01 Data representation: Binary

Why computers use binary?

Computers are made of transistors or logic circuits. Logic circuits in computers can only
process two states – on or off. Therefore, binary is used to represent data which can be
read, stored, and transmitted easily and reliably by computers.
32,768 16,384 8192 409 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
6

Conversion between denary (base-10) and binary (base-2)

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
Example: 76 in denary is equal to 64 + 8 + 4 = 0100 1100 in binary
1 … 0001 5 … 0101 9 … 1001 13 … 1101
2 … 0010 6 … 0110 10 … 1010 14 … 1110
3 … 0011 7 … 0111 11 … 1011 15 … 1111
4 … 0100 8 … 1000 12 … 1100 16 … 0001 0000

Binary shift
 Each shift left – value doubled (value multiply by 2)
o Left most value (most significant bit) may be lost; value becomes inaccurate.
 Each shift right – value halved (value divide by 2)
o Right most value (least significant bit) maybe lost; value becomes inaccurate.

Binary addition
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

+ 1 1 1 1 1

(1) 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Overflow occurs when the resulting binary number added exceeds the total bits.

Two’s complement – 8-bit negative binary integer.

Example: Find the binary value of -76
1. Find the positive 76 in binary.
2. Flip the 1s and 0s (0 becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0).
3. Add 1 to the least significant bit (right most)
Alternative method:
Find positive 76 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Left most is -ve (-128)
All other numbers +ve
Flip 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Therefore:
-128 + __ + __ + __ = -76
Add 1 1 -128 + 32 + 16 + 4 = -76

Answer 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 -76 = 1011 0100

Data representation: Hexadecimal
Why use Hexadecimal?
Hexadecimal is easier for human to read, write and understand hexadecimal than binary,
as it is a shorter representation of binary on screen. Therefore, it is easier for programmers
especially, makes less mistakes and it will be easier to debug.

Conversion between denary (base-10), binary (base-2), and

hexadecimal (base-16)
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
4 C (12)
Example: 76 in denary is equal to 64 + 8 + 4 = 0100 1100 in binary = 4C in hexadecimal
1…1 4…4 7…7 10 … A 13 … D
2…2 5…5 8…8 11 … B 14 … E
3…3 6…6 9…9 12 … C 15 … F

Applications for hexadecimal

 HTML colour code  URL
 IP address  Memory addresses
 ASCII / Unicode  debugging
 Assembly language

Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
1 Understand how and why computers use binary to represent all forms of data

2 a. Understand the denary, binary, and hexadecimal number systems up

to 16-bits.
b. Convert between
i. Positive denary and positive binary
ii. Positive denary and positive hexadecimal
iii. Positive hexadecimal and positive binary
3 Understand how and why hexadecimal is used as beneficial method of data
representation
4 a. Add two positive 8-bit integers.
b. Understand the concept of overflow and why it occurs in binary
addition.
5 Perform logical binary shift on a positive 8-bit binary integer and understand
the effect this has on the positive binary integer
6 Use two’s complement to represent positive and negative 8-bit binary integers
Data representation: Text, sound &
images
Text
Text is converted into binary or hexadecimal to be processed by a computer.

ASCII
 American standard for information interchange
 Character set that consists of 7-bit codes (can be binary or hexadecimal) to
represent letters, numbers, and characters. Example: 65 is A, 97 is a
 Extended version consists of 8-bits to allow non-English characters/symbols.
 Does not represent non-western characters like Chinese.

Unicode
 Character set that consists of 16-bits or 32-bits in the extended version.
 Can represent non-English characters like Vietnamese and Japanese

Sound
Sound waves consist of frequency, wavelength, and amplitude.
 Frequency – measured in Hertz (Hz). Can be high pitch or low pitch.
 Amplitude – measured in decibels (dB). Can be loud or soft (volume)
 Wavelength – measured in Hertz. Lower frequency, longer wavelength.

Sampling
 Amplitude is measured at regular times and converted to bits (digital values).
 Sampling resolution (bit depth) is the number of bits per sample.
 Sampling rate is the number of sounds taken per second.
 Benefits (advantage) of higher sampling resolution:
o Larger dynamic range (more instruments can be clearly heard)
o Better sound quality
o More accurate sound (less distortion)
 Drawbacks (disadvantage) of higher sampling resolution:
o Produces larger files (consumes larger storage space).
o Takes longer time to transmit (upload/download files)
o Requires greater processing power.

Images
 Bitmap images are made of pixels (picture elements).
 Pixels are the smallest representation of a single colour in binary or hexadecimal.
 Image resolution is the number of pixels in an image.
 Bit depth is the number of bits required to represent the colours in an image
Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
1 Understand how and why a computer represents text and the use of
character sets, including American standard code for information
interchange (ASCII) and Unicode
2 Understand how and why a computer represents sound, including
effects of the sample rate and sample resolution
3 Understand how and why a computer represents an image including the
effects of the resolution and colour depth

Data storage and compression

How files are measured
1 Bit - binary digit; the smallest unit of measurement of memory in a
computer
1 nibble - 4 bits GigaByte (GB) - 1000 MB
Byte - 8 bits (2 nibbles) TeraByte (TB) - 1000 GB
KiloByte (KB) - 1000 bytes PetaByte (PB) - 1000 TB
MegaByte (MB) - 1000 KB ExaByte (EB) - 1000 PB

IEC memory system

1 Bit - binary digit; the smallest unit of measurement of memory in a
computer
1 nibble - 4 bits GibiByte (GiB) - 1024 MiB
Byte - 8 bits (2 nibbles) TebiByte (TiB) - 1024 GiB
KibiByte (KiB) - 1024 bytes PebiByte (PiB) - 1024 TiB
MebiByte (MiB) - 1024 KiB ExbiByte (EiB) - 1024 PiB

How to calculate image file size?

