m1) kg expands in turbine completely to the condenser pressure.

Closed feed water heating (CFWH)

• In this heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feed water without any
mixing taking place.The two streams now can be a different pressures, since they do
not mix.
• The schematic of power plant with one closed feed water heater & t-s diagram of
cycle is shown below.

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• In an CFWH cycle, the feed water is heated to the exit temperature of extracted steam,
which is ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure.
• The condensed steam is then either pumped to the feed water heater line or routed to
another heater or to the condenser through a device called trap.
• A trap allows the liquid to be throttled to a lower pressure region but traps the vapor.

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Theory questions

1. Explain Carnot vapour cycle

2. Derive an expression for the efficiency of a Rankine cycle with the help of neat
sketches (JULY 2011)
3. What are the drawbacks of Carnot cycle as a reference cycle (JAN 2014)
4. With T-S and schematic diagrams explain simple Rankine cycle
5. Explain Rankine cycle with super heat
6. Compare Carnot and Rankine cycles with a superimposed T-S diagram operating
between same boiler and condenser pressure (JULY 2015)
7. Discuss the effects of pressure and temperature on the Rrankine cycle(DEC 2011)
8. How do actual vapour power cycles differ from idealized cycles?
9. With T-S and Schematic diagrams explain Actual regenerative cycle. Also derive an
expression for its efficiency ?(JUNE 2012, JAN 2015)
10. Explain regenerative cycle with open feed water heater (DEC 2011, JULY 2016)
11. Explain regenerative cycle with close feed water heater (JAN 2014)
12. With the help of T-S diagrams explain Rankine cycle with Reheat and derive an
expression for reheat cycle efficiency (JAN 2014 JULY 2013, JULY 2014, JAN
2010)
13. With the help of T-S diagram explain Binary vapour cycle and state its
advantages(JAN 2014)
14. Discuss the effect of i) Boiler pressure ii) Condenser pressure iii) super heat , on the
performance of a Rankine cycle (DEC 2011, JAN 2017, JAN 2015)

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Problems solution
1. A simple Rankine cycle using water as the working fluid operates between the
pressure limits of 10 Kpa and 1900 Kpa. Determine,
a) The cycle thermal efficiency
b) The steam rate(specific steam consumption) (JAN 2010)
Solution:

Given Data:
P1 =P4 =10kPa = 0.1 bar
P3 =P2 =1900kPa = 19 bar

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2. A 40MW steam power plant working on Rankine cycle operates between boiler
pressure of 4 MPa and condenser pressure of 10kPa. The steam leaves the boiler
and enters the steam turbine at 400 ᵒC. The isentropic efficiency of the steam
turbine is 85%. Determine
(i) the cycle efficiency
(ii) the quality of steam from the turbine and
(iii) the steam flow rate in kg per hour.
Consider pump work.

SOLUTION:
Given Data: P1 =P4 = P4’ = 10kPa = 0.1 bar
P3 =P2 =4 MPa = 40 bar
T3 = 400 ᵒC

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3. A steam power plant operates on theoretical reheat cycle. Steam at boiler with 150
bar, 550 ᵒC expands through the high pressure turbine. It is reheated to a constant

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pressure of 40 bar to 550 ᵒC & expands through low pressure turbine to a condenser
pressure at 0.1 bar. Draw the h-s diagram & Determine
(i) the cycle efficiency
(ii) the quality of steam at turbine exit and
(iii) the steam flow rate in kg/kW-hr.

Given Data: P2 =P3 = 150 bar

P4 =P5 = 40 bar, P1 =P6 = 0.1 bar
T3 = T5 = 400 ᵒC

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4. A regenerative cycle uses steam as the working fluid. The steam leaves the boiler
and enters the turbine at 5000 kPa and 400 ᵒC. After expansion to 500 kPa, some
of the steam is extracted from the turbine for the purpose of heating the feed
water in an open feed water heater. The pressure in the feed water is 500 kPa
and the water leaving it is saturated liquid at 500 kPa. The steam not extracted
expands to 10 kPa. Determine the cycle efficiency

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Given Data:
P4 =P5 = 5000 kPa = 50 bar,
P6 =P3 = P2 = 500 kPa =5 bar
P1 =P7 = 10kPa =0.1 bar
T5 = 400 ᵒC
From Mollier Chart h5= 3190 kJ/kg, h6= 2670 kJ/kg, h7= 2110 kJ/kg,
x7= 0.805
From Steam Tables:

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5. A simple Rankine cycle operates between 28 bar and 0.06 bar, the intial condition of
steam is being dry saturated. Determine,
a) The cycle thermal efficiency
b) The steam rate(specific steam consumption)
c) Work ratio
SOLUTION:
Given Data:
P1 =P4 = 0.06 bar
P3 =P2 = 28 bar

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By using interpolation formula as 28 bar lies between 25 bar and 30 bar

𝑚 − 𝑚1 𝑛 − 𝑛1
=
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1

Interpolation for Vf value

𝑚1 =25 𝑛1 = 0.0011972
m=28 n=Vf
𝑚2 =30 𝑛2 = 0.0012163
𝑚 − 𝑚1 𝑛 − 𝑛1
=
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
28 − 25 𝑉𝑓 − 0.0011972
=
30 − 25 0.0012163 − 0.0011972
𝑉𝑓 = 0.0012508 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
Interpolation for Vg value
𝑚1 =25 𝑛1 = 0.079915
m=28 n=Vg
𝑚2 =30 𝑛2 = 0.06632
𝑚 − 𝑚1 𝑛 − 𝑛1
=
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
28 − 25 𝑉𝑔 − 0.079915
=
30 − 25 0.06632 − 0.079915
𝑉𝑔 = 0.07194 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔

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Various values at 28 bar by interpolating are tabulated below (follow same

procedure)

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6. In a reheat cycle, initial steam pressure & maximum temperature are 150 bar,
550 ᵒC. If the condenser pressure is 0.1 bar & moisture content at condenser
inlet is 5% & assuming ideal processes, Determine

(i) Reheat Pressure

(ii) the cycle efficiency and
(iii) the steam flow rate in kg/kW-hr.
Steam is Reheated to 550 ᵒC

SOLUTION:
Given Data: P2 =P3 = 150 bar
P1 =P6 = 0.1 bar
T3 = T5 = 400 ᵒC x6 = 0.95

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7. The pressure limits in a steam power cycle are 10 kPa and 17500 kPa. The peak
temperature is 500 ᵒC. If the adiabatic efficiency of the turbine is 80% and the
adiabatic pump efficiency is 85%, Determine

(i) the cycle efficiency

(ii) the steam rate.
SOLUTION:
Given Data: P1 =P4 = P4’ = 10kPa = 0.1 bar
P3 =P2 = P2’ = 17500 kPa = 175 bar
T3 = 500 ᵒC
ηTurbine = 80% and ηPump = 85%

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8. The steam at 30 bar and 350 ᵒC is supplied to the steam turbine in practical
regenerative cycle and the steam is bled at 4 bar. The bled steam comes out as
dry saturated steam and heats the feed water in open type heater to its saturated
liquid state. The rest of the steam in the turbine expands to condenser pressure
0.1 bar. Assuming turbine efficiency is same before and after bleeding.
Determine the (i) turbine efficiency (ii) Steam quality at the inlet to condenser
(iii) mass flow rate of the bled steam per unit mass flowrate at turbine inlet (iv)
cycle efficiency
SOLUTION:
Given Data:
P4 =P5 = 30 bar,
P6 =P3 = P2 = P6’ = 4 bar
P1 =P7 = P7’ = 0.1 bar
T5 = 350 ᵒC

