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Q1. Answer in Short.

a) What is OLAP?
OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) is a technology used to analyze data from
multiple perspectives. It enables complex calculations, trend analysis, and
data modeling for decision-making.

b) Define ‘State Space’ in artificial intelligence.

State Space refers to the set of all possible states or configurations that a
problem can have. It is used to represent and solve problems using search
algorithms.

c) What is a Data Frame?

A Data Frame is a two-dimensional, tabular data structure used in
programming (e.g., in Python's Pandas or Spark) to store and manipulate data
with rows and columns.

d) What is RDD?
RDD (Resilient Distributed Dataset) is a fundamental data structure in Apache
Spark. It is an immutable, distributed collection of objects that can be
processed in parallel.

e) What is a Data Mart?

A Data Mart is a subset of a data warehouse, focused on a specific business
function or department, providing tailored data for analysis.

f) Define ETL tools.

ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) tools are software used to extract data from
sources, transform it into a usable format, and load it into a target database or
data warehouse.
g) What is a Plateau in artificial intelligence?
A Plateau is a flat area in the search space where the algorithm's performance
does not improve, causing stagnation in optimization or learning.

h) Define OLTP.
OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a system designed to manage
transaction-oriented applications, such as banking or retail, focusing on real-
time data processing.

i) Which language is not supported by Spark?

Spark does not natively support languages like JavaScript or PHP. It primarily
supports Scala, Java, Python, and R.

j) Define Ridge.
Ridge is a regularization technique in machine learning that adds a penalty (L2
norm) to the loss function to prevent overfitting in linear models.

k) What is artificial intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence in machines,
enabling them to perform tasks like learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

l) Explain the components of Spark.

The main components of Spark are:
1. Spark Core: The base engine for distributed processing.
2. Spark SQL: For structured data processing.
3. Spark Streaming: For real-time data processing.
4. MLlib: For machine learning.
5. GraphX: For graph processing.

m) List any two applications of data warehouse.

1. Business intelligence and reporting.
2. Customer relationship management (CRM) analysis.
n) Define Data mining.
Data mining is the process of discovering patterns, correlations, and insights
from large datasets using statistical and machine learning techniques.

o) What is natural language processing?

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a branch of AI that enables machines to
understand, interpret, and generate human language.

p) Define Metadata.
Metadata is data that provides information about other data, such as its
structure, format, or context.

q) What is Robotics?
Robotics is a field of AI and engineering focused on designing, building, and
operating robots to perform tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously.

r) List any two applications of artificial intelligence.

1. Virtual assistants like Siri or Alexa.
2. Autonomous vehicles.

s) Which type of model is a Decision Tree?

A Decision Tree is a supervised machine learning model used for
classification and regression tasks.

t) What is the full form of ETL?

ETL stands for Extract, Transform, Load.

u) Define Search Strategy.

A Search Strategy is a method or algorithm used to explore the state space in
AI to find a solution to a problem.
v) Data mining is also called as?
Data mining is also called Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD).

w) Define Local Maximum in artificial intelligence.

A Local Maximum is a point in the search space where the algorithm finds a
solution better than its neighbors but not the global best.

x) Explain Apache Kafka.

Apache Kafka is a distributed streaming platform used for building real-time
data pipelines and streaming applications.

y) Define Expert System.

An Expert System is an AI program that mimics the decision-making ability of
a human expert in a specific domain.

z) Why is a data warehouse said to contain a ‘time-varying’ collection of

data?
A data warehouse contains historical data that changes over time, allowing
analysis of trends and patterns across different time periods.

aa) Define graph mining.

Graph mining is the process of extracting useful patterns and insights from
graph-structured data, such as social networks or web links.

Q2.Answer In Long.