Image width (in pixels) * Image height (in pixels) * colour depth (in bits)

How to calculate mono sound file size?

sample rate (in Hz) * sample resolution (in bits) * length of sample (in seconds)

How to calculate stereo sound file size?

sample rate (in Hz) * sample resolution (in bits) * length of sample (in seconds) * 2
Data compression
Why we need to compress data?
 Save storage space on the device (HDD or SSD) or cloud storage.
 Reduce time to upload and/or download file.
 Reduce bandwidth to upload/download or stream (music/video) file.
 Reduce cost of cloud storage and upload/download bandwidth.

Lossy file compression

 Uses a compression algorithm.
 Can be applied to image, video, and sound files.
 Some data is removed permanently – cannot be restored.
 Image – reduce resolution and/or colour depth (similar colours merged, less colour)
 Sound – reduce sampling rate and/or resolution (similar sounds merged or extreme
high or low amplitude are removed)

Lossless file compression

 Uses a compression algorithm.
 Can be applied to image, video, sound, and text (including program codes)
 Data removed temporarily – can be restored back to original (reversible).
 Repeated patterns/strings/colour/sound are identified and copied into an indexed
dictionary. Each index is represented by a symbol. The symbol is used to replace
the patterned (repeated) string/colour/sound in the file which is also used when
restoring.
 Example lossless compression – Run Length Encoding

Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
1 Understand how data storage is measured

2 Calculate file size of an image file and sound file, using given information

3 Understand the purpose and need of data compression

Understand how files are compressed using lossy and lossless
4
compression
02 Data transmission
2.1 Types and methods of data transmission
Data packet – files/data is split into small packets for easier control than a long stream of
data.
Example: An email typed by Jayden is 150kibiBytes. Each packet can have a maximum
size of 64kibiBytes. Therefore, this email is split into 3 data packets.
Packet part Purpose/content
Header IP address of sender
IP address of receiver
Sequence number of the packet (allowing correct reassembly)
Size of this packet (in bytes)
Payload Actual data in the packet
Trailer Method of identifying the end of the packet
Error checking to ensure the packet arrives error free

Packet switching – each data packet is sent independently from the sender to the
receiver through many routers. Each router will decide which route the packet will need to
take to reach its destination. The shortest available path is always chosen. At the
destination, the data packet is reassembled in the correct order.
*Data packet & packet switching is a new topic introduced for 2023 syllabus.
Data transmission mode
 Simplex – ONE DIRECTION (example: computer to printer)
 Half duplex – BOTH DIRECTION, but not simultaneously (example: walkie-talkie)
 Full duplex – BOTH DIRECTION, SIMULTANEOUSLY (example: internet
broadband)

 Serial data transmission – ONE BIT SENT AT A TIME on a SINGLE WIRE

 Parallel data transmission – MANY BITS SENT AT A TIME on SEVERAL WIRES

Serial Parallel
Less risk of external interference that parallel due Faster rate of data transmission than serial
to fewer wires
More reliable transmission over long distance Works well over short distance
Transmitted bit won’t have the risk of being Since several wires are used to transmit data,
skewed (distorted or out of synch) the bits arrived can be skewed
Used if the amount of data is relatively small since Preferred method when speed is important
transmission rate is slower than parallel (example
USB uses serial transmission)
Used to send data over long distance If data is time-sensitive, parallel is most
appropriate transmission method
Less expensive than parallel due to lesser Parallel ports require more hardware, making
hardware requirements them more expensive to implement than serial
ports
2.2 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
USB is a common/standard method for data transfer between devices and a computer.
USB allows both half-duplex and full-duplex data transmission. When plugged in to a
computer,
 The computer automatically detects the device.
 Once recognised, the device driver software is loaded so the computer and the
device can communicate effectively.
 If the device is new, the computer will find the device driver software that matches
the device. If not found, the computer will prompt the user to download the device
driver software (sometimes, this is done automatically)

Benefits Drawbacks
Device plugged into the computer are automatically detected Standard USB only supports a
and drivers automatically loaded maximum cable length of 5m;
Connections can only fit one way preventing incorrect beyond that, USB hubs are
connections being made needed to extend the cable
It has become industry standard; therefore, support is available length
Can support different transmission rates USB is backward compatible,
No need for external power source since cable can supply 5V but earlier USB versions may
power not be supported by newer
USB protocol notifies the transmitter to re-transmit data in any computers.
errors are detected; this leads to error-free data transmission
*Textbook says USB is slower
than other methods like ethernet
It is relatively easy to add more USB ports, if necessary, by but that’s comparison of older
using USB hubs models
USB is backward compatible

2.3 Methods of error detection

Parity checking
 Count the number of 1s in the parity.
 It can be odd or even parity.
 Usually the most significant bit (left most) is the parity bit.
If in a parity block, a whole byte can be the parity byte (all 8-bits).
 Error is detected when the bits don’t add up to the given parity (i.e., odd, or even)
Checksum
 Sender and receiver agree on a checksum algorithm.
 Sender uses this algorithm to calculate the checksum value.
 Sender sends the data packet WITH the checksum value (stored in the trailer)
 Receiver re-calculates the checksum value using the agreed algorithm and
compares both values.
 If both values are the same, no error detected. If both values are not the same,
error detected.
Echo check
 Sender sends data to receiver.
 Receiver re-sends a copy of the data back to sender.
 Sender compares the original and the receiver’s copy.
 If both values are the same, no error detected. If both values are not the same,
error detected.
Check digits.
 Check digit value is included IN the data. This is to verify the data entered is
accurate.
 Check digit is used to detect values entered incorrectly (5479 instead of 5379)
 Check digit can detect transposed data (5793 instead of 5379)
 Check digit can detect omitted or extra digits (579 or 55379 instead of 5379)
Automatic Repeat Query (ARQ)
 Uses acknowledgement and timeout with other error detection methods.
 Sender sends packets/data do receiver and waits for acknowledgement.
 Receiver checks data (either with parity check, checksum, or check digit)
 If no error detected, a positive acknowledgement is sent back to sender.
 If error detected, a negative acknowledgement is sent back to sender requesting to
resend the data.
 If no acknowledgement received, sender sends data again until time limit is
reached.