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h1= 191.8 kJ/kg, h3= 604.7kJ/kg

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9. Steam enters the turbine of a power plant operating on a Rankine cycle, at 10

bar and 300 ᵒC. The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Steam leaving the turbine is
90% dry. Calculate the adiabatic efficiency of turbine and cycle efficiency
neglecting the pump work.
SOLUTION:

Given Data:
P1 =P4 = P4’ = 0.1 bar
P3 =P2 = 10 bar
T3 = 300 ᵒC
x4 = 0.9

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10. In an ideal reheat regenerative cycle, the HP turbine receives the steam at 20 bar,
300 ᵒC. After expansion to 7 bar, the steam is reheated to 300 ᵒC and expands in an
intermediate pressure turbine to 1 bar. A fraction of steam is now extracted for feed
water heating in an open type heater. The remaining steam is expands in LP turbine to
final pressure of 0.05 bar. Determine

a) The cycle thermal efficiency

b) The steam rate(specific steam consumption)

c) Work ratio

d) Quality of steam entering the condenser

SOLUTION: Given Data:

P5 =P4 = 20 bar , T5 = 300 ᵒC

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P6 =P7 = 7 bar, T7 = 300 ᵒC

P8 =P3 = P2 = 1 bar,

P9 =P1 = 0.05 bar

From Mollier Chart h5= 3020 kJ/kg, h6= 2800 kJ/kg, h7= 3055 kJ/kg, h8=
2660 kJ/kg, h9= 2240 kJ/kg, x9= 0.865
From Steam Tables:

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11. In a reheat cycle, steam at 500 ᵒC expands in HP turbine till it is saturated vapor. It is then
reheated to a constant pressure to 400 ᵒC & expanded in LP turbine to 40 ᵒC. If the moisture
content at turbine exit is 15% & assuming ideal processes, Determine

(i) Reheat Pressure

(ii) Pressure of steam at inlet of HP turbine
(iii) The net specific work output
(iv) the cycle efficiency

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(v) the steam flow rate

• SOLUTION:
Given Data: T3 = 500 ᵒC
T5 = 400 ᵒC
T6 = 40 ᵒC x6 = 0.85

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12. The net power output of a regenerative-reheat cycle power plant is 80 MW.
Steam enters the high pressure turbine at 80 bar, ᵒ500 C and expands to a
pressure P2 and emerges as a dry vapour . Some of the steam goes to a open feed
water heater and balance is reheated to 400 ᵒC at constant pressure P2 and then
expanded in the low pressure turbine to 0.05 bar. Determine
a) The reheat pressure
b) The mass of bled steam per kg of boiler steam

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c) The steam flow rate in HP turbine

d) Cycle efficiency
Neglect pump work. Assume expansion in the turbine is isentropic
SOLUTION:

Given Data:
P5 =P4 = 80 bar , T5 = 500 ᵒC
At state 6, Dry saturated Vapor
T7 = 400 ᵒC,
P8 =P1 = 0.05 bar
From Mollier Chart h5= 3400 kJ/kg, h6= 2760 kJ/kg, h7= 3270 kJ/kg,
h8= 2340 kJ/kg, x8= 0.91, P6= P7= 6.5 bar
From Steam Tables:

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13. In a steam power plant operating on ideal Rankine cycle steam enters the
turbine at 20 bar with an enthalpy of 3248 kJ/kg and entropy of 7.127 kJ/kgK.
The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Find the cycle efficiency and specific steam
consumption in kg/kWhr.
14. The steam at 80 bar and 500 C expands in a turbine upto 8 bar with an
isentropic efficiency of 85%. The steam is then reheated to original temperature
and then expands in a lower stage of turbine upto the condenser pressure of 0.05

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bar. The isentropic efficiency lower stage turbine is 90%. Find the thermal
efficiency of the cycle, assuming there is no pressure drop in the reheater.
Neglect pump work.

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS(BME401) MODULE 4 NOTES

Refrigeration Cycles: Vapour compression refrigeration system; description, analysis,

refrigerating effect. Capacity, power required, units of refrigeration, COP, Refrigerants and
their desirable properties, alternate Refrigerants. Vapour absorption refrigeration system.

Pscychrometrics and Air-conditioning Systems: Psychometric properties of Air (only for

review), Psychometric Chart, Analyzing Air-conditioning Processes; Heating, Cooling,
Dehumidification and Humidification, Evaporative Cooling. Adiabatic mixing of two moist air
streams.

REFRIGERATION BY NON-CYCLIC PROCESS

• Refrigeration is the cooling of a system below the temperature of its surroundings.

• The melting of ice or snow was one of the earliest methods of refrigeration and is still
employed.
• Ice melts at 0 ᵒC. So when ice is placed in a given space warmer than 0ᵒC, heat flows
into the ice and the space is cooled or refrigerated.
• Another medium of refrigeration is solid carbon dioxide or dry ice.
• At atmospheric pressure CO cannot exist in a liquid state, and consequently, when
2

solid CO is exposed to atmosphere, it sublimates

2

DEPARTMENT OF EMCHANICAL ENGINEERING, AJIET,MANGALORE 1

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Reversed Heat Engine Cycle

• It receives heat from a low temperature region at T , discharge heat to a high

2

temperature region at T , and requires a net inflow of work.

1

• Removal of heat from a low temperature region reduces the temperature of that region
below the temperature of the surroundings, thus producing refrigeration.
• Such a device is called a Refrigerator or Heat Pump.
• The performance of a refrigerator/heat pump is measured by means of its coefficient of
performance (COP). COP of a refrigeration/heat pump is defined as
𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐐2 𝐐2
(𝐂𝐎𝐏)𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 = = =
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐖 𝐐1 − 𝐐2

REFRIGERANTS AND DESIRABLE PROPERTIES

• The most commonly used refrigerants are a group of halogenated hydrocarbons,

marketed under various proprietary names of freon, genetron, arcton etc.
• Among them Freon–22 (Mono-chloro Difluoro Methane), Freon–11 (Tri-chloro –
mono-fluoro methane) & Freon–12 (Dichloro Difluoro methane) are extensively used.
• Ammonia is another commonly used refrigerant.
• Other refrigerants include CO , SO , Methyl chloride, Methylene chloride, Ethyl
2 2

chloride etc.

DEPARTMENT OF EMCHANICAL ENGINEERING, AJIET,MANGALORE 2

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REFRIGERANTS AND DESIRABLE PROPERTIES

Thermodynamic Properties

Boiling Point:
An ideal refrigerant should have low boiling point at atmospheric pressure. High boiling point
will lead to reduced capacity of the system.

Freezing Point:
The good refrigerant should not freeze under required evaporator temperature. Hence low
freezing point is necessary for ideal refrigerant.

Condenser and Evaporator Pressure:

For an ideal refrigerant both condenser and evaporator pressure should be positive and little
higher than atmospheric pressure. This positive pressure is necessary to prevent the leakage of
air and moisture into the refrigeration system. The pressure in condenser should not be high so
as to necessitate heavy construction of equipment and high cost.

