CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 MECHANICS

In our daily activities, we come across forces acting on material bodies. Cases such as a
bookshelf supporting the weights of several textbooks, a chair supporting the weight of a
person sitting on it, and a labourer moving a 50kg bag of cement on his head while working
on a construction site are not uncommon. Further examples can be seen in a standing tree
swaying to and fro under the action of a powerful wind and a bridge supporting the weights
of pedestrians and vehicles crossing it. Any object supporting a load placed on it will have to
be strong and adequate in size to avoid “falling’’ under the applied loads. It will, therefore, be
illogical and unreasonable to expect an eight year old boy to successfully move a 50kg bag of
his cement on his head.

Obviously the design of any component of a material body or structure and the design of their
interconnections depend to a large extent on thorough knowledge of the forces acting on
those components. In such a design process, therefore, correct answers need be provided to
questions such as.

1. What constitutes a force?

2. Where do these forces come from?
3. How do we go about estimating reasonably the “sizes” of these forces?
4. How do these forces act on the body?
5. What happens inside the body as a consequence of the forces acting on it?

The science known as mechanics provides is with tools needed to answer these questions.
Mechanics is a science that deals with the action of forces on material bodies at rest or in
motion. Mechanics finds its applications in building, architecture, civil and structural
engineering, fluid flow, machine design, electrical instrumentation and metallurgy among
others. In this course we shall concentrate on basic principles of mechanics as applied to
static bodies or structural systems. That is, bodies or structural systems at rest under the
action of a set of forces. In other words our focus is on bodies in statically equilibrium.

We shall be specifically concerned with the fundamental principles of structural mechanics,

a branch of mechanics that deals with the effect of forces on a structural system. A basic
assumption that is made in the structural design of such systems is that they are in stable
equilibrium.

DIVISION OF MECHANICS

Mechanics is generally subdivided into two branches: solid mechanics and fluid mechanics.
Solid mechanics is further divided into rigid body or classical mechanics and deformable
body mechanics. In this course, we shall focus our attention on principles of basic statics
applied to rigid bodies and simple structures and also on principles of stress analysis....

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 Basic statics provides the necessary background for a study of branches of mechanics is
generally divided into two areas: statics and dynamics. Statics deals with action of forces on
bodies that are either at rest or moving with a constant velocity. In other words, statics
considers forces that are in equilibrium or bodies held in equilibrium by forces and are
therefore stationary. On the other hand, dynamics considers forces acting on moving and
accelerated bodies. Kinetics, a subdivision of dynamics considers the effects of forces on a
body in motion. It concerns itself with the causes and nature of motion arising from specified
force. In the other subdivision called kinematics. We study the description of possible
motions of the bodies regardless of the effect of the force. Dynamics will not be discussed
further in this course. The present study is limited to a consideration of stationary bodies to
externally acting forces in terms of stress and associated strain is the concern of the branch of
structural mechanics called stress analysis. Stress analysis had been known by other titles
such as strength of materials, mechanics of deformable bodies and mechanics of materials in
the past.

1.2 BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

The scope of mechanics as a subject is defined in terms of basic models, basic quantities and
the governing basic laws and principles. ...

1.2.1 BASIC MODELS

Models define the kind of physical system being considered. Generally, in structural
mechanics, simplified models of real structures or physical systems are necessary since the
actual structures or physical systems are often too complex for rational analysis. A simplified
representation of a real structure or physical systems for the purpose of analysis is termed an
analytical model or a mathematical model. Basically, a model of a structure is an idealized
or simplified picture of a real structure and it aims at defining the main factors determining its
pattern of behaviour under load. For the purpose of illustration, we consider the motion of the
earth around the sun. We find that modelling the earth as a particle, that is, a point with mass
is satisfactory at this instance. However, this model gives unsatisfactory results if effects of
tides are considered. Instead, more accurate results are attained by assuming the earth is a
rigid sphere. A model for a physical system will be accurate to the extent it can accommodate
the various interacting factors defining the behaviour of the object being modelled in that
particular instance. In other words, a model is considered suitable for a physical situation if it
yields result that agrees to a reasonable degree of approximation with the real situation. In
solid mechanics, areal object can be modelled mathematically as a particle, a rigid body or as
a deformable body (Figures 1.2 and1.3). In classical mechanics (also called Newtonian
mechanics), we model an object either as a particle or a rigid body while in, for example,
stress analysis, we study the systems as a deformable body.

A body is any form of matter with defined spatial boundary. A particle is defined as body of
negligible mass or infinitely small dimensions. It can be considered as a point with mass; that
is a mass concentrated at a point. This geometrical simplification is assumed for the purpose

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of reasoning. A system of particles makes up a body. When the dimensions of a body do not
influence the descriptions of its position or response to the action of forces applied to it, we
may treat the body as a particle. A rigid body is termed as such if, when subjected to the
action of external forces, the relative distance between any two particles or point within it
remains constant at all times. Hence, a rigid body is assumed not to deform and therefore
retain its shape and size under the action of applied forces. The size of a rigid body influences
its response to forces. A body that is not rigid is said to be deformable. In real life situations,
every form of structure will deform to a certain degree under applied load. But for the sake of
simplicity, we shall treat all bodies as rigid bodies in the first volume of this book while we
make use of the more realistic deformable model in the second volume covering the subject
matter of stress analysis.