2.4 Symmetric and asymmetric encryption

 Plain text is encrypted into cypher text to ensure data lost or stolen cannot be easily
read.
 An encryption algorithm is used to encrypt plain text into cypher text.
 A decryption algorithm is used to decrypt cypher text into plain text.

Symmetric encryption
 An encryption key is used to encrypt and decrypt a text.
 Encryption key is 256-bits long, but it still can get cracked.
 Dangerous to send encryption key via internet as it can get intercepted.
Asymmetric encryption
 To overcome the security issue, a public key and private key is used.
 Public key can be shared with anyone for encryption ONLY.
 Private key cannot be shared and is only known by the user for decryption ONLY.
 John Doe shares his public key with Jane Doe. Jane Doe uses John’s public key to
encrypt the message before sending the cyphered text to John Doe. Only John Doe
can decrypt the message by using his own private key. Jane Doe and John Doe
cannot decrypt the message using the public key.
Symmetric & asymmetric encryption application – Secure Socket Layer
(Details in Chapter 5: Internet and it’s uses)
 Client request identification from web server
 Web server sends SSL certificate with the public key.
 Client’s browser authenticates the SSL / digital certificate.
 Once authenticated, a secure connection is established.
 Any data sent is encrypted public key and decrypted using private key.
Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
Types and methods of data transmission
1 a. Understand that data is broken down into packets to be
transmitted.
b. Describe structure of a data packet.
c. Describe the process of packet switching.
2 a. Describe how data is transmitted from one device to another
using different data transmission.
b. Explain the sustainability of each method of data transmission, for
a given scenario.
Methods of error detection
1 Understand the need to check for errors after data transmission and how
these errors can occur
2 Describe the process involved in each of the following error detection
methods for detecting errors in data after transmission: parity check (odd
and even), checksum and echo check
3 Describe how a check digit is used to detect errors in data entry and
identify examples of when a check digit is used, including international
standard book numbers (ISBN) and barcodes
4 Describe how an automatic repeat query (ARQ) can be used to establish
that data is received without error.
Encryption
1 Understand the need for and purpose of encryption when transmitting
data
2 Understand how data is encrypted using symmetric and asymmetric
encryption
03 Hardware
Computer architecture
 Central Processing Unit – CPU can also be called a processor, or a smaller version
called microprocessor. The CPU consists of
o Control Unit (CU) – read instruction from memory.
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – performs mathematical or logical operations.
o Registers – components that execute data/instructions.
o Bus – pathways that moves data/instructions between CPU, memory and
input/output devices.

Von Neumann architecture

Register Abbreviation Purpose/function

Current instruction Stores the current instruction being decoded and
CIR
registers executed
Used to carrying out ALU calculations, stores data
accumulator ACC
temporarily during calculations
Memory address Stores the address of the memory location currently
MAR
register being read from or written to
Stores data which has just been read from memory or
Memory data register MDR
data which is about to be written to memory
Stores the address where the next instruction to be read
Program counter PC
can be found

Buses Purpose/function
Address bus Unidirectional – carries address only between memory and CPU
Data bus Bidirectional – carries data between memory and CPU
Control bus Bidirectional – carries signals from control unit to all other computer components
Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.
MAR ← [PC] Address in the Program Counter (PC) is loaded into the Memory Address
Register (MAR)
MDR ← [[MAR]] Instructions from the memory location contained in the MAR is placed in the
Memory Data Register (MDR)
CIR ← [MDR] Instructions is copied from the MDR to the Current Instruction Register (CIR)
PC ← [PC +1] Program counter is incremented to fetch the next instruction set.

Interrupt Service Routine

1. Interrupt Signal is sent to the CPU
2. Current Fetch Execute Cycle is completed
3. Priority is checked
4. If interrupt signal is lower priority, Fetch Execute Cycle continue.
5. If interrupt signal is higher priority, Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) is used.
When ISR completes its task, priority is checked again (go back to step 3)

System clock (new from 2023 onwards)

– System clock defines the clock cycle to ensure synchronisation in all computer
operations.
– System clock can be increased in the BIOS; known as overclock. However,
overclocking can result to
o Frequent crashes and computer becoming unstable because clock can be
out of synch.
o CPU overheating leading to unreliable performance.

Cache memory (new from 2023 onwards)

- Cache memory is a special memory within the CPU to store frequently used
instructions. This can help improve CPU performance.
- CPU checks the cache first, then move to main memory/RAM if the required data is
not available in the cache.

Core (new from 2023 onwards)

- One core is made of ALU, Control unit and registers.
- Computers can have dual (two) core or quad (four) core.
- More cores can increase performance BUT not necessarily double the
performance.

Factors to increase CPU performance:

1. Increase (data and address) bus width
2. Increase clock speed.
3. Increase cores.
4. Increase cache memory size.

Instruction set.
 Opcode – informs the CPU what operations needs to be done.
 Operand – data which needs to be acted on or it can refer to a register in the
memory.