Critical Temperature and Pressure:

Fluid will have better heat transfer rate at temperature below critical temperature. So critical
temperature of the refrigerant should be as high as possible. It will help in easy condensation
of refrigerant vapour.
Latent heat of refrigerant:

High latent heat of evaporation of refrigerant at evaporator temperature is desired as it increases

refrigeration effect per kg of refrigerant circulated. High latent heat of refrigerant always
permits greater amount of heat extraction in the evaporator.

Safe Working Properties

Toxicity:
An ideal refrigerant should be non-toxic.
Flammability:
An ideal refrigerant should be non-flammable and not explosive in the presence of air or oil.

DEPARTMENT OF EMCHANICAL ENGINEERING, AJIET,MANGALORE 3

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Corrosive Property:
An ideal refrigerant should be chemically inert with materials also with water and air.
Chemically Stability:
An ideal refrigerant should be chemically stable and should not decompose
Effect on Storage products:
An ideal refrigerant used in cold storage & domestic refrigeration should not affect the
quality of material stored.
Physical Properties

Specific Volume:

An ideal refrigerant should be low specific volume as it reduces the compressor size for the
same refrigeration capacity.
Specific Heat of liquid and vapour:

An ideal refrigerant should be low liquid specific heat and high vapour specific heat.
Thermal Conductivity:

An ideal refrigerant should have high thermal conductivity in both liquid and vapour phase so
that better heat transfer is possible.
Viscosity:

An ideal refrigerant should have low viscosity in both liquid and vapour phase, so that it will
help in low pumping power and high heat transfer rate.
OTHER Properties

Odour:
An ideal refrigerant must be odourless as it spoils the refrigerated products.
Leak Tendency:
Tendency for leakage of the ideal refrigerant should be low. Leakage of ideal refrigerant should
be easily detected.
COP and Power:
An ideal refrigerant must have high COP and low power input to compressor per ton of
refrigeration.
Refrigerant and Oil relationship:
An ideal refrigerant should be easily miscible with lubricating oil.
Cost and availability:

DEPARTMENT OF EMCHANICAL ENGINEERING, AJIET,MANGALORE 4

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An ideal refrigerant should be easily available and must be cheaper

Important application of Refrigeration

1. Ice Plants
2. Food processing units and transportation, including dairies
3. Industrial air – conditioning
4. Comfort air – conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries.
6. Hospitals.
7. Laboratories.
8. Domestic applications
Refrigeration Systems

The various refrigeration systems are

1. Vapour compression Refrigeration Systems

2. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems
3. Air Refrigeration Systems
4. Special Refrigeration Systems – one example of which is steam Jet Refrigeration
System.

Unit of Refrigeration (Rating of a Refrigeration Machine):

• The capacity of a refrigeration machine or its rating is given in terms of the refrigeration
effect, i.e., the rate of heat extraction from the body being cooled.
• The commonly used unit of refrigeration effect is Tonne of Refrigeration.
• This amount is expressed in kW in SI units.
• This rate of heat removal also expressed in Tons of refrigeration which is common
practice in the globe.
• A tonne of refrigeration is defined as the rate of heat removal from the surroundings
equivalent to the heat required for melting one tonne of ice at 0°C from water at 0°C in
one day (24 hrs).
Unit of Refrigeration (Rating of a Refrigeration Machine):

Latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 kJ/kg

DEPARTMENT OF EMCHANICAL ENGINEERING, AJIET,MANGALORE 5

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1000 × 336 𝑘𝐽
∴ 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 14,000
24 ℎ𝑟
One ton or tonne of refrigeration is SI units often taken approximately equivalent to heat
removal rate of 3.5 kW or 210 kJ/min or 12,600 kJ/hr
∴ 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 3.5 𝑘𝑊

Basic processes in a Refrigeration Cycle:

• Since a refrigeration cycle is essentially a reversed heat engine cycle, the working
substance (refrigerant) will undergo the following basic operations.
1. Compression - resulting in increase in pressure and temperature.
2. Heat rejection at high temperature.
3. Expansion – resulting in reduction in pressure and temperature and
4. Heat addition at low temperature – during which heat is transferred from the body to be
cooled to the refrigerant.
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

• It is a basic cycle used for mechanical refrigerator.

• These cycles are used for most of small domestic and large industrial applications.
• In this, the refrigerant used is a vapour (e.g., ammonia, Freon-22, Freon-11, Freon -12
etc).
• In actual vapour refrigeration cycle, an expansion engine is not used, since the power
recovery is small and does not justify the cost of the engine.
• A throttling valve or capillary tube is used for expansion in reducing the pressure from
P to P .
1 2

• The basic operation involved in a vapour compression refrigeration plant are illustrated
in the flow diagram and the property diagrams.

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EFFECT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS

Effect of Evaporator Pressure:

• In this p-h diagram 1-2-3-4-1 is initial cycle with evaporative pressure Pe, & 1’-2’-
3-4’-1’ represents the cycle when the evaporative pressure is decreased to Pe’.
• Decreasing the evaporative pressure
o Decreases the evaporator temperature from Te to Te’
o Decreases the refrigeration effect from (h -h ) to (h ’-h ’)
1 4 1 4

o Increases the specific volume of the vapour from v to v ’

1 1

o increases the compressor work from (h -h ) to (h ’-h ’)

2 1 2 1

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Effect of Condenser Pressure:

• In this p-h diagram 1-2-3-4-1 is initial cycle with condenser pressure Pc, and 1-2’-
3’-4’-1 represents the cycle when the condenser pressure is increased to Pc’.
• Increasing the condenser pressure
• Increases the condenser temperature from Tc to Tc’
• Decreases the refrigeration effect from (h -h ) to (h -h ’)
1 4 1 4

• Increases the compressor work from (h -h ) to (h ’-h )

2 1 2 1

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Effect of Superheated vapor at compressor inlet:

• In this p-h diagram 1-2-3-4-1 is initial cycle Without super heating, and 1’-2’-3-4-
1 represents the cycle with superheating’.
• Superheating of vapour at compressor inlet
• Increases the specific volume from v to v ’
1 1

• Increases the refrigeration effect from (h -h ) to (h ’-h )

1 4 1 4

• Increases the compressor work from (h -h ) to (h ’-h )

2 1 2 1

Effect of Liquid Sub-cooling or Undercooling:

• Sub-cooling is the method of cooling the refrigerant at the condenser outlet by few
degrees beyond liquid saturation point by employing subcooler in between
condenser and expansion valve.
• A small degree of sub-cooling of liquid refrigerant after condenser is also used to
reduce mass of vapour formed during expansion.
• So to many vapour bubbles do not delay the flow of liquid refrigerant through
expansion valve.
• This vaporised bubble doesn’t take part in heat transfer process in the evaporator.

