Lab - Linux and Shell Programming: Assignment 2

Professor:- Dr Sanjay Tyagi

Assignment:- Lab-Linux and Shell Programming

Name:- Milan Vashisth
Student Id:- 10776048
Sem:- MCA 2nd
Enrollment No:- 241MCA1/0838
Q-1 Explain the structure of the Linux file system, including the roles of the

boot block, super block, inode block, and data block. Create a directory

structure and demonstrate the use of basic and advanced file commands

(such as mkdir, rmdir, ls, cp, mv, rm) to manipulate the file system. Include

examples and screenshots of your commands.?

Answer:- Linux File System Structure

The Linux file system is organized in a hierarchical structure, often referred

to as a directory tree. The top of the hierarchy is called the root directory,

denoted by a slash (/). Below the root directory, there are several important

directories such as /bin, /etc, /home, /var, and so on.

Key Components of the Linux File System:

1) Boot Block:- The boot block is the first block of the storage device. It

contains the boot loader, which is responsible for loading the operating

system into memory during the boot process.

2) Super Block:- The super block contains metadata about the file system,

such as its size, block size, number of free blocks, and information about

the inode table. It is crucial for the file system's integrity and operation.

3) Inode Block:- Inodes are data structures that store information about files

and directories, including their size, permissions, timestamps, and pointers

to data blocks. Each file or directory has a unique inode.

4) Data Block:- Data blocks store the actual content of files.

The inode contains pointers to these data blocks. Directory Structure and

File Commands Let's create a sample directory structure and demonstrate

the use of basic and advanced file commands.

Directory Structure and File Commands:-

1. Creating Directories (mkdir):-

mkdir -p /home/krishcity113/myproject/{src,bin,docs}

This command creates a directory structure:

Code

/home
└── krishcity113
└── myproject
├── src
├── bin

└── docs

2. Listing Files and Directories (ls):-

ls -l /home/krishcity113/myproject

This command lists the contents of the myproject directory in long format,

showing details like permissions, owner, size, and modification date.

2. Copying Files (cp):-

cp /home/krishcity113/original.txt /home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/

This command copies original.txt to the docs directory.

4. Moving and Renaming Files (mv):-

mv /home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/original.txt

/home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/renamed.txt

This command renames original.txt to renamed.txt.

5. Removing Files (rm):-

rm /home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/renamed.txt

This command removes renamed.txt.

6. Removing Directories (rmdir):-

rmdir /home/krishcity113/myproject/bin

This command removes the bin directory (only works if the directory is

empty).

Example Commands and Outputs

Create Directories:-

$ mkdir -p /home/krishcity113/myproject/{src,bin,docs}

List Directory Contents:-

$ ls -l /home/krishcity113/myproject

total 12

drwxr-xr-x 2 krishcity113 users 4096 Jan 14 15:50 bin

drwxr-xr-x 2 krishcity113 users 4096 Jan 14 15:50 docs

drwxr-xr-x 2 krishcity113 users 4096 Jan 14 15:50 src

Copy File:-

$ cp /home/krishcity113/original.txt /home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/

Move and Rename File:-

$ mv /home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/original.txt

/home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/renamed.txt

Remove File:-

$ rm /home/krishcity113/myproject/docs/renamed.txt

Remove Directory:-

$ rmdir /home/krishcity113/myproject/bin
Screenshot (Conceptual)
Since I cannot provide actual screenshots, below is a conceptual representation
of the command outputs:

Listing Directory Contents (ls -l /home/krishcity113/myproject)

Code

total 12

drwxr-xr-x 2 krishcity113 users 4096 Jan 14 15:50 bin

drwxr-xr-x 2 krishcity113 users 4096 Jan 14 15:50 docs

drwxr-xr-x 2 krishcity113 users 4096 Jan 14 15:50 src

Summary

1) Boot Block: Contains the boot loader.

2) Super Block: Contains file system metadata.

3) Inode Block: Stores information about files and directories.

4) Data Block: Stores the actual file content.