1. What are components of Spark? Explain. Apache Spark consists of

several key components:
• Spark Core: The foundation of the Spark platform, providing
essential functionalities like task scheduling, memory
management, and fault recovery.
 • Spark SQL: A module for structured data processing, allowing
users to run SQL queries alongside data processing tasks.
• Spark Streaming: Enables processing of real-time data streams,
integrating with various data sources like Kafka and Flume.
• MLlib: A library for machine learning, providing algorithms and
utilities for classification, regression, clustering, and collaborative
filtering.
• GraphX: A library for graph processing, allowing users to perform
graph-parallel computations.
2. Explain Architecture of Data Warehouse. The architecture of a Data
Warehouse typically consists of three layers:
• Data Source Layer: This layer includes various data sources such
as operational databases, external data, and flat files.
• Data Staging Layer: Data is extracted, transformed, and loaded
(ETL) into this layer. It involves cleaning, aggregating, and
preparing data for analysis.
• Data Presentation Layer: This layer is where data is organized
and stored in a format suitable for analysis, often using star or
snowflake schemas. It supports querying and reporting tools for
end-users.
3. What is the philosophy of artificial intelligence? The philosophy of
artificial intelligence (AI) explores the nature of intelligence,
consciousness, and the ethical implications of creating machines that
can think and act autonomously. Key questions include:
• Can machines think? This question examines the criteria for
intelligence and whether machines can possess it.
• What is consciousness? It investigates whether AI can achieve a
state of awareness similar to humans.
• Ethical considerations: The implications of AI on society,
including issues of bias, privacy, and the potential for job
displacement.
4. Describe technique of data mining. Data mining is the process of
discovering patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data.
Techniques include:
• Classification: Assigning items in a dataset to target categories or
classes based on their attributes.
• Clustering: Grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in
the same group are more similar than those in other groups.
• Association Rule Learning: Finding interesting relationships
between variables in large databases, often used in market basket
analysis.
• Regression: Predicting a continuous-valued attribute associated
with an object.
5. Write the advantages of Bidirectional Search. Bidirectional search is
an algorithm that simultaneously searches from both the initial state
and the goal state. Advantages include:
• Efficiency: It can significantly reduce the search space, often
leading to faster solutions compared to unidirectional search.
• Optimality: If both searches meet in the middle, the solution
found is guaranteed to be optimal.
• Reduced Memory Usage: Since it explores from both ends, it can
use less memory than a traditional breadth-first search.
6. What is data cleaning? Describe various methods of data
cleaning. Data cleaning is the process of correcting or removing
inaccurate, incomplete, or irrelevant data from a dataset. Methods
include:
• Removing Duplicates: Identifying and eliminating duplicate
records to ensure data integrity.
• Handling Missing Values: Techniques such as imputation (filling
in missing values) or deletion of records with missing data.
• Standardization: Ensuring consistent formats for data entries,
such as date formats or categorical values.
 • Outlier Detection: Identifying and addressing outliers that may
skew analysis results.
7. Explain any two Types of OLAP Servers.
• MOLAP (Multidimensional OLAP): Stores data in a
multidimensional cube format, allowing for fast retrieval and
analysis. It is optimized for complex queries and provides high
performance for aggregations.
• ROLAP (Relational OLAP): Uses relational databases to store
data and performs dynamic multidimensional analysis. It can
handle large volumes of data but may be slower than MOLAP due
to the need for complex SQL queries.
8. Elaborate the Spark Installation Steps. The installation of Apache
Spark involves several steps:
• Prerequisites: Ensure Java and Scala are installed on your
system.
• Download Spark: Obtain the latest version of Spark from the
official website.
• Extract Files: Unzip the downloaded file to a desired directory.
• Set Environment Variables: Configure environment variables
like SPARK_HOME and update the PATH variable.
• Run Spark: Start the Spark shell or submit applications using
the spark-submit command.
9. Explain Breadth First Search technique of artificial
intelligence. Breadth-First Search (BFS) is a graph traversal algorithm
that explores all the neighbor nodes at the present depth prior to moving