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Vapour absorption refrigeration

Principle:
The heat energy is utilized to achieve the refrigeration. An electric heater or steam is
used to add the heat to the refrigerant for its evaporation. Also an absorber, a pump and a
generator are used to complete the cycle.
Construction
In vapour absorption system .the compressor is replaced by an absorber , a generator &
a pump. The refrigerant used in this system must be highly soluble in the solution known as
absorbent. The system uses ammonia as the refrigerant & water as absorbent
Working
The liquid refrigerant (ammonia) in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the medium
that is to be cooled & it undergoes a change of phase from liquid to vapour. The low pressure
vapour is then Passed to the absorber.
In the absorber, the low pressure ammonia vapour is dissolved in the weak ammonia
solution producing strong ammonia solution at low pressure. The strong ammonia solution is
then pumped to a generator through the heat exchanger at high pressure. While passing through
the heat exchanger, the strong ammonia solution is warmed up by the hot weak ammonia
solution flowing from the generator to the absorber
The warm strong ammonia solution is heated by an external source in the generator.
Due to heating the vapour gets separated from the solution. The vapour which is at high
pressure & high temperature is condensed to low temperature in a condenser by cold water
circulation. The high pressure liquid ammonia then passes through the expansion valve where
it is expanded to low pressure & temperature. The low pressure-low temperature ammonia

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liquid again enters the evaporator where it absorbs the heat from the medium & the cycle
repeats

Fig:- Vapour absorption refrigerator

Advantages of vapour absorption Refrigeration System:

1. No moving parts. Less wear and tear. Less maintenance cost.

2. Low grade fuels can be used. Waste heat can be used.
3. System not affected by variation of loads.
4. No electricity required.
5. No chance of leakage.
Disadvantages

1. Low COP
2. Bulky
3. Higher cost initially

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Comparison between Vapour compression refrigerator &Vapour

absorption refrigerator
Vapour compression refrigeration Vapour absorption refrigeration
Works using mechanical energy Works using heat energy
Refrigeration capacity is less than 1000 tons Refrigeration capacity is greater than
1000tons
COP is much higher COP is less.
Noisy due to compressor. Pump noise is less.
Chances of leakage of refrigerant are more No leakage.
Maintenance and operating cost are high. Less.
Smaller in size Larger
Wear and tear are more Wear and tear are less

Theory Question Bank

1. Explain the effect of superheating and undercooling the refrigerant on the performance
of vapour compression refrigeration system (JULY/AUGUST 2022)
2. What are the properties of good refrigerant (JULY/AUGUST 2022, DEC 2019/JAN
2020,DEC 2018/JAN 2019)
3. With a neat sketch explain the working of vapour absorption refrigeration
system(JAN/FEB 2023,JUNE/JULY 2023)
4. With a neat sketch explain the working of vapour refrigeration system(JAN/FEB 2021)
5. Explain two factors affecting performance of vapour compression refrigeration
system(AUG/SEP 2020)

Problems

1. A cold storage is to be maintained at -5 ᵒC while surroundings are at 35 ᵒC. The heat

leakage from surrounding into the cold storage is estimated to be 29 kW. The actual
rd
COP of refrigeration plant used (1/3) of an ideal plant working between same

temperature. Find the power required (in kW) to drive the plant.

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Solution

Surroundings
𝑇1 = 308 𝐾
Q1

R W
Q2
Cold Storage
𝑇2 = 268 𝐾

Given Data: 𝑇2 = −5℃ = 268 𝐾, 𝑇1 = 35℃ = 308 𝐾

𝑄2 = 29 𝑘𝑊

1
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = × (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 ,
3

𝑇2 268
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = = 6.7
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 308 − 268
1 1
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = × (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = × 6.7 = 2.23
3 3
𝑄2 𝑄2 29
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = ⇒ 𝑊= = = 13 𝑘𝑊
𝑊 (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 2.23
2. A vapor compression system uses Freon-12 refrigerant with condenser and evaporative
temperature of 50 ᵒC and -10 ᵒC respectively. The system is designed to develop 10 tonnes of
refrigeration. Determine

(i) mass flow rate of refrigerant

(ii) Piston swept volume and swept volume per ton of refrigeration

(iii) power required to drive the compressor and power per ton of refrigeration

(iv) refrigeration effect and heat lost in condenser

(v) COP of cycle and compare it with Carnot COP

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Solution:

Given data: Refrigerant = Freon -12 = R-12

T1 = −10℃ = 263 K, T3 = 50℃ = 323 K

3 50ᵒ 2
C
P
S=constan
-10 t
4 ᵒC 1

h
𝑨𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎℃ = 𝟐𝟔𝟑 𝑲,

h =h = 183.058 kJ/kg , s = s = 0.7014 kJ/kg-K,

g 1 g 1

3
v = 0.076646 m /kg,
1

At = 𝟓𝟎℃ = 𝟑𝟐𝟑 𝑲

h = h = h = 84.868 kJ/kg , Cp = 0.78 kJ/kg-K

f 3 4

s = 0.6792 kJ/kg-K h = 206.298 kJ/kg

g2 g2

For Cp value refer B-12 page 45

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𝑇2
𝑠1 = 𝑠2 = 𝑠𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 ln ൬ ൰
𝑇𝑠
𝑇
2
0.7041 = 0.6792 + 0.78 ln ቀ323ቁ  𝑻𝟐 = 333.33K

h = h + C (T -T ) = 206.298 +0.78 (333.33 – 323)  h =214.4 kJ/kg

2 g2 p 2 s 2

Refrigeration Effect RE/kg = h –h = 183.058 – 84.868 = 98.2 kJ/kg

1 4

𝑅𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛 10×3.516

∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 10 𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ = Q
= 98.2
=0.358
r
kg/s
3
Piston swept volume Vs = mV = 0.358*0.0766 = 0.0275 m /s.
1

3
Piston swept volume/ton of refrigeration V = (Vs/RC) = 0.0275/10 = 0.00275 m /s.

Power required to drive compressor P = m (h -h ) = 0.358 (214.35-183.058) = 11.2 kW.

2 1

Power required per ton of refrigeration = P/RC = 11.2/10 =1.12 kW/TR

Refrigeration Effect = RE = m (h –h ) = 0.358(183.058 – 84.868) = 35.15 kW

1 4

Heat Lost to condenser

Qc = m (h2-h3) = 0.358 (214.35-84.868) =46.64 kW

ℎ −ℎ
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = ℎ1 −ℎ4
2 1

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COP = 35.15 / 11.2 =3.13

𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
Carnot COP = 𝑇
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛

263
COP = 323−263 = 4.38

3.A heat pump operating with R-12 refrigerant between the temperature limits 10 ᵒC and 45
ᵒC. If the heat pumping capacity is 35 kW,

Determine (i) Dryness fraction of refrigerant at evaporator inlet

(ii) Mass flowrate of the refrigerant (iii) Discharge temperature from compressor inlet
(iv) HP of compressor (v) COP
Assume Cp for vapour = 0.82 kJ/kg-K
Solution: Given data: Refrigerant = Freon -12 = R-12
Solution:
Given data: Refrigerant = Freon -12 = R-12

3 45ᵒ 2
P
S=constan
10
4 1

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Sat. Pressu Liquid Vapor

Tem re
hf sf vf hg sg vg
p. (bar)
kJ/k kJ/kg 3
m /k kJ/k kJ/kg m /k
3
(ᵒC)
g K g g K g

10 4.23 45.4 0.175 0.73 191. 0.692 0.040

2 7 1 9

45 10.84 79.7 0.287 0.81 204. 0.681 0.016

7 9 2

h = 191.7 kJ/kg, h = h = 79.7 kJ/kg

1 3 4
(a) Dryness Fraction: h = h , h = h + x *h h = h + x *(h - h )
3 4 4 f 4 fg 4 f 4 g f