Embedded system
Microcontrollers – CPU with additional RAM and ROM and other peripherals
(input/output devices) embedded into a single chip.
Microprocessor – Integrated circuit with the CPU only. No RAM, ROM, or other
peripherals on the chip.
Example of embedded systems: modern cars (in-car entertainment system), security
system, automatic lighting system, and washing machines.

Input devices
Input devices – hardware/peripherals on a computer that when clicked/press/moved by the
user, signal/data is sent into the computer. For details on how each input devices work,
please refer to page 88 on the Hodder textbook.
Input devices include:
 Barcode scanner
 Digital camera
 Keyboard
 Microphone
 Optical mouse
 QR code scanner
 Touch screen (resistive, capacitive, and infra-red)
 2D and 3D scanners

Output devices
Output devices – hardware/peripherals that receives data from a computer and response
accordingly to the given data. For details on how each output devices work, please refer to
page 101 on the Hodder textbook.
Output devices include:
 Actuator
 Digital light processing (DLP) projector
 Liquid crystal display (LCD) projector
 Ink jet printer
 Laser printer
 Light emitting diode (LED) screen
 Liquid crystal display (LCD) screen
 Speaker / headphones
 3D printer
Sensors
Sensors are input devices that read/measure physical properties from their environment.
Data from the sensors are analogue signals. An analogue to digital converter ADC is used
to convert analogue signals to digital signals. The microprocessor then compares the
sensor’s readings with the stored values and respond accordingly. For details on how each
sensor work, please refer to page 111 on the Hodder textbook.
Sensor Purpose is to measure… Example application
Acoustic Measure sound Detect noise in a security system
Accelerometer motion When phone change from portrait to landscape
Flow rate moving liquid or gas Respiratory devices in hospital
Gas oxygen or CO2 Greenhouse / factory
Humidity water vapour Greenhouse / factory / hospital
Infra-red IR beam is broken Security system if burglar breaks the IR beam
Level Liquid level Monitor amount of petrol in a petrol tank
Light brightness Street / car / room
Magnetic field magnetic field Anti-lock braking system in cars
Moisture water level Greenhouse
pH Acidity/alkalinity Greenhouse
Pressure Weight Gas pressure or weight of an object
Proximity distance Car reverse sensor
Temperature temperature Air conditioning

Storage devices
Primary storage devices
 Primary storage devices can be accessed directly by the CPU.
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
o Can read and write data into this storage device.
o A temporary memory device
o Use to store data that is currently in use.
o It is volatile – meaning data is lost when computer is turned off.
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
o Can read ONLY from this storage device.
o A permanent memory device.
o Use to store BIOS and other startup programs.
o It is non-volatile – meaning data is not lost when computer is turned off.

Secondary and offline storage devices

 Secondary storage devices are not directly connected to the CPU.
Example: HDD and SSD
 Offline storage devices are portable storage devices. Examples include CD, DVD,
external HDD, external SSD, and USB flash memory.
Magnetic storage devices
 Use electromagnets to read and write data.
 Circular platter that is divided into tracks and sectors.
 Example: hard disk drive
Solid-solid state
 Also known as flash memory
 Uses NAND or NOR gate technology. Transistors are used as control gates.
 Example: Solid state drives, USB flash memory
Optical storage
 Uses lasers to create and read pits and lands.
 Example: CD, DVD and Blu-ray

Virtual memory
 RAM is a physical memory.
 Virtual memory is created on the secondary storage device (HDD or SSD) to give
the illusion that the RAM has a larger storage capacity.
 The operating system creates pages on the HDD/SSD and copy lower priority
programs into the RAM. This frees up the RAM to run higher priority programs
efficiently.
 Disadvantage of VM in HDD (only). When read write happens too many times, the
HDD can get damaged easily. This is known as disk thrashing. To overcome this
problem, add more RAM or use SSD instead.

Cloud storage
 Cloud storage is data stored in remote servers. Often used to backup data.
 Public cloud storage – client and provider are different companies.
 Private cloud storage – client and provider integrated and operate as a single entity
 Hybrid cloud storage – a mix of both public and private cloud. Often non-sensitive
data stored in public cloud and sensitive data stored in private cloud

Advantages Disadvantages
Data can be accessed anywhere, anytime with Unstable or slow internet access makes it
internet access difficult for users to access the data
Users do not need to carry external drives or Cloud storage requires subscription / payment
use the same machine to access the data which can be costly.
Cloud storage provides backup to allow users to Upload/download large data can be limited by
recover the data the internet service provider (ISP)
Cloud storage has unlimited storage capacity Security is controlled by the cloud provider
which users have no control over

Network hardware
 Network interface card (NIC) allows the device to connect to the network (internet)
 The NIC contains the MAC (Media Access Control) address provided by the
manufacturer.
o Consist of 48-bits in hexadecimal
o First half is the manufacturer code.
o Second half is the device identification.
o MAC address is unique to help identify the device on the network.
o MAC address cannot be changed.
o Used by router/switch to send data packet to the correct device.
 Internet Protocol (IP) address
 o Address provided by the router or internet service provider (ISP) when the
user is connected to the network.
o There are two versions of IP address IPv4 and IPv6
o IPv4 is 32-bit denary value. Older version.
o IPv6 is 128-bit hexadecimal value. Newer version.
o IP addresses can be static (fixed) or dynamic (change each time you
connect)
 Dynamic has greater privacy because IP address can change.
 Dynamic is less reliable in voice over internet protocol (VoIP), when a
disconnection occurs, the new IP is not recognised.
 Static IP address to allow the device to be fully traceable.
 Static IP address allows faster upload and download speeds.
 Static IP address is more expensive than dynamic IP address to
maintain.
o Used by routers when routing packets across the internet.
 Router
o Enable data packets to be routed between different networks.
Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
Computer architecture
1 d. Understand the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a
computer.
e. Understand what is meant by a microprocessor.
2 a. Understand the purpose of the components in a CPU, in a
computer that has a Von Neumann architecture.
b. Describe the process of the fetch-decode-execute cycle including
the role of each component in the process
3 Understand what is meant by core, cache and clock in a CPU and
explain how they can affect the performance of a CPU
4 Understand the purpose and use of an instruction set for a CPU