on to nodes at the next depth level. Key features include:
• Queue Data Structure: BFS uses a queue to keep track of nodes
to be explored.
• Level Order Traversal: It visits nodes level by level, ensuring the
shortest path in unweighted graphs.
• Completeness: BFS is complete, meaning it will find a solution if
one exists.
 10. Write any four applications of Data Mining.
• Market Basket Analysis: Identifying products frequently bought
together to optimize product placement and promotions.
• Fraud Detection: Analyzing transaction patterns to detect
anomalies indicative of fraudulent activity.
• Customer Segmentation: Grouping customers based on
purchasing behavior for targeted marketing strategies.
• Predictive Maintenance: Using historical data to predict
equipment failures and schedule maintenance proactively.
11. Differentiate between MOLAP and HOLAP.
• MOLAP (Multidimensional OLAP): Stores data in a
multidimensional cube format, providing fast query performance
and efficient data retrieval. It is best for smaller datasets with
complex queries.
• HOLAP (Hybrid OLAP): Combines the features of both MOLAP
and ROLAP, allowing for large data storage in relational databases
while still providing the speed of multidimensional analysis. It
offers flexibility in handling large datasets.
12. What is the Missionaries and Cannibals Problem Statement?
Write its solution. The Missionaries and Cannibals problem involves
three missionaries and three cannibals needing to cross a river using a
boat that can carry at most two individuals. The challenge is to ensure
that at no point do the cannibals outnumber the missionaries on either
side of the river.
Solution Steps:
1. Initial State: All missionaries and cannibals are on the left bank.
2. Move 1: Two cannibals cross to the right bank.
3. Move 2: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
4. Move 3: Two cannibals cross to the right bank again.
5. Move 4: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
6. Move 5: Two missionaries cross to the right bank.
7. Move 6: One cannibal and one missionary return to the left bank.
 8. Move 7: Two missionaries cross to the right bank.
9. Move 8: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
10. Move 9: Two cannibals cross to the right bank.
11. Move 10: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
12. Move 11: Two cannibals cross to the right bank.
At the end of these moves, all missionaries and cannibals are safely on the
right bank without violating the rules.
13. How is Apache Spark different from MapReduce? Apache
Spark differs from MapReduce in several ways:
• Speed: Spark processes data in-memory, which significantly
speeds up data processing compared to MapReduce, which
writes intermediate results to disk.
• Ease of Use: Spark provides high-level APIs in multiple languages
(Scala, Python, Java) and supports interactive queries, making it
more user-friendly.
• Versatility: Spark supports various workloads, including batch
processing, streaming, machine learning, and graph processing,
while MapReduce is primarily designed for batch processing.
14. What is Data warehouse? Describe any two applications in
brief. A Data Warehouse is a centralized repository that stores
integrated data from multiple sources, designed for query and analysis
rather than transaction processing.
• Business Intelligence: Organizations use data warehouses to
analyze historical data for decision-making, reporting, and
forecasting.
• Data Mining: Data warehouses serve as a foundation for data
mining applications, enabling the discovery of patterns and
insights from large datasets.
15. Write in detail the various blind search techniques in artificial
intelligence. Blind search techniques do not use any domain-specific
knowledge and explore the search space without guidance. Key
techniques include:
 • Breadth-First Search (BFS): Explores all nodes at the present
depth before moving to the next level, ensuring the shortest path
in unweighted graphs.
• Depth-First Search (DFS): Explores as far down a branch as
possible before backtracking, which can be memory efficient but
may not find the shortest path.
• Uniform Cost Search: Expands the least costly node first,
ensuring optimal solutions in weighted graphs.
16. Explain the three important artificial intelligence techniques.
• Machine Learning: A subset of AI that enables systems to learn
from data and improve their performance over time without being
explicitly programmed.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): The ability of machines to
understand and interpret human language, enabling applications
like chatbots and language translation.
• Computer Vision: The field that enables machines to interpret
and make decisions based on visual data from the world, used in
applications like facial recognition and autonomous vehicles.
17. What are the disadvantages of Depth First Search?
• Memory Usage: DFS can consume a lot of memory if the search