79.7 = 45.4 + x *(191.7 – 45.4)  x4=0.234

4

(b) The mass flow rate

Refrigeration Effect/kg = RE = h – h = 191.7 -79.7 = 112 kJ/kg
1 4

RE for 35 kW 35
Mass flow rate = RE
= 112 = 0.3125 kg/s

T
(c) Discharge Temperature: s =s s =s + C ln (T2 )
1 2 1 g2 p s

T
0.6921 = 0.6812 + 0.82 ln (45+273
2
)  𝐓𝟐 = 322.3 K

(d) HP of the compressor: h = h + C (T -T ) = 204.9 + 0.82 (322.3 – 318) =208.4 kJ/kg

2 g2 p 2 s

Power Consumption P = m (h -h ) = 0.3128 (208.4-191.7) = 5.215 kW

2 1

HP of the compressor = 5.215/0.745 = 7 HP.

h −h 191.7−79.7
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = h1 −h4 = 208.4−191.7 = 6.7
2 1

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.
4 A food storage chamber requires a refrigerant system of 10 tonne capacity with an evaporator
temperature of -10 ᵒC and condenser temperature of 30 ᵒC. The refrigerant F-12 is sub-cooled
by 5 ᵒC before entering the throttle valve and vapour is superheated by 6 ᵒC before entering the
compressor. The specific heats of vapor and liquid are 0.7327 and 1.235 respectively.
Determine (i) refrigerant capacity per kg (ii) Mass of refrigerant circulated per minute.
Soluton: Given Data:
T = -10+6=-4 ᵒC = 269 K C = 1.235 kJ/kg-k
1 p-liquid

T = 30-5= 25 ᵒC = 298 K C = 0.7327 kJ/kg-k

3 p-vapor

Sat. Temp. Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kgK)

(ᵒC)
Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor
hf hg sf sg
30 64.54 199.475 0.2397 0.6848

-10 26.851 183.058 0.1079 0.7014

3 30ᵒC 2
P
S=constant
-10 ᵒC
4 1

h
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𝑇
Entropy at state 1, (at T =269K) s =s + C ln ( 1 )= 0.7014 + 0.7327 ln(269/263)
1 1 g1 p 𝑇𝑠

 s = 0.718 kJ/kgK
1

Enthalpy at state 1, (at T =269K) h = h + C (T -T ) = 183.058 +0.7327(269-263)

1 1 g1 p 1 s

 h =187.45 kJ/kg
1

For isentropic process, : s =s =0.718,

1 2

𝑇 𝑇2
 s =s + C ln ( 2 )  0.718 = 0.6848 +0.7327 ln ( )
2 g2 p 𝑇𝑠 30+273

𝑻𝟐 = 317 K
Enthalpy at state 2,  h2 = h + C (T -T ) = 199.475 + 0.7327 (317 – 303) =209.87 kJ/kg
g2 p 2 s

Enthalpy at state 3,  h = h - C (T -T ) = 64.54 – 1.235(303 – 298) =58.365 kJ/kg = h

3 f3 p s 3 4

Refrigeration Effect/kg = RE = h – h = 187.45 -58.365 = 129.08 kJ/kg

1 4

𝑅𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛 10∗3.514∗60

Mass flow rate/min = 𝑅𝐸
= = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝒊𝒏
129.08
ℎ −ℎ 187.45 −58.365
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = ℎ1 −ℎ4 = 209.87−187.45 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓
2 1

5. A 10 tonnes Ammonia ice plant operates between an evaporator temperature of 15 ᵒC and

condenser temperature of 35 ᵒC. The ammonia enters the compressor as dry saturated liquid.
Assuming isentropic compression, determine (i) Mass flowrate of Ammonia (ii) COP of plant
(iii) Power input in kW (iv) Tons of ice produced at -10 ᵒC from water at 25 ᵒC in a day.
Take LH of ice = 335 kJ/kg, Cp-ice = 2.1 kJ/kg-K, Cp-water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
Soluton: Given Data:
• T = 15 ᵒC = 288 K C = 2.1 kJ/kg-k
1 p-ice
• T = 35 ᵒC = 308 K C = 4.187 kJ/kg-k
3 p-water

(refer table B-1, page 26)

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Sat. Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kgK)

Temp.
(ᵒC) Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor

hf hg sf sg
35 357 1471.2 1.3125 4.9056

15 260.15 1457.6 0.9626 5.1503

h = 1457.2 kJ/kg h =h = 357 kJ/kg (Refer page 43 for Cp vapor for Ammonia)
1 3 4

𝑇
For isentropic process, s =s = 5.1503 s =s + C ln (𝑇2 )  5.1503 = 4.9056 +
1 2 2 g2 p 𝑠
𝑇2
2.59 ln (35+273)

𝑇2 = 338.5 K
h = h + C (T -T ) = 1471.2 + 2.59 (338.5 – 308) =1550.12 kJ/kg
2 g2 p 2 3

Refrigeration Effect/kg = RE = h – h = 1457.2 -357 = 1100.2 kJ/kg

1 4

𝑅𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛 10×3.516

Mass flow rate = 𝑅𝐸
= 1100.2
= 0.032 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
ℎ −ℎ 1100.2
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = ℎ1 −ℎ4 = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟑
1550.2−1457.2
2 1

Power Input P = m (h -h ) = 0.032 (1550.2 − 1457.2) = 2.976 kW

2 1

Heat to be extracted to convert 1 kg of ice at -10 ᵒC from water at 25 ᵒC in a day

Q = Cp−water ሾ298 − 273ሿ + LH of Ice + Cp−ice ሾ273 − 263ሿ

Q = 4.187ሾ298 − 273ሿ + 335 + 2.1ሾ273 − 263ሿ = 460 kJ/kg

10 × 3.516 × 24 × 3600
∴ tonnes of ice produced = = 𝟔. 𝟔 𝐭𝐨𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐜𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞𝐝
460 × 1000

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3 35ᵒC 2
P
S=constant
15 ᵒC
4 1

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Refrigeration Cycles: Vapour compression refrigeration system; description, analysis,

refrigerating effect. Capacity, power required, units of refrigeration, COP, Refrigerants and
their desirable properties, alternate Refrigerants. Vapour absorption refrigeration system.

Pscychrometrics and Air-conditioning Systems: Psychometric properties of Air (only for

review), Psychometric Chart, Analyzing Air-conditioning Processes; Heating, Cooling,
Dehumidification and Humidification, Evaporative Cooling. Adiabatic mixing of two moist air
streams.

REFRIGERATION BY NON-CYCLIC PROCESS

• Refrigeration is the cooling of a system below the temperature of its surroundings.

• The melting of ice or snow was one of the earliest methods of refrigeration and is still
employed.
• Ice melts at 0 ᵒC. So when ice is placed in a given space warmer than 0ᵒC, heat flows
into the ice and the space is cooled or refrigerated.
• Another medium of refrigeration is solid carbon dioxide or dry ice.
• At atmospheric pressure CO cannot exist in a liquid state, and consequently, when
2

solid CO is exposed to atmosphere, it sublimates

2

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 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS(BME401) MODULE 4 NOTES

Reversed Heat Engine Cycle

• It receives heat from a low temperature region at T , discharge heat to a high

2

temperature region at T , and requires a net inflow of work.