1 .2 2 Basic quantities and their measurement

In mechanics, just as in any other branch of science or engineering, we use numbers to

quantity physical phenomenon and experimental results. These numbers are called physical
quantities.Four basic quantities commonly used in mechanics are space (or length), time,
mass and force. The magnitude of these quantities is defined by an arbitrarily chosen
standard unit. Generally, SI (International Systems of Units) is adopted by this book.

Space (or length)

To identify a point in space, we need a reference to some other point of space. Space, which
is defined as the region in which events take place, is infinitely large. Hence there is a need to
choose a reference frame relative to which the positions of the points will be measured.
Irrespective of the number dimensions involved, the reference frame comprises axes which
meet at a reference point called the origin, O. The concept of length is needed to locate the
position of a point P in space. These lengths commonly measured in three mutually
perpendicular directions {arbitrarily called (x, y and z) rectangular axes} are known as the
coordinates of P. Length is measured in metre (m). The coordinates of P as shown in Figure
1.4a are written as (-3, 2,-5) m. This concept of Cartesian regular coordinates system was first
developed by the French scientist Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Fortwo dimensional
developed, only two coordinates will be required, Figure 1.4b. As shown in this figure, the
coordinates of Q are (4, 5) m. As shown in Figure 1.4, the continuous lines moving
outwardsfrom the origin represent the positive directions of the axes; the broken lines
indicates the corresponding negative directions.

..........................................................................................................

The choice of orientation of the coordinate system is primarily a matter of convenience. In

the subsequent illustrations involving tree dimensional work, we have made use of right-
handed set of axes. This is defined such that when we rotate from x-axis to y-axis through a
right angle, the positive direction for the z-axis through a right angle, the positive direction
for the z-axis is the same as that advancement of a right handed screw rotated in the same
sense. Examples of suitable orientations of the co ordinate systems are shown in Figure
1.5.@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

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@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@statics, the concept of mass, a
positive real number, enables us to compare the mechanical behaviour of a body with others.
For example, the mass of a body defines its property by which it experiences mutual
attraction to other bodies. The standard unit of mass is the kilogramme (kg).

Force

When we push or pull an object, we are applying a force on it. A force represents the action
of a body on another. When this interaction occurs through direct contact the forcers are
called surface forces. Such forces are distributed over the exact contact area. Examples of
surface forces are: pressure on the surface of a roof, friction between two bodies, tension in a
string, tension or thrust in a rod and pressure exerted by a body of water on a retaining wall.

On the other hand, the interaction between the bodies can occur through a distance by which
the bodies are physically separated. In this case, contact is not compulsory and the forces are
distributed over the entire volume of the body. This type of force is called a body force.
Examples are gravitational, electrical and magnetic forces. A force tends to move a body in
the direction of its action. The action ofa force is completely characterized by its magnitude,
direction, sense of application. Force is a vector quantity. The standard unit of force is the
Newton. (N).

When we look beyond classical mechanics and consider other branches of structural solid
mechanics, we can identify five groups of basic quantities. They are:

. Geometric quantity: Examples are length, coordinates of a point, segments, angles and
properties of cross sections (centroid, areas, first moments of areas, second moments of area,
radius of gyrations, section modulus, etc)

. Statistical quantity: Examples are mass, weight, loads reactions and stresses.

. Non-statistical quantity: An example is time.

.Deformations: Examples are translations and rotations, that is, linear and angular
displacements respectively of centroidal axis and points of a support of a body.

. Material constant: Examples are young modulus of elasticity, modulus, coefficient of

expansion and creep coefficient.

The four basic quantities – lengths, mass, time and force –of rigid body mechanics earlier
discussed fall under the first three groups. Deformations and material constant will be
encountered in the second volume covering the study of mechanics of deformable bodies.

Classifications of the basic quantities

Physical quantities in mechanics fall into one or two groups of quantities –scalars and
vectors. A quantity processing only a magnitude is called a scalar. Examples of scalar
quantities commonly encountered in statics are length, mass, volume, distance, density and
area. Time is also a scalar quantity. The simple rules of addition in elementary algebra apply

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to mathematical operations involving scalars. Vector quantities, on the other hand, have both
magnitude and direction and obey the parallelogram law of addiction described subsequently.
Examples of commonly used vector quantities in statics are relative positions, displacement,
force and moments. Vectors quantities will be discussed in m ore details in chapter 3. In this
book, symbols representing scalars and magnitude of vector quantities will be written in light
face italics type. Boldface letters are used for vector quantities whenever the directional
properties are emphasized.