space is large, as it needs to keep track of all nodes in the current
path.
• Completeness: DFS may not find a solution if one exists,
especially in infinite or cyclic graphs, as it can get stuck exploring
one branch indefinitely.
• Optimality: It does not guarantee the shortest path solution, as it
may find a solution that is not optimal.
18. What are the differences between OLTP and OLAP?
• Purpose: OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is designed for
managing transactional data, while OLAP (Online Analytical
Processing) is used for complex queries and data analysis.
 • Data Structure: OLTP systems use normalized databases to
minimize redundancy, whereas OLAP systems often use
denormalized structures like star or snowflake schemas for faster
query performance.
• Query Complexity: OLTP queries are simple and involve a small
number of records, while OLAP queries are complex and can
involve aggregating large datasets.
19. Explain the various search and control strategies in artificial
intelligence.
• Search Strategies: These determine the order in which nodes are
explored. Common strategies include:
• Depth-First Search (DFS): Explores as far down a branch as
possible before backtracking.
• Breadth-First Search (BFS): Explores all nodes at the
present depth before moving to the next level.
• Best-First Search: Uses a heuristic to determine the most
promising node to explore next.
• Control Strategies: These dictate how the search process is
managed, including:
• Forward Chaining: Starts with known facts and applies
inference rules to extract more data until a goal is reached.
• Backward Chaining: Starts with the goal and works
backward to determine what facts must be true to achieve
that goal.
20. Write down the steps of the KDD process. The Knowledge
Discovery in Databases (KDD) process involves several key steps:
• Data Selection: Identifying and selecting the relevant data from
various sources.
• Data Preprocessing: Cleaning and transforming the data to
prepare it for analysis, including handling missing values and
removing duplicates.
 • Data Transformation: Converting data into a suitable format for
mining, which may involve normalization or aggregation.
• Data Mining: Applying algorithms to extract patterns and
knowledge from the data.
• Evaluation: Assessing the discovered patterns to determine their
usefulness and validity.
• Knowledge Presentation: Presenting the results in a
comprehensible format for stakeholders.
21. What is a heuristic function? A heuristic function is a method
used in search algorithms to estimate the cost of reaching a goal from a
given state. It provides guidance on which paths to explore, helping to
prioritize nodes in the search space. Heuristic functions are often
problem-specific and can significantly improve the efficiency of search
algorithms by reducing the number of nodes explored.
22. What is a multidimensional data model? Explain. A
multidimensional data model organizes data into a structure that allows
for easy analysis and reporting. It typically consists of:
• Dimensions: Attributes that provide context for the data, such as
time, geography, or product categories.
• Facts: Quantitative data that can be analyzed, such as sales
revenue or quantities sold.
• Cubes: A data structure that allows for the representation of data
across multiple dimensions, enabling users to perform complex
queries and aggregations efficiently.
23. Explain briefly with solution the Missionaries and Cannibals
Problem Statement. The Missionaries and Cannibals problem involves
three missionaries and three cannibals needing to cross a river using a
boat that can carry at most two individuals. The challenge is to ensure
that at no point do the cannibals outnumber the missionaries on either
side of the river.
Solution Steps:
1. Initial State: All missionaries and cannibals are on the left bank.
 2. Move 1: Two cannibals cross to the right bank.
3. Move 2: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
4. Move 3: Two cannibals cross to the right bank again.
5. Move 4: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
6. Move 5: Two missionaries cross to the right bank.
7. Move 6: One cannibal and one missionary return to the left bank.
8. Move 7: Two missionaries cross to the right bank.
9. Move 8: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
10. Move 9: Two cannibals cross to the right bank.
11. Move 10: One cannibal returns to the left bank.
12. Move 11: Two cannibals cross to the right bank.
At the end of these moves, all missionaries and cannibals are safely on the
right bank without violating the rules.
24. Explain Graph mining in brief. Graph mining is the process of
discovering patterns and knowledge from graph-structured data. It
involves analyzing relationships and structures within graphs, which can
represent social networks, biological networks, or web structures. Key
techniques include:
• Community Detection: Identifying groups of nodes that are more
densely connected to each other than to the rest of the graph.
• Subgraph Mining: Finding frequently occurring subgraphs within
a larger graph.
• Link Prediction: Predicting future connections between nodes
based on existing relationships.
25. Explain FP tree algorithm. The FP (Frequent Pattern) tree
algorithm is a data mining technique used for mining frequent itemsets
without candidate generation. It works as follows:
• Building the FP Tree: The algorithm scans the database to
identify frequent items and constructs a compact tree structure
that retains the itemset information.
• Mining the FP Tree: It recursively extracts frequent patterns from
the FP tree by traversing the tree and generating conditional FP
 trees for each frequent item. This approach is efficient in terms of
both time and space, allowing for the discovery of frequent
patterns in large datasets without the overhead of generating
candidate itemsets.
26. Explain different RDD operations in Spark. Resilient Distributed
Datasets (RDDs) are the fundamental data structure in Spark, providing
fault tolerance and parallel processing. Key operations include:
• Transformations: Operations that create a new RDD from an
existing one, such as map, filter, and flatMap. These are lazy
operations, meaning they are not executed until an action is
called.
• Actions: Operations that trigger the execution of transformations
and return a result to the driver program, such as collect, count,
and saveAsTextFile.
• Persisting: RDDs can be cached in memory
using persist() or cache() to speed up future computations.
27. What are the disadvantages of ‘Hill Climbing’ in artificial
intelligence?
• Local Optima: Hill climbing can get stuck in local optima, failing
to find the global optimum solution.
• Plateaus: The algorithm may encounter flat areas in the search
space where no improvement can be made, leading to stagnation.
• Greedy Nature: It only considers immediate improvements,
which can lead to suboptimal solutions as it does not explore
other potential paths.
28. Explain briefly data mining tasks. Data mining tasks can be
categorized into two main types:
• Descriptive Tasks: These aim to find human-interpretable
patterns describing the data, such as clustering, association rule
mining, and summarization.
 • Predictive Tasks: These involve building models to predict future
outcomes based on historical data, including classification and
regression tasks.
29. What is data preprocessing? Explain. Data preprocessing is the
process of cleaning and transforming raw data into a suitable format for
analysis. It involves several steps:
• Data Cleaning: Removing noise and correcting inconsistencies in
the data.
• Data Transformation: Normalizing or scaling data to bring all
features to a similar range.
• Data Reduction: Reducing the volume of data while maintaining
its integrity, which can involve techniques like dimensionality
reduction or aggregation.
30. Write down the algorithm of Breadth-First Search with its
advantages. Algorithm for Breadth-First Search (BFS):
1. Initialize a queue and enqueue the starting node.
2. Mark the starting node as visited.
3. While the queue is not empty:
• Dequeue a node from the front of the queue.
• Process the node (e.g., print it).
• Enqueue all unvisited adjacent nodes and mark them as
visited.
Advantages of BFS:
• Completeness: BFS is guaranteed to find a solution if one exists.
• Optimality: It finds the shortest path in unweighted graphs.
• Level Order Traversal: It explores nodes level by level, which can be
useful in certain applications.
31. How does Spark work? Explain with the help of its
Architecture. Apache Spark works by distributing data across a cluster
and processing it in parallel. Its architecture consists of:
• Driver Program: The main program that coordinates the
execution of tasks.
 • Cluster Manager: Manages resources across the cluster,
allocating them to different applications.
• Worker Nodes: Execute tasks and store data in memory or on
disk.
• RDDs: The core abstraction for distributed data, allowing for fault-
tolerant and parallel processing.
32. What is Executor Memory in a Spark application? Executor
memory refers to the amount of memory allocated to each executor
process in a Spark application. It is used for storing RDDs, caching data,
and executing tasks. Proper configuration of executor memory is crucial
for optimizing performance and preventing out-of-memory errors.
33. What are the major steps involved in the ETL process? The ETL
(Extract, Transform, Load) process involves three major steps:
• Extract: Data is collected from various sources, such as
databases, flat files, or APIs.
• Transform: The extracted data is cleaned, normalized, and
transformed into a suitable format for analysis.
• Load: The transformed data is loaded into a target data