5 Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system and

identify in which they are commonly used
Input and output devices
1 Understand what is meant by an input device and why it is required

2 Understand what is meant by an output device and why it is required

3 a. Understand what is meant by a sensor and the purpose of

sensors.
b. Identify the type of data captured by each sensor and understand
when each sensor would be used, including selecting the most
suitable sensor for a given context
Data storage
1 Understand what is meant by primary storage

2 Understand what is meant by secondary storage

3 Describe the operation of magnetic, optical, and solid-state storage (flash

memory) and give examples of each
4 Describe what is meant by virtual memory, how it is created and used
and why it is necessary
5 Understand what is meant by cloud storage

6 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of storing data on the cloud

in comparison to storing it locally.
Network hardware
1 Understand that a computer needs a network interface card (NIC) to
access a network
2 Understand what is meant by and the purpose of media access control
(MAC) address, including structure
3 a. Understand what is meant by and the purpose of an internet
protocol (IP) address.
b. Understand that there are different types of IP address
4 Describe the role of a router in a network.
04 Software
Types of software and interrupts
 Application software runs on operating systems.
 Operating system runs on firmware.
 Firmware (bootloader) runs on the hardware.

System software
 System software is a set of programs to control and manage the computer’s
hardware.
 System software provides a platform where other software can run.
 System software is required to allow hardware and software programs for smooth
execution.
 System software can provide human computer interface (to make it user friendly)
 System software controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources.
 Example: Operating system, utility programs and device drivers.
Utility programs
 Software that carries out specific tasks on a computer. Example includes.
o Anti-virus software
 Checks files or software for viruses
 Uses heuristic checking (using trial and error) to identify potential
virus.
 Potential viruses are quarantined and/or deleted by the anti-virus.
o Disk analysis and repair (scan for fault and fix it)
o File management and compression
o Security
 Manage access control and user’s accounts.
 Links to other utility software like virus checkers or spyware checkers
 Protects network interface by using firewalls.
 Uses encryption and decryption to ensure data is meaningless without
decryption key.
o Screensavers
 Screensavers are loaded when the computer is idling (not in use).
 Screensavers can be used as extra security by automatically logging
the user out of the computer when the screen saver is loaded.
o Defragmentation software
 Only applicable to hard disk drives (HDD)
 To sort and store files in contiguous (next to each other) sectors.
o Backup software

Device drivers
 Device drivers are software that communicates with the operating system and
translates data into a format understood by the hardware.
 Without device drivers, a message such as “device not recognized" would appear
on the screen.
 Example when you plug in a device (like memory stick or printer cable) into a USB
port for the first time.
Operating system
Function Description/purpose
Managing Files follow a naming convention, so the correct application software reads the
files correct files.
To ensure access-controlled mechanism is maintained (example: access rights and
password protected data)
Handling Stopping a task that is running and allowing a higher priority task to be executed
interrupts
Providing To provide a user-friendly Graphical User Interface (GUI) for the new users to use
an interface easily. However, the user is restricted to limited icons provided on the screen and
GUI needs an operating system, therefore uses more memory.
To provide Command Line Interface (CLI) for advance users who know how to
code instructions and communicate directly with the computer. However, it is not
user friendly like GUI as users have to know the correct code instructions (spelling
and format is important).
Managing Manage input and output devices.
peripherals To ensure each hardware resource has a priority so they can be used efficiently.
and drivers
Managing Manage RAM and SSD/HDD during execution of the program. This is to ensure no
memory data is lost or placed in the wrong location
Multitasking To carry out more than one task at the same time
Each task will share the hardware resources allocated by the operating system
Providing a Firmware (BIOS) is a program that provides low level control of devices.
platform to An interface between the firmware and operating system (OS) to allow the OS to
run communicate or control the hardware.
applications The application software communicates with the OS to gain access/control of the
hardware.
Providing Carry out updates to ensure operating system and software is up to date.
system Maintaining access rights to all users
security Recover and restore data that could be lost or corrupted
Managing Computers can allow more than one user. Therefore, it is important for the user’s
user data is kept secured and separated. The operating system can provide customized
accounts settings and security level for each user, which will be managed by an administrator.

Application software
 Application software is used to perform tasks on a computer.
 Application software allows the user to perform tasks using the computer’s
resources.
 Application software may be a single program or a collection/suite of programs.
 The user can execute the software as and when they need it.
 Example of application software: Spreadsheet, database, internet browser and
games.

Software Interrupts
 Signal sent from device or other software to the microprocessor.
 Signals received by the microprocessor needs to be identified the level of interrupt
priority (how important is this interrupt compared to the current job)
 Examples of interrupts:
o Timing signals (in the fetch execute cycle)
o User interaction (for example: user’s keyboard/mouse is clicked/pressed)
 o Hardware fault (for example: paper jam in the printer, buffer requires more
data, printer runs out of ink or paper)
o Software error (for example: attempt to divide by zero; two processes trying
to access the same memory location)
 From fetch decode execute cycle (F/E cycle) …
o Current task is stopped and stored/transferred to storage (RAM or
HDD/SSD)
o Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) is loaded to the Program Counter (PC) for
execution.
o When interrupted task is completed, new interrupts are checked before
reloading task from storage for execution.