Q-2 Create a scheduled task using cron and crontab. Set up a job that runs

a specific script at regular intervals. Explain the process scheduling

mechanism in Linux and how cron, at, and batch are used to manage

scheduled tasks. Provide examples and screenshots

Answer:- Process Scheduling Mechanism in Linux

Linux uses a process scheduler to manage the execution of processes. The

scheduler decides which process runs at any given time, based on process

priority and other factors.

There are three main types of scheduling mechanisms in Linux:-

1) Real-Time Scheduling:- Used for processes that require immediate and

deterministic execution.

2) Batch Scheduling:- Used for background jobs that do not require

immediate execution.

3) Time-Sharing Scheduling:- Used for regular processes, where CPU time

is shared among them.

Tools for Managing Scheduled Tasks

cron:- cron is a time-based job scheduler that runs tasks at specified

intervals.

It uses crontab (cron table) files to store job schedules.

at:- at is used to schedule a one-time task to run at a specific time. It is

suitable for tasks that need to be executed once in the future.

batch:- batch is used to schedule tasks to run when the system load is low.

It is useful for non-urgent tasks that can wait until the system is less busy.

Creating a Scheduled Task Using cron and crontab

Let's create a scheduled task that runs a specific script at regular intervals

using cron and crontab.

1. Create a Script

Create a simple script to run.

For example:-

let's create a script that logs the current date and time to a file.

# /home/krishcity113/log_date.sh

#!/bin/bash

echo "Current Date and Time: $(date)" >> /home/krishcity113/date_log.txt

1. Make the script executable:

chmod +x /home/krishcity113/log_date.sh

2. Edit the Crontab

Open the crontab editor for the current user:- crontab -e

Add a new cron job to run the script every minute:

* * * * * /home/krishcity113/log_date.sh

Save and close the editor. This cron job will run the log_date.sh script every

minute.

3. Verify the Crontab Entry:-

List the current cron jobs to verify the entry:

crontab -l

You should see the cron job listed:

Code

* * * * * /home/krishcity113/log_date.sh

Examples of at and batch

Scheduling a One-Time Task with at

Schedule a task to run at a specific time (e.g., 2:30 PM):

echo "/home/krishcity113/log_date.sh" | at 14:30

Scheduling a Task with batch:-

Schedule a task to run when the system load is low:-

echo "/home/krishcity113/log_date.sh" | batch

Crontab Editor:-

Code

# Edit the crontab file

$ crontab -e

# Add the following line to the crontab file

* * * * * /home/krishcity113/log_date.sh

Verifying Crontab Entry

Code

$ crontab -l

* * * * * /home/krishcity113/log_date.sh
Q-3 Explore networking tools in Linux by using command such as ping,

nslookup, telnet, arp, netstat, route, Ōp, & rlogin. Provide examples of each

command in use and explain their significance in network troubleshooting

and management.

Answer:-

1. ping:- The ping command is used to check the connectivity between your

computer and another host by sending ICMP echo requests.

Example:- ping google.com

Explanation:- This command sends ICMP echo requests to google.com and

displays the response time. It helps determine if a host is reachable and

measures the round-trip time for messages sent.

2. nslookup:- The nslookup command is used to query DNS servers to

obtain domain name or IP address mapping.

Example:-nslookup google.com

Explanation:-This command queries the DNS server to get the IP address

associated with google.com. It's useful for diagnosing DNS issues.

3. telnet:- The telnet command is used to connect to a remote host using

the Telnet protocol. It's often used to test connectivity to TCP ports.
Example:- telnet google.com 80

Explanation:-This command attempts to connect to google.com on port 80

(HTTP). It's useful for checking if a specific port is open and accessible.

4. arp:- The arp command is used to display and manipulate the ARP

(Address Resolution Protocol) cache.

Example:- arp -a

Explanation:- This command displays the current ARP table, showing IP

addresses and their corresponding MAC addresses. It's useful for

diagnosing network issues related to IP-to-MAC address mapping.