warehouse or database for further analysis and reporting.
34. Explain Face Detection and Recognition. Face detection is the
process of identifying and locating human faces in images or video
streams. It typically involves:
• Detection Algorithms: Using techniques like Haar cascades or
deep learning models to identify faces.
• Feature Extraction: Analyzing facial features to create a unique
representation of each face.
Face recognition goes a step further by identifying or verifying a person based
on their facial features. It involves comparing the detected face against a
database of known faces to determine identity. This process includes steps
like feature extraction, matching, and decision-making to confirm or deny the
identity of the individual.
35. Define ‘Problem Space’ in artificial intelligence. The problem
space in artificial intelligence refers to the environment in which a
problem is defined and solved. It encompasses:
• Initial State: The starting point of the problem.
• Goal State: The desired outcome or solution.
• Operators: The actions that can be taken to move from one state
to another.
• Path Cost: A measure of the cost associated with moving from
one state to another, which can help in evaluating the efficiency of
different solutions.
36. What are two advantages of Depth First Search?
• Memory Efficiency: DFS uses less memory compared to breadth-
first search, as it only needs to store the current path and the
unexplored nodes.
• Finding Solutions in Large Spaces: It can be more effective in
searching large or infinite spaces where solutions are deep in the
search tree, as it explores one branch fully before backtracking.
37. Explain Association rule mining with an example. Association
rule mining is a data mining technique used to discover interesting
relationships between variables in large datasets. It is commonly used
in market basket analysis. An example is:
• Rule: If a customer buys bread, they are likely to buy butter
(written as {bread} → {butter}).
• Support: The proportion of transactions that include both bread
and butter.
• Confidence: The likelihood that a transaction containing bread
also contains butter.
38. Explain any four uses of Data Warehouse.
• Business Intelligence: Data warehouses support decision-
making processes by providing a centralized repository for
reporting and analysis.
 • Data Mining: They serve as a foundation for data mining
applications, enabling the discovery of patterns and insights from
large datasets.
• Historical Analysis: Data warehouses store historical data,
allowing organizations to analyze trends over time.
• Performance Management: They help in tracking key
performance indicators (KPIs) and measuring business
performance against goals.
39. What is the difference between Data warehouse and OLAP? A
Data Warehouse is a centralized repository that stores integrated data
from multiple sources for analysis and reporting, while OLAP (Online
Analytical Processing) is a technology that enables users to perform
multidimensional analysis of data stored in a data warehouse. OLAP
provides tools for querying and reporting, allowing users to analyze data
from different perspectives.
40. How do we create RDDs in Spark? RDDs (Resilient Distributed
Datasets) can be created in Spark using several methods:
• From Existing Data: Using the parallelize() method to convert a
collection (like a list) into an RDD.
• From External Storage: Loading data from external sources such
as HDFS, S3, or local file systems using methods
like textFile() or read() for structured data.
• Transformations: Creating new RDDs from existing ones through
transformations like map(), filter(), or flatMap().
41. What do you understand by Spark Streaming? Spark Streaming
is an extension of Apache Spark that enables processing of real-time
data streams. It allows users to build applications that can process live
data from sources like Kafka, Flume, or socket connections. Spark
Streaming divides the data stream into small batches and processes
them using the Spark engine, providing fault tolerance and scalability for
real-time analytics.
42. Explain datamining and knowledge discovery in
databases. Data mining is the process of discovering patterns and
knowledge from large amounts of data using statistical and
computational techniques. Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) is
a broader process that encompasses data mining as one of its steps.
KDD involves:
• Data Selection: Choosing relevant data for analysis.
• Data Preprocessing: Cleaning and transforming data.
• Data Mining: Applying algorithms to extract patterns.
• Evaluation: Assessing the discovered patterns for usefulness.
• Knowledge Presentation: Presenting the results in a
comprehensible format.
43. Why RDD is needed in Spark? RDDs (Resilient Distributed
Datasets) are needed in Spark because they provide a fault-tolerant,
distributed data structure that allows for parallel processing of large