Programming languages
High level language
 Easy for human to read, understand and code because it is closer to English.
 High level language is debugged at the development stage.
 It can be easily maintained once in use.
 Example high level language: C++, Python, and Java.

Low level language

 Machine code – binary codes that only a computer can process.
 Assembly language – not many programmers write in assembly language unless
they
o Want to make use of special hardware.
o Want to make use of special machine dependent instructions.
o Want to write code that does not take up much space in primary memory.
o Want to write code that performs a task very quickly.

Translators
Software/Program must be translated to a format that machines can process.
 Compiler
o translates high-level language to machine codes.
o High-level language programs are compiled before reading/translating.
o Compiler produces an error report at the end of translating.
o Compiler creates an executable file (.exe) at the end of translating.
o Compiler is used before final testing or before distributing (users do not need
to see the source code of the final program)
 Complied program can be executed without a compiler.
 Complied program takes up less memory space when executed.
 Compiled program can be stored and ready to use.
 Interpreter
o Translates high-level language to machine codes.
o High-level language programs are read/translated one line at a time.
o Interpreter stops when an error is identified.
o Interpreter is used during development or during testing.
  Easier and quicker for developers to test program during
development.
 Easier to edit program codes without the need to re-compile.
However, takes longer time to execute.
 Assembler
o Translates low level language to machine codes.
o Creates an executable file therefore, assembled codes do not need
assembler again.

Development Environment (IDE)

Software program that allows developers to develop their own programs.
IDEs have the following features:
 Code editor – allow users to write/edit program codes.
 Translator – can have both interpreter and compiler to enable the program to be
developed and produce the final version.
 Debugger – allows the programmer to test line by line to ensure each line of code
works as intended.
 Error detection and auto-correction – highlighting spelling mistakes or syntax errors
and suggesting corrections or automatically correcting the errors.
 Auto-completion – code-editors can offer case sensitive prompt for text completion
for variable names and reserved words.
 Prettyprinting – colour coded specific group words for easy viewing.

Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
Types of software and interrupts
1 Describe the difference between system software and application
software and provide examples of each
2 Describe the role and basic functions of an operating system

3 Understand how hardware, firmware and an operating system are

required to run applications software
4 Describe the role and operation interrupts

Types of programming language, translators, and integrated development environments

1 Explain what is meant by a high-level language and a low-level
language, including the advantages of each.
2 Understand that assembly language is a form of low-level language that
uses mnemonics, and that an assembler is needed to translate an
assembly language into machine code
3 Describe the operation of a compiler and an interpreter, including, how
high-level language is translated by each and how errors are reported
4 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a compiler and an
interpreter
5 Explain the role of an IDE in writing program code and the common
functions IDE provide
05 Internet and its uses
Internet and World Wide Web (www)
Internet World Wide Web
It is a worldwide collection of Web browsers uses the internet to access
interconnected networks and devices information from web servers
Users can send and receive emails It is a collection of multimedia web pages and
other information on websites
Allows online chatting (via text, audio, HTTP(s) protocols are written using hypertext
and video) mark-up language (HTML)
Makes use of transmission protocols Uniform resource locators (URL) are used to
(TCP) and internet protocols (IP) specify the location of the web pages

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Protocol:// website address / file path / file name
 Protocol is either http or https.
 Website address is domain host (www), domain name (website name), domain
type (example: .com, .edu, .gov) and sometimes country (.vn, .uk)
 File path shows a specific folder where this web page is kept.
 File name is the specific web page.
HTTP and HTTPS
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a set of rules that must be obeyed when
transferring data across the internet.
A more secure version called Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and a modern version of SSL
called Transport Layer Security (TLS), uses the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure
(HTTPS) or an image of a padlock on the browser can be seen.

Functions and purpose of web browser

Web browser is a software that allows users to access data (and information) from the
internet. The role of the browser includes:
 Sends request to the web server.
 Receives HTML codes from the web server.
 Displaying the webpage by decoding the HTML codes
 Manages HTTP/HTTPS protocol.
Features of the browser includes:
 Store user’s favourite websites or web pages as bookmarks
 Keep a history of the website the user visits.
  Allows users to navigate forward and backwards between web pages
 Allows multiple web pages to be opened by using tabs.
 Make use of JavaScript (client-side script)
 Use of cookies to enhance user’s experience.
 Data is stored as a cache (find IP address of previously visited websites)
 Allows files to be downloaded from websites.

Retrieval and location of web pages

1. User enters the URL (example: www.vas.edu.vn ) on the browser.
2. The browser sends a request to the Domain Name Server (DNS) for the IP address
of the given URL.
3. If the IP address cannot be found by the DNS, an error message will be returned to
the browser and displayed on the user’s browser. If there is more than one DNS
server, all the other DNS server will check for the given IP address first.
4. If the IP address can be found by the DNS, the IP address is sent to the user’s
browser.
5. The user’s browser now connects directly to the web server using the given IP
address. The web server sends the HTML files to the browser. The browser
interprets the HTML and display the webpage on the browser.

Cookies
 Cookie is a file that stores data as a text file.
 A cookie is sent from the web server to the user’s computer when the user visits the
website.
 The cookie is stored in the user’s computer.
 The cookie is read by the user’s browser.
 When the user visits the same website again, the browser will send the cookie back
to the web server.
Uses of cookies
 To store personal information / data
 To store login details (encrypted format)
 To save items in an online shopping basket
 To save internet surfing habits
 To carry out targeted advertising
 To store payment details
 To customise a website
 Store process in online games / quizzes
Types of cookies
 Session cookies
o Temporary cookies that are created and replaced every time a user visits the
website (or when the browser is closed)
o Session cookie is temporarily stored in RAM.
o Doesn’t collect any information on the user.
o Example: shopping basket on e-commerce websites
 Persistent (permanent) cookie
o Created and saved on the first visit to the website.
o Persistent cookie is stored in computer’s secondary storage.
o Cookie is retained until they expire or when the user deletes them.
 o Example: remember the user’s login details so the user doesn’t have the log
in every time they visit the website.