1

• Removal of heat from a low temperature region reduces the temperature of that region
below the temperature of the surroundings, thus producing refrigeration.
• Such a device is called a Refrigerator or Heat Pump.
• The performance of a refrigerator/heat pump is measured by means of its coefficient of
performance (COP). COP of a refrigeration/heat pump is defined as
𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐐2 𝐐2
(𝐂𝐎𝐏)𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 = = =
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐖 𝐐1 − 𝐐2

REFRIGERANTS AND DESIRABLE PROPERTIES

• The most commonly used refrigerants are a group of halogenated hydrocarbons,

marketed under various proprietary names of freon, genetron, arcton etc.
• Among them Freon–22 (Mono-chloro Difluoro Methane), Freon–11 (Tri-chloro –
mono-fluoro methane) & Freon–12 (Dichloro Difluoro methane) are extensively used.
• Ammonia is another commonly used refrigerant.
• Other refrigerants include CO , SO , Methyl chloride, Methylene chloride, Ethyl
2 2

chloride etc.

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REFRIGERANTS AND DESIRABLE PROPERTIES

Thermodynamic Properties

Boiling Point:
An ideal refrigerant should have low boiling point at atmospheric pressure. High boiling point
will lead to reduced capacity of the system.

Freezing Point:
The good refrigerant should not freeze under required evaporator temperature. Hence low
freezing point is necessary for ideal refrigerant.

Condenser and Evaporator Pressure:

For an ideal refrigerant both condenser and evaporator pressure should be positive and little
higher than atmospheric pressure. This positive pressure is necessary to prevent the leakage of
air and moisture into the refrigeration system. The pressure in condenser should not be high so
as to necessitate heavy construction of equipment and high cost.

Critical Temperature and Pressure:

Fluid will have better heat transfer rate at temperature below critical temperature. So critical
temperature of the refrigerant should be as high as possible. It will help in easy condensation
of refrigerant vapour.
Latent heat of refrigerant:

High latent heat of evaporation of refrigerant at evaporator temperature is desired as it increases

refrigeration effect per kg of refrigerant circulated. High latent heat of refrigerant always
permits greater amount of heat extraction in the evaporator.

Safe Working Properties

Toxicity:
An ideal refrigerant should be non-toxic.
Flammability:
An ideal refrigerant should be non-flammable and not explosive in the presence of air or oil.

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Corrosive Property:
An ideal refrigerant should be chemically inert with materials also with water and air.
Chemically Stability:
An ideal refrigerant should be chemically stable and should not decompose
Effect on Storage products:
An ideal refrigerant used in cold storage & domestic refrigeration should not affect the
quality of material stored.
Physical Properties

Specific Volume:

An ideal refrigerant should be low specific volume as it reduces the compressor size for the
same refrigeration capacity.
Specific Heat of liquid and vapour:

An ideal refrigerant should be low liquid specific heat and high vapour specific heat.
Thermal Conductivity:

An ideal refrigerant should have high thermal conductivity in both liquid and vapour phase so
that better heat transfer is possible.
Viscosity:

An ideal refrigerant should have low viscosity in both liquid and vapour phase, so that it will
help in low pumping power and high heat transfer rate.
OTHER Properties

Odour:
An ideal refrigerant must be odourless as it spoils the refrigerated products.
Leak Tendency:
Tendency for leakage of the ideal refrigerant should be low. Leakage of ideal refrigerant should
be easily detected.
COP and Power:
An ideal refrigerant must have high COP and low power input to compressor per ton of
refrigeration.
Refrigerant and Oil relationship:
An ideal refrigerant should be easily miscible with lubricating oil.
Cost and availability:

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An ideal refrigerant should be easily available and must be cheaper

Important application of Refrigeration

1. Ice Plants
2. Food processing units and transportation, including dairies
3. Industrial air – conditioning
4. Comfort air – conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries.
6. Hospitals.
7. Laboratories.
8. Domestic applications
Refrigeration Systems

The various refrigeration systems are

1. Vapour compression Refrigeration Systems

2. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems
3. Air Refrigeration Systems
4. Special Refrigeration Systems – one example of which is steam Jet Refrigeration
System.

Unit of Refrigeration (Rating of a Refrigeration Machine):

• The capacity of a refrigeration machine or its rating is given in terms of the refrigeration
effect, i.e., the rate of heat extraction from the body being cooled.
• The commonly used unit of refrigeration effect is Tonne of Refrigeration.
• This amount is expressed in kW in SI units.
• This rate of heat removal also expressed in Tons of refrigeration which is common
practice in the globe.
• A tonne of refrigeration is defined as the rate of heat removal from the surroundings
equivalent to the heat required for melting one tonne of ice at 0°C from water at 0°C in
one day (24 hrs).
Unit of Refrigeration (Rating of a Refrigeration Machine):

Latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 kJ/kg

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1000 × 336 𝑘𝐽
∴ 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 14,000
24 ℎ𝑟
One ton or tonne of refrigeration is SI units often taken approximately equivalent to heat
removal rate of 3.5 kW or 210 kJ/min or 12,600 kJ/hr
∴ 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 3.5 𝑘𝑊

Basic processes in a Refrigeration Cycle:

• Since a refrigeration cycle is essentially a reversed heat engine cycle, the working
substance (refrigerant) will undergo the following basic operations.
1. Compression - resulting in increase in pressure and temperature.
2. Heat rejection at high temperature.
3. Expansion – resulting in reduction in pressure and temperature and
4. Heat addition at low temperature – during which heat is transferred from the body to be
cooled to the refrigerant.
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

• It is a basic cycle used for mechanical refrigerator.

• These cycles are used for most of small domestic and large industrial applications.
• In this, the refrigerant used is a vapour (e.g., ammonia, Freon-22, Freon-11, Freon -12
etc).
• In actual vapour refrigeration cycle, an expansion engine is not used, since the power
recovery is small and does not justify the cost of the engine.
• A throttling valve or capillary tube is used for expansion in reducing the pressure from
P to P .
1 2

• The basic operation involved in a vapour compression refrigeration plant are illustrated
in the flow diagram and the property diagrams.

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EFFECT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS

Effect of Evaporator Pressure:

• In this p-h diagram 1-2-3-4-1 is initial cycle with evaporative pressure Pe, & 1’-2’-
3-4’-1’ represents the cycle when the evaporative pressure is decreased to Pe’.
• Decreasing the evaporative pressure
o Decreases the evaporator temperature from Te to Te’
o Decreases the refrigeration effect from (h -h ) to (h ’-h ’)
1 4 1 4

o Increases the specific volume of the vapour from v to v ’

1 1

o increases the compressor work from (h -h ) to (h ’-h ’)

2 1 2 1

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Effect of Condenser Pressure:

• In this p-h diagram 1-2-3-4-1 is initial cycle with condenser pressure Pc, and 1-2’-
3’-4’-1 represents the cycle when the condenser pressure is increased to Pc’.
• Increasing the condenser pressure
• Increases the condenser temperature from Tc to Tc’
• Decreases the refrigeration effect from (h -h ) to (h -h ’)
1 4 1 4

• Increases the compressor work from (h -h ) to (h ’-h )

2 1 2 1

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Effect of Superheated vapor at compressor inlet:

• In this p-h diagram 1-2-3-4-1 is initial cycle Without super heating, and 1’-2’-3-4-
1 represents the cycle with superheating’.
• Superheating of vapour at compressor inlet
• Increases the specific volume from v to v ’
1 1

• Increases the refrigeration effect from (h -h ) to (h ’-h )

1 4 1 4

• Increases the compressor work from (h -h ) to (h ’-h )

2 1 2 1

Effect of Liquid Sub-cooling or Undercooling:

• Sub-cooling is the method of cooling the refrigerant at the condenser outlet by few
degrees beyond liquid saturation point by employing subcooler in between
condenser and expansion valve.
• A small degree of sub-cooling of liquid refrigerant after condenser is also used to
reduce mass of vapour formed during expansion.
• So to many vapour bubbles do not delay the flow of liquid refrigerant through
expansion valve.
• This vaporised bubble doesn’t take part in heat transfer process in the evaporator.