datasets. RDDs enable:
• In-Memory Computation: They allow data to be stored in
memory, significantly speeding up processing times compared to
disk-based systems.
• Fault Tolerance: RDDs can recover lost data automatically
through lineage information, ensuring reliability in distributed
computing environments.
• Immutable Data: RDDs are immutable, meaning once created,
they cannot be changed, which simplifies the programming model
and enhances performance.
44. Explain the ‘ Tower of Hanoi’ problem in artificial intelligence
with the help of diagrams and propose a solution to the
problem. The Tower of Hanoi is a classic problem involving three rods
and a number of disks of different sizes that can slide onto any rod. The
objective is to move the entire stack of disks from the source rod to the
destination rod, following these rules:
Only one disk can be moved at a time.
 Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the stacks and
placing it on top of another stack or on an empty rod.
No larger disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.
Solution Steps:
1. Move the top n-1 disks from the source rod to the auxiliary rod.
2. Move the nth disk (the largest) directly to the destination rod.
3. Move the n-1 disks from the auxiliary rod to the destination rod.
45. Explain Web mining in detail. Web mining is the process of
discovering and extracting information from web documents and
services. It can be categorized into three main types:
• Web Content Mining: Involves extracting useful information from
the content of web pages, such as text, images, and videos.
Techniques include natural language processing and text mining.
• Web Structure Mining: Focuses on analyzing the structure of the
web, including the relationships between web pages. It uses
graph theory to understand link structures and can help in search
engine optimization.
• Web Usage Mining: Involves analyzing user behavior and
interactions with web applications. It uses log files to understand
user navigation patterns, which can inform website design and
marketing strategies.
46. Explain AO Algorithm in brief. The AO (And-Or) algorithm is a
search algorithm used for solving problems that can be represented as
a directed acyclic graph (DAG). It is particularly useful for problems with
multiple solutions or paths. The algorithm works by:
• Constructing a Search Tree: It builds a tree where nodes
represent subproblems, and edges represent the relationships
between them.
• Evaluating Nodes: It evaluates the cost of reaching each node
and selects the most promising paths based on a cost function.
• Combining Solutions: The algorithm combines solutions from
subproblems to find the optimal solution for the overall problem.
47. What is the major difference between star schema and
snowflake schema?
The major difference between star schema and snowflake schema lies in
their structure:
• Star Schema: In a star schema, the central fact table is
connected directly to multiple dimension tables. This design is
simple and optimized for query performance, making it easier to
understand and navigate.
• Snowflake Schema: In a snowflake schema, dimension tables
are normalized into multiple related tables, creating a more
complex structure. While this can reduce data redundancy, it may
lead to more complex queries and slower performance due to the
need for multiple joins.
48. What are two advantages of Depth First Search?
• Memory Efficiency: DFS uses less memory compared to breadth-
first search, as it only needs to store the current path and the
unexplored nodes.
• Finding Solutions in Large Spaces: It can be more effective in
searching large or infinite spaces where solutions are deep in the
search tree, as it explores one branch fully before backtracking.
49. What are the two advantages of ‘Depth First Search’ (DFS)?
• Space Complexity: DFS has a lower space complexity compared
to breadth-first search, as it only needs to store the nodes in the
current path.
• Path Exploration: It can explore deeper paths in the search
space, making it suitable for problems where solutions are
located far from the root node.
50. Explain the various components of Spark. Apache Spark
consists of several key components:
• Spark Core: The foundational component that provides essential
functionalities such as task scheduling, memory management,
and fault tolerance.
 • Spark SQL: A module for structured data processing that allows
users to run SQL queries alongside data processing tasks.
• Spark Streaming: Enables real-time data stream processing,
integrating with various data sources like Kafka and Flume.
• MLlib: A library for machine learning that provides algorithms and
utilities for tasks such as classification, regression, clustering,
and collaborative filtering.
• GraphX: A library for graph processing that allows users to
perform graph-parallel computations and analyze graph data
efficiently.