Digital currency
What is digital currency?
Digital currency is money that only exist electronically – there is no physical notes or coins
that you can hold and carry around like fiat currency (like $, ₫, £, ¥).

Digital currency relies on a central banking system for all monetary transaction.
Maintaining security and confidentiality is a big problem for central banking systems.

Cryptocurrency

 Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to track transactions.

 Transactions and exchange rates are not governed by a central bank; the rules are
set by the cryptocurrency community.
 Cryptocurrency transactions are all publicly available and therefore transactions can
be tracked and the amount of money in the system is monitored.
 Cryptocurrency works within a blockchain network which means it is more secure.

Blockchain
 There is no central database/server to store block chain.
 Each computer on the network has a copy of the data.
 To update or change the blockchain, ALL the members on the network must agree.

Each block contains:

 The data
 A hash value – is a unique value generated by an algorithm (no duplicates) which
includes a timestamp (because 1 Oct 2023, 3am cannot happen again)
 Previous hash value – points to the block before
Cybersecurity
Types of security threats
 brute-force attack (trying all possible numbers/password
 data interception (stealing data while in transition on the network)
 distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack
 hacking (illegal access into user’s computer)
 malware (virus, worm, Trojan horse, spyware, adware, ransomware)
 pharming (malware in user’s computer and auto divert users to fake website)
 phishing (fake email divert users to fake website)
 social engineering (sending messages, email or phone calls and relying on users’
fear, curiosity, empathy, or trust for the cybercriminals to exploit).
Solutions to help keep data safe from security threats.
 access levels (owner, manager and staff gets different view of the data)
 anti-malware including anti-virus and anti-spyware.
 authentication (username and password, biometrics, two-step verification)
 automating software updates
 checking the spelling and tone of communications (in social engineering)
 checking the URL attached to a link.
 firewalls
o can be hardware or software.
o contains a whitelist and a blacklist.
o Whitelist allows data from listed sites to enter the network.
o Blacklist does not allow data from listed sites to enter the network.
 privacy settings
o clear browser history
o activate do not track option on browser // do not share location.
o do not store username or password.
 proxy-servers
o Another server representing the actual server on the network.
o Users contact the proxy for data, the proxy will request the data on behalf of
the user.
o Users cannot connect to the actual server. This is to protect the actual server
from cyber-attacks.
 secure socket layer (SSL) security protocol
o Browser contacts web server.
o URL contains https or padlock icon in the status bar.
o Web server responds by sending a digital certificate.
o Browser will authenticate the certificate.
o After the certificate is authenticated, the browser can begin sending and
receiving encrypted data from the server.
Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
The internet and the world wide web
1 Understand the difference between the internet and the world wide web

2 Understand what is meant by uniform resource locator (URL)

3 Describe the purpose and operation of hypertext transfer protocol

(HTTP) and hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS)
4 Explain the purpose and functions of a web browser

5 Describe how web pages are located, retrieved, and displayed on a

device when a user enters a URL
6 Explain what is meant by cookies and how they are used, including
session cookies and persistent cookies
Digital currency
1 Understand the concept of digital currency and how digital currencies
are used
2 Understand the process of blockchain and how it is used to track digital
currency transactions
Cyber security
1 Describe the process involved in, and the aim of carrying out, a range of
cyber security threats
2 Explain how a range of solutions are used to help keep data safe from
security threats
06 Automation and emerging
technologies
Automation
Sensors are part of a monitoring or control system. In a monitoring system, data is
recorded from the sensor only. In a control system, the microprocessor will respond to the
sensor reading.

Purpose is to
Sensor Example application
measure…

Acoustic Measure sound Detect noise in a security system

Accelerometer motion When phone change from portrait to landscape

Flow rate moving liquid or gas Respiratory devices in hospital

Gas oxygen or CO2 Greenhouse / factory

Humidity water vapour Greenhouse / factory / hospital

Infra-red IR beam is broken Security system if burglar breaks the IR beam

Level Liquid level Monitor amount of petrol in a petrol tank

Light brightness Street / car / room

Magnetic field magnetic field Anti-lock braking system in cars

Moisture water level Greenhouse

pH Acidity/alkalinity Greenhouse

Pressure Weight Gas pressure or weight of an object

Proximity distance Car reverse sensor

Temperature temperature Air conditioning

How sensor system works:

 ………………………… sensor sends signal to microprocessor
 Analogue signal is converted to digital signal using ADC
 Microprocessor compares sensor data with stored values (pre-set data).
 If data is within range (is a match) then, microprocessor sends signal to the actuator
……………………………………………………………………
 If data is not within range (is not a match) then, microprocessor sends signal to the
actuator to ……………………………………………………………………
 This process is repeated continuously.
Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
Automated systems
1 Describe how sensors, microprocessors and actuators can be used in
collaboration to create automated systems
2 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of an automated system
used for a given scenario
Robotics
1 Understand what is meant by robotics

2 Describe the characteristics of a robot

3 Understand the roles that robots can perform and describe the
advantages and disadvantages of their use
Artificial intelligence
1 Understand what is meant by artificial intelligence (AI)

2 Describe the main characteristics of AI as the collection of data and the

rules for using that data, the ability to reason, and can include the ability
to learn and adapt
3 Explain the basic operation and components of AI systems to simulate
intelligent behaviour
09 Database
The table below shows some of the contents of a database table PERIODICTABLE.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Element Symbol AtomicNumber AtomicWeight MeltingPoint BoilingPoint RoomTemp
1 Oxygen O 8 16 -218 -183 Gas
2 Iron Fe 26 56 1538 2861 Solid
3 Mercury Hg 80 201 -38 356 liquid

 Field (columns) –there are 7 fields in the example table above.