1 .2.3 Basic laws

Solutions of problems in elementary applied mechanics are based on six fundamental

principles.

THE PARALLELOGRAM LAW FOR THE ADDITION OF FORCES.

This states that if two forces acting on a particle are represented in magnitude and direction
by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from their meeting point, then their resultant (the single
force equivalent in action to the force system) is represented in magnitude and direction by
the diagonal of the parallelogram, passing through the meeting point. This is further
discussed in chapter 3.

The principle of transmissibility

This states that the state of equilibrium or motion of a rigid body remains unchanged if a
force acting at a point on the body is moved along its line of action to another point in the
body.

Newton’s three fundamental laws.

These laws may be stated as follows:

FIRST LAW: A particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line

with a uniform velocity if the resultant force acting on it is zero.
SECOND LAW: If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the
acceleration of the particle is proportional to the resultant forces acting on it and
is in the direction of this force. Mathematically, this is stated in equation forms
as:

F=ma (1.1)

Where F, m and a represent, respectively, the resultant force acting on the

particle, the mass of the particle and the acceleration of the particle, all expressed
in a consistent system of units.
THIRD LAW: The forces of action and reaction between bodies in contact are
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear (on the same straight line).

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Newton’s law of gravitation.

This states that two particles of mass M and m are mutually attracted with equal and opposite
forces F and F given by the formula

F=GMm/r2(1.2)
Where r= distance between the two particles
G= universal constant known as constant of gravitation.

A consequence of this law is the attraction of the earth on a particle of mass m, located on its
surface. The gravitational pull F of the earth on the particle is defined as the weight w of the
particle. If the body falls with an acceleration g, equation 1.1 gives

W=mg (1.3)
Where w= magnitude of the weight of the body measured in Newton (N)
g= acceleration due to gravity whose standard value is 9.81 m/s2

Comparing equations (1.2) and (1.3), we can write the relationship between g and G as

g=GM/R2 (1.4)
where the value of r in equation 1.1 now equals the radius of the earth written as
R in equation 1.4.

The study of statics of particles, discussed in chapter 3 will be based on the parallelogram law
of addition and on Newton’s first law. The principle of transmissibility becomes useful as we
begin the study of statics of rigid bodies in chapter 4, as we analyze the forces exerted on
each other by the various components of a structure such as in trusses and frames. Newton’s
second law and Newton’s law of gravitation find their extensive applications in the study of
dynamics which is outside the present scope of our study of statics and stress analysis.

SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS

Solving problems has been proved to be one of the most effective ways of studying structural
mechanics, presenting the solutions in a logical and orderly manner is very important.
Similarly, ability to correlate knowledge gained from the study of basic concepts, laws and
principles to real physical solutions are essential to acquiring effective skills in providing
solutions to problems in mechanics. The following steps will assist the reader in developing
the right approach to solving problems in mechanics.

1. Read the problem carefully, make a sketch of the physical object of interest in a
concise form to suitable for reference during problem solution.
2. State the given data already labelled on the sketch.
3. State the desired results.
4. Draw and label all necessary diagrams including the free-body diagrams. Usually,
to enable us analyze completely effects of forces acting on a body, it is essential to
isolate such a body from all other bodies attached to it. The diagram of such an

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 isolated body showing all external forces acting on it is called a free body
diagram.
5. State the type of calculation to be used and list the appropriate principles and each
mathematical expression that suits the given problem. The reader is reminded that
the elementary rules of algebra, trigonometry, geometry and calculus taught in the
first year of study are often employed in solving problems in mechanics.
6. Ensure that the equations used are dimensionally homogenous and the units are
consistent; then proceed with the calculation.
7. Obtain your answers. The final answers should be rounded off to a value that
reflects the accuracy of the original data. It is noted that the accuracy of a solution
to a given problem in mechanics cannot be greater than the accuracies of the
following items:
• The given data;
• The analytical model used; and
• The numerical calculations involved.

Generally, it is accepted that the number of significant figures in an

answershould be no greater than the number of figures which can be justified by the
accuracy of the given data. Answers to engineering calculations are best rounded off
to three significant figures.

8. Recheck your approach and computations.

The following additional points should be noted in relation to the use of S.I units
and Greek alphabets during computations.
• Avoid the use of a prefix in the denominator of a composite unit. For
example write N/mm2
• In using prefixes, it is becoming a conventional practice to use only those
powers of ten which confirm to 103n where n is a positive or negative whole
number. The list of such prefixes is given in table 1.1
Table 1.1 List of common prefixes.
Standard form prefix Abbreviation
1018 exa E
15
10 peta P
1012 tera T
9
10 giga G
106 mega M
3
10 kilo k
-3
10 milli m

10 -6 micro u
10-9 nano n
10 -12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a

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The Greek alphabets listed in table 1.2 are useful in computations. The upper case
letters are first listed.