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Vapour absorption refrigeration

Principle:
The heat energy is utilized to achieve the refrigeration. An electric heater or steam is
used to add the heat to the refrigerant for its evaporation. Also an absorber, a pump and a
generator are used to complete the cycle.
Construction
In vapour absorption system .the compressor is replaced by an absorber , a generator &
a pump. The refrigerant used in this system must be highly soluble in the solution known as
absorbent. The system uses ammonia as the refrigerant & water as absorbent
Working
The liquid refrigerant (ammonia) in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the medium
that is to be cooled & it undergoes a change of phase from liquid to vapour. The low pressure
vapour is then Passed to the absorber.
In the absorber, the low pressure ammonia vapour is dissolved in the weak ammonia
solution producing strong ammonia solution at low pressure. The strong ammonia solution is
then pumped to a generator through the heat exchanger at high pressure. While passing through
the heat exchanger, the strong ammonia solution is warmed up by the hot weak ammonia
solution flowing from the generator to the absorber
The warm strong ammonia solution is heated by an external source in the generator.
Due to heating the vapour gets separated from the solution. The vapour which is at high
pressure & high temperature is condensed to low temperature in a condenser by cold water
circulation. The high pressure liquid ammonia then passes through the expansion valve where
it is expanded to low pressure & temperature. The low pressure-low temperature ammonia

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liquid again enters the evaporator where it absorbs the heat from the medium & the cycle
repeats

Fig:- Vapour absorption refrigerator

Advantages of vapour absorption Refrigeration System:

1. No moving parts. Less wear and tear. Less maintenance cost.

2. Low grade fuels can be used. Waste heat can be used.
3. System not affected by variation of loads.
4. No electricity required.
5. No chance of leakage.
Disadvantages

1. Low COP
2. Bulky
3. Higher cost initially

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Comparison between Vapour compression refrigerator &Vapour

absorption refrigerator
Vapour compression refrigeration Vapour absorption refrigeration
Works using mechanical energy Works using heat energy
Refrigeration capacity is less than 1000 tons Refrigeration capacity is greater than
1000tons
COP is much higher COP is less.
Noisy due to compressor. Pump noise is less.
Chances of leakage of refrigerant are more No leakage.
Maintenance and operating cost are high. Less.
Smaller in size Larger
Wear and tear are more Wear and tear are less

Theory Question Bank

1. Explain the effect of superheating and undercooling the refrigerant on the performance
of vapour compression refrigeration system (JULY/AUGUST 2022)
2. What are the properties of good refrigerant (JULY/AUGUST 2022, DEC 2019/JAN
2020,DEC 2018/JAN 2019)
3. With a neat sketch explain the working of vapour absorption refrigeration
system(JAN/FEB 2023,JUNE/JULY 2023)
4. With a neat sketch explain the working of vapour refrigeration system(JAN/FEB 2021)
5. Explain two factors affecting performance of vapour compression refrigeration
system(AUG/SEP 2020)

Problems

1. A cold storage is to be maintained at -5 ᵒC while surroundings are at 35 ᵒC. The heat

leakage from surrounding into the cold storage is estimated to be 29 kW. The actual
rd
COP of refrigeration plant used (1/3) of an ideal plant working between same

temperature. Find the power required (in kW) to drive the plant.

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Solution

Surroundings
𝑇1 = 308 𝐾
Q1

R W
Q2
Cold Storage
𝑇2 = 268 𝐾

Given Data: 𝑇2 = −5℃ = 268 𝐾, 𝑇1 = 35℃ = 308 𝐾

𝑄2 = 29 𝑘𝑊

1
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = × (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 ,
3

𝑇2 268
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = = 6.7
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 308 − 268
1 1
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = × (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = × 6.7 = 2.23
3 3
𝑄2 𝑄2 29
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = ⇒ 𝑊= = = 13 𝑘𝑊
𝑊 (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 2.23
2. A vapor compression system uses Freon-12 refrigerant with condenser and evaporative
temperature of 50 ᵒC and -10 ᵒC respectively. The system is designed to develop 10 tonnes of
refrigeration. Determine

(i) mass flow rate of refrigerant

(ii) Piston swept volume and swept volume per ton of refrigeration

(iii) power required to drive the compressor and power per ton of refrigeration

(iv) refrigeration effect and heat lost in condenser

(v) COP of cycle and compare it with Carnot COP

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Solution:

Given data: Refrigerant = Freon -12 = R-12

T1 = −10℃ = 263 K, T3 = 50℃ = 323 K

3 50ᵒ 2
C
P
S=constan
-10 t
4 ᵒC 1

h
𝑨𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎℃ = 𝟐𝟔𝟑 𝑲,

h =h = 183.058 kJ/kg , s = s = 0.7014 kJ/kg-K,

g 1 g 1

3
v = 0.076646 m /kg,
1

At = 𝟓𝟎℃ = 𝟑𝟐𝟑 𝑲

h = h = h = 84.868 kJ/kg , Cp = 0.78 kJ/kg-K

f 3 4

s = 0.6792 kJ/kg-K h = 206.298 kJ/kg

g2 g2

For Cp value refer B-12 page 45

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𝑇2
𝑠1 = 𝑠2 = 𝑠𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 ln ൬ ൰
𝑇𝑠
𝑇
2
0.7041 = 0.6792 + 0.78 ln ቀ323ቁ  𝑻𝟐 = 333.33K

h = h + C (T -T ) = 206.298 +0.78 (333.33 – 323)  h =214.4 kJ/kg

2 g2 p 2 s 2

Refrigeration Effect RE/kg = h –h = 183.058 – 84.868 = 98.2 kJ/kg

1 4

𝑅𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛 10×3.516

∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 10 𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ = Q
= 98.2
=0.358
r
kg/s
3
Piston swept volume Vs = mV = 0.358*0.0766 = 0.0275 m /s.
1

3
Piston swept volume/ton of refrigeration V = (Vs/RC) = 0.0275/10 = 0.00275 m /s.

Power required to drive compressor P = m (h -h ) = 0.358 (214.35-183.058) = 11.2 kW.