 Records (rows) – there are 3 records in the example table above.
 Primary Key – a field that can uniquely identify a record.
In the case, Element or Symbol can be used because each element or symbol in
the PERIODICTABLE is unique and there is no duplication.

DATA TYPES in Database

Data Type Description Example
TEXT or ALPHANUMERIC contains letters, numbers, and/or symbols. "Abc123"
CHARACTER character can contain single letter, number, and/or "M"
symbol.
BOOLEAN Yes/No or True/False True
INTEGER whole numbers 900
REAL decimal values 3.1415
DATE / TIME date and/or time #23/12/2023

Validation rules in database

 Presence check – ensure data entered is not empty.
 Range check – data entered is within a set range of values.
 Type check - data entered is the correct data type.
 Format check - data entered follows a set format (example: DD/MM/YYYY)
 Length check - data entered must be a specified length (example: 3 characters
long)
Structured Query Language
Purpose Format Example
Display all content in SELECT * SELECT *
a table FROM <table_name>; FROM PERIODICTABLE;
Display selected SELECT <field_name> SELECT Symbol
fields from a table FROM <table_name>; FROM PERIODICTABLE;
Display all content in SELECT * SELECT *
a table with certain FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE
criteria WHERE <condition>; WHERE RoomTemp = "Gas";
Display selected SELECT <field_name> SELECT Element
fields from a table FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE
with certain criteria WHERE <condition>; WHERE AtomicNumber > 16;
Order by… SELECT <field_name> SELECT Element
ASCending FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE
(small to big) WHERE <condition> WHERE AtomicNumber > 16
ORDER BY <field_name> ASC; ORDER BY Symbol ASC;
Order by… SELECT <field_name> SELECT Element
DESCending FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE
(big to small) WHERE <condition> WHERE AtomicNumber > 16
ORDER BY <field_name> DESC; ORDER BY Element DESC;
Count COUNT (<field_name>) COUNT (Element)
FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE;
Count with criteria COUNT (<field_name>) COUNT (Element)
FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE
WHERE <condition> WHERE MeltingPoint <= 0;
Sum* SUM (<field_name>) SUM (AtomicNumber)
FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE;
Sum* with criteria SUM (<field_name>) SUM (AtomicNumber)
FROM <table_name> FROM PERIODICTABLE
WHERE <condition> WHERE BoilingPoint >= 0;
*Sum only works for numeric fields.

Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023)
What you should know and understand R A G
1 Define a single-table database from given data storage requirements

2 Suggest suitable basic data types

3 Understand the purpose of primary key and identify a suitable primary

key for a given database table
4 Read, understand, and complete a structured query language (SQL)
scripts to query data stored in a single database table
10 Boolean Logic
Computers/machine use logic gates to process data therefore can only process
binary values.
Logic Gate Symbol Description Truth Table How to write
Only one input, and one Logic notation
output Input A Output X X = NOT A
0 1
NOT Gate Output X is 1, if Input A is 1 0 Boolean Algebra
0 X= A
Input Output
Two inputs, and only one Logic notation
A B X
output X = A AND B
0 0 0
0 1 0
AND Gate Output X is 1, if both inputs Boolean Algebra
1 0 0
A and B is 1 X=A∙B
1 1 1
Input Output
Two inputs, and only one Logic notation
A B X
output. X = A OR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
Output X is 1, if either A or Boolean Algebra
OR Gate 1 0 1
B or both is 1 X = A +¿ B
1 1 1
Input Output
Two inputs, and only one Logic notation
A B X
output X = A NAND B
0 0 1
0 1 1
Output X is 1, if both inputs Boolean Algebra
NAND Gate 1 0 1
A and B is not 1 X = A∙B
1 1 0
Input Output
Two inputs, and only one Logic notation
A B X
output X = A NOR B
0 0 1
0 1 0
Output X is 1, if neither Boolean Algebra
NOR Gate 1 0 0
input A nor B is 1 X = A+ B
1 1 0
Two inputs, and only one Input Output
Logic notation
output A B X
X = A XOR B
0 0 0
Output X is 1, if either 0 1 1 Boolean Algebra
input A or B is 1 but not 1 0 1
XOR Gate X = ( A ∙ B )+ ( B ∙ A )
both 1 1 0

Note:
IGCSE: Logic notation is compulsory. Boolean algebra is optional.
AS and A-Level: Both logic notation and Boolean algebra is compulsory.
Exam requirements
IGCSE requirements (from 2023) Paper 2
What you should know and understand R A G
1 Identify and use the standard symbols for logic gates

2 Define and understand the functions of the logic gates

a. Use logic gates to create given logic circuits from a
i. Problem statement
ii. Logic expression
iii. Truth table
b. Complete a truth table from a
i. Problem statement
3
ii. Logic expression
iii. Logic circuit
c. Write a logic expression from a
i. Problem statement
ii. Logic circuit
iii. Truth table

AS-Level requirements (from 2021)

What you should know and understand R A G
1 Understand and use logic gates with a minimum of two inputs

2 Construct logic circuits, truth tables and logic expressions

Exam Pro-tip:
Solve the equation inside most the brackets first before moving outwards.
Example: X = ((A AND B) AND C) OR (B XOR C)
1 2 3
1. Draw the logic circuit for A AND B.
2. Merge 1 with C using AND gate.
3. Draw the logic circuit for B XOR C.
4. Merge the output of 2 and 3 using OR gate.