5. netstat:- The netstat command provides network statistics and

information about network connections, routing tables, interface statistics,

masquerade connections, and multicast memberships.

Example:- netstat -tuln

Explanation:- This command displays all listening TCP and UDP ports with

numerical addresses. It's useful for checking which ports are open and

listening on a system.

6. route:- The route command is used to show and manipulate the IP

routing table.
Example:- route -n

Explanation:- This command displays the kernel's IP routing table with

numerical addresses. It's useful for viewing and managing the routing table.

7. ip:-The ip command is used to show and manipulate routing, devices,

policy routing, and tunnels.

Example:- ip a

Explanation:- This command displays all network interfaces and their IP

addresses. It's useful for managing network interfaces and configuring IP

addresses.

8. rlogin:-The rlogin command is used to log in to a remote host using the

rlogin protocol.

Example:- rlogin -l username remotehost

Explanation:- This command logs in to remotehost as username. It's useful

for accessing remote systems, though it's less common now due to security

concerns and the preference for SSH.

Q-4 Develop a shell script that uses condional statements and looping

constructs to automate a system maintenance task. The script should check

disk usage, clear temporary files, and generate a report. Provide the script

and explain each part of the code.

Answer:-

Shell Script (maintenance.sh)

#!/bin/bash

# Define the log file for the report

LOGFILE="/var/log/system_maintenance.log"

# Function to check disk usage

check_disk_usage()

echo "Checking disk usage..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

df -h | tee -a $LOGFILE

# Function to clear temporary files

clear_temp_files() {

echo "Clearing temporary files..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

TEMP_DIR="/tmp"

rm -rf ${TEMP_DIR}/* | tee -a $LOGFILE

 echo "Temporary files cleared." | tee -a $LOGFILE

# Function to generate a report

generate_report()

echo "Generating report..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

echo "System Maintenance Report - $(date)" | tee -a $LOGFILE

echo "-----------------------------------------" | tee -a $LOGFILE

check_disk_usage

clear_temp_files

echo "-----------------------------------------" | tee -a $LOGFILE

echo "Report generated successfully." | tee -a $LOGFILE

# Main script execution

echo "Starting system maintenance..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

# Check if the log file exists, if not create it

if [ ! -f $LOGFILE ]; then

touch $LOGFILE

fi

# Generate the report

generate_report
echo "System maintenance completed." | tee -a $LOGFILE

Explanation:-

Shebang Line:- #!/bin/bash

This line indicates that the script should be run using the Bash shell.

Log File Definition:- LOGFILE="/var/log/system_maintenance.log"

This variable defines the path to the log file where the report will be stored.

Function to Check Disk Usage:-

check_disk_usage()

echo "Checking disk usage..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

df -h | tee -a $LOGFILE

This function uses the df -h command to check disk usage and appends the

output to the log file.

Function to Clear Temporary Files:-

clear_temp_files()
{

echo "Clearing temporary files..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

TEMP_DIR="/tmp"

rm -rf ${TEMP_DIR}/* | tee -a $LOGFILE

echo "Temporary files cleared." | tee -a $LOGFILE

This function clears all files in the /tmp directory and logs the action.

Function to Generate a Report:-

generate_report()

echo "Generating report..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

echo "System Maintenance Report - $(date)" | tee -a $LOGFILE

echo "-----------------------------------------" | tee -a $LOGFILE

check_disk_usage

clear_temp_files

echo "-----------------------------------------" | tee -a $LOGFILE

echo "Report generated successfully." | tee -a $LOGFILE

This function generates a maintenance report by calling the

check_disk_usage and clear_temp_files functions and appending the output

to the log file.

Main Script Execution:-:

echo "Starting system maintenance..." | tee -a $LOGFILE

# Check if the log file exists, if not create it

if [ ! -f $LOGFILE ]; then

touch $LOGFILE

fi

# Generate the report:-

generate_report

echo "System maintenance completed." | tee -a $LOGFILE

This section starts the system maintenance, checks if the log file exists

(creates it if not), and generates the report by calling the generate_report

function.