2 1

Power required per ton of refrigeration = P/RC = 11.2/10 =1.12 kW/TR

Refrigeration Effect = RE = m (h –h ) = 0.358(183.058 – 84.868) = 35.15 kW

1 4

Heat Lost to condenser

Qc = m (h2-h3) = 0.358 (214.35-84.868) =46.64 kW

ℎ −ℎ
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = ℎ1 −ℎ4
2 1

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COP = 35.15 / 11.2 =3.13

𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
Carnot COP = 𝑇
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛

263
COP = 323−263 = 4.38

3.A heat pump operating with R-12 refrigerant between the temperature limits 10 ᵒC and 45
ᵒC. If the heat pumping capacity is 35 kW,

Determine (i) Dryness fraction of refrigerant at evaporator inlet

(ii) Mass flowrate of the refrigerant (iii) Discharge temperature from compressor inlet
(iv) HP of compressor (v) COP
Assume Cp for vapour = 0.82 kJ/kg-K
Solution: Given data: Refrigerant = Freon -12 = R-12
Solution:
Given data: Refrigerant = Freon -12 = R-12

3 45ᵒ 2
P
S=constan
10
4 1

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Sat. Pressu Liquid Vapor

Tem re
hf sf vf hg sg vg
p. (bar)
kJ/k kJ/kg 3
m /k kJ/k kJ/kg m /k
3
(ᵒC)
g K g g K g

10 4.23 45.4 0.175 0.73 191. 0.692 0.040

2 7 1 9

45 10.84 79.7 0.287 0.81 204. 0.681 0.016

7 9 2

h = 191.7 kJ/kg, h = h = 79.7 kJ/kg

1 3 4
(a) Dryness Fraction: h = h , h = h + x *h h = h + x *(h - h )
3 4 4 f 4 fg 4 f 4 g f

79.7 = 45.4 + x *(191.7 – 45.4)  x4=0.234

4

(b) The mass flow rate

Refrigeration Effect/kg = RE = h – h = 191.7 -79.7 = 112 kJ/kg
1 4

RE for 35 kW 35
Mass flow rate = RE
= 112 = 0.3125 kg/s

T
(c) Discharge Temperature: s =s s =s + C ln (T2 )
1 2 1 g2 p s

T
0.6921 = 0.6812 + 0.82 ln (45+273
2
)  𝐓𝟐 = 322.3 K

(d) HP of the compressor: h = h + C (T -T ) = 204.9 + 0.82 (322.3 – 318) =208.4 kJ/kg

2 g2 p 2 s

Power Consumption P = m (h -h ) = 0.3128 (208.4-191.7) = 5.215 kW

2 1

HP of the compressor = 5.215/0.745 = 7 HP.

h −h 191.7−79.7
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = h1 −h4 = 208.4−191.7 = 6.7
2 1

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.
4 A food storage chamber requires a refrigerant system of 10 tonne capacity with an evaporator
temperature of -10 ᵒC and condenser temperature of 30 ᵒC. The refrigerant F-12 is sub-cooled
by 5 ᵒC before entering the throttle valve and vapour is superheated by 6 ᵒC before entering the
compressor. The specific heats of vapor and liquid are 0.7327 and 1.235 respectively.
Determine (i) refrigerant capacity per kg (ii) Mass of refrigerant circulated per minute.
Soluton: Given Data:
T = -10+6=-4 ᵒC = 269 K C = 1.235 kJ/kg-k
1 p-liquid

T = 30-5= 25 ᵒC = 298 K C = 0.7327 kJ/kg-k

3 p-vapor

Sat. Temp. Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kgK)

(ᵒC)
Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor
hf hg sf sg
30 64.54 199.475 0.2397 0.6848

-10 26.851 183.058 0.1079 0.7014

3 30ᵒC 2
P
S=constant
-10 ᵒC
4 1

h
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𝑇
Entropy at state 1, (at T =269K) s =s + C ln ( 1 )= 0.7014 + 0.7327 ln(269/263)
1 1 g1 p 𝑇𝑠

 s = 0.718 kJ/kgK
1

Enthalpy at state 1, (at T =269K) h = h + C (T -T ) = 183.058 +0.7327(269-263)

1 1 g1 p 1 s

 h =187.45 kJ/kg
1

For isentropic process, : s =s =0.718,

1 2

𝑇 𝑇2
 s =s + C ln ( 2 )  0.718 = 0.6848 +0.7327 ln ( )
2 g2 p 𝑇𝑠 30+273

𝑻𝟐 = 317 K
Enthalpy at state 2,  h2 = h + C (T -T ) = 199.475 + 0.7327 (317 – 303) =209.87 kJ/kg
g2 p 2 s

Enthalpy at state 3,  h = h - C (T -T ) = 64.54 – 1.235(303 – 298) =58.365 kJ/kg = h

3 f3 p s 3 4

Refrigeration Effect/kg = RE = h – h = 187.45 -58.365 = 129.08 kJ/kg

1 4

𝑅𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛 10∗3.514∗60

Mass flow rate/min = 𝑅𝐸
= = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝒊𝒏
129.08
ℎ −ℎ 187.45 −58.365
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = ℎ1 −ℎ4 = 209.87−187.45 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓
2 1

5. A 10 tonnes Ammonia ice plant operates between an evaporator temperature of 15 ᵒC and

condenser temperature of 35 ᵒC. The ammonia enters the compressor as dry saturated liquid.
Assuming isentropic compression, determine (i) Mass flowrate of Ammonia (ii) COP of plant
(iii) Power input in kW (iv) Tons of ice produced at -10 ᵒC from water at 25 ᵒC in a day.
Take LH of ice = 335 kJ/kg, Cp-ice = 2.1 kJ/kg-K, Cp-water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
Soluton: Given Data:
• T = 15 ᵒC = 288 K C = 2.1 kJ/kg-k
1 p-ice
• T = 35 ᵒC = 308 K C = 4.187 kJ/kg-k
3 p-water

(refer table B-1, page 26)

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Sat. Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kgK)

Temp.
(ᵒC) Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor

hf hg sf sg
35 357 1471.2 1.3125 4.9056

15 260.15 1457.6 0.9626 5.1503

h = 1457.2 kJ/kg h =h = 357 kJ/kg (Refer page 43 for Cp vapor for Ammonia)
1 3 4

𝑇
For isentropic process, s =s = 5.1503 s =s + C ln (𝑇2 )  5.1503 = 4.9056 +
1 2 2 g2 p 𝑠
𝑇2
2.59 ln (35+273)

𝑇2 = 338.5 K
h = h + C (T -T ) = 1471.2 + 2.59 (338.5 – 308) =1550.12 kJ/kg
2 g2 p 2 3

Refrigeration Effect/kg = RE = h – h = 1457.2 -357 = 1100.2 kJ/kg

1 4

𝑅𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛 10×3.516

Mass flow rate = 𝑅𝐸
= 1100.2
= 0.032 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
ℎ −ℎ 1100.2
COP of cycle = (RE)/(Wnet) = ℎ1 −ℎ4 = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟑
1550.2−1457.2
2 1

Power Input P = m (h -h ) = 0.032 (1550.2 − 1457.2) = 2.976 kW

2 1

Heat to be extracted to convert 1 kg of ice at -10 ᵒC from water at 25 ᵒC in a day

Q = Cp−water ሾ298 − 273ሿ + LH of Ice + Cp−ice ሾ273 − 263ሿ

Q = 4.187ሾ298 − 273ሿ + 335 + 2.1ሾ273 − 263ሿ = 460 kJ/kg

10 × 3.516 × 24 × 3600
∴ tonnes of ice produced = = 𝟔. 𝟔 𝐭𝐨𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐜𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞𝐝
460 × 1000

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3 35ᵒC 2
P
S=constant
15 ᵒC
4 1

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