Q3. Short Notes.

1. Water Jug Problem in AI
Problem Description:
• The Water Jug Problem involves two jugs with different capacities (e.g., a
3-liter jug and a 5-liter jug).
• The goal is to measure a specific amount of water (e.g., 4 liters) using
these jugs through a series of operations:
• Fill one jug.
• Empty one jug.
• Pour water from one jug to another until one is either full or empty.
State Representation:
• Each state can be represented as a tuple (x, y), where:
• x is the amount of water in the 3-liter jug.
• y is the amount of water in the 5-liter jug.
• Initial state: (0, 0).
• Goal state: Any state where either jug contains the target amount of
water.
Solution Approach:
• Search Algorithms: Common algorithms used to solve this problem
include:
 • Breadth-First Search (BFS): Explores all possible states level by
level, ensuring the shortest path to the goal.
• Depth-First Search (DFS): Explores as deeply as possible along
each branch before backtracking.
2. Snowflake Schema
Definition:
• A Snowflake Schema is a type of database schema used in data
warehousing that normalizes the data into multiple related tables.
Characteristics:
• Normalization: Data is organized into multiple related tables to reduce
redundancy.
• Complexity: More complex than a star schema due to multiple levels of
tables.
• Hierarchical Structure: Dimensions are split into additional tables,
creating a snowflake-like structure.
Advantages:
• Reduces data redundancy.
• Saves storage space.
Disadvantages:
• More complex queries due to multiple joins.
• Can lead to slower query performance compared to star schemas.
3. ROLAP and HOLAP
ROLAP (Relational OLAP):
• Definition: Uses relational databases to store data and performs OLAP
operations directly on the relational data.
• Advantages:
• Can handle large volumes of data.
• Leverages existing relational database technologies.
HOLAP (Hybrid OLAP):
• Definition: Combines ROLAP and MOLAP (Multidimensional OLAP) by
storing some data in relational databases and some in
multidimensional databases.
 • Advantages:
• Offers the benefits of both ROLAP and MOLAP.
• Provides flexibility in data storage and retrieval.
4. Means-End Analysis (MEA) in AI
Definition:
• MEA is a problem-solving technique used in AI that focuses on the
difference between the current state and the goal state.
Process:
• Identify the current state and the goal state.
• Determine the means (actions) to reduce the difference between the
two states.
• Apply the actions iteratively until the goal state is reached.
Applications:
• Used in planning and decision-making tasks in AI systems.
5. ETL Process
Definition:
• ETL stands for Extract, Transform, Load, which is a process used to
integrate data from multiple sources into a single data warehouse.
Steps:
• Extract: Retrieve data from various source systems.
• Transform: Cleanse, aggregate, and format the data to meet business
requirements.
• Load: Insert the transformed data into the target data warehouse.
Importance:
• Ensures data consistency and quality for analysis and reporting.
6. MOLAP Server
Definition:
• MOLAP (Multidimensional OLAP) servers store data in a
multidimensional cube format.
Characteristics:
• Data Storage: Data is pre-aggregated and stored in a cube, allowing for
fast retrieval.
 • Performance: Provides high performance for complex queries and
calculations.
Advantages:
• Fast query performance due to pre-aggregation.
• Supports complex calculations and data analysis.
7. Spark SQL
Definition:
• Spark SQL is a component of Apache Spark that allows users to run SQL
queries on large datasets.
Features:
• Unified Data Processing: Combines SQL queries with data processing
capabilities of Spark.
• DataFrames: Provides a DataFrame API for structured data processing.
Advantages:
• High performance for big data processing.
• Supports various data sources, including Hive, Avro, Parquet, and JSON.
8. Data Warehouse
Definition:
• A data warehouse is a centralized repository that stores large volumes
of structured and unstructured data from multiple sources.
Characteristics:
• Subject-Oriented: Organized around key subjects (e.g., sales, finance).
• Integrated: Combines data from different sources into a consistent
format.
• Time-Variant: Historical data is stored for analysis over time.
Purpose:
• Supports business intelligence activities, including reporting and data
analysis.
9. Data Mining
Definition:
• Data mining is the process of discovering patterns and knowledge from
large amounts of data.
Techniques:
• Classification: Assigning items to predefined categories.
• Clustering: Grouping similar items together.
• Association Rule Learning: Discovering interesting relationships
between variables.
Applications:
• Used in various fields, including marketing, finance, and healthcare, for
predictive analytics and decision-making.
10. Action.
Definition: an "action" refers to any operation or behavior that an AI agent
can perform in its environment. Actions are fundamental to the functioning of
intelligent systems, as they enable agents to interact with their surroundings,
make decisions, and achieve specific goals.
Types of Actions:
1. Primitive Actions: Basic, indivisible actions that an agent can perform
directly (e.g., moving a robot arm, clicking a button).
2. Composite Actions: Complex actions that are composed of multiple
primitive actions (e.g., a sequence of movements to navigate through a
maze).
3. Reactive Actions: Actions that are triggered by specific stimuli or
conditions in the environment (e.g., a self-driving car braking when it
detects an obstacle).
4. Deliberative Actions: Actions that are planned based on reasoning and
decision-making processes (e.g., a chess program calculating the best
move).