Usage:-

Save the script to a file named maintenance.sh.

Make the script executable:-

chmod +x maintenance.sh

Run the script with superuser privileges to ensure it can access and modify

necessary files:
sudo ./maintenance.sh

This script will check disk usage, clear temporary files, and generate a

report, saving the output to /var/log/system_maintenance.log.

Q-5 Write a shell script that accepts command-line arguments and performs

operaons based on the arguments provided. The script should include

opons for file manipulaon (e.g., copy, move, delete) and display appropriate

messages for each operaon. Provide the script and examples of its

execuon.

Answer:-

Shell Script (file_ops.sh)

#!/bin/bash

# Function to display usage information

usage()

echo "Usage: $0 {copy|move|delete} source [destination]"

exit 1

# Check if at least two arguments are provided

if [ $# -lt 2 ]; then

usage

fi
# Get the operation and source file from the command-line arguments

operation=$1

source=$2

destination=$3

# Perform the requested operation

case $operation in

copy)

if [ -z "$destination" ]; then

echo "Error: Destination path is required for copy operation."

usage

fi

cp "$source" "$destination"

if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then

echo "File copied from $source to $destination successfully."

else

echo "Failed to copy file from $source to $destination."

fi

;;

move)

if [ -z "$destination" ]; then

echo "Error: Destination path is required for move operation."

usage
 fi

mv "$source" "$destination"

if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then

echo "File moved from $source to $destination successfully."

else

echo "Failed to move file from $source to $destination."

fi

;;

delete)

rm -f "$source"

if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then

echo "File $source deleted successfully."

else

echo "Failed to delete file $source."

fi

;;

*)

echo "Error: Invalid operation specified."

usage

;;

Esac
Explanation:-

Shebang Line:- #!/bin/bash

This line indicates that the script should be run using the Bash shell.

Usage Function:-

usage()

echo "Usage: $0 {copy|move|delete} source [destination]"

exit 1

This function displays the correct usage of the script and exits with a status

code of 1.

Argument Check:-

if [ $# -lt 2 ]; then

usage

Fi

This checks if at least two arguments are provided. If not, it calls the usage

function.

Retrieve Arguments:-
operation=$1

source=$2

destination=$3

This retrieves the operation (e.g., copy, move, delete), source file, and

destination from the command-line arguments.

Perform Operation:-

The script uses a case statement to perform the requested operation based

on the first argument.

Copy Operation:-

cp "$source" "$destination"

if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then

echo "File copied from $source to $destination successfully."

else

echo "Failed to copy file from $source to $destination."

Fi

Move Operation:-

mv "$source" "$destination"
if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then

echo "File moved from $source to $destination successfully."

else

echo "Failed to move file from $source to $destination."

Fi

Delete Operation:-

rm -f "$source"

if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then

echo "File $source deleted successfully."

else

echo "Failed to delete file $source."

Fi

Invalid Operation:-

echo "Error: Invalid operation specified."

Usage:-

This handles invalid operations and calls the usage function.

Usage Examples:-

Copy a File:-
./file_ops.sh copy /path/to/source.txt /path/to/destination.txt

Output:-

Code

File copied from /path/to/source.txt to /path/to/destination.txt successfully.

Move a File:-

./file_ops.sh move /path/to/source.txt /path/to/destination.txt

Output:-

Code

File moved from /path/to/source.txt to /path/to/destination.txt successfully.

Delete a File:-

./file_ops.sh delete /path/to/source.txt

Output:-

Code

File /path/to/source.txt deleted successfully.

Invalid Usage:-
./file_ops.sh copy /path/to/source.txt

Output:-

Code

Error: Destination path is required for copy operation.

Usage: ./file_ops.sh {copy|move|delete} source [destination]

Save the script to a file named file_ops.sh, make it executable, and run it

using the examples provided. This script provides a convenient way to

perform file manipulations with appropriate messages for